The First

Five Hundred Years

of the Christian
Church

John T. Stevenson
 © John Stevenson, 2008
Reprinted, 2019,
2020, 2021, 2024

All rights reserved

Unless otherwise noted,

Scripture quotations taken from the New American Standard Bible®,
Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973,
1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation
Used by permission." (www.Lockman.org)
Other books by John Stevenson:

Ancient History: A Framework for the Bible

Doctrines of the Bible: Outlines in Systematic Theology
Facing the Flames: A Fire Fighter’s Meditations on the
Spiritual Life
First Corinthians: Striving for Unity
Facing the Flames: A Fire Fighter’s Meditations on the
Spiritual Life
Ecclesiastes: A Spiritual Journey
Ephesians: The Wealth & Walk of the Christian
Galatians: Our Freedom in Christ
Genesis: The Book of Beginnings, Volume 1
Hebrews: The Supremacy of the Savior
Historical Books of the Old Testament: One God, One
People, One Land
James: A Faith that Works
Joshua, Judges, and Ruth: Victory, Defeat, and Hope in an
Age of Heroes
Luke: In the Footsteps of the Savior
Mark: The Servant Who Came to Save
Messiah in a Manger: Reflections on the Birth of Jesus
Preaching from the Minor Prophets to a Postmodern
Congregation
Prison Epistles: Workbook and Mechanical Outline
Revelation: Theology in Pictures
Romans: The Radical Righteousness of God
A Survey of the Old Testament: The Bible Jesus Used
Studies in the Book of Revelation: Theology in Pictures
To those who have gone before
 CONTENTS

Introduction to the History of the Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

The Birth of the Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

The Spread of Christianity.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

The Church at the End of the First Century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

The Apostolic Fathers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Doctrine and Heresy in the Early Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Ministry of the Apologists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Persecution in the Early Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Sin, Discipline, and Church Unity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

The Canon: A Rule of Faith and Creed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Worship in the Early Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Leadership in the Early Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Constantine, Arius, and Athanasius.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

The Trinitarian Councils of the Church.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Augustine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

The Fall of Rome and the Rise of the Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

 INTRODUCTION TO THE
HISTORY OF THE CHURCH
The recording of history is to tell the story of the human family.
—John Briggs

Consciousness of the past alone can make us understand the

present. —Herbert Luethy

Charles Schultz of Peanuts fame has a cartoon in which he portrays Lucy

working busily on a term paper on the subject of church history: “I will begin at the
beginning. Pastor Bill Smith was born in 1930.” Charlie Brown looks over her
shoulder and exclaims, “Don’t be so silly! It begins with Pastor Smith’s father!”
Most people know that the history of the church goes back more than a few
generations. Most could point to the events in the book of Acts as formative for the
church, but the years between the first century and the present are largely a blank
for most people. Even most Christians would be hard-pressed to give more that a
very sketchy outline of this history of the church. If you were to go into your
average Protestant church and ask the man sitting in the pew to name five of the
church fathers, you might receive a list that was quite similar to Lucy’s.
I want to suggest that it is not merely convenient, but necessary for the
church today to be familiar with its history. The words of the Psalmist are
instructional in this regard:

12 Walk about Zion and go around her;

Count her towers;
13 Consider her ramparts;
Go through her palaces,
That you may tell it to the next generation.
14 For such is God,
Our God forever and ever;
He will guide us until death. (Psalm 48:12-14).

The writer calls men to spend time reflecting upon the city of God. This is
to be more than a mere study of ancient architecture. It is a call to remember the
works of God and how He has worked in the lives of people. It is for this same
reason that we study the history of the church. Such a study will reveal to us how
God has worked in history to bring about a people of His own. The church is the
body of Christ. It is His prized possession, His temple, His holy people. As such,
He finds it the most important thing in the universe. If He does, then we should,
too.

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 Introduction to the History of the Church

THE CHURCH AND HISTORY

The church is a product of history. If you want to understand the church as
it exists today, you must understand its history. Why is there a state church in some
parts of the world? If you go to Germany, you will find such a state church. In
some parts of the country that state church is the Roman Catholic Church. In other
parts of the country that state church is the Lutheran Church. How did this happen?
Why are there so many different denomination? Not only are there Baptists
and Methodists and Presbyterians, but each of these is subdivided and splintered
into further groupings. Why did this take place? The answer will be found in the
past history of the church.
The Bible maintains as one of its central truths that God has worked in
history. He did not create the worlds and then go off on a long vacation. He has
intervened in history. All of history is a fulfillment of the plan of God. This means
that the Christian has more of a reason than any other to study history, for he alone
believes that history is really the outworking of the plan of God and that history is
“His story.” The Christian alone believes that history is not merely a meaningless
tangle of evens, but that there is a purpose and a goal to history.
What is history? It is nothing less than the strategy of God in the lives of
men. If we are to know how God is working today, we will be assisted by seeing
how He has worked in the past. A study of church history will accomplish the
following:

• It will set forth for us the development of biblical doctrines. Why do we

believe in the Trinity? Why do we approach the Bible grammatically and
historically instead of allegorically? The answers will be seen in a study
of church history.

• This study will enable us to correct our errors in and about the church. It
has been said that those who are ignorant of the mistakes of history are
doomed to repeat them. We can learn from the past mistakes of others. I
love the bumper sticker that says, “Learn from the mistakes of others; you
can’t possibly live long enough to make them all yourself.”

• A study of church history will enable us to see today’s church in a more

complete way. As you see the bigger picture, you will come to understand
that you are a part of something that has been around for a very long time.

The story of the church is both a new and an old story. It is an old story,
going back 2000 years to Jesus and His apostles and, before that, another 2000 years
to Abraham, and before that, an unknown amount of time to a garden in a land
called Eden.
At the same time, the story of the church is not only old, it is also a new
story, for it has yet to be completed. We are a part of a continuing saga. Our names

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 Introduction to the History of the Church

are a part of that saga. There is coming a day when our names will be read in the
book of the Lamb.
It can truly be claimed that Christianity has become the most widespread
of all faiths. That does not mean it will always be the most dominant. There have
been times when it has nearly been overshadowed by various forms of paganism.
And yet, it continues to survive and to make its impact felt throughout the world.
It is no mistake that our chronology is measured by B.C. (Before Christ) and A.D.
(Anno Domini, the year of our Lord). Though recent scholarship has sought to
change the meanings of these references to refer to “before the common era”
(B.C.E.) and the “common era” (C.E.), they can not evade the simple fact that it is
Christianity that marks the delineation between the era of the past versus that of the
present.

A BRIEF OUTLINE OF CHURCH HISTORY

33 - 476 A.D. 476 - 1517 A.D. 1517 - Present
Early Church Medieval Church Reformed Church
• Apostolic Church • Early Medieval Church • Reformed Church
• Persecuted Church • High Medieval Church • Awakened Church
• Imperial Church • Late Medieval Church • Modern Church

WHAT IS THE CHURCH?

We can look at the church in two primary ways. We can look at it from
God’s point of view or we can look at it from man’s point of view. God sees the
church as the collection of all believers. We call this the “invisible church.” It is
obvious that we cannot study the church from God’s point of view since we do not
have God’s complete perspective. Our study of the church will necessarily be a
study of the visible church—the organized church.
Within the organized church there have been both Christians and non-
Christians. Jesus Himself pointed out that this would be the case when He told the
parable of the wheat and the tares. He said they would grow up together until the
day of the harvest. But there is coming a day when they will be separated. When
that day comes, you make certain that you are on the right side.

3
 THE BIRTH OF THE CHURCH
“And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will
build My church; and the gates of Hades shall not overpower it”
(Matthew 16:18).

This is the first mention of the “church” in the New Testament. Jesus spoke
these words to Peter and to the rest of the disciples during a private interview in the
vicinity of Caesarea Philippi. I have been to that location. It was a place of idol
worship and of pagan temples. There was a temple to the pagan god of Pan located
there in front of a deep grotto which the Jews of the day had dubbed, “The Gates
of Hell.” I don’t know for certain that Jesus is referring to that particular place of
pagan worship, but His words apply equally to all sorts of paganism, both ancient
and modern. The words of Jesus are prophetic and foundational. I want to focus
particularly in the statement: I will build My church.

Ruins of the pagan temple of Pan in Caesarea Philippi

1. The Source of the Church.

Jesus says, “I am the One who will build My church.” He does not
say, “I and My apostles,” or, “Peter and I,” or even, “I and certain pastors.”
The building of the church is claimed to be the work of Christ. He is the
one who elects the church. He is the one who calls the church. He is the
one who saves the church. He is the one who redeems and justifies and
sanctifies the church.
That is not to say that people are uninvolved in the process. Nor

4
 The Birth of the Church

am I denying the proper utilization of church growth and missionary

planning and strategy. These play the same role that cultivation play in
agricultural pursuits. They can and should be utilized, but only with the
recognition that it is Christ who ultimately builds His church.

2. The Tense of the Building of the Church.

Notice the tense in which this promise is given. It looks to the

future. Jesus says, “I will build My church.” It has been concluded by
some that, at the time He was speaking, He had not yet begun to build His
church.
There is some truth to such thinking. It is not that the Lord had not
begun to gather His people into an organized assembly. There is a sense in
which the people of God had been a “called out assembly” since the very
earliest days of the Old Testament. But there would now be a change.
There would now be a new foundation. There would now be a new rock
upon which the church would be built. It was the rock announced by
Peter’s great confession. It was the bedrock of truth embodied in that
confession that Jesus of Nazareth was the Christ, the Son of God.
There is a teaching that maintains God has two separate groups of
people in Israel and the church and that they have nothing to do with one
another. By contrast, the Bible teaches that when God saved the Gentiles,
He did not start a new group of people. Instead, He made the two groups
into one.

For He Himself is our peace, who made both

groups into one and broke down the barrier of the dividing
wall (Ephesians 2:14).

God now has a single group of people who are His chosen ones.
They are called the Church. They are made up of all who have come to
Jesus Christ in faith. That does not mean the church replaced Israel; to the
contrary, the church is described by the Apostle Paul as a remnant of Israel.
The surprising thing is that Gentiles have been allowed into this remnant.

3. The Process of Building the Church.

The word “build” suggests a process that is drawn out over an

extended period of time. The entire church did not come into existence in
a single instant of time. It has been in the process of construction for some
two thousand years. It is not yet finished. The process will continue until
Christ returns.

...in whom the whole building, being fitted

5
 The Birth of the Church

together, is growing into a holy temple in the Lord, 22 in

whom you also are being built together into a dwelling of
God in the Spirit. (Ephesians 2:21-22).

Not only did Christ begin the process of building His church, but
He is also still involved in that same process. If the church is growing
today, it is because Christ is building it. If people are being saved, it is
because He is drawing them. If believers are growing and becoming more
like Christ, it is because He is doing a work in their lives.

4. The Ownership of the Church.

Jesus indicates His ownership of the church when He says, “I will

build My church.” It is His church. This signifies possession. The church
belongs to Jesus Christ. It is His because He bought it and paid for it. It is
the church which He purchased with His own blood (Acts 20:28). We
should not think of the church as belonging exclusively to any one religious
individual or group. It is God’s church.

5. The Nature of the Church.

Jesus says, “I will build My church.” The word “church” is

translated from the Greek word ekklesia (evklhsia). It is a compound word
made up from the joining of two Greek words together:

• Ek (evk): “Out.”
• Kaleo (kalew): “To call.”

The resulting compound refers to a “called out assembly.” It refers

to a select group of people who have been called out of a larger group.
This is exactly what the church is. It is made up of God’s people who have
been called out of the world to be a part of something unique and special.

PREPARATION FOR THE CHURCH

But when the fullness of the time came, God sent forth His
Son, born of a woman, born under the Law (Galatians 4:4).

We read in this passage that the birth of Christ took place when the fullness
of the time came. The world was prepared by God for the arrival of Jesus and for
the beginning of the church. It was no accident that Jesus was born at that time in
history. Neither was it any accident that the world was in a state of readiness for
the coming of the church.

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 The Birth of the Church

1. The Political Setting.

Rome ruled the ancient world in the early days of the church. The
rule of Rome, particularly at this point in history, brought a number of
factors that aided the sudden growth of the church.

The Roman Forum

• Pax Romana.

This period of Rome’s history is known as the Pax

Romana—the Roman Peace. It saw one of the greatest periods of
peace and prosperity that the world had ever known up to that time.
The Roman legions had conquered all immediate enemies and the
threat of their might was generally enough to keep the peace within
the empire.

• Roman roads.

We have a saying today that “all roads lead to Rome.”

This quip looks back to the series of roads that were maintained by
Rome that drew the empire together and unified it. This made
travel throughout the empire much easier.

• The sea was cleared of pirates.

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 The Birth of the Church

Piracy had been such an issue in the past that the Roman
senate had commissioned Pompey the Great in 67 B.C. to deal with
the problem. He had accomplished this task and the Mediterranean
had become a Roman lake.

• Roman legions policed the land.

Travel throughout the ancient world was generally a

hazardous affair as bands of robbers would ambush those foolish
enough to attempt to travel without an armed escort. The threat of
robbery, though not entirely extinguished, was reduced by the
presence of Roman legions and the capture and execution of
thousands of robbers.

2. The Religious Setting.

Christianity was born in the land of Palestine. All the early

Christians were Jewish. It is impossible to understand early Christianity
without first understanding the Jewish cradle from which it sprung.

Model of the Temple in Jerusalem

• The Temple.

Since the days of Solomon, the center for Jewish worship

had been the temple in Jerusalem. It was here that the morning and
evening sacrifices were offered. It was here that the priesthood
came daily to serve. It was here that the yearly atonement was
made for the sins of the nation. The temple represented the throne
of God and the presence of God upon earth.

• The Synagogue.

During the dispersion of the Jews to Babylon in 586 B.C.

and the Babylonian captivity that followed, the religious form of

8
 The Birth of the Church

the Jews underwent a dramatic change. The temple had been

destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. The place where God’s people
came to meet the Lord was in ruins. These Jews began to meet
together each Sabbath to
study the Scriptures, to
pray, and to worship.
This gathering became
known as the synagogue.
Even after the temple was
rebuilt, Jews continued
these weekly meetings.
In addition to the
synagogue, a number of
schools and academies
arose, both in Jerusalem
as well as in foreign
lands. These schools of
religion contributed to the
establishment of Jewish
thinking and resulted in
the presence of many
Gentiles who, while not The author in a reconstruction of the first
going so far as to be century synagogue in Nazareth
circumcised and convert to Judaism, were nevertheless
characterized as “God-fearers.” Furthermore, a system of public
education had been instituted in Israel during the century before
the birth of Christ so that literacy among the Jews was at an all-
time high. 1

• The Messianic hope.

The Jews of the first century were bound together by a

common hope. It was the hope of a messiah.

“Behold, the days are coming,” declares the LORD,

“When I will raise up for David a righteous Branch;
And He will reign as king and act wisely
And do justice and righteousness in the land.

1
Kenneth Atkinson points out that during the reign of Salome
Alexandra, “children were required to attend school, a decree that presumably
included young girls” (Biblical Archaeology Review, July/Aug 2008; Pg 65).

9
 The Birth of the Church

6 In His days Judah will be saved,

And Israel will dwell securely;
And this is His name by which He will be called,
‘The LORD our righteousness.’” (Jeremiah 23:5-6).

The Jews looked forward to a day when God would raise

up for them a king who would be a descendant of David. The
thinking was that this king would lead them to victory over the
hated Romans and would restore their nation’s independence.

• The Septuagint.

With the conquests of Alexander the Great (333-323 B.C.),

the Greek language had become the dominant language of the
ancient world. Even in Rome where Latin was the official
language, Greek was regularly utilized.
Two hundred years before the birth of the church, the Old
Testament had been translated into Greek. Tradition had it that
this translation was the work of seventy Jewish translators and so
the translation had come to be known as the Septuagint — “the
seventy.” This meant that Gentiles were now able to read those
Scriptures in the common language.

THE PENTECOST INCIDENT

When the day of Pentecost had come, they were all
together in one place. 2 And suddenly there came from heaven a
noise like a violent rushing wind, and it filled the whole house
where they were sitting. 3 And there appeared to them tongues as
of fire distributing themselves, and they rested on each one of
them. 4 And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to
speak with other tongues, as the Spirit was giving them utterance.
(Acts 2:1-4).

The incident that marked the birth of the church was no natural event. No
council came together and voted to organize the founding of the church. No
mission board planned a church-planting process in Jerusalem. True to His
promise, it was the Lord who gave birth to the church.
This event took place at the Feast of Pentecost, one of the main Jewish
feasts in Jerusalem. Jews would have been gathered from all over the world to
celebrate this festival, all but ignoring the tiny band of followers of a recently
crucified carpenter. Suddenly, in the midst of the crowded city, something amazing
happened. What took place can only be explained in terms of the supernatural.

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 The Birth of the Church

There was a great sound and there was fire. It was as though the past events
of the giving of the law at Mount Sinai were repeating themselves. Then the
followers of Jesus began to speak in other languages, relating the news that Jesus
had risen from the dead. Jews gathered from all over the known world began to
hear this message in their hometown dialects. As a result of this preaching, three
thousand people were baptized.

THE JERUSALEM CHURCH

They were continually devoting themselves to the apostles'
teaching and to fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayer.
43 Everyone kept feeling a sense of awe; and many wonders and
signs were taking place through the apostles. 44 And all those who
had believed were together and had all things in common; 45 and
they began selling their property and possessions and were
sharing them with all, as anyone might have need. (Acts 2:42-45).

The first church in Jerusalem was a thriving, dynamic group. They had no
organization, no committee meetings, no building program, no mission outreach.
What they did have was unity. Their adopted lifestyle was a practical outworking
of the Sermon on the Mount.

1. The Membership.

It is suggested in verse 41 that the method by which members were

received into the church was baptism. We read that those who had received
his word were baptized; and that day there were added about three
thousand souls. This early membership was limited to three groups of
people.

• Hebrews.
• Hellenists—Greek speaking Jews.
• Proselytes to Judaism.

There were no Gentiles in this first church. The membership was

limited to Jews. The idea of “Gentiles for Jesus” was still a thing of the
future and would not be introduced until Acts 10.

2. The Leaders.

The leadership of this early church lay in the hands of the twelve
apostles. These men had all been followers of Jesus during His earthly
ministry. Now they were passing on His teachings to the new church in

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 The Birth of the Church

Jerusalem. In addition to the apostles, Acts 1 makes mention of the

brothers of Jesus (Acts 1:14) and James in particular eventually comes to
the forefront as one of the leaders within the church (Acts 12:17; 15:13; 1
Corinthians 15:7).

3. The Doctrines of the Early Church.

The earliest church did not have an established doctrinal statement.

They had not yet developed an extensive list of creeds. These things would
come later. There were four major teachings that were held by the early
Jerusalem church.

• The Messiahship of Jesus.

• The Death of Jesus.
• The Resurrection of Jesus.
• The Return of Jesus.

Each of these points are seen in the preaching described in the first
half of the book of Acts. They were the skeletal structure upon which all
other teachings would be placed.

4. The Persecutions.

The initial persecutions against the early church were conducted

exclusively by the Jewish religious leaders. These involved beatings,
imprisonment, and eventually martyrdom. Stephen, one of the earliest
deacons of the church, was the first to meet his death in this way. These
early persecutions led to a scattering of the church. And on that day a
great persecution began against the church in Jerusalem, and they were all
scattered throughout the regions of Judea and Samaria, except the apostles
(Acts 8:1). Though it was intended to destroy the fledgling church, it had
exactly the opposite effect.
If there had been one lack in the early church, it was that of a
missionary outreach. The leadership had seen no reason to take the gospel
message to other countries and, until the flaring of persecution, Christianity
remained a relatively small cult located within the confines of Palestine.
As the persecutions against the church intensified, Christians fled
the area and took with them the message of the gospel. The one man who
did the most to initiate this sending forth of Christians to other countries
was to be a young anti-Christian names Saul of Tarsus.

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THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY
“...These men who have upset the world have come here also”
(Acts 17:6).

In the early years of the church, the community of believers was confined
to the immediate area in and around Jerusalem. Although the church grew and
prospered, there was no effort expended to reach out to other countries with the
gospel. Then something took place that was to change all of that. That something
was the scattering of the church.

THE CHURCH PERSECUTED

There had been persecutions of early Christians almost since the beginning,
but they had been sporadic and aimed more against the leadership of the church.
Peter and John had been arrested, threatened, and beaten for preaching the gospel.
But now, a young Jewish Pharisee names Saul of Tarsus instituted an intense
persecution of all who followed the teachings of Jesus. He began a reign of terror
in Jerusalem that came to a head in the martyrdom of Stephen.

And on that day a great persecution began against the

church in Jerusalem, and they were all scattered throughout the
regions of Judea and Samaria, except the apostles. (Acts 8:1b).

As the believers were scattered out over the land, they took with them the
message of the gospel. That message began to take root in Judea and Samaria and
the surrounding districts. The inadvertent result of the persecutions had been to
spread the Christian beliefs to other locations.
When Saul had driven the Christians in Jerusalem either from the city or
into hiding, he turned his attention outward, planning to carry out his campaign of
persecution to the regional capital of Damascus. It was while he was en route to
Damascus that God struck him down, calling him to be a disciple of Christ. The
man who had been Christianity’s greatest enemy was to become its greatest
missionary.
As significant as Saul’s conversion was to be to the growth of the church,
another factor was introduced that was to change the face of Christianity. This
came, not at the hands of Saul, but through the Apostle Peter. Though we often
think of Paul as the Apostle to the Gentiles, it is Peter who first brought Gentiles
into the church.

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 The Spread of Christianity

GENTILES COME TO CHRIST

Up to this time, the preaching of the message of the cross had been limited
to a segregated audience. Only Jews had been targeted with the message. After all,
it was reasoned, Jesus was a Jewish Messiah who had come to offer a kingdom to
the Jews. It was not perceived as being of any concern to the Gentiles. Two events
conspired to change this.

1. The Conversion of Cornelius.

God directed the Apostle Peter to go to the house of a Roman

Centurion named Cornelius to preach to him and to his family the message
of the cross. Peter had to be told three times, but he eventually obeyed and
the house of Cornelius turned to Christ. The evidence of the divine
sanction of this conversion was the giving of the Holy Spirit, a repetition
of the Pentecost event with Gentile believers as the subject.
This was especially significant because it was the first instance that
a Gentile was recognized to be saved without first proselytizing to Judaism.
So important was this event that the book of Acts devotes two entire
chapters to describe the historicity of the event and then Peter’s narration
of that same event.

2. The Greeks at Antioch.

The message of the gospel continued to spread up the

Mediterranean coast until it finally came to Antioch. This was one of the
major cities in the eastern Mediterranean and, as such, it was primarily a
Greek city, though it also boasted a Jewish section.

So then those who were scattered because of the

persecution that occurred in connection with Stephen
made their way to Phoenicia and Cyprus and Antioch,
speaking the word to no one except to Jews alone. 20 But
there were some of them, men of Cyprus and Cyrene, who
came to Antioch and began speaking to the Greeks also,
preaching the Lord Jesus. 21 And the hand of the Lord
was with them, and a large number who believed turned to
the Lord. (Acts 11:19-21).

Even though Cornelius and his family had come to the Lord, the
preaching of the gospel continued to be generally confined to the Jews.
This changed when Christians reached Antioch. For the first time, the
gospel was preached en mass to the Greeks. To everyone’s surprise, a great
many Greeks believed the message and turned to the Lord in faith.

14
 The Spread of Christianity

This caused such consternation in the church that Barnabas was

sent by the Jerusalem church to Antioch to oversee the situation. He made
a detour to recruit Saul and they spent a year together, ministering at the
new church at Antioch (Acts 11:19-28). It was here that the believers were
first given the designation “Christian.”

PAUL’S FIRST MISSIONARY JOURNEY

After a year of ministry and growth, the elders of the church at Antioch
were directed by the Holy Spirit to commission Saul and Barnabas to a missionary
journey (Acts 13:1-3). Accordingly, Saul and Barnabas traveled to the island of
Cyprus and from there to Perga on the coast of Anatolia. The rigors of the trip
proved too much for John Mark and he deserted them, returning to Jerusalem (Acts
13:4-13). It was during this period that the book of Acts begins to refer to Saul by
his Latin designation, Paul. This was evidently a conscious decision on the part of
the missionaries to assist in their dealings with the Roman authorities, one of whom
held a hearing on the legality of Christianity in Cyprus.

Over the following weeks, Paul and Barnabas moved inland into Anatolia,
visiting the towns of Antioch (a different town by the same name as the one in
Syria), Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. They preached the gospel in each city, leading
people to the Lord and organizing churches in each area. They faced persecution,
but they endured and, when they left the area, there were churches planted in the
hinterland of the Anatolian plateau. They returned to their home base of Antioch
just in time to find a new issue that had arisen.

15
 The Spread of Christianity

THE JERUSALEM COUNCIL

About this time, a great debate began to sweep through the churches. It
concerned the relationship of the Mosaic Law to Christianity. Jewish teachers rose
up who insisted that a man must be circumcised and proselyte to Judaism in order
to be saved (Acts 15:1). Accordingly, Paul and Barnabas were sent to Jerusalem to
attend a council of churches in order to settle this matter.
At Jerusalem, it was agreed that Gentiles are saved by faith and apart from
the works of the law. Several Jewish delegates were chosen to be sent back with
Paul and Barnabas to Antioch to make certain this message was understood.
Among these representatives was a prophet named Silas.

PAUL’S SECOND MISSIONARY JOURNEY

When Paul and Barnabas began to make plans for a second missionary
journey, they found themselves disagreeing over whether to take John Mark along
with them. John Mark had accompanied them on their first trip, but had deserted
them when the hardships of the journey proved too difficult. The argument between
Paul and Barnabas grew so divisive that they finally parted company and Paul set
out with Silas.

Instead of going by sea as they had the first time, Paul and Silas traveled
through Tarsus and Cilicia, coming finally to Lystra. Here they were joined by a

16
 The Spread of Christianity

young Christian named Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). Making their way westward across
Anatolia, they traveled through Phrygia and Galatia, being led by the Holy Spirit in
a vision to come at last to Troas on the Aegean Sea.
From here, they took a boat to Macedonia, landing at Neopolis and coming
at last to the city of Philippi where the first church was founded through a woman’s
Bible study and the conversion of a jailer. This marked the entry of the Christian
church into Europe and was the first step in the evangelism of that continent.

The author overlooking the ancient city of Neopolis

In the following months, they moved on, starting churches in Thessalonica

and Berea. Then Paul sent Silas and Timothy back to check on the welfare of these
new churches while he went south to Athens, where he preached a sermon on the
Areopagus. From there, he moved to Corinth. In Corinth, Paul stayed with Aquila
and Priscilla, two Jewish transplants from Rome who were in the same tent-making
occupation. He spent two years here, planting a church and preaching and teaching.
After a long time, Paul determined to return to Jerusalem, taking Aquila and
Priscilla with him. The trip took him through Ephesus and he stopped here for a
short time to preach to the Jews. Though he was asked to stay, he continued on to
Jerusalem, leaving Aquila and Priscilla to continue the work that he had started.
Thus, Paul came by ship to Caesarea, stopping briefly at Jerusalem before returning
to Antioch, the point of his original debarkation (Acts 18:22). In this second
mission trip, Paul and Silas had taken the gospel to Greece and had established a
church there.

THE THIRD MISSIONARY JOURNEY

After some time of recuperation and ministry, Paul left Antioch and once
again made his way westward, visiting the churches in Galatia and Phyrgia, until at
last he came to Ephesus (Acts 18:23). He remained at Ephesus for two years,

17
 The Spread of Christianity

preaching at first in the synagogue and then at the School of Tyrannus (Acts 19:8-
10). From this base of operations, the gospel spread throughout Anatolia to such
an extent that this would be a major concentration of Christian churches for the next
several hundred years.
After a time, Paul traveled to Greece and then returned back across the
Hellespont to Troas. From here, he made his way down the coast, coming at last to
Miletus. He sent for the elders of the church at Ephesus, and when they had come,
he warned them of false teachers and commended them to the work of their ministry
(Acts 20:17-38). Paul and his party now took ship and sailed to Cos, Rhodes, Tyre,
Ptolemais, and finally Caesarea. From here they came by land at last to Jerusalem.

PAUL’S ARREST AND IMPRISONMENT

Paul had not been in Jerusalem long when a mob attempted to kill him. The
ensuing riot was broken up by the Roman garrison and Paul was arrested. The
Roman commander was not sure what he should do with Paul and so, he initially
allowed him to be tried by the Jewish Sanhedrin. The trial erupted into such an
uproar that the commander interrupted the proceedings and escorted Paul back to
the Antonia Fortress in Jerusalem.

Model of the Temple with the Antonia Fortress in the upper right

When the Roman commander learned of a Jewish plot to assassinate Paul,

he sent the prisoner with an armed escort to the governor’s palace at Caesarea.
Paul’s case was heard before the governor, Felix. This trial was tabled and Paul

18
 The Spread of Christianity

remained under house arrest for the next two years at Caesarea.
A second hearing took place when Felix was replaced by a new governor
and Paul was found innocent of any wrong-doing, but since he had appealed to
Caesar, it was determined that he should be sent to Rome to stand trial. He was
placed aboard a ship bound for Rome. The trip was detoured rather abruptly by a
shipwreck, but ultimately Paul arrived in Rome where he remained under house
arrest for two years. Eusebius relates the church tradition that Paul was released
following his initial trial before Nero:

There is evidence that, having then been brought to trial,

the apostle again set out on the ministry of preaching, and having
appeared a second time in the same city found fulfillment in his
martyrdom (1988:97).

It is commonly thought that Paul traveled during this period to Spain,

preaching the gospel there as he had planned in Romans 15:28. After this, he
returned to Rome where he was again arrested. This time he was convicted and
beheaded.

THE MINISTRY OF THE OTHER APOSTLES

Paul was not the only apostle who traveled to other countries with the
gospel. Perhaps being inspired by his example, most of the other apostles are
reputed to have moved out from Jerusalem, taking the message of Christ to other
land.
• Peter eventually traveled to Rome where he was crucified upside down.
• John remained in Jerusalem for many years, but ultimately made his way
to Ephesus where he served until being banished to the nearby island of
Patmos.
• Philip is said to have ministered in Asia Minor, being crucified in
Hierapolis.
• Andrew is said to have traveled to Scythia and to northern Greece before
being martyred at Patras in Greece.
• Thomas supposedly took Christianity to the east to India.
• John Mark is viewed by the Coptic church of Egypt as its founder.

By the end of the first century, there were Christians to be found in almost
every community throughout the known world. The prophecy of Jesus had been
fulfilled that He made prior to His ascension:

But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come
upon you; and you shall be My witnesses both in Jerusalem, and
in all Judea and Samaria, and even to the remotest part of the
earth. (Acts 1:8).

19
 THE CHURCH AT THE END OF
THE FIRST CENTURY
64 - 100
They love everyone, but are persecuted by all. They are
unknown and condemned; they are put to death and gain life. They
are poor and yet make many rich. They are short of everything
and yet have plenty of all things. They are dishonored and yet gain
glory through dishonor. (Anonymous Letter to Diognetus, 150).

The end of the first century saw a saturation of Christianity to all of the
major cities of the ancient world. There are give characteristics about Christianity
that attracted people to its ranks.

1. Christianity Was the Most Inclusive Group in the Roman World.

This was an era of status and class consciousness. Society ran from
the royal and the elitist down to the peon and the slave, yet the Christian
faith was open to all. Their doors were open to anyone, no matter what
color, race, or social status.

• Its members cared for the poor and the imprisoned.

• There was mutual help among the congregations. The book of
Acts tells of offerings from churches in one locale being collected
for the welfare of Christians in other areas.
• The unity of the saints brought a person friends and family no
matter where one traveled.

2. Christianity Held an Uncompromising Adherence to its Convictions.

Christianity was not like the belief in the Greek or Roman gods
toward which many gave only a lip service. There was a great sacrifice
involved for those who would follow Christ. This dissuaded those who
were halfhearted in their allegiance.

3. Christianity Promised Moral Victory and it Worked.

The Christian faith was not merely another philosophy to be

discussed and dissected. It was a way of life and it resulted in changed
lives on the part of its adherents.

20
 The Church at the End of the First Century

4. The Consistency of the Martyrs.

In all their sufferings and persecutions, the Christians refused to

renounce their faith in Christ. Their bravery and steadfastness in the face
of certain death was striking.

5. Christianity Answered the Needs of a Searching World.

The paganism of the first century world had been seen to lack any
real foundation on which to base the lives of its adherents. It was unable
to meet the needs of the world.

• The need for immortality.

• The need for belonging that was met in its unique bond of
fellowship.
• The need for intellectual satisfaction.

THE FIRST IMPERIAL PERSECUTION

The earliest persecutions of Christianity had been at the hands of the Jews.
These were mostly illegal in nature and without the sanction of the Roman
authorities. Even the stoning of Stephen at the hands of the Sanhedrin took place
while the local Roman governor was absent and
apparently apart from his consent. This changed in
the days of Nero.
In 64 A.D. a great fire broke out in the city
of Rome. The Emperor Nero was away at the time,
but when he returned, a rumor began to spread that
he had mounted his private stage overlooking the
city and sung of the destruction of Troy. When the
people began to suspect that Nero might have had a
hand in starting the fire, he tried to turn their
suspicions away by accusing the Christians.

But all human efforts, all

the lavish gifts of the emperor, and
the propitiations of the gods, did
not banish the sinister belief that
the conflagration was the result of
an order. Consequently, to get rid
of the report, Nero fastened the
guilt and inflicted the most
The Roman Emperor Nero
exquisite tortures on a class hated

21
 The Church at the End of the First Century

for their abominations, called Christians by the populace.

Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme
penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our
procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition,
thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea,
the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things
hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center
and become popular. (Tacitus, Annals).

The reference to “Christus” is evidently a misunderstanding on the part of

the secular historian of the nature of the title “Christ” that was given to Jesus of
Nazareth. Tacitus goes on to describe some of the tortures that were devised against
the Christians:

Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered

with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or
were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to
serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired.
(Tacitus, Annals).

Among those who were put to death during this persecution were the
apostles Peter and Paul. The excesses of Nero eventually grew too much even for
the bloodthirsty Romans and rebellion finally broke out in the empire. Nero fled
the city and committed suicide in 68 A.D.

THE JEWISH REBELLION

Meanwhile, in A.D. 66 a revolt erupted in Jerusalem that spread throughout
the whole area of Palestine. The Jews were initially victories and the Roman
garrison at Jerusalem was overthrown. Cestius Gallus, the Roman governor of Syria
marched against Israel with the 12th Legion. He fought his way into Jerusalem, but
was stopped before the walls of the Temple. For a week he made repeated attacks
until the defenders were on the point of surrender. At the last moment and for no
apparent reason, he pulled back and retreated from the city. As he began to
withdraw, the Jews counterattacked, inflicting enormous losses. The 12th Legion
lost its eagle and its siege equipment.
This loss turned the revolt into a full-scale war for independence. The Jews
were ecstatic. They set up their own government in Jerusalem, organized the
country into seven military districts, and minted their own silver coins. Only one
group saw these events through different eyes. The Jewish Christians in Judea
remembered the warning of Jesus.

But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then

22
 The Church at the End of the First Century

recognize that her desolation is at hand. 21 Then let those who are
in Judea flee to the mountains, and let those who are in the midst
of the city depart, and let not those who are in the country enter
the city, 22 because these are days of vengeance, in order that all
things which are written may be fulfilled. (Luke 21:20-22).
“

The Christians remembered

these words and they began to pack up
and move out of Judea. Eusebius
relates a tradition how that the members
of the Jerusalem church, by means of an
oracle given by revelation to acceptable
persons there, were ordered to leave the
city before the war began and settle in a
town in Peraea called Pella (1988:111).
Learning about the defeat of the
12th Legion, Nero commissioned his
top general with the task of subduing
the rebels. His name was Titus Flavius
Vespasianus. We know him as
Vespasian. Together with his son,
Titus, they converged on Israel with
three Roman legions, ravaging the
country and setting siege to Jerusalem.
Vespasian returned to Rome after the
death of Nero to be acclaimed the new
emperor and Titus was left to capture Eusebius tells of how Christians fled Jerusalem
and settle in the town of Pella on the east side of
Jerusalem in A.D. 70. The city was the Jordan River
destroyed and the temple burned to the
ground.
The Arch
of Titus
in Rome
depicts
the loot
being
taken
from the
Temple
including
the gold
lampstand

A small band of Jewish zealots managed to hold out in the desert fortress
of Masada for several more years, but they were ultimately overwhelmed. Rather
than surrender, 960 survivors committed suicide. With their deaths, the Jewish

23
 The Church at the End of the First Century

revolt came to a bitter end.

THE SECOND IMPERIAL PERSECUTION

Vespasian was
followed by his son Titus
whose short reign ended
upon his death in A.D. 81.
Domitian, the younger
brother of Titus was now
made emperor. He took
for himself the title,
“Master and God,”
demanding that people
worship him. When the
Christians refused, they
were charged with treason.
Little is known of this
p e r s e c u t i o n , th o u gh
Irenaeus tells us that it
was during this time that
Statue of Domitian, Ephesus Museum
the Apostle John was
banished to Patmos where he received his revelation.
By this time, the writings that make up our New Testament had been
completed, though they were still not collected into a single volume at this time.
Instead, they circulated through the churches as individual books of Christian
thought.

24
 THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS
95 - 170
Therefore it is right and proper, brethren, that we should
be obedient unto God, rather than follow those who in arrogance
and unruliness have set themselves up as leaders in abominable
jealousy. (Clement to the Corinthians 14).

Following the death of the apostles, the early church had a tendency to look
to those who had been personally acquainted with the apostles to be the new leaders
of the early church. These men later came to be known as the Apostolic Fathers.
It is important to understand that they did not call themselves by this title. They
viewed themselves as rather ordinary people who had an extraordinary God and
Savior.

CLEMENT OF ROME
Clement was the third bishop of the church at Rome. Paul refers to a co-
worker named Clement in Philippians 4:3, though it is not certain that this refers to
the same man. Some early traditions relate that he was further discipled by the
Apostle Peter.
The only writing that we have by Clement is an epistle to the church at
Corinth. This is commonly dated at the end of the first century. The epistle is
anonymous and it is only tradition that connects it to Clement. It is addressed to the
church at Corinth and deals with the problems and disputes within that church.

1. Concerning Inspiration: You have studied the Holy Scriptures, which are
true and are of the Holy Spirit. You know that nothing unjust or fraudulent
is written in them (Corinthians 45:1). This statement refers specifically to
the Old Testament Scriptures, though already the writings of the Apostles
were being viewed as having authority for the church.

2. Concerning Unity: Do we not have one God, one Christ, and one Spirit of
grace poured out upon us? And is there not one calling in Christ?
(Corinthians 46:7).

Shameful, beloved, extremely shameful, and unworthy of your training in

Christ, is the report that on account of one or two persons the well-
established and ancient church of the Corinthians is in revolt against the
presbyters (Corinthians 47:6).

25
 The Apostolic Fathers

Clement pens these words in a situation in which a church conflict in

Corinth had erupted that resulted in the removal of the elders from the
church. He calls for the church at Corinth to reverse their action and to
restore the elders to their former position.

3. Concerning Church Leadership: Our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus
Christ that there would be strife for the office of bishop. 2 For this reason,
therefore, having received perfect foreknowledge, they appointed those who
have already been mentioned, and afterwards added the further provision
that, if they should die, other approved men should succeed to their
ministry. 3 As for these, then, who were appointed by them, or who were
afterwards appointed by other illustrious men with the consent of the whole
church, and who have ministered to the flock of Christ without blame,
humbly, peaceably, and with dignity, and who have for many years
received the commendations of all, we consider it unjust that they be
removed from the ministry (Corinthians 44:1-3).

4. Concerning the Resurrection: Let us consider, beloved, how the Master is

continually proving to us that there will be a future resurrection, of which
He has made the Lord Jesus Christ the firstling, by raising Him from the
dead (Corinthians 21:1).

It will be noted that, for the most part, these are the same problems with
which Paul dealt in his two epistles to the Corinthians. It can also be observed that
Clement describes a succession of doctrine from the apostles rather than a
succession of leadership. He makes no appeal to a centralized papal authority. This
type of claim to papal authority would not begin to develop in the church until much
later.

IGNATIUS (Died 110 A.D.)

Ignatius was the third bishop at the church at Antioch. He had heard the
teaching of the Apostle John. He was arrested and taken to Rome where he was
executed for his faith in A.D. 110, fulfilling his motto, “The closer the sword, the
closer the Lord.” He actively embraced his martyrdom and urged his friends not to
plead for leniency on his behalf. Much of what we know of Ignatius comes from
seven letters he wrote during his journey to Rome as he was on his way to his
execution.

• The church at Ephesus

• The church at Magnesia
• The church at Tralles
• The church at Rome

26
 The Apostolic Fathers

• The church at Philadelphia

• The church at Smyrna
• A private epistle to Polycarp

Ignatius taught that there should be one “bishop” or “overseer” in charge

of each congregation and that everyone within the church should take care to follow
the teachings of that bishop.

We must look upon the bishop as the Lord Himself (Ephesians 6:1).

It becomes you not to presume on the youth of the bishop, but to

show him all reverence in consideration of the authority of God the
Father; just as even the holy presbyters, so I have heard, do not
take advantage of his outwardly youthful appearance, but yield to
him in their godly prudence: yet, not to him, but to the Father of
Jesus Christ, the Bishop of all. (Magnesians 3:1).

Take care to do all things in harmony with God, with the bishop
presiding in the place of God and with the presbyters in the place
of the council of the apostles, and with the deacons, who are most
dear to me, entrusted with the business of Jesus Christ, who was
with the Father from the beginning and is at last made manifest
(Magnesians 6:1).

Let that be a valid Eucharist which is celebrated by the bishop, or

by one whom he appoints (Smyrna 8:1).

Nor is it permitted without the bishop either to baptize or to

celebrate the agape (Smyrna 8:10).

From these references, it is evident that Ignatius held to a three-fold

hierarchy in the area of leadership within the church. This hierarchy can be
outlined as follows:

• The Bishop (Overseer)

• The Presbyters (Elders)
• The Deacons

At the same time, we should not that Ignatius makes no mention of a

hierarchy that supercedes that of a local church. There is no hint of a pope or even
a district bishop within his writings. Ignatius also speaks with reference to the
Jewish religion and its distinction from the beliefs of the church.

It is absurd to have Jesus Christ on the lips and at the

27
 The Apostolic Fathers

same time to practice Judaism. Christianity did not base its faith
on Judaism, but Judaism on Christianity (Magnesians 10:3).

POLYCARP (69-155)
Living from 69 to 155, Polycarp had sat under the teaching of the Apostle
John. He went on to become the bishop of Smyrna. The only writing that we have
by Polycarp is a letter he wrote to the Philippians in which he calls for continuing
faithfulness from the church and gives a warning to those who would deny a future
resurrection and judgment:

Whosoever shall pervert the oracles of the Lord to his own

lusts and say that there is neither resurrection nor judgment, that
man is the first-born of Satan. (Epistle of Polycarp 7).

We have a letter that was written by believers at Smyrna in 156 that relates
the account of Polycarp’s martyrdom. The account tells of the arrest of the aged
disciple and how he invited the arresting soldiers to sit and eat with him while he
spent his last hour in prayer.
He was taken into the stadium of Smyrna to stand before the proconsul.
Although it was the Sabbath day, the Jewish community joined with the rest of the
city to view the spectacle and even participated in gathering the wood that would
be used to burn him at the stake. The following description was given in a letter
from the church of Smyrna to the church of Philomelium:

At length, when he was brought up, there was a great

tumult, for they heard that Polycarp had been apprehended. When
then he was brought before him, the proconsul enquired whether
he was the man. And on his confessing that he was, he tried to
persuade him to a denial, saying, “Have respect to your age,” and
other things in accordance therewith as it was their habit to say;
“Swear by the genius of Caesar; repent and say, ‘Away with the
atheists.’” (Letter of the Smyrnaeans; Lightfoot 1978:112).

One of the charges leveled against the Christians of that day was one of
atheism. They were called atheists because they denied the existence of all of the
myriads of gods that were worshiped by paganism. Polycarp turned and faced the
crowd, directing his words to them and called out, “Away with the atheists!”
Throughout all of this, Polycarp refused to deny the Christian faith and, when the
proconsul offered to release him on the one condition that he deny Christ, he
replied:

“Fourscore and six years have I been His servant, and He

28
 The Apostolic Fathers

has done me no wrong. How then can I blaspheme my King who

saved me?” (Lightfoot 1978:112).

Polycarp was sentenced to be burnt at the stake and was immediately led
to a post around which heaps of wood and hay were quickly stacked. When the
guards prepared to nail him to the stake, he replied:

“Leave me as I am; for He that has granted me to endure

the fire will grant me also to remain at the pile unmoved, even
without the security which you seek from the nails” (Lightfoot
1978:113).

Thus, instead of nailing him to the stake, the officials merely tied him in
place. The elder of the church was burned alive, becoming one of the many martyrs
who died for the faith.

PAPIAS (Died 130 A.D.)

Papias was the bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor. He died around 130
A.D. and thus was a contemporary and friend of Polycarp. He made it a point of
seeking out and interviewing people who had known the apostles. Ignatius states
that papias had met the Apostle John. Eusebius describes him as “a man of little
intelligence,” probably because some of his doctrinal beliefs did not line up with
those held by Eusebius.
Papias wrote a five volume work called, “Explanations of the Sayings of
our Lord.” Unfortunately, we possess only fragments of this work, made up mostly
of quotations from Eusebius.

JUSTIN THE MARTYR (100-165)

Justin was born in Palestine. During his early life, he was successively a
Stoic, a Peripatetic, a Pythagorean, and a Platonist. Upon becoming a Christian, he
became one of the foremost apologists of the early church. Of his many books, only
three have survived, along with a few fragments of other works.

• First Apology to Antonius Pius

• Second Apology to the Roman Senate
• Dialogue with Trypho the Jew

These writings of Justin give to us a vivid picture of life in the early church
and we gain from them an insight into its worship and work:

29
 The Apostolic Fathers

We who value above all else the acquisition of wealth and

property now direct all that we have to a common fund, which is
shared with every needy person (First Apology 14).

On the day which is dedicated to the sun, all those who live
in the cities or who dwell in the countryside gather in a common
meeting, and for as long as there is time the Memoirs of the
Apostles or the writings of the prophets are read (First Apology
67).

Having concluded the prayers, we greet one another with

a kiss. Then there is brought to the president of the brethren bread
and a cup of water and of watered wine (First Apology 65).

In his Dialogue with Trypho, Justin shows himself to be premillennial in his

eschatology, although he grudgingly admits that there are Christians who do not
share this view. He mentions that he is looking to a future rebuilding of the city of
Jerusalem and a regathering of the Jews to that city from which they had been
banished. This would be followed by an earthly millennium.2 Tradition has it that
Justin was martyred in Rome during the reign of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

IRENAEUS (140-202)
One of the students of Polycarp was Irenaeus. He was bon in Asia Minor
and studied under Polycarp in Smyrna. After traveling west to Gaul, he went on to
become the bishop of Lyons.
His name meant “peacemaker” and, living up to that designation, he is
known for trying to make peace between various factions within the church. At the
same time, he stood up for the truth by vigorously defending the faith against the
attacks of Gnosticism. To this end, he wrote a five-volume set entitled Against
Heresies that exposed Gnosticism. Another of his works was Proof of the Apostolic
Preaching, consisting of an apologetic demonstrating that Christianity is a
fulfillment of the Old Testament prophecies.
In reaction to the Gnostic claim that the “true gospel” had been hidden by
the apostles and could only be discovered by following the teachings of Gnosticism,
Irenaeus made some significant claims for the care in which the Apostolic teachings
had been handed down.

2
We should not make the mistake of thinking that Justin or any other of the
church fathers endorsed the modern Dispensational form of Premillennialism with its two
different future returns of Christ.

30
 The Apostolic Fathers

But since it would be too long to enumerate in such a

volume as this the succession of all the churches, we shall
confound all those who... assemble other than where is proper, by
pointing out here the successions of the bishops of the greatest and
most ancient church known to all, founded and organized at Rome
by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul, that church
which has the tradition and the faith which comes down to us after
having been announced to men by the apostles. For with this
church, because of its superior origin, all churches must agree,
that is, all the faithful in the whole world; and it is in her that the
faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition.
The blessed apostles, having founded and built up the
church, they handed over the offices of the episcopate to Linus.
Paul makes mention of this Linus in the Epistle to Timothy. To him
succeeded Anencletus; and after him, in the third place from the
apostles, Clement was chosen for he episcopate. He had seen the
blessed apostles and was acquainted with them. It might be said
that he still heard the echoes of the preaching of the apostles, and
had their traditions before his eyes (Against Heresies 3:3:2-3).

HERMAS
Hermas lived near the end of the second century. He was the brother of
Pious I, bishop of Rome. He had been a slave and then had been freed. He became
a farmer in Italy, but lost his farm as a result of business failings. It is reported that
his children turned to apostasy and betrayed him to be persecuted. The only writing
we have from him is a lengthy work known as The Shepherd of Hermas. It is
divided into three volumes:

• The Visions
• The Mandates
• The Parables

Much of this work is highly symbolic as Hermas relates visions that he

claims to have received from the Lord. There is no single complete Greek text of
this book, but the Latin version has come down to us in complete form.

1. His Teaching with reference to Creation: Believe first of all that God is
one, that He created all things and set them in order, and brought out of
non-existence into existence everything that is, and that He contains all
things while He Himself is uncontained (Mandates 1:1).

2. His Teaching with reference to Divorce and Remarriage.

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 The Apostolic Fathers

I said to the shepherd, “Sir, permit me to ask you a few questions.”

“Speak,” he said.
“Sir,” said I, “if someone have a wife faithful to the Lord, and he
discovers her in some adultery, does the husband sin if he cohabits
with her?”
“So long as he is ignorant,” he said, “he does not sin; but if the
husband knows her sin, and the wife does not repent, but continues
in her fornication, and the husband cohabits with her, he makes
himself a partaker to her sin and an accomplice in her adultery.”
“What then, sir,” said I, “shall the husband do, if the wife continue
in this disposition?”
“Let him divorce her,” he said, “and let the husband remain
single. But if he divorce his wife and marry another, he too
commits adultery.” (Mandate 4:1:4:4-7).

3. His Teaching with reference to Repentance.

One who has received remission of sins ought never sin again, but
live in purity (Mandate 4:3:1:2).

...if a man be tempted by the devil and sin, he has one repentance.
But if he sin and repent repeatedly, repentance is of little value to
such a man, and with difficulty will he live (Mandate 4:3:1:6).

THE DIDACHE OF THE TWELVE APOSTLES

The word didache is Greek for “teachings.” It was a series of lessons
designed for new Christians. Its author is unknown. It is dates at around 100 A.D.

There are two ways, one of life and one of death: and great
is the difference between the two ways (Didache 1:1).

You shall not murder. You shall not commit adultery. You
shall not seduce boys. You shall not commit fornication. You shall
not steal. You shall not practice magic. You shall not use potions.
You shall not procure abortion, nor destroy a newborn child
(Didache 2:2).

In regard to baptism, baptize thus: After the foregoing

instructions, baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and
of the Holy Spirit, in living water. If you have no living water, then
baptize in other water; and if you are not able in cold, then in
warm. If you have neither, pour water three times on the head, in

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 The Apostolic Fathers

the name of the Father, and of the on, and of the Holy Spirit
(Didache 7:1-3).

Do not let your fasts be with the hypocrites. They fast on

Monday and Thursday; but you shall fast on Wednesday and
Friday (Didache 8:1).

On the Lord’s Day gather together, break bread and give

thanks, after confessing your transgressions so that your sacrifice
may be pure (Didache 14:1).

Notice it this last citation that the Lord’s Supper is described in terms of a
sacrifice. This has been seen to contrast to the New Testament that views the death
of Christ as a one-for-all sacrifice that never needs to be repeated. On the other
hand, it might be that the description of a sacrifice is not to be understood in a
technical sense, but simply views this as a sacrifice of praise and of worship
(Hebrews 13:15).
The Didache is significant primarily for its view of the liturgical aspects of
the early church. It was used to teach new Christians how to worship and how to
act both in and out of the meeting of the church. It gives us a picture of how such
worship was carried out in the early church.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE APOSTOLIC

FATHERS
1. A Picture of the Early Church.

The picture that we have of the early church is fresh and exciting.
It is a portrait of a church that is growing at geometric proportions despite
the antagonism of a society bent on its destruction. By the year 200, the
church had permeated the Roman Empire including Britain.

2. Quotes from the Scriptures.

The Apostolic Fathers quote heavily from both the Old Testament
as well as from the Gospels and Epistles of the New Testament. Their use
indicates their view of the great authority of all these writings. They saw
the Scriptures as their guide to life. It was their rule of faith and practice.

3. The Question of Doctrines of Grace.

Did the Apostolic Fathers teach a salvation that was by grace

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 The Apostolic Fathers

through faith? It has been claimed by some that they did not. However, I
would suggest that what we have in their writings is merely an undeveloped
theology. They do not teach about the grace of God as explicitly as we
might prefer, but grace is implicit is most of their writings.
We should not expect them to have a level of theological expertise
as is seen in the leaders of the Reformation. They were contending with
different problems from that of the Reformation.

The Apostolic Fathers The Reformers

Faced a world steeped in Dealt with those who agreed on the
polytheism and pagan reliability of the Scriptures, who held
worship to the deity of Christ, and who were
monotheistic.
Their concerns were Their concerns were largely directed
directed toward the toward those who were a part of the
paganism of their day Roman Catholic church

There is a lesson here. It is that we need to be speaking to the

issues of today. If we do not, then we are not being faithful to the truth. It
matters not how eloquently we may speak. If we do not speak at the very
point where today’s battle is raging, then we have taken ourselves out of the
battle and can no longer be considered to be contending for the faith that
was once delivered to the saints.
At the same time, there is evidence that the Apostolic Fathers did
indeed have an understanding of the grace of God as it relates to salvation.
Clement bears this testimony: And we, too, being called by His will in
Christ Jesus, are not justified by ourselves, nor by our own wisdom, or
understanding, or godliness, or works which we have wrought in holiness
of heart; but by that faith through which, from the beginning, Almighty God
has justified all men; to whom be glory for ever and ever (Clement to the
Corinthians 32).
In conclusion, we should note that we have only a small portion of
the Christian writings from that early period. If our entire New Testament
were made up of only the epistle of James, we would be hard-pressed to
speak of a New Testament theology of grace. At the same time, we ought
to strive to capture some of the freshness and zeal and devotion of those
early church leaders.

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 DOCTRINE AND HERESY IN
THE EARLY CHURCH
100 - 300
At first the church’s convictions over some point of
doctrine were implicit rather than explicit. They were not
carefully defined... Then some new teaching arose. The church
reflected on the matter, comparing the new teaching with the Bible.
As over against the new teaching, it set forth the true biblical
teaching. So a great doctrine was clearly stated in some great
Christian creed. (J. G. Machen 151).

What do we mean when we speak of doctrine? In the context of

Christianity, doctrine is that body of truth that makes up the teachings of the Bible.
With reference to the church, it is therefore that body of authoritative dogma
established and accepted by the church.
But having said that, we need to add that we do not obtain our doctrine from
the church. Rather, we obtain it from the Lord and specifically, from His revealed
revelation contained in the Scriptures. This was the basis of the Protestant
Reformation. The Reformers said, “We shall not accept doctrine from the church
that is at odds with the Bible. We shall go to the Bible itself for the formation of
our doctrine.” The theological term that was coined to describe this stance was sola
scripura — “only Scripture” as our rule of faith and practice.
At this point you might be thinking, “Why do we need doctrine, anyway?
Isn’t it enough to merely have the Bible and to say that we believe that?” While
such a stance sounds very appealing, it simply is not practical.
Everyone has their own doctrines and everyone has their own beliefs. You
can ask anyone what they think about God, and you will get as your answer some
sort of system of doctrine. What theologians seek to do is to take that system,
organize it, and make certain that it conforms to the Biblical teaching. Therefore
we can say that doctrine is a distillation and refinement of the teachings of the Bible
into an organized and systematic format.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE

The Apostolic Fathers lived in an age in which the church doctrine was in
its infancy. It was a time when doctrinal distinctives were somewhat blurred.
People who came to Christ in faith did not recognize all the distinctions between
justification versus sanctification versus redemption. They only knew that they had
come to recognize Jesus as their Lord and Savior.

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 Doctrine and Heresy in the Early Church

If you think about it, that is probably the way you came to Christ. You were
not aware of all the doctrinal distinctives at that time. You only knew that you had
a need and that Jesus had come to fill that need. It wasn’t until much later that you
recognized that you had been baptized by the Spirit into the body of Christ and had
been adopted into the family of God and that you had become a co-heir of Christ.
Just as a baby grows in the area of self-awareness, so you grew and developed in
your spiritual self-awareness.
It was with much the same attitude that Christianity flourished during the
early days of the church. As you read the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, you
will be hard pressed to see all the doctrinal distinctives that we study today. What
we do not realize is that we enjoy nearly 2000 years of doctrinal development and
refinement.

Century Area of Doctrinal Development

3rd & 4th Centuries Christological & Trinitarian Doctrines

5th Century Anthropology—the study of man
11th & 12th Centuries Objective Soteriology. By “objective,” I mean that
theologians were looking at God’s work in the area
of salvation
16th Century Subjective Soteriology: Man’s work in the area of
salvation

These stages of doctrinal development were often brought on in the face of

conflicting views. Indeed, it was often the advent of heresies within the church that
forced the church to develop and to explain these doctrines.
This brings us to an interesting point. If you have never felt the urge to
study doctrine, it is probably an indication that you have never really been active
in sharing your faith with others. When you share your faith with others and they
ask you questions about your faith that you cannot answer, it will drive you to study
doctrine. In the same way, it was as the church faced doctrinal controversy that it
was motivated to study and develop a system of doctrine. Thus, doctrine was
systematized in the face of heresy.
What do we mean when we speak of heresy? Properly speaking, a heresy
is that which divides. If we take this meaning, then some heresies might be proper.
There are times when division is necessary. Martin Luther and John Calvin were
branded as heretics because they were dividing from the teachings of the Roman
Catholic Church. It is not that they were rebellious toward the church, it is that they
sought to follow God rather than men.
Cornelius Van Til, professor of apologetics at Westminster Seminary, used
to say to his students, “Have your own heresies, but make them biblical.” What he
meant by this is that it is okay to disagree with the teachings of the church, as long

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 Doctrine and Heresy in the Early Church

as you are not disagreeing with the Bible. This is important. Our standard of faith
is not the church. It is not the Westminster Confession or the Apostles’ Creed. It
is the Bible.
At the same time, I ought not to depart from the teachings of the church
without great care, examination, study, and prayer. Robert Williams, one of my
mentors from years past, used to say, “Even pygmies can see great things from the
shoulders of giants.” We can and should learn from scholars of the past and
present. But it is still the Bible itself that is our final authority.

THE JUDIAZER CONTROVERSY

The first doctrinal controversy in the early church revolved around the
relationship that Christianity had to Judaism. The membership of the early church
was exclusively Jewish. Jesus had been Jewish. His disciples were all Jews. The
church began in Jerusalem, the capital city of Judea. It was not until Peter had a
heavenly vision and was thereby led to share the gospel with a household of
Gentiles that the issue of Gentile Christians even arose. The only reason they were
recognized is because, at their reception of the gospel, the Holy Spirit came upon
them in a visible way and they spoke in tongues. It was in the face of this heavenly
evidence that Peter grudgingly admitted that Gentiles could be baptized and become
a part of the church.
This may have resolved the issue for Peter, but it continued to be the feeling
of most early Christians that, for a Gentile to become a Christian, he must first
convert to Judaism and be circumcised. Accordingly, the first church council met
in Jerusalem to settle this matter. The story is told in Acts 15.

Some men came down from Judea and began teaching the
brethren, "Unless you are circumcised according to the custom of
Moses, you cannot be saved." 2 And when Paul and Barnabas had
great dissension and debate with them, the brethren determined
that Paul and Barnabas and some others of them should go up to
Jerusalem to the apostles and elders concerning this issue. 3
Therefore, being sent on their way by the church, they were
passing through both Phoenicia and Samaria, describing in detail
the conversion of the Gentiles, and were bringing great joy to all
the brethren. 4 When they arrived at Jerusalem, they were
received by the church and the apostles and the elders, and they
reported all that God had done with them. (Acts 15:1-4).

Paul and Barnabas traveled to Jerusalem to represent the Gentile church at

Antioch. They were confronted by those who insisted that salvation could not be
obtained apart from full conformity to the covenant including circumcision. In
Galatians 2, Paul tells what took place behind the scene of this council.

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 Doctrine and Heresy in the Early Church

Then after an interval of fourteen years I went up again to

Jerusalem with Barnabas, taking Titus along also. 2 It was
because of a revelation that I went up; and I submitted to them the
gospel which I preach among the Gentiles, but I did so in private
to those who were of reputation, for fear that I might be running,
or had run, in vain. 3 But not even Titus, who was with me, though
he was a Greek, was compelled to be circumcised. (Galatians
2:1-3).

The conclusion of the council was that Gentiles could come to Christ in the
same way that Jews came — through faith and apart from the deeds of the law.

THE GNOSTICS
The word Gnostic comes from the Greek word for “knowledge” (gnwsij —
gnosis). The Gnostics claimed to have a special knowledge that went beyond that
which was taught in the Bible or held by the church. This special knowledge came
only to those who were initiated into the “deeper truths.”
Gnosticism entailed a combination of Greek dualism, Christianity, and
Judaism. As such, there was not a specific Gnostic religion or statement of faith.
Rather, it was a broad movement that took on a variety of forms. While full-blown
Gnosticism did not make its appearance until the second century, one can see
evidences in the New Testament of what we could call “pre-Gnostic thinking.”

1. The General Beliefs of Gnosticism.

Gnosticism taught that the material world is alien to the supreme

God and to goodness. They reasons that a good God could not create an
evil world. Therefore, they reasoned that the creation of the present world
was not the work of the supreme God, but that of an inferior being.
Gnosticism held to two gods. There was a good god and a bad god.

The Good God The Bad God

Represented by light Represented by darkness

Realm of spirit Realm of matter
The God of the New The God of the Old
Testament Testament

It was commonly taught that the supreme God originally created

aeons (spirit beings) in order to have fellowship with Himself. One of

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these aeons, out of jealousy, tried to create something himself. He created

the world. Therefore the present world is seen as being naturally evil.

2. Valentinus and Creation.

Valentinus, one of the Gnostic teachers, stated that God had

initially created twelve aeons. The last of these aeons as Sophia
(“wisdom”). She was very unstable and fell into outer darkness and there
spontaneously conceived, giving birth to a premature infant who created the
universe. He did so, out of contention toward his mother, by using the
solidification of his mother’s emotions. Her tears became the ocean, her
mucus became the land, and her anger became the stars. What followed
was a battle between him and his mother for the human race.
As one listens to this fanciful mythology, it echoes from the ancient
Babylonian creation myths. There are also elements of such mythology
that one can find in present-day Mormonism. The Mormons teach that the
God of the Bible is a lesser being who has a greater who created Him. This
is in strong contrast to the teaching of the Bible where the Lord Himself
says, “Before Me there was no God formed, And there will be none after
Me” (Isaiah 43:10).

3. Basilides and his Doctrine of Ex Nihilio.

Basilides taught that originally there was nothing. Then a non-

existent God produced a non-existent seed out of nothing. From this non-
existent seed came everything that exists today. In this way, something
came from nothing. Before you say how silly that sounds, we ought to
remember that it is essentially the same view of the evolutionary materialist
today.

4. Marcion.

The most notorious of the Gnostics was Marcion. Polycarp called

him “the firstborn of Satan.” He was a wealthy shipowner. He had come
to Rome from Pontus in northeastern Asia Minor. He was excommunicated
from the church in 144. He went on to organize and develop his own
churches. Whereas most of the Gnostic movement was rather unorganized,
Marcion had a well-defined doctrine.
Marcion taught that the God of the Old Testament was evil. He
referred to the God of the Old Testament as the Demiurge. The Demiurge
had written the Old Testament and therefore the Old Testament Scriptures
were not inspired and could be rejected.
Marcion reasoned that the Demiurge was not omniscient, since He
had asked Adam where he was. He had been forced to go down to Sodom

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 Doctrine and Heresy in the Early Church

to see what men were doing there. He was not moral, since He had loved
David who was a man of blood and a murderous sinner. Marcion pointed
out what he perceived as contradictions in the Old Testament, such as the
prohibition against graven images, followed by the commands for Moses
to make a bronze serpent and the images of cherubim in the temple.
If the Old Testament was not inspired, then if followed that Jesus
was not a fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy. Marcion maintained that
Jesus was a good teacher, but that He had been misunderstood by His
disciples. The mission of Jesus was to being deliverance from the
Demiurge. However, those who were loyal to the Demiurge took Jesus and
crucified Him.
In addition to rejecting the Old Testament, Marcion edited the New
Testament. He kept ten of the Pauline epistles (minus 2nd Timothy and
Titus) and an edited version of Luke’s gospel.

Marcion, who mutilates [the gospel] of Luke, is

proved a blasphemer of the only existing God, by those
parts which are still retained. Those who separate Jesus
from the Christ, saying that Christ remained unsubjected
to suffering and that it was Jesus who suffered, would be
able to correct their errors if they would make use of the
gospel of Mark and read it with a love of truth. (Irenaeus,
Against Heresies 3:11:7).

The fact that Marcion published a canon of Scripture motivated the

church to respond. If his published list of accepted books was incorrect,
which books were to be considered authoritative?
Because of his emphasis on a God of love, Marcion attracted a
great many followers. He taught that it was not necessary to call men to a
change of life. They only needed to believe in God to be saved. Because
of the dualistic nature of the universe, he reasoned that man’s body can do
whatever it wants, as long as his mind serves Christ.

5. Valentinus and Scripture.

In contrast with Marcion, Valentinus did not want to do away with

the entire Old Testament. He said that some parts were inspired, other
parts were inserted by Moses, and other parts were inserted by Jewish
elders as their own interpretation of God’s actions. He said that Christ has
secretly taught this same view to His disciples who then passed it on to the
few who were initiated.

6. Gnostic Views of Christ.

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Because they held that spirit and matter are separate and distinct,
the Gnostics rejected the idea that God had become flesh. They approached
the incarnation of Christ in several different ways.

• One view said that Christ was a part of the aeons that had been
created by God. It held that He was the chief of the aeons.
• Another view was that Jesus was merely a good man. Just before
His baptism, the Spirit of Christ descended upon Him. That Spirit
was with Him throughout His ministry, but it left Him just prior to
the crucifixion.

7. New Testament Teachings against Gnosticism.

We have already noted that Gnosticism seems to have been evident

in its incipient form in the first century. This is seen in a description of
some of the false teachings combated by the New Testament.

See to it that no one takes you captive through

philosophy and empty deception, according to the
tradition of men, according to the elementary principles of
the world, rather than according to Christ. 9 For in Him
all the fullness of Deity dwells in bodily form (Colossians
2:8-9).

Let no one keep defrauding you of your prize by

delighting in self-abasement and the worship of the angels,
taking his stand on visions he has seen, inflated without
cause by his fleshly mind, 19 and not holding fast to the
head, from whom the entire body, being supplied and held
together by the joints and ligaments, grows with a growth
which is from God. (Colossians 2:18-19).

These Gnostic teachings continued to grow and develop with the

early growth of the church. There were two practical reactions to the
Gnostic teachings:

• Extreme asceticism: If the body is evil and the spirit is good, then
it was reasoned that one should try to subdue everything connected
with the body so that the spirit can grow and develop.

• Extreme lasciviousness: Another line of thinking said that, since

one’s true life is within the realm of the spirit, it is permissible to
fill whatever desires one might have with reference to the body.

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Various segments of Gnostic teachings have been repackaged and have

found their way into a number of modern cults and philosophies such as
Mormonism and the New Age Movement.

THE DOCETIC HERESY

One of the sects of Gnosticism was Docetism. The name is derived from
the Greek word dokew (dokeo), meaning “to seem.” Docetism dealt with the issue
of appearance versus reality. It stated that Christ’s appearance on earth was not real
and that His bodily appearance was only a hallucination. John’s epistles seem to
reflect a rebuke against this teaching:

By this you know the Spirit of God: every spirit that

confesses that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God; 3
and every spirit that does not confess Jesus is not from God; this
is the spirit of the antichrist, of which you have heard that it is
coming, and now it is already in the world. (1 John 4:2-3).

Notice that John wishes to stress the point that Jesus came in the flesh.
This seems rather obvious to our way of thinking, but that is because we are not
versed in Docetism. Why is it so important to believe that Jesus came in the flesh?
There are two reasons.
First of all, if Jesus did not come in the flesh, then He could not take upon
Himself our sins upon His own body. He could not die for us if He were not flesh,
because God cannot die. Furthermore, if Jesus is not fully man in human flesh, then
He is not qualified to be a mediator between God and man.
Finally, it is important because the fact that Jesus came in the flesh means
that He has first gone through the same problems and struggles and temptations
though which we also go. If He did not come in the flesh, then He really does not
understand and empathize with our problems.

EBIONISM
The Greek term Ebionaioi (Ebionaioi) is a transliteration of the Hebrew
Ebyonim ( ~ynwyba ), meaning “poor ones.” The Ebionites were the opposite of the
Docetics. They held that Jesus was a man who was born just like any other man,
but who was adopted into God’s family and thus given the title of “Son of God.”
The Ebionites also taught that Jewish Christians should continue to keep the
Jewish law. Some included Gentiles in this mandate as well. As such, they were
something of a renewal of the Judaizers whom Paul confronted in his epistle to the
Galatians. Irenaeus, in his book Against Heresies, noted that the Ebionites
recognized only the Gospel of Matthew out of the New Testament writings.

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MONTANISM
Montanus was the great theological charismatic of his day. Appearing in
the area of Phrygia in 172, he was joined by two women named Prisca and
Maximilla who were claimed by Montanus to have the
gift of prophecy. These two women were presented as
the mouthpieces of the Paraclete. Prisca claimed that
Montanus claimed to introduce a new Christ had appeared
dispensation of the Spirit that was superior to that to her in female form.
which had begun at Pentecost. He claimed to have a
new and better revelation than that which was given to
the apostles. This teachings said that the Holy Spirit had only been given partially
at Pentecost; the rest could only be given through Montanus.

• He called Christians to a strict asceticism, urging them to abandon marital

relations, to commit themselves to fasting, to speak in tongues, and to
embrace martyrdom.

• He taught that Christians who fell from grace could not be recovered.

• The priesthood of all believers was stressed, setting Montanists in

opposition to the established leaders of the church and undermining their
authority.

• The Montanists opposed art of any kind.

• Montanus also stressed the imminent return of Jesus Christ, though he was
not unique in this area.

• The later followers of Montanus baptized their converts in the name of the
Father, the Son, and Montanus.

Tertullian joined the ranks of the Montanists are was summarily

excommunicated in 240. Because of his influence, the Montanist movement
continued to have some influence in North Africa after it had disappeared from its
birthplace in Phrygia. Montanism has as its modern day counterpart the
Charismatic movement. The movement is exciting and fresh, yet it poses some
serious problems.
Is God continuing to give new revelation to the church today? Are we to
regard as our authority the Scriptures, or someone who claims to be prophesying in
the spirit?

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MANICHAEISM
Rather than thinking of Manichaeism as a mere heresy within the church,
it is perhaps more proper to think of it as a separate religion. It was founded by the
Persian teacher Mani (215-277). He combined aspects of Gnosticism with certain
apocryphal writings such as the book of Enoch and his own writings, adding
elements of Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. Augustine was originally a follower of
Manichaeism before converting to Christianity. The teachings of this heresy were
as follows:

• Maintained that the apostles had corrupted the teachings of Jesus and that
Mani was correcting them.

• Viewed God through the lens of dualism. God is made up of both good and
evil, light and darkness.

• The material is bad; the spiritual is good. Therefore the human soul is good
while the human body is bad.

• Taught that Christ’s body was merely an illusion.

MONARCHIANISM
The designation Monarchian come from the joining of the two Greek words
mono (“only”) and archos (“ruler”). It is a teaching that stressed the unity of God
to the point of denying the Trinity. This teaching was known by several different
names.

1. Sabellianism: Names after a priest named Sabellius (220), one of the chief
leaders of this movement. He used the sun as an example in that the sun
has light, power, and a circular form, but is still one. He reasoned that God
merely presents Himself as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and that these are
different faces He wears to the world. Sabellius was opposed by Tertullian.

2. Modalism: This name points to the idea that God is one person who
expresses Himself in three different modes. Thus, He might be called the
Father when He is expressing Himself in one way, or He might be called
the Son when He is expressing Himself in another way, or the Spirit in
another way.

3. Patripassianism: Taken from the two Latin words pater (“father”) and
passus (“to suffer”). It points out the aspect that this view has the Father

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suffering on the cross.

THE RESULT OF THE HERESIES

The coming of these heresies within the early church produced both
negative as well as positive results:

1. Negative Results.

The heresies had a tendency to split churches and to divide the

efforts of Christians. As a result, the secular world often received a
confusing picture of what Christianity was all about and this further
hindered the growth and development of the church. It can be argued that
the Islam religion, at least in part, grew out of a heretical view of God that
was espoused by heretics who had been banished from the Roman Empire.

2. Positive Results.

One of the positive results of the heresies with which the church
had to deal was that the church was forced to define its doctrines. The
motivating factor behind the formation of the early creeds of the church
was the setting forth of sound doctrine in contrast to the heretical teachings
that were being promulgated.

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MINISTRY OF THE APOLOGISTS
150 - 250
So we are called atheists. Well, we do indeed proclaim
ourselves atheists in respect to those whom you call gods, but not
in regard to the Most True God. (Justin Martyr, First Apology).

What do we mean when we speak of an apologist? The word sounds as

though it refers to someone who goes around apologizing for things that were done
wrong. But this is not the case. The word is found in the Greek text of Peter’s first
epistle.

But sanctify Christ as Lord in your hearts, always being

ready to make a defense to everyone who asks you to give an
account for the hope that is in you, yet with gentleness and
reverence (1 Peter 3:15).

The word translated “defense” is taken from the Greek word apologia
(avpologia). It is a compound word made up of the joining of apo (“from”) with
logos (“word”) and describes the action of explaining or making a verbal defense.
It is a legal word, referring to the statements of a defending attorney or of a man
who himself is on trial (Acts 22:1; 2 Timothy 4:16).
As used by Peter in the passage cited above, the apostle calls Christians to
have reasons why they believe as they do. This is important. We do not believe
just become someone told us to. We do not believe merely because belief is good
and everyone ought to believe in something. We believe because we have reasons
to believe. Our faith is based upon evidence.
In the same way, the apologists of the early church set forth the reasons for
their faith. In doing so, they spoke out against the errors of their day. Some of
those errors included:

• Judaism
• Paganism
• Greek philosophy
• Polytheistic religions

But the apologists did not stop at defense. They took Christianity and they
put it into an offensive mode. Paul describes such a mode when he said: We are
destroying speculations and every lofty thing raised up against the knowledge of
God, and we are taking every thought captive to the obedience of Christ (2
Corinthians 10:5).

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THE STRATEGY OF THE APOLOGISTS

1. Their Offensive Strategy: In speaking of the offensive strategy of the
apologists, I do not mean to imply that there was an offensiveness to their
demeanor, but that they were proactive is showing the claims of Christ and
how those claims brought to nought every other competing religion or
philosophy.

• They taught that the Greek philosophy of a Logos, a universal

principle that governs all the universe, was taken from the true
Logos, Jesus.
• They turned to the Old Testament prophecies to show the Jews of
the truth that Jesus is the promised Messiah of the Scriptures.
• They sought to win legal recognition for Christians. To this end,
they demonstrated to the Roman authorities that Christians are
peaceful and obedient to those authorities and not deserving of
persecution.
• They wrote to comfort Christians who were in the midst of
persecution, reminding them of the true nature of their faith.

2. Their Defensive Strategy: A number of charges had been leveled against

Christianity and the apologists answered these charges.

• Christians were accused of atheism because they did not worship

a visible image of any god.
• It was thought that Christians practiced cannibalism in their
meetings because they spoke of eating the body and blood of their
Lord.
• Charges of immorality were made, possibly because of the “holy
kiss” and the agape feasts.
• Christians were charged with treason and anti-social behavior
because they would often retire from political and social life, since
these area normally involved participation in pagan rites and the
worship of false gods.

PHILOSOPHICAL BACKGROUNDS OF THE

APOLOGISTS
There was a tendency among the apologists to write from a higher
philosophical realm than that which we observe in the Apostolic Fathers. The
apologists gave great allegiance to the ability of philosophy to discover truth.
Clement and Origen, both who came from the Alexandrian School, are examples of

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this. They do not make a distinction between natural versus supernatural revelation.
It all comes from God.
Justin Martyr went so far as to indicate in his writings that he believed Plato
to have read the book of Deuteronomy. While it was argued by some of the early
Christian writers that there was nothing good to be found within the writings of the
Greek philosophers, the apologists took a different tact. By bringing Christianity
within the framework of the philosophies, they were able to gain a hearing from
people who had been brought up in those philosophies.
There is a lesson here. It is that we ought to speak to where people are in
their thinking if we expect them to respond to the truth of the gospel. This is the
way Jesus worked. He spoke one way to Nicodemus, but His approach to the
woman at the well was very different. In both cases, He proclaimed truth, but the
terms in which that truth was dressed differed depending upon His audience.

QUADRATUS
One of the earliest apologists was Quadratus of Athens. He lived in the
early second century. When Rome was considering a fresh persecution of the
church, Quadratus wrote an apologetic treatise to the Emperor Hadrian. We have
only a fragment of this treatise saved by Eusebius:

The works of the Savior were ever present, for they were
true. Those who were cured and those who were raised from the
dead were seen not only while being cured and while being raised.
They were ever present, not only while our Savior dwelt among us,
but also for a considerable time after He had departed. In fact,
some of them have survived to our own time. (History of the
Church 4:3).

The last sentence indicates that Quadratus himself had been contemporary
with some who had been cured and even raise from the dead by Jesus. It was an
effective apology. How do you argue with a corpse that is still walking around?

JUSTIN THE MARTYR (100-165)

We have already looked at Justin as one of the Apostolic Fathers. Born in
Palestine in the region of ancient Shechem, he was in his early life, a Stoic, then a
Peripatetic, a Pythagorean, and a Platonist. Upon becoming a Christian, he became
one of the foremost apologists in the church. Of his many works, only three have
survived:

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• Apology to Antonius Pius

• Apology to the Roman Senate
• Dialogue with Trypho the Jew

Justin wrote eloquently and at length on the issues that impacted Christians
of his day. Eusebius makes reference to other works such as Discourse to the
Greeks in which he discusses the Greek religion and On the Sovereignty of God in
which he cites secular philosophers while defending the biblical teachings of
Christianity.

1. Regarding the Charge that Christians were Atheists: So we are called

atheists. Well, we do indeed proclaim ourselves atheists in respect to those
whom you call gods, but not in regard to the Most True God (First
Apology).

2. Regarding the Deity of Christ: For this they accuse us of madness, saying
that we attribute to a crucified man a place second to the unchangeable
and eternal God, Creator of all things: but they are ignorant of the mystery
which lies therein (First Apology 13).

3. Regarding the Resurrection: Because you have never seen a dead person
rise, you disbelieve. But just as in the beginning you would not have
believed that from a little drop such persons might be produced, and yet
you see them so produced, so now in the same way realize that it is not
impossible for human bodies, after they have been resolved and, like seeds,
dissolved into earth, to rise again in God’s appointed time and put on
incorruption (First Apology 18).

4. Regarding Fulfilled Prophecy: We are convinced of the truth of all that He

taught us, because whatever He foretold would happen is actually
happening. This is the work of God: He tells of a thing before it happens,
afterwards showing that it happens as it was foretold (First Apology 16).

IRENAEUS (140-202)
Irenaeus had been one of the students of Polycarp, having been born in Asia
Minor and studying in Smyrna. After traveling to Gaul, he went on to become the
Bishop of Lyons. He stood for the truth by vigorously defending the faith against
the attacks of the Gnostics. His writings include the following:

• Against Heresies: Five books exposing Gnosticism.

• Proof of the Apostolic Preaching: An apologetic demonstrating that
Christianity is a fulfillment of the Old Testament Scriptures.

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• How God is not the Cause of Evil: While this work is described by other
authors, there are no surviving copies today.

In reaction to the Gnostic claim that the true gospel was found only in the
teachings of Gnosticism, Irenaeus had this to say:

The true gnosis is the doctrine of the apostles, and the

ancient organization of the church, throughout the whole world,
and the manifestation of the body of Christ according to the
succession of bishops, by which successions the bishops have
handed down the church which is found everywhere; and the very
complete tradition of the Scriptures, which have come down to us
by being guarded against falsification, and which are received
without addition of deletion. (Against Heresies 4:33:8).

In his critique of Gnosticism, Irenaeus makes reference to a Gospel of Judas

that portrayed Judas in a more positive light. In modern times, a Gospel of Judas
was supposedly found in Egypt in the 1970's and sold on the black market, making
its way to Geneva in the early 1980's. It does not claim to have been written by
Judas, but rather by later Gnostics.

TERTULLIAN (160-250)
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus was born into a pagan family in
Carthage, located in modern day Tunisia. His early training was in the field of law.
When he was converted to Christianity, he became a defender of the faith. His
writings can be catalogued into three distinct periods as he moved from the strictly
orthodox faith in the direction of Montanism:

His Catholic 197-206 • The Apology

Period • The Testimony of the Soul
• The Demurrer against the Heretics
• Against the Jews
• Against Hermogenes
His Semi- 206-212 • The Veiling of Virgins
Montanist • Against Marcion
Period • The Flesh of Christ
• The Resurrection of the Dead
• The Crown (deals with a Christian
in military service)

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His Montanist 212-220 • Against Praxeas

Period • Monogamy
• Modesty

Tertullian lived in an age when Christianity had spread throughout the

entire Roman Empire. He paints this vivid picture of the thriving church:

We are but of yesterday, and already we have filled your

world: cities, islands, fortresses, towns, marketplaces, the camp
itself, tribes, companies, the palace, the senate, the forum. We
have left you nothing but your temples only! (Apology 37:4).

In his treatise against Marcion, he gives an example of his legal wit as he

attacks the common Gnostic view that Christ did not have a mortal body:

Having taken bread and having distributed it to His

disciples, He made it His own body by saying, “This is My Body”
— that is, the “figure of My body.” A figure, however, there could
not have been, unless there was in truth a body. Some empty thing,
which is a phantasm, were not able to satisfy a figure. Or, if he
pretended that bread were His Body, because in truth He lacked a
body, then He must have given bread for us. It would support the
vanity of Marcion, had bread been crucified! By why call His body
bread, and not rather a pumpkin, which Marcion had in place of
a brain. (Against Marcion 4:40:3).

Tertullian was the most advanced Trinitarian of his day, giving the church
a theological vocabulary that was borrowed from Roman law.

HIPPOLYTUS (170-236)
Hippolytus was a teacher in the church at Rome. He came into violent
conflict with Pope Callistus over the issue of the readmission of sinners into the
church. He also spoke out strongly against the practice of abortion:

For this reason women who were reputed to be believers

began to take drugs to render themselves sterile, and to bind
themselves tightly so as to expel what was being conceived... See
what great impiety that lawless one has proceeded, by teaching
adultery and murder at the same time! (Refutation of All Heresies
9:12).

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As a presbyter in the church at Rome, Hippolytus made a break with the

established hierarchy of the church. This schism did not end until after Hippolytus
and the Pope had been exiled to Sardinia by the Roman Emperor Maximin Thrax
where they both remained until their deaths. Writing against the Greek
philosophers who did not hold to a bodily resurrection, Hippolytus shows himself
to be an apologist and a defender of the faith:

It dare not be said of God that in one thing he is able and

another unable. We believe, therefore, that the body too is
resurrected. For even if it becomes corrupt, it is not utterly
destroyed. The earth receives its remains and preserves them; and
they become like seed, wrapped up in the richer part of the earth,
to spring up and bloom. (Against the Greeks).

ORIGEN (185-254)
Origen was born in Alexandria, Egypt. He was the
Origen’s name,
son of Christian parents and his father was martyred for his
Wrigenhj, means
faith while he was still a teenager. Origen wanted to
“born of Horus.”
follow his father in martyrdom but was prevented when his
mother hid his clothes. Origen became the director of the
school of Alexandria. It is said that he had himself castrated in order to follow
Matthew 19:12 is a completely literal manner. He was later given the nickname
Origen Adamantius, “Origen the unbreakable.”
He traveled to Rome in 212 where he met Hippolytus, but he seems to have
been disillusioned by the moral laxity that he found among Christians there and he
soon returned to Alexandria. He left Alexandria again in 215 when a popular
uprising in the city resulted in all schools being closed. Origen traveled to Caesarea
on the coast of Palestine. It was here that he preached from the pulpit at the request
from the local bishop. When Demetrius, the bishop of Alexandria, learned of this,
he rebuked Origen because he was not ordained to preach.
Fifteen years later, when Origen was again traveling through Caesarea, he
was again asked to preach. In order to circumnavigate the previous problem, the
bishops of Caesarea and Jerusalem ordained him to the priesthood. Demetrius was
furious and had Origen removed from his school, excommunicated from the church,
and banished from Alexandria.
Origen moved to Caesarea where he was accepted by the church. He began
his own school there and spent the rest of his life in Palestine. He would teach
twice a week and, later in his life, this was accelerated to classes each day. It is
estimated that he wrote between 2000 to 6000 books during his lifetime. Among
them was the Hexapla, a study of some of the various translations of the Old
Testament.
One of his most famous is his apologetic eight-volume treatise Against

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Celsus. Written to combat the pagan philosopher Celsus, this work is a classic in
apologetics as it sets forth why we believe in the God who is there. Like many
others of the apologists, Origen sought to express his Christianity in terms of Plato’s
philosophical ideas:

How much more effective it is — and how better than all

those invented explanations — that when we are convinced by
what we see in the excellent orderliness of the world, we then
worship its Maker as the one Author of one effect, which, since it
is entirely in harmony with itself, cannot, therefore, have been the
work of many makers. (Against Celsus 1:23).

During the Roman persecutions under Emperor Decius, Origen was

imprisoned and tortured, but refused to recant his faith in Christ. He was eventually
released, but he never fully recovered from those injuries and he died two years
later.

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 PERSECUTION IN THE EARLY
CHURCH
64 - 313
Kill us, torture us, condemn us, grind us to dust; your
injustice is the proof that we are innocent... The more we are hewn
down by you, the more numerous do we become. The blood of
Christians is seed. (Tertullian, Apology 50:13).

Persecution is nothing new to the church or unusual to its existence.

Throughout most of the history of the church, it has suffered persecution. This
should come as no surprise. Jesus Himself promised that His people would suffer
persecution.

Remember the word that I said to you, “A slave is not

greater than his master.” If they persecuted Me, they will also
persecute you; if they kept My word, they will keep yours also.
(John 15:20).

One of the signs by which we can determine that we really belong to Christ
is to look and to see if the world wishes to persecute us. Speaking in the same vein,
Paul wrote these words to Timothy:

Now you followed my teaching, conduct, purpose, faith,

patience, love, perseverance, 11 persecutions, and sufferings, such
as happened to me at Antioch, at Iconium and at Lystra; what
persecutions I endured, and out of them all the Lord rescued me!
12 Indeed, all who desire to live godly in Christ Jesus will be
persecuted. (2 Timothy 3:10-12).

Christ was our proto-type. Because men hated Him, they will also hate His
followers. Because they persecuted Him, then will also seek to persecute those who
preach what He preached. Because they put Him to death, they will also seek to put
His people to death. Tradition tells us that all of the apostles with the exception of
John were martyred for their faith. Concerning John, Tertullian has this to say:

The Apostle John, after being immersed in boiling oil and suffering
no hurt, was exiled to an island. (Tertullian, Demurrer Against the
Heretics).

The first of the martyrs was Stephen. His trial and subsequent death are

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described in Acts 6-8. That event sparked off the first persecution of the church.

And on that day a great persecution began against the

church in Jerusalem, and they were all scattered throughout the
regions of Judea and Samaria, except the apostles. (Acts 8:1b).

As believers scattered out over the land, they took with them the message
of the gospel. That message began to take root in Judea and Samaria and the
surrounding districts. Thus, the persecutions had exactly the opposite effect of what
was desired by those instituting them. Instead of doing away with Christianity, the
persecutions managed to spread its flame throughout the ancient world. The Jewish
persecutions continued as best they were able, although they were hindered by the
fact that the Jews had no sovereign state of their own and were unable to legally put
anyone to death.
Finally, in 52 A.D., a case was brought before Gallio, the Roman proconsul
of Achaia. The case revolved around the preaching ministry of the Apostle Paul in
the city of Corinth. He was accused of persuading men to worship God in a way
that was contrary to the Jewish law (Acts 18:13). Gallio refused to hear the case,
thus establishing Christianity as a legal sect within the district of Achaia for the
next 15 years.

THE ROMAN PERSECUTION

Although the church was granted a short reprieve in Gallio’s decision, she
was on an inevitable collision course with Rome. What was it that made Rome’s
persecution of the church so inevitable? It was because Christians were in
opposition to nearly every part of Roman life.

• Roman schools taught pagan religion.

• Roman cemeteries offered up prayers to false idols.
• Roman marketplaces sold food that had been offered to Roman gods.
• The Roman military personnel were required to swear oaths to the emperor,
worshiping him.
• Tertullian said that attendance at the Roman circus and theater was the
equivalent to sacrificing to false gods.

Rome prided itself on its religious tolerance. They brought all sorts of gods
and goddesses into its pantheon. However, Christianity was viewed as dangerous
because of its universal and exclusive claims. It would have been acceptable if
Christians had agreed to worship Christ as one god among many. But they taught
that He was the only true God and that all of the others were false.

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1. Nero’s Persecution: 64-68 A.D.

A great fire broke out in

Rome in 64 A.D. Nero was
away from the city at the time,
but when he returned, it was
rumored that he had mounted
his private stage overlooking
the flames and sung of the
destruction of Troy. People
began to suspect that he had
ordered the setting of the fire.
In order to dray these
suspicions away from himself,
Nero accused the Christians of
having set the fire. He further
charged them with treason and
atheism because they did not
worship any visible gods. He
seemed to delight in fiendish
forms of persecution and
torture: The Emperor Nero

• Many were crucified.

• Some were sewn up in animal skins and then large dogs were set
on them so that they were torn to pieces.
• Women were tied to mad bulls and dragged to death.
• Christians were tied to stakes and burned alive to light Nero’s
garden parties.

2. Domitian: 81-96.

Domitian was the younger brother of Titus, the general who had
captured and burned Jerusalem. He became emperor upon the death of his
brother. He quickly incurred the hatred of the Senate. Tertullian relates
this tradition regarding a persecution under Domitian:

Domitian, too, a man of Nero’s type in cruelty,

tried his hand at persecution; but as he had something of
the human in him, he soon put an end to what he had
begun, even restoring again those whom he had banished
(Apology 5).

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It is normally thought to have been during this persecution that the

Apostle John was banished to the Island of Patmos.

3. Trajan: 98-117.

We have a rather lengthy correspondence from Pliny, the governor

of Bithynia in Asia Minor to the Emperor Trajan over his policy in the
persecution of Christians:

It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all

matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can
better give guidance to my hesitation or inform my
ignorance? I have never participated in trials of
Christians. I therefore do not know what offenses it is the
practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And
I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should
be any distinction on account of age or no difference
between the very young and the more mature; whether
pardon is to be granted for repentance, or, if a man has
once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased
to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses,
or only the offenses associated with the name are to be
punished.
Meanwhile, in the case of those who were
denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the
following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether
they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated
a second and a third time, threatening them with
punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For
I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed,
stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be
punished. There were others possessed of the same folly;
but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order
for them to be transferred to Rome.
Soon accusations spread, as usually happens,
because of the proceedings going on, and several incidents
occurred. An anonymous document was published
containing the names of many persons. Those who denied
that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked
the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with
incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be
brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods,
and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are
really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I

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 Persecution in the Early Church

thought should be discharged. Others named by the

informer declared that they were Christians, but then
denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to
be, some three years before, others many years, some as
much as twenty-five years. They all worshiped your image
and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.
They asserted, however, that the sum and
substance of their fault or error had been that they were
accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing
responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind
themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit
fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to
refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When
this was over, it was their custom to depart and to
assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and
innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to
do after my edict by which, in accordance with your
instructions, I had forbidden political associations.
Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out
what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who
were called deaconesses. But I discovered nothing else but
depraved, excessive superstition. (Pliny, Letters).

He goes on to observe that, as a result of these persecutions, he was

beginning to see better attendance at the local pagan temples which had
been almost emptied by the rising swell of Christianity. We have the
answering letter of the Emperor Trajan:

You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in

sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you
as Christians. For it is not possible to lay down any
general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are
not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved
guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that
whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves
it--that is, by worshiping our gods--even though he was
under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through
repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to
have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a
dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the
spirit of our age. (Letter of Trajan to Pliny).

Trajan’s instructions to Pliny seem to have defined the attitude of

Rome toward Christianity for the next hundred years. One of the martyrs

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during the persecutions under Trajan was that of Ignatius.

4. Hadrian: 117-138.

Hadrian was of Spanish

descent. He had been a relative of
Trajan’s and was adopted by him as
the emperor lay on his deathbed.
Hadrian continued the policies of his
predecessor, but added a wrinkle —
those who brought false witness
against Christians were themselves
to be punished. This limited the
number of charges made against
Christians and therefore lowered the
level of persecution against
Christians.
On the other hand, Hadrian
was not so constrained in his
treatment of the Jews. He forbade
circumcision and he had pagan idols
brought into the city of Jerusalem,
ordering that a temple to Jupiter be
constructed on the site of the
original temple.
As a result of these
activities, the Jews organized a
revolt under the leadership of Bar-
Kochba whose name meant “son of
the star,” a title derived from the Hadrian was the first of the Roman
Emperors to be openly homosexual
prophecy of Numbers 24:17 that
speaks of a star coming from Jacob.
He was later dubbed Bar-Cosiba, meaning “son of falsehood.” Bar Kochba
ordered all Christians who would not join his revolt to be executed.
Hadrian’s legions descended upon Palestine in 135 and, after a
desperate resistance, more than half a million Jews were slaughtered. After
this time, all Jews were forbidden to enter Jerusalem on pain of death.

5. Marcus Aurelius: 161-180.

Marcus Aurelius was a Stoic philosopher. As such, he was

intolerant of Christianity. Not content with the casual persecution of his
predecessors, he instituted a spy system that was designed to locate
evidence against suspected Christians. Justin Martyr was put to death

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during this persecution.

6. Septimus Severus: 193-211.

Septimus Severus was of Punic descent. He seems to have been

more oriental in his thinking and therefore less concerned with maintaining
the old state religion. However, in the year 202 he published an edict under
which conversion to Christianity was forbidden. Irenaeus was martyred
during this persecution.

7. Maximus the Thracian: 235-236.

Maximus came to the throne on the heels of an assassination cope.

He was the first of the “barracks emperors” and never actually set foot in
Rome.
His predecessor, Alexander Severus (222-235), while not himself
a Christian, had admired the Christians and had even gone so far as to place
statues of Abraham and Christ in his personal chapel, along with the rest of
his pagan gods. He had evidently been strongly influenced by his mother,
Julia Mammaea, who had been a follower of Origen.
Upon taking the throne, Maximus set about putting to death all who
had supported his predecessor. This included Christians. All Christian
clergy were ordered to be executed. Hippolytus was among those who
were put to death.

8. Decius: 249-251.

Emperor Marcus Julius

Philippus, known also as Philip the Scholars have studied Roman
Arabian (244-249), was thought by coins and have found a striking
similarity between the praises
Eusebius to have been a Christian,
Christians offered in worship
receiving letters from Origen. What is of Christ and the adulation
known for certain is that he was quite Roman citizens directed to the
tolerant of Christianity. reigning emperor. (Shelley,
Decius came to the throne by 1995:44).
force of arms, defeating Philip in battle.
Because Philip had been friendly with
the Christians, those same Christians were now looked upon with
suspicion. At the same time, Decius was eager to return Rome to her
former paganism. This would require the extermination of Christianity and
Decius entered into it with a vengeance. This was the first empire-wide
persecution.
Decius demanded that all members of the Roman Empire offer up
incense to the emperor, saying, “Caesar is Lord.” Those who refused were

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to be put to death and their lands confiscated. Many nominal Christians,

under threat of torture and death, sacrificed to the gods. Others obtained
a forged certificate indicating they had done so.

9. Valerian: 253-260.

Rising to power from the ranks of the Roman Senate, Valerian was
initially mild toward the Christians. Then in 258 he passed an edict in
which Christians were prohibited from assembling together. Church
leaders were executed and had their property confiscated. Cyprian was
martyred and Origen was arrested and tortured during this persecution.

10. Diocletian: 284-311.

Though Diocletian was the son of

a slave, He rose through the ranks
of power to become the Emperor of
Rome. Seeking to restore the vigor
of the Empire, he appointed three
co-regents:

• Maximian.
• Galerius.
• Constantius Chlorus (the
father of Constantine the
Great).

Diocletian initially followed a Diocletian

policy of toleration for all religious groups. Both his wife, his daughter,
and most of the officers of the court were Christians. But in 303, at the
urging of Galerius, he changed his stance toward Christianity. He issued
a number of edicts that were to devastate the church.

• Churches were destroyed and their properties confiscated.

• All copies of the Bible were to be collected and burned.
• All civil rights of Christians were suspended.
• All Christians holding public officer were deposed.
• Sacrifices to pagan gods were required.
• It is said that Diocletian ordered that all food in every marketplace
be sprinkled with sacrificial wine so that Christians must either
partake of food offered to idols or else starve.

These persecutions took place mostly in the eastern part of the

empire and Maximian and Constantius did not enforce the edict in the

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 Persecution in the Early Church

western territories over which they ruled.

RESULTS OF THE PERSECUTIONS

One of the most prominent results of the persecutions was that the church
was purified. Persecution had a tendency to separate the wheat from the chaff.
Only those who were truly committed to the cause of Christ remained. Thus, the
willingness of those who remained to give their lives for the faith resulted in a
stronger and more unshakable faith.
Another result of persecution was the recognition of the canon of Scripture.
As the Roman authorities commanded Christians to turn over their Bibles, the
question came to the forefront of what did the Bible consist. Would you give your
life to protect Matthew, Mark, and Luke? What about the Gospel of Thomas? The
persecutions were one of several factors in helping Christians to think seriously
about their canon of scripture.

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 SIN, DISCIPLINE, AND CHURCH
UNITY
150 - 450
For if we go on sinning willfully after receiving the
knowledge of the truth, there no longer remains a sacrifice for
sins, 27 but a terrifying expectation of judgment and the fury of a
fire which will consume the adversaries. (Hebrews 10:26-27).

The early church fathers read these verses and took them to mean that if a
person committed too grievous a sin, they could not return to repentance. Tertullian
was among those who taught that, while there is the possibility of a second chance,
there is not a third:

Although the gate of repentance has already been closed

and barred by baptism, still, God permits it to stand open a little.
In the vestibule He has stationed a second repentance, which He
makes available to those who knock — but only once, because it is
already the second time, and never more, because further were in
vain. (Tertullian, Treatise on Repentance 7:10).

Does this mean Christians were expected to be completely without sin? I

do not believe so. Origen made it clear that, at least in his own thinking, repentance
was always available for the “common sins.”

In regard to serious crimes a place for repentance is

conceded only once. Those, however, which are common, and into
which we frequently fall, always admit repentance, and are
forgiven without cease. (Origen, Homilies of Leviticus 15:2).

There was a distinct division made between “common sins” versus “serious
crimes.” Origen went on to teach that, in the case of these “serious crimes,” there
was only one repentance available — that is, if you came to Christ and became a
Christian, you could no longer be forgiven for any future breaches. What were
these “serious crimes” for which there was to be only one initial repentance
granted?

• Adultery.
• Murder.
• Apostasy or heresy.

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 Sin, Discipline, & Church Unity

Origen taught that anyone committing these sins was to be removed from
the church and that such a one could never be forgiven.

THE PROBLEM OF LAPSING UNDER

PERSECUTION
The persecutions under Emperor Decius were worse than anything the
church had seen up to this time. All people were required, under pain of death, to
offer sacrifices to the pagan gods and particularly to the genius of the emperor. The
way Christians dealt with this threat divided them into three camps:

• The Faithful: These were the Christians who refused to deny their faith and
worship the emperor. They were persecuted, thrown into prison, their
homes and lands confiscated, and often put to death.
• The Libellatici: These were Christians who hired or bribed someone else
to go and conduct the sacrifice in their place. They were then given a
certificate of sacrifice, indicating that they had made the sacrifice and
sparing them from persecution.
• The Sacrificati: These were the people who, upon the threat of persecution,
actually went and performed the required sacrifice.

The first group had remained faithful. The sin of the Libellatici involved
deception and lying. The sin of the Sacrificati was in the denial of Christ and the
worship of pagan gods. It is thought that most people within the metropolitan
congregations lapsed in one way or the other.
Once the persecutions had subsided with the death of Decius, the question
was brought before the church as to what their attitude should be with these people
who had lapsed in one way or another. There were three opposing views:

1. Those who granted forgiveness.

There were many leaders within the church who were ready to
bring both the Libellatici as well as the Sacrificati back into the church and
allow them once again to partake of the Lord’s Supper. Among those who
were ready to make such allowances was Cornelius who was made bishop
of Rome after Fabian, the previous bishop, had been martyred.

2. Novatian.

Novatian was a Roman priest who had been nominated to the

position of bishop, of Rome but who had lost the election to Cornelius.
Novatian opposed the return of any of the lapsed believers. He held that

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 Sin, Discipline, & Church Unity

there could be no repentance from such serious sin.

Novatian split off from the church and set up a rival congregation.
He was excommunicated from the church and is said to have eventually
martyred at the hands of Emperor Valerian, but his followers continued to
set up congregations in Carthage and in the east. They called themselves
Kathari (“pure ones”) to set themselves apart from the rest of the church
which they considered to be spiritually polluted. Those who joined the
Novatian Church went through a rebaptism.

3. Cyprian of Carthage.

Holding to a more moderate view between the two extremes was

Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage. While demanding a very exacting system of
penance and probation upon those who had lapsed, he did propose to
eventually allow them to return to the church:

Do not suppose, dearest brother, that for the

future either the courage of the brethren will be lessened,
or that martyrdom will fail, because repentance is made
easier for the lapsed and because a hope of peace if
offered to the penitent. (Cyprian, Letter to Antonianus,
Bishop in Numidia).

Cyprian allowed forgiveness for the Libellatici after careful and thorough
interrogation. The Sacrificati could only be readmitted to the church when
they were on their deathbeds.

THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA: 325

The issue was finally resolved in the Council of Nicaea. This council, the
first ecumenical council of the church, had been sponsored by the Christian
Emperor Constantine. There were a number of issues discussed, but at this point
we will confine ourselves to the one at hand.
The Fifth Canon stated that a lapsed member could stand with the hearers
in the church for a period of two years. People regularly stood to hear the sermon
while the preacher spoke ex cathedra, “from the seat.” After the period of two
years, such a member was permitted to also kneel within the church for a period of
seven years. Finally, he would be permitted for two more years to attend, but not
partake of the Lord’s Supper. This would involve a total of eleven years of penance
before a lapsed member could be permitted back into the church.
How should we evaluate such a decision? What is the standard that we
should seek for the church today? On the one hand, the Lord calls for His church
to be holy and faithful. He also tells us to remove wickedness from our midst.

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 Sin, Discipline, & Church Unity

Reject a factious man after a first and second warning (Titus 3:10).

...I wrote to you not to associate with any so-called brother if he is

an immoral person, or covetous, or an idolater, or a reviler, or a
drunkard, or a swindler-- not even to eat with such a one. (1
Corinthians 5:11).

On the other hand, we worship a forgiving God. Jesus did not throw Peter
out of the church for eleven years when he denied Him. We are instructed in the
Scriptures to receive back the repentant brother, especially when he has shown
fruits of such repentance.

Brethren, even if anyone is caught in any trespass, you

who are spiritual, restore such a one in a spirit of gentleness; each
one looking to yourself, so that you too will not be tempted.
(Galatians 6:1).

Speaking in the same vein, Paul exhorted the Corinthian believers to restore
the man whom they had previously excommunicated:

Sufficient for such a one is this punishment which was

inflicted by the majority, 7 so that on the contrary you should
rather forgive and comfort him, otherwise such a one might be
overwhelmed by excessive sorrow. 8 Wherefore I urge you to
reaffirm your love for him. (2 Corinthians 2:6-8).

Paul had written in his first epistle to the Corinthians for them to remove
this man from the church (1 Corinthians 5). The church had responded by
excommunicating him. But when the man, in repentance, turned from his sin and
sought restoration, Paul urged the church to restore him lest he be further tempted.
This sets forth a principle regarding church discipline. Biblical church
discipline is always directed toward the goal of restoration. It seeks to bring the
sinner back into fellowship with the Father and with the rest of the body of Christ.
On the other hand, leadership within the church was another matter entirely.
It was one thing to be restored to membership within the church; it was another
thing to be restored as a leader within the church. Leaders who lapsed were
removed from their leadership positions. This led to a related question.

THE DONATIST CONTROVERSY

Under the Diocletian persecution, an edict had been issued making it illegal
to own a copy of the Scriptures. Those church leaders who gave up their copies of
the Scriptures to the magistrates to be burned were called Traditori because they
had been guilty of traditio (Latin for “handing over”). This brought about an issue

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that was very similar to that of the lapsed Christians.

Donatus, bishop of Carthage, insisted that these church leaders had
invalidated their calling and had committed apostasy. In opposition to the stance
of Donatus was Augustine.

Donatus Augustine

Declared guilty clergy to have an Allowed clergy to repent and to

invalid ordination continue in their office
Guilty priests must be rebaptized Repentance is sufficient
People who had been baptized by the The office of the minister does not
guilty priest must also be rebaptized make the sacrament efficacious.

The underlying issue here was not merely whether the offending clergy
should be removed from office, but whether any official actions that they had taken
while in office were now to be invalidated. For example, if someone had been
baptized by an offending bishop, was that baptism still valid? Donatus replied in
the negative and this meant each believer would be required to trace this history of
his spiritual pedigree to make certain there had never been an offending church
leader in his past. Augustine opposed the Donatists for two reasons:

• Schisms: The Donatists were destroying the unity of the church. Augustine
taught that the church should try to live together, even when disagreements
arose, lest the wheat be uprooted with the tares.

• The Validity of the Priesthood: In regard to the contention that, if their

priesthood was invalid, then baptisms and marriages performed by them
were also invalid, Augustine taught that the office of the priesthood is
God’s holy office, in spite of the weakness of the man who holds it.

Constantine attempted to mediate this issue through edicts and church

councils, but he failed. One of the more famous quotes of this period was made by
Donatus when, in response to the Emperor’s involvement in the issue, asked, “What
has the Emperor to do with the church?” The controversy itself was to continue for
a hundred years. Donatism was finally condemned by the Council of Carthage in
411.

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 THE CANON
A Rule of Faith and Creed
Heaven and earth will pass away, but My words will not
pass away (Luke 21:33).

If you were a Christian in the early church, how would you know how to
live and what to believe? There were three specific ways in which the faith of the
early church was maintained:

• The Epistkopi (bishops) and the Presbuteroi (elders).

• The Rule of Faith: This involved the distillation of the teachings of the
Scriptures into creeds.
• The Establishment of the Canon of Scripture.

The Greek architects had an instrument that they used to measure various
distances as they were designing and constructing a building. It was a straight rod
with marks set into its side, much like our modern rulers. It had to be unbendable
and it had to be dependable as to its straightness. It was called a kanon (êáíùí).
From this came the idea of a body of truth or a rule of faith. This same word is used
by Paul:

And those who will walk by this RULE, peace and mercy
be upon them, and upon the Israel of God. (Galatians 6:16).

When we talk about canonizing someone, we speak of recognizing their

authority. The Roman Church uses this term to confer sainthood. When the church
speaks of “canon law” it refers to the infallible criteria by how things are to be
measured.
Similarly, when we speak of the Canon of Scripture, we are speaking of that
collection of writings which constitute the authoritative and final norm or standard
of faith and practice. This means that we think of the Word of God as the
measuring stick for our beliefs and for our lives. We use it to check our doctrine
and our daily lifestyle.

Thy word is a lamp to my feet,

And a light to my path (Psalm 119:105).

How do we decide how we ought to live? By the instructions of the Word

of God. Like a lamp to a darkened path, it shows the way in which we ought to
walk if we are to avoid the pitfalls of life.

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 The Canon: A Rule of Faith and Creed

CANONICITY DEFINED
Canonicity is the process by which the
books of the Bible were gathered and collected People often think of the
so that they came to be regarded as the standard canon as an authoritative
list of documents when it is
and norm for Christians. This means that
more correctly seen as a list
canonicity refers to the church’s recognition of of authoritative documents.
the authority of the inspired writings.
We must make an important distinction
here. Canonicity does not make a book into the word of God. Rather, canonicity
is the process of recognizing that a book is the word of God.

The Existence of Does not The Recognition of

the Canon equal the Canon

The church did not create the canon. The canon created and still creates the
church. The origin of the canon is not the same as its reception by the church. The
authority of the Scriptures comes from God. He has given His word to His apostles
and prophets.
The sixty six books that make up our Bible are only a very small part of the
many ancient documents that were written in ancient times and which have come
down to us today. How do we know that the books that we have are the Word of
God? And how do we know that other books of antiquity are not also the Word of
God?
The answer is that only those books which were inspired by God, that is,
which were God-breathed; only those books should be considered as canonical.
This is the sole criteria for determining whether or not a book is to be considered
a part of the Canon of Scriptures.
However, that brings us to the next question: How do I know if a book is
inspired by God? This is the problem of canonicity.

• How are we to determine if we have the right books in the Bible?

• What about the Apocrypha?
• Are there certain books in our Bible which should not be there?
• Are we missing some books?
• Are there certain signs for which we can look that indicate that a book is
inspired?

THE PROCESS OF RECOGNITION

One must remember that the church was born with a completed canon in her

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hands. The earliest church already recognized the Old Testament as their
Scriptures. It was not until more than ten years after the church had begun that the
first of the New Testament books began to be written.
The New Testament books were written between 40-95 A.D. (some scholars
think that it might have been completed prior to 70 A.D.). There were several
different types of writing.

• Historical format (the Gospels and Acts).

• Letters to the churches and to individuals.
• The Apocalyptic format of Revelation.

What were the recognized standards for canonicity? How did the early
church come to recognize which books were authoritative? There were several
aspects that informed such recognition:

1. Apostolic Authorship.

Every book of the New Testament was either written by an apostle or by

someone who had apostolic sanction.

• Mark was given his information by Peter.

• Luke was a disciple of Paul.

The apostles themselves were given their authority from Jesus, both to
teach and to preach in His name. Their authority was a delegated authority.
They were authorized representatives. They had authority, identifying
them fully with the One who had commissioned them. They had a “power
of attorney” with Christ. By contrast, the early church fathers recognized
that they themselves did not have this kind of authority.

"The apostles received the gospel for us from the

Lord Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ was sent from God, so
then the apostles are sent from Christ." (Clement of Rome,
95 A.D.).

"I do not, as Peter and Paul, issue commandments

to you. They were apostles. I am but a condemned man."
(Ignatius, 117 A.D.).

The testimony of all of the early church fathers is that the apostles were
given their authority from Jesus Christ. Therefore, their writings were
considered to be authoritative.

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 The Canon: A Rule of Faith and Creed

2. Consistency.

It was recognized by early Christians that all of the books of the New
Testament were consistent with previous revelation. That is, when certain
writings were seen to contradict prior Scriptures, it was obvious that they
were not to be considered a part of the Canon.

3. Reception by the Churches.

The books and letters that make up our New Testament were accepted early
on by the churches as being authoritative. Such early church leaders as
Clement of Rome, Ignatius, and Polycarp all recognized the New Testament
to be the inspired word of God.

For neither can I now anyone like me match the

wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul. When he was
with you, face to face with the men of that time, he
expounded the word of truth accurately and
authoritatively; and when he was absent he wrote letters
to you, the study of which will enable you to build
yourselves up in the faith which was given to you
(Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 3:1).

We have learned the plan of our salvation from

none other than those through whom the gospel came
down to us. Indeed, they first preached the gospel, and
afterwards, by the will of God, they handed down to us in
the Scriptures, to be the foundation and pillar of our faith
(Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3:1:1).

To put it briefly, Clement has given in the Sketches

abridged accounts of all the canonical Scriptures, and he
does not omit the disputed books — I mean Jude and the
rest of the Catholic Epistles, and Barnabas and the so-
called Apocalypse of Peter. The Epistle to the Hebrews,
moreover, he attributes to Paul, and says that it was
written to the Hebrews in the Hebrew language, and that
Luke translated it carefully and gave it out to the Greeks
(Eusebius, History of the Church 6:14).

What were the factors led to the recognition of the New Testament Canon?
There were several:

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 The Canon: A Rule of Faith and Creed

• Heretics influenced the New

Testament church to Marcion's canon...
formalize an official canon. • Edited version of Luke.
• 13 of Paul's epistles.
Marcion published his own
• Tried to rid the church
limited canon and thereby of Jewish influences.
had a catalytic effect that
drove the church to account
for what it already had and accepted.

• The presence of other Christian writings.

Another factor that led to the recognition of a canon was the

writing of many Christian books and letters. As Christianity grew
and spread, believers began to write books and letters, outlining
their beliefs and urging others to good works. We have letters
which were written by many of the church fathers. The question
arose as to whether they were to consider these new writings to be
on par with the books of the New Testament.

• The coming of intense persecution.

The Roman emperor Diocletian (303 A.D.) passed a law that made
it illegal to possess a Bible. This brought to light the question,
"What books am I willing to die for? Will I die for the Gospel
According to Thomas? What about Paul's Epistle to the Romans?"

All of these aspects — the rise of heretics, the existence of other

Christian documents, and the persecutions against Christianity — had the
result of bringing about a church council that publicly recognized the New
Testament canon.

4. Church Councils. The Easter letter of Athanasius

(written in 367) points to the
In 363 the Council of accepting of all 27 books of the
Laodecia asked that only canonical New Testament.
books be read from the pulpit.
They listed all of the books of our
New Testament except Revelation.
In 397 a church synod was held at Carthage that asserted and
published its recognition of the New Testament canon (including
Revelation). This synod decreed that nothing else should be read from the
pulpit.
It is important to point out that these councils did not make the
books canonical. They merely recognized what had already been the

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prevailing consensus among Christians for the previous 300 years.

5. Criteria used by the early church.

The early church used the following criteria in determining the

canonicity of the New Testament books.

• Apostleship or association with the Apostles.

Not all of the writers of the New Testament were apostles, but all
were written by people who were associated with the Apostles.
- Mark
- Luke
- Acts
- Hebrews
- James
- Jude

Hebrews was only accepted after Paul was adopted as the author,
if not of the actual text, then at least of the ideas contained therein.
However, some of the New Testament books do not have apostles
as authors. This led to a questioning of some of those books.

• Conformity to apostolic teaching.

• Antiquity.

Only the earliest documents of the church have been included.

Those written after the days of the apostles were not considered
canonical.

• Public reading.

I adjure you by the Lord to have this letter read to

all the brethren. (1 Thessalonians 5:27).

Paul commanded that his epistle be read in the church. The

problem with this is that the same instructions were given in
Colossians 4:16 about a letter that Paul wrote to Laodicea, a letter
which is not a part of the canon (see also 1 Corinthians 5:9).

• Acceptance by the church.

Some epistles were not popular everywhere (like 2 Peter). Others

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took a greater amount of time before they were copied and

circulated.

5. Books that were Questioned.

There were some books that, although penned by apostles or with

those closely associated with the apostles, that were initially questioned.
By 180 A.D. a total of 20 out of 27 of the New Testament documents were
widely accepted as canonical. Only 7 were not.

• James was questioned because it seems to contradict the teaching

of justification by faith.
• 2nd Peter and Hebrews were questioned because there was no
certain identification of the authors.
• 2nd John and 3rd John were questioned because they seemed to be
too short.
• Revelation was called into question because it was filled with
symbolism and allegories and difficult for many to understand.

HERMENEUTICS OF THE EARLY CHURCH

Having determined which books of the Scriptures were to be considered
authoritative, the next question before the church was how they were to be
interpreted. This question deals with the issue of hermeneutics, the science of
interpretation.
The Western Church tended to use the grammatical/historical method of
interpretation. This is seen in the writings of Irenaeus. By contrast, the Eastern
Church, while recognizing some validity to this method, relied more heavily on an
allegorical method of interpretation in which the student of the Scriptures seeks to
find some hidden meaning beyond the plain narrative.

Western Church Eastern Church

Grammatical/historical approach to Allegorical approach to

interpretation interpretation
Represented by Irenaeus & Represented by Origen and
Chrysostom Augustine

One of the most famous allegorical writings of our time is Pilgrim’s

Progress. It is evident as we read this book that we are meant to find a meaning that
is beyond the plain narrative. In a similar vein, Origen taught that the
grammatical/historical method was to be used only by spiritual babies. As a

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Christian grew in the word, he was to begin seeing all of the allegories of the
Scripture.

Moreover, it is of ecclesiastical teaching that the

Scriptures were written through the Spirit of God, and that they
have not only that meaning which is quite apparent, but also
another which escapes most. For the words which are written are
the forms of certain mysteries, and the images of divine things
(Origen: The Fundamental Doctrines 1, Preface 8).

An example of this method is found in Augustine’s treatment of the parable

of the Good Samaritan in which he makes the following identifications:

Element in the What it is said to

Parable Represent

The traveler Adam

Jerusalem The heavenly state of his fall
Jericho Adam’s mortality
The thieves The devil and his angels
The injuries of the man Man’s lost condition
The priest and Levite The Old Testament
The Samaritan Christ
The Inn The church

Such a treatment ignores the historical context of the teaching of Jesus in

which He gave the parable. We ought first to interpret the parable in the light of
that context and only then should we look for an application that is true to that
interpretation.

CREEDS OF THE EARLY CHURCH

When I was a lot younger, I belonged to an independent church that had a
plaque upon the wall that said the following words:

No Creed but Christ,

No Book but the Bible

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 The Canon: A Rule of Faith and Creed

It was a very appealing idea, but it was not really true. When you asked
around, you found that there really was a creed. If it was not in the form of a
written doctrinal statement, then it was found in unwritten form.
The word “creed” comes from the Latin word credo, meaning, “I believe.”
A creed is simply a statement of beliefs. One of the earliest New Testament creeds
is found in Paul’s first epistle to the Corinthians:

For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also

received, that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures,
4 and that He was buried, and that He was raised on the third day
according to the Scriptures (1 Corinthians 15:3-4).

The creed began as a very simple statement of Christian belief. It would be

taught to the new convert and he would recite it as he was being baptized into the
faith. Creeds continued to grow and develop throughout the church.
One of the early creeds of the church came to be known as the Symbol of
the Apostles. We know it today as the Apostles’ Creed and we have found extant
copies going back to the 4th century, indicating it was already a tradition of long
standing.

I believe in God, the Father Almighty,

the Creator of heaven and earth,
and in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord:
Who was conceived of the Holy Spirit,
born of the Virgin Mary,
suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, died, and was buried.
He descended into hell. 3
The third day He arose again from the dead.
He ascended into heaven
and sits at the right hand of God the Father Almighty,
from where He shall come to judge the living and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy universal church,
the communion of saints,
the forgiveness of sins,
the resurrection of the body,
and life everlasting.
Amen.

3
This phrase is not in the very earliest copy of the Apostles’ Creed, though it
still has an early tradition.

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 WORSHIP IN THE EARLY
CHURCH
On the appointed day they had been accustomed to meet
before daybreak to recite a hymn to Christ as God, and bind
themselves by a solemn oath not to commit any wicked deed, but to
abstain from all fraud, theft, and adultery, never to break their
word, or deny a trust when called upon to honor it; after which it
was their custom to depart, and then meet again to partake of food.
(Pliny, Letters 10:96).

This description, given by a pagan governor, reflects to a great degree the

character of the early church. There was a great seriousness of purpose. They had
a martyr mentality, a readiness to give their lives for their faith. They took their
Christianity very seriously. They had a hunger for the word of God.
The church, as it existed in that day, was far removed from the country club
mentality or the social meeting that characterizes too many churches of today’s
western world. These people were bound together with ties that could not even be
broken in death. They had an expectancy of Christ’s coming and they wanted to be
found faithful to Him.

THE PLACE OF MEETING

The early church did not have nicely painted and air conditioned buildings
with soft pews for soft Christians. At the same time, they did pay attention to the
areas in which they met for worship.

1. The Temple.

A careful reading of the book of Acts suggests that the meeting

place for the early church was the outer courts of the temple. Under the
marble colonnades of Solomon’s Porch, the early Christians were able to
gather together for worship and to discuss the Scriptures and pray.

Day by day continuing with one mind in the

temple, and breaking bread from house to house, they
were taking their meals together with gladness and
sincerity of heart (Acts 2:46).

...and they were all with one accord in Solomon's portico

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 Worship in the Early Church

(Acts 5:12).

It is important to see that these early Christians did not see

themselves divorced from the worship in the temple. Thus in Acts 3 we see
Peter and John going to the temple at the third hour because that was the
hour of prayer. They continued to involve themselves in the temple
sacrifices and the temple worship.

2. House Churches.

While a good portion of their worship as well as their evangelism

took place within the temple, we can imagine that an equal portion of that
worship took place as they ate their meals together, sharing all things in
common. This would take place within the homes of various members.
We have already noted Acts 2:46 as it speaks of these early Christians
“continuing with one mind in the temple, and breaking bread from house
to house.” When we come to Acts 12:12, we see that many had gathered
together in the house of Mary, the mother of John Mark. Likewise, Paul
makes mention of the church that was in the house of Prisca and Aquila in
Romans 16:3-5. A church also met within the home of Philemon (Philemon
1:2).

3. The Synagogue.

The idea of the synagogue had sprung up among Jewish

communities after the Babylonian Captivity. Scattered about the ancient
world were such places of worship. Throughout Paul’s ministry, we can
see that his regular practice was to enter the local synagogue of any given
city to bring the gospel to the Jews of that city (Acts 13:14; 14:1; 17:1-2;
17:10; 18:4; 18:19; 19:8).

Not only did the church leave its mark on the synagogue, but the synagogue
also left its mark on the church. One only needs to examine the two
organizations to see their commonality.

• A central meeting place.

• An emphasis on preaching from the Scriptures.
• The centrality of prayer.
• The office of elder.

4. Dedicated Church Structures.

We can find examples of very early meetings along river banks

(Acts 16:13), in the Areopagus of Athens (Acts 17:19), and even for two

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years in the school of Tyrannus (Acts 19:9-10). We have already noted the
propensity for meetings that took place within the homes of believers.
By the second century, the larger churches were beginning to own
buildings that were dedicated to meeting together for worship. The
locations for these could be quite varied. In the town of Sardis in Asia
Minor, the church stood alongside a much larger pagan temple.
After Constantine’s conversion to Christianity, the church saw a
new type of building known as the basilica. The word is taken from the
Greek word for “kingdom” and it suggests the idea that this was the place
where one could experience the kingdom of God on earth. The architects
of these later structures took to heart the words of Paul in Ephesians 2:21
where he describes the church has having been built upon the foundation
of the apostles and prophets. They instituted a practice of having one of the
bones of an apostle placed under the foundation stones of these basilicas.

ART IN THE EARLY CHURCH

The Jews did not generally allow art that portrayed images of animals or
people, either in the form of mosaics, wall paintings, or statues, whether in their
synagogues or in their homes. They reasoned that such might be considered to be
a graven image and an infraction of the law. The first Christians seem to have held
to a similar practice. However, as more Gentiles came into the church, it was
inevitable that they should also bring with them their art.
One of the earliest church
buildings known to us today is located in
a place known as Dura-Europas (“Fort
Europos) in modern-day Syria. It had a
baptistry and walls painted with frescos
of the Good Shepherd and of Jesus and
Peter walking on the water.
The art that has been found in the
early Christian catacombs shows images
from either the parables or from the
Psalms. The picture of a “good
shepherd” echoes both to the Psalms as
well as to the words of Jesus. As time
went on, we can find paintings of the
baptism of Jesus, the Lord’s Supper, and Good Shepherd
Daniel in the lion’s den. This last was an especially significant story for Christians
who were literally being thrown to the lions.
We can also find examples of where Christians took pagan art and adapted
it to their own use. Thus a wall fresco of the Roman god Pan might become the
Good Shepherd. In 315 a Spanish church council legislated against art within the

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church lest the paintings begin to be worshiped as pagan idols. However, this did
not take place throughout the rest of the empire.

THE DAY OF WORSHIP

It was the practice of Christians to gather together on one special day. For
most Christians, this took place on the first day of the week.

And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in

the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the
apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time
permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally
instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then
we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our
prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the
president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings,
according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen (Justin
Martyr, First Apology 67).

Justin goes on to point out the reason that this particular day is set aside for
worship among the Christians:

But Sunday is the day on which we all hold our common

assembly, because it is the first day on which God, having wrought
a change in the darkness and matter, made the world; and Jesus
Christ our Savior on the same day rose from the dead (Justin
Martyr, First Apology 67).

At the same time, there seems to be evidence that there were at least some
Jewish Christians who continued to observe the Sabbath as their day of worship.

THE ORDER OF WORSHIP

We know from some of the descriptions we have already cited that the early
church service had a certain structural outline that was used as an order of their
worship.

1. Singing of Hymns.

In the early days of the church, the believers would sing hymns and
songs. However, when heresies such as Arianism swept through the

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church, they brought the singing of certain heretic hymns. As a result, the
Council of Laodecia forbade the singing of any hymns by the laity. It was
not revived until the Protestant Reformation.

2. Reading and Preaching from the Scriptures.

The Scriptures from which the early church read was what we term
today the Old Testament. They are the same books which Judaism looks
to as their Holy Scriptures. Most churches utilized the Greek Septuagint
because of the simple expedient that most people could not read Hebrew.
As they came to be distributed among the churches, the four gospels and
the epistles also began to be read throughout the churches. They would
sometimes read also from the epistles of Clement and from the Didache,
much as a Sunday school class today might read from a Sunday school
quarterly.
The congregation would stand to hear the reading of the word and
would remain standing throughout the sermon. By contrast, the preacher
would sit in order to preach ex cathedra, “from the seat.”

3. Prayer.

By the middle of the second century there were common litany

prayers. Examples of these are seen in the writings of Clement and in the
Didache.

We thank thee, holy Father, for thy holy name, which thou
hast caused to dwell in our hearts, and for the knowledge
and faith and immortality which thou hast made known
unto us through Jesus thy Son; to thee be the glory for
ever.
Thou, Almighty Master, didst create all things for the sake
of thy name, and hast given both meat and drink, for men
to enjoy, that we might give thanks unto thee, but to us
thou hast given spiritual meat and drink, and life
everlasting, through thy Son.
Above all, we thank thee that thou art able to save; to thee
be the glory for ever.
Remember, Lord, thy Church, to redeem it from every evil,
and to perfect it in thy love, and gather it together from
the four winds, even that which has been sanctified for thy
kingdom which thou hast prepared for it; for thine is the
kingdom and the glory for ever.
Let grace come, and let this world pass away. Hosanna to
the Son of David. If any one is holy let him come (to the

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Eucharist); if any one is not, let him repent. Maranatha.

Amen. (Didache 10).

To these prayers would be added the singing of Psalms and hymns

of worship. Instruments do not seem to have been in use during this period.

4. The Liturgy of the Upper Room.

This was a reference to the Lord’s Supper. The church would take
measures to exclude from this portion of the service any people who were
not Christians. Once all onlookers had been removed, the believers would
partake of the “kiss of peace.” Men would kiss men and women would kiss
women. This was a symbol of their reconciliation. If any had a quarrel
with his neighbor, this was a time for it to be resolved.
Just prior to the bringing in of the elements, there would be a
collection of gifts taken for the poor. Next would come the offertory. This
had nothing to do with collecting money; it was the offering of the Lord’s
Supper. The bread and the wine were referred to as the “Eucharist.” This
is a compound word made of the joining of the Greek words eu (“good”)
and charis (“grace”). The bread was broken and the cup was filled with
wine diluted with water. The deacons would dispense these elements to the
congregation.
The church allowed children to partake of the cup, but not of the
bread. By contrast, when deacons took the elements of the Eucharist to the
sick and bedridden, they would only take the bread and not the cup.

5. Baptism.

John McManners points out that “before about 400 AD it was

common for baptism to be deferred until near the end of life because of the
formidable nature of the penances and discipline required after the
confession of post-baptismal sin” (2002:67).
Baptism was normally a part of the worship service. In the early
days of the church, it was held outside, but this quickly changed as
churches began to meet in buildings that had indoor sources of water.

And concerning baptism, baptize this way: After

reviewing all of this teaching, baptize in the Name of the
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, in living (running) water. 2
But if living water is not available, then baptize into other
water; and cold is preferred, but if not available in warm.
3 But if neither is available, pour water three times upon
the head in the Name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
4 But before the baptism, let the overseer fast, and also the

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one being baptized, and all others who are able; Be sure
to instruct the one being baptized to fast one or two days
before. (Didache 7:1-7, Lewis).

After his baptism, the new Christian was to be dressed in a white

robe to signify his new purity. This was the rite of initiation into the
church. Only after he had completed a class of instruction (a catechism)
could he be baptized. This class could last anywhere from several months
to three years, depending upon the standards of that particular church.

The author in the baptistry at Ephesus

Later in the history of the church, they began to anoint the new
convert with oil on the lips, the nose, and the mouth. To this was added a
verbal renunciation of the devil. In the fifth and sixth centuries, there was
added to this renunciation the practice of spitting upon the ground.

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 LEADERSHIP IN THE EARLY
CHURCH
I will set up their bishops in righteousness and their
deacons in faith (Clement of Rome, Letter to the Corinthians 42).

The study of leadership within the early church is a particularly relevant

study for Christians today when the church faces a crisis in leadership. Church
government structures have traditionally followed one of three models:

Congregational This is the system by which the entire congregation

of the church is vested with authority and makes all
major decisions.

Presbyterian This is a representative form of government in which

leaders are elected who then rule and make
decisions.

Episcopal This is a hierarchal system of government that has an

ascending order of clergy (presbyters, bishop, pope).

The question that naturally arises is whether there is one particular system
of church government that is to be preferred and whether the Bible itself mandates
one particular model. To answer this question, we turn first to the apostolic church
and then to the post-apostolic church.

LEADERSHIP IN THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH

For the husband is the head of the wife, as Christ also is
the head of the church, He Himself being the Savior of the boy
(Ephesians 5:23; see also Colossians 1:18).

The leader of the Apostolic Church was said to be Jesus Christ. He was
described by the New Testament writers as the head, the chief shepherd (1 Peter
5:4), the High Priest (Hebrews 2:17; 9:11), the author of salvation and of faith
(Hebrews 2:10; 12:2). It is from Christ that all other leadership in the church is
derived.

1. The Ministry of the Apostles.

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The term “apostle” describes one who is sent out with authority.
Jesus had many disciples, but He appointed twelve apostles. These apostles
had a foundational ministry in the early church.

So then you are no longer strangers and aliens,

but you are fellow citizens with the saints, and are of
God's household, 20 having been built on the foundation
of the apostles and prophets, Christ Jesus Himself being
the corner stone (Ephesians 2:19-20).

Their ministry was one of establishing the church throughout the

world. This included the establishment and appointment of leaders within
the local churches. When Paul and Barnabas instituted churches in the
cities of Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch, they went through those cities and
appointed elders for those churches (Acts 13:23). In the same way, Paul
instructs Titus to “appoint elders in every city” (Titus 1:5).

2. Apostolic Leadership in the Jerusalem Church.

Just as the church began in Jerusalem with a very small group and
then gradually grew and developed, so also the leadership structure within
the church had its period of growth and development. In the first days
following the Pentecost incident, the leadership of the church was vested
in the apostles.

They were continually devoting themselves to the

apostles' teaching and to fellowship, to the breaking of
bread and to prayer. 43 Everyone kept feeling a sense of
awe; and many wonders and signs were taking place
through the apostles. (Acts 2:42-43).

Although Peter had acted as a spokesman on the day of Pentecost,

there is no indication that he now held any high office than that of the other
apostles. They collectively served as the overseers of the Jerusalem church.
Indeed, when Peter called for a new apostle to be selected to fill the ranks
that Judas Iscariot had vacated, he used the term episkope (“overseer”) as
quoted in the Septuagint to describe the need for that office to be filled.

For it is written in the book of Psalms, “Let his

homestead be made desolate, and let no man dwell in it”;
and, “His OFFICE let another man take.” (Acts 1:20).

By the use of this title, it is evident that the apostles were the initial
overseers of the Jerusalem church. This same title of episkope later came

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to be rendered “bishop.” By the time we get to the Jerusalem Council of

Acts 15, we will see Paul coming to meet with “the apostle and the elders”
(Acts 15:4).

3. The Appointment of Deacons.

The next step in the formation of leadership within the apostolic

church came to pass within the context of a crisis situation. The crisis
involved the need for equal care for the widows of the church:

Now at this time while the disciples were

increasing in number, a complaint arose on the part of the
Hellenistic Jews against the native Hebrews, because their
widows were being overlooked in the daily serving of food.
(Acts 6:1).

As the church in Jerusalem continued to grow, two groups

emerged. The first was made up of the native Hebrews who had been born
and raised in Palestine. They spoke Aramaic and Hebrew. The second
group was known as the Hellenists. Although they were Jewish, they spoke
Greek because they had been born in foreign lands. With these widely
different backgrounds, there was bound to be friction. It came to a head
over the issue of the care of their widows.
It has become a common practice for the church to take care of the
widows since these women were unable to provide for themselves. The
problem that now arose was that of a perceived partiality. The Hellenistic
widows were not receiving the same level of care. This problem was
brought before the twelve apostles.

So the twelve summoned the congregation of the

disciples and said, “It is not desirable for us to neglect the
word of God in order to serve tables. 3 Therefore,
brethren, select from among you seven men of good
reputation, full of the Spirit and of wisdom, whom we may
put in charge of this task. 4 But we will devote ourselves
to prayer and to the ministry of the word.” 5 The
statement found approval with the whole congregation
(Acts 6:2-5a).

It was the plan of the apostles to delegate this task of service of

tables to others who met certain spiritual qualifications. It is noteworthy
to mention that the phrase “to serve tables” is translated from the Greek
diakonein trapezais (diakonei/n trape,zaij) and contains the very word from
which we derive our English term “deacon.”

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Although it was the apostles who originated and submitted this

plan, it was ratified by the entire congregation prior to its implementation.
At the same time, it is clearly the apostles who would “put in charge of this
task” these deacons who were selected. Thus, the government of the
church at this early stage was neither congregational nor a hierarchy, but
rather a combination of both.

4. Elders within the Jerusalem Church.

The next step in the formation of leadership within the Jerusalem

church was the selection of elders. We are not told how this took place,
and by the time we read of elders in Jerusalem, local churches had already
arisen as far away as Antioch. It was this church at Antioch that
determined to send money to assist the believers who were in need in the
regions in and around Jerusalem.

And in the proportion that any of the disciples had

means, each of them determined to send a contribution for
the relief of the brethren living in Judea. 30 And this they
did, sending it in charge of Barnabas and Saul to the
elders. (Acts 11:29-30).

This contribution was entrusted to the elders at the church in

Jerusalem. This may have included the apostles who were still within the
city, but they are all referred to as “the elders” (tous presbuterous). It
would seem from this reference that other men had been recognized and
were now acting in the position of elders alongside the apostles.
This does not mean that these men had also received the office or
gift of apostleship. The fact that these two offices remained separate and
distinct is seen when they are mentioned together in Acts 15.

And when Paul and Barnabas had great

dissension and debate with them, the brethren determined
that Paul and Barnabas and some others of them should
go up to Jerusalem to the APOSTLES and ELDERS
concerning this issue (Acts 15:2).

The juxtaposition of the two offices of apostle and elder indicate

that, for a time, they both continued to exist side by side.

5. Elders within the Gentile Churches.

The leadership within the Gentile churches followed the same

pattern as that of the Jerusalem assembly. The book of Acts records the

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missionary journey of Paul and how he and Barnabas appointed elders in

the new churches they had planted.

When they had appointed elders for them in every

church, having prayed with fasting, they commended them
to the Lord in whom they had believed. (Acts 14:23).

The wording is such that we can clearly see within each church the
institution of a plurality of leadership in the form of selected elders. Paul
followed this same pattern years later when he commissioned his co-
worker, Titus, to appoint elders for the churches of Crete.

For this reason I left you in Crete, that you would

set in order what remains and appoint elders in every city
as I directed you (Titus 1:5).

Clement also bears witness of the part that the apostles had in initially
ordaining leaders within the church.

The apostles... appointed their earliest converts,

testing them by the spirit, to be the bishops and deacons of
future believers (Clement, Letter to the Corinthians 42).

We are not told specifically how these elders were chosen, whether
the qualifications were outlined and the congregation had a part in choosing
the qualified men, or whether the apostle or apostolic representative merely
chose those whom he deemed to be qualified. All we know is that the
entire procedure was conducted under the auspices of apostolic authority.

6. Technical Terms for Church Offices.

There are several terms that were implemented in the New

Testament and which have been carried into tradition to denote the various
offices within the church:

• Elder: We have already observed the term elder (presbuteros).

When used in a literal sense, it refers to one who is aged in years
— an old man. But it can also be used in a figurative sense to refer
to one who holds a particular office. It was used by the Spartans
as a political title without regard to the holder’s age.

• Overseer: The term “overseer” (episkopos) is rendered “bishop”

in the King James Version. It seems to emphasize the function of
spiritual oversight exercised by the leaders of the church.

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• Pastor: The term is translated from the Greek poimen (poi,mhn),

meaning “shepherd.” When used is a literal sense, it describes one
who takes care of sheep, such as those who were outside
Bethlehem at the birth of Christ (Luke 2:8-10). When used
metaphorically, it speaks of a leader, a shepherd of people. In this
sense, it is used in the New Testament most often of Jesus (John
10:1-16; Hebrews 13:20; 1 Peter 2:25; 5:4). Only once is this term
used in a metaphoric sense to describe a leader in the church other
than Jesus: And He gave some as apostles, and some as prophets,
and some as evangelists, and some as PASTORS and teachers
(Ephesians 4:11). In this context, the word “pastor” does not refer
to an office or even to a leader within the church, but rather to a
spiritual gift that God has given to certain men.

• Deacon: Our English “deacon” is a transliteration of the Greek

diakonos (diakonoj). It is a general term for one who serves — a
servant. It was foreign to secular Greek thought that such a service
would ever be voluntarily provided by a free man, so it was usually
assumed that someone described by this term would be a slave.

Diakonos is used in the New Testament of a servant in the normal

secular sense (Matthew 22:13; John 2:5, 9) and in a general sense
to describe those who are involved in the word of the ministry and
who are therefore the servants of God. In this way, it is used of
Timothy (1 Thessalonians 3:2 and 1 Timothy 4:6) and of Paul (1
Corinthians 3:5; 2 Corinthians 3:6; 6:4; Ephesians 3:7; Colossians
1:23-25). It is also used to describe a specific office within the
church (Philippians 1:1; 1 Timothy 3:8-13).

The designations of elder and overseer are used in the New

Testament in a way that demonstrates they were two names for the same
office. This is clearly seen when Paul sent for the elders of the church at
Ephesus: And from Miletus he sent to Ephesus and called to him the elders
of the church (Acts 20:17). While speaking to these elders, he refers to
them as overseers who have been given the task of shepherding the flock
of God:

Be on guard for yourselves and for all the flock,

among which the Holy Spirit has made you OVERSEERS,
to SHEPHERD the church of God which He purchased
with His own blood. (Acts 20:28).

Another example of the dual nature of this office of elder/overseer

is seen in Paul’s instructions to Titus as he orders that he is to “appoint

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elders in every city” (Titus 1:5). As he continues his instructions and

begins to list the necessary qualifications for these elders, he explains that
“the OVERSEER must be above reproach as God’s steward” (Titus 1:7).
There is no indication in this passage that Paul has shifted gears to speak
of a different office.
From these passages, we can conclude that the elder and overseer
are different designations for the same office and that the shepherd/pastor
refers to at least one possible function of that office. By contrast, we have
a clear distinction between this office and that of deacon.

Greek Term Literal Meaning Emphasis

Presbuteros Elder / Old man Emphasizes his
(presbuteroj) office

Episkopos (evpiskopoj) Bishop / Overseer Emphasizes his

function of
spiritual oversight
Poimen (poimen) Pastor / Shepherd Described as a
spiritual gift
Diakonos (dia,konoj) Deacon / Servant Emphasizes
function (physical
oversight)

It can be seen from all of the passages cited that the model for each of these
offices and functions involve a plurality of leadership. It is not that they lacked a
single leader as the head of the church, but rather that they viewed that role as
belonging to Jesus Christ.

THE POST APOSTOLIC CHURCH

We have seen ample evidence to demonstrate that the apostolic churches
functioned under a plurality of elders. This was the established pattern for all
churches. This pattern began to gradually change after the close of the first century.

1. The Witness of the Didache.

The Didache, that book known by the title of The Teachings of the
Twelve Apostles, makes mention of the election of leaders within the
church.

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Appoint for yourselves therefore BISHOPS and

DEACONS worthy of the Lord, men who are meek and not
lovers of money, true and approved; for unto you they also
perform the service of the prophets and teachers.
Therefore despise them not; for they are your honorable
men along with the prophets and teachers (Didache 15).

No mention here is made of the office of presbyter. This suggests

that, at least at this time, the bishop and elder were considered to be the
same office. Furthermore, both bishops and deacons are described in the
plural. The implication is that a plurality of leadership is in view.

2. The Witness of Clement.

Clement of Rome mentions the offices of bishop, presbyter, and

deacon, but does so in a way that is not entire clear whether he understands
the office of bishop and presbyter as two titles for a single office, or
whether he sees them as two distinct offices.

And our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus

Christ that there would be strife over the name of the
BISHOP’S office (Clement. Corinthians 44).

For it will be no light sin for us, if we thrust out

those who have offered the gifts of the BISHOP’S office
unblamably and holy. Blessed are those PRESBYTERS
who have gone before, seeing that their departure was
fruitful and ripe (Clement. Corinthians 44).

Shameful, beloved, extremely shameful, and

unworthy of your training in Christ, is the report that on
account of one or two persons the will-established and
ancient church of the Corinthians is in revolt against the
PRESBYTERS (Clement. Corinthians 47).

Notice throughout this epistle that the problem within the church
at Corinth concerned a revolt against the presbyters (plural) and involved
the office of the bishop (singular). This suggests that the idea of seeing two
separate offices between elder versus bishop had already taken root.

3. The Witness of Ignatius.

Ignatius clearly taught that there should be one “bishop” in charge

of each congregation and that everyone within the church should follow the

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teachings of that bishop.

...we must look upon the BISHOP as the Lord

Himself (Ignatius, Ephesians 6).

It becomes you not to presume on the youth of the

BISHOP, but to show him all reverence in consideration
of the authority of God the Father; just as even the holy
PRESBYTERS, so I have heard, do not take advantage of
his outwardly youthful appearance, but yield to him in
their godly prudence: yet, not to him, but to the Father of
Jesus Christ, the Bishop of all (Ignatius, Magnesians 3).

Take care to do all things in harmony with God,

with the BISHOP presiding in the place of God and with
the PRESBYTERS in the place of the council of the
apostles, and with the deacons, who are most dear to me,
entrusted with the business of Jesus Christ, who was with
the Father from the beginning and is at last made manifest
(Ignatius, Magnesians 6).

Let that be a valid Eucharist which is celebrated

by the BISHOP, or by one whom he appoints (Ignatius,
Smyrna 8).

Nor is it permitted without the BISHOP either to

baptize or to celebrate the agape (Ignatius, Smyrna 8).

From these various citations, it is evident that Ignatius held to a

threefold hierarchy in the area of leadership in the church. This hierarchy
can be outlined as follows:
Our English word “priest” is a
• The Bishop (Overseer) contraction of Presbuteros.
• The Presbyters (Elders)
• The Deacons

At the same time, we should note that Ignatius does not set forth a
hierarchy that supersedes that of a local church. He makes no mention of
a pope or even of district bishops whose oversight is over a number of
regional churches.

4. The Witness of Justin Martyr.

In his description of the worship of the early church, Justin makes

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mention of an office that he calls “the president” (proestwti — proestoti),

literally, the “one set in first place.”

Having ended the prayers, we salute one another

with a kiss. There is then brought to the PRESIDENT of
the brethren bread and a cup of wine mixed with water
(Justin, Apology 65:3).

This may have been something of a superintendent of the service

and, as such, might not have been a regular office of the church. On the
other hand, it might be that this duty could have been filled by the bishop
or overseer of the church.

5. The Witness of Irenaeus.

Irenaeus speaks of “the succession of bishops” of the church at

Rome in a way that indicates the singularity of that office. It should be
remembered that the both the terms “episcopate” and “bishopric”

The blessed apostles, then, having founded and

built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the
office of the EPISCOPATE. Of this Linus, Paul makes
mention in the Epistles to Timothy. To him succeeded
Anacletus; and after him, in the third place from the
apostles, Clement was allotted the BISHOPRIC (Irenaeus,
Against Heresies 3:3:3).

We have noted that, from the days of the apostles, the office of
Bishop/overseer was considered to be synonymous with that of the elder/presbyter.
But by the early second century, this had changed to divide these into two separate
offices. What brought about this change? I want to suggest several factors:

• The tendency to look to leadership.

There is within men a natural tendency to look to a single man for

leadership. Even when we study the so-called democracy of Athens, we are
inclined to look for those men who rose to prominence and to see them as
the figureheads of history. So also, this tendency is seen in any local group.
Put a group of people into a room together and eventually one will emerge
as the leader. Leaders lead; they cannot help themselves.

• The need for unity in crisis.

Faced with the double threats of persecutions from without and heresy from

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within, there was a need for churches to be unified. It has always been
easier to be unified when one man is the leader. Thus, the motivation
behind certain men taking to themselves the office of bishop as a separate
and distinct office was not usually born out of a desire to lord it over the
other leaders within the church. Instead, there was a sincere desire to see
the church unified against all common enemies.

CHURCH LEADERSHIP AND THE

SYNAGOGUE
It has been suggested that the hierarchy of leadership practiced in the early
church was simply an extension of the pattern found in the synagogue. If that were
the case, then we could be persuaded that the New Testament pattern is not binding
upon us today and that we are free to choose whatever best fits today’s cultural
patterns.
But is this the case? Was the pattern of church leadership merely a
convenient copy of that which pre-existed in the Jewish synagogue? A comparison
shows some distinct differences. We have already pointed out the flow of
leadership within the apostolic congregation:

Apostle — Elder/Overseer
9
Deacons
9
Congregation

The organization of the post-apostolic church was only slightly more

involved as it separated the office of elder from that of overseer.

Overseer (Bishop)
9 9
Elders Deacons
9 9
Congregation

In contrast to these simple patterns, we have the rather complex organization of the
Jewish synagogue:

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 Leadership in the Early Church

At the top of the hierarchy of the synagogue was the Ruler of the
Synagogue — the archi-sunagogos. He served as the president of the synagogue,
delegating the various parts of worship to the other members. He was also in charge
of the physical building. Indeed, he often was the one who had financed its building
and upkeep. Thus we find both similarities as well as differences between the
leadership structure of the synagogue and the church.

THE PROMINENCE OF THE PATRIARCHS

Although bishops have a common dignity, they are not all
of the same rank. Even among the most blessed apostles, though
they were aline in honor, there was a certain distinction of power
(Pope Leo I, Letter to Anastasius 14).

As the church continued to grow and develop, certain regional bishops

began to increase in power and influence. In theory, all bishops were equal, but
some tended to be more equal than others. This came about for two reasons.

• As churches within the major cities grew and developed, they would send
out local missionaries into the surrounding areas. The leaders of these
mission churches would naturally look back to the bishop of the mother
church for leadership.

• Certain specific churches rose to prominence because of their historic

status as foundational churches to Christendom.

There were five particular churches that eventually became known as the
patriarchal churches and the bishops of these churches became known as patriarchs.

1. Rome.

The church at Rome enjoyed particular prominence because of the

tradition that Peter had been its first bishop. It did not hurt Rome’s status
that it was the seat of the Roman Empire and that it was centrally located
within that empire.

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2. Jerusalem.

Although it shrunk to a relatively small size following the

destruction of the city by Titus in A.D. 70, the church at Jerusalem
continued to hold a high prestige due to it being the mother church of all
Christianity.

3. Antioch.

The church at Antioch enjoyed the prestige of being the first major
Gentile church. It was here that the followers of Jesus had first been called
Christians. An important theological school was eventually stated here.

4. Alexandria.

An old tradition held that Mark had been involved in the founding
of this church. Because it was the center of some of the highest universities
in the ancient world, among them the theological school of Origen, its
church was given a place of honor among the early churches.

5. Constantinople.

This was the early name of modern day Istanbul. When the
Christian Emperor Constantine built this city and made it his new capital,
the church here became one of high influence. By the fifth century, these
five patriarchs had each accumulated a large number of churches under
their regional oversight.

Antioch Alexandria Constantinople Jerusalem Rome

15 provinces 9 provinces 28 provinces 4 provinces 67 provinces

THE PAPACY
The title of Pope comes from the Latin papias meaning “father.” The title
was not initially limited to the leader of the church at Rome. Instances can be
found where this title was used of Cyprian, bishop of Carthage in 250, Alexander
of Alexandria (320), and even of an unknown bishop named Lawrence. At the same
time, the bishop of the church of Rome was thought to hold a preeminent position,
being the heir to the seat that had once been held by the apostle Peter.

We exhort you in every respect, honorable brother, to heed

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obediently what has been written by the most blessed Pope of the
city of Rome; for Blessed Peter, who lives and presides in his own
see, provides the truth of faith to those who seek it. For we, by
reason of our pursuit of peace and faith, cannot try cases on the
faith without the consent of the bishop of the city of Rome (Peter
Crysologue, Letter to Eutyches, 449 A.D.).

Irenaeus speaks of “the successions of the bishops of the greatest and most
ancient church known to all, founded and organized at Rome by the two most
glorious apostles, Peter and Paul” (Against Heresies 3:3).
Leo I, holding the office of Pope in Rome from 440 to 461, insisted that
Christ had set forth the preeminence of the Seat at Rome by establishing Peter as
the rock on which the church was to be built. He maintained that Peter had passed
his leadership on through the bishops of the church at Rome.

Although bishops have a common dignity, they are not all

of the same rank. Even among the most blessed apostles, though
they were alike in honor, there was a certain distinction of power.
All were equal in being chosen, but it was given to one to be
preeminent over the others. From this formality there arose also
a distinction among bishops, and by a great arrangement it was
provided that no one should arrogate everything to himself, but in
individual provinces there should be individual bishops whose
opinion among their brothers should be first; and again, certain
others, established in larger cities, were to accept a greater
responsibility. Through them the care of the universal church
would converge in the one See of Peter, and nothing should ever
be at odds with this head (Pope Leo I, Letter to Athanasius, Bishop
of Thessalonica 14).

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 CONSTANTINE, ARIUS, AND
ATHANASIUS
300 - 373
In this sign conquer.

The church in its early childhood grew and developed and spread
throughout the Roman world. But there eventually came a time when the character
of the church was greatly changed and when it assumed a leadership role in the
Roman Empire. This would prove to begin an entirely new era for the church.

DIOCLETIAN
Diocletian came to the throne of the Roman Empire in 284. He was a
soldier who had risen through the ranks to become a calvary commander. When
Emperor Carus was struck by lightning and died, the legions acclaimed Diocletian
as the new emperor. He saw the Roman Empire in a state of decline with general
unrest everywhere and he took some very deliberate steps to bring it to an end.

1. Abolishment of Constitutional Rule.

Since the days of Augustus, the Roman emperors had maintained

an illusion that decision-making was equally in the hands of the emperor
and the Senate. Diocletian abandoned all pretense and had a golden crown
fashioned for himself, demanding that all who came into his presence
prostrate themselves after the manner of the kings of the east.
Having established his position, he began a reorganization of the
military, increasing its size and building up strong fortifications on the
frontier. This called for higher taxes and that necessarily led to an
escalating inflation that Domitian tried unsuccessfully to curb by mandating
fixed prices.

2. Persecution of the Church.

In 303, Diocletian instituted a persecution of the Christians because

of their refusal to accept his position as a god. Christians were deprived of
citizenship and all churches and Christian books were ordered to be
destroyed. Christian leaders were imprisoned and forced under pain of
torture to sacrifice to the gods.

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 Constantine, Arius, and Athanasius

3. Division of the Empire.

Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into two administrative

sections, splitting it into east and west. He maintained his rule over the
eastern empire from Asia Minor while one of his officers named Maximian
ruled Italy and the west. He eventually set up a tetrarchy, a rule of four
Caesars, including himself.

• Diocletian: Greece, Anatolia, Mesopotamia

• Galerius: Syria, Palestine, Egypt
• Maximian: Italy, Spain, Africa
• Constantius: Gaul, Britain

This structure was to have a lasting impact upon both the empire and, later
on, the church.

4. Retirement.

In 305, both Diocletian and Maximian retired from office.

Maximian’s retirement was forced by Diocletian who himself determined
to spend his later years raising tomatoes. The intention was that two more
Caesars should take their places and, in time, turn the government over to
their successors. It took less than a year for this arrangement to break
down. By the year 311 there were four rival emperors contending for
power.

• Galerius and his nephew, Maximinus.

• Licinius
• Maxentius, son of the retired Maximian
• Constantine, son of Constantius.

EDICT OF TOLERATION
In the year 311 and a mere five days before his death, Galerius, the emperor
of the eastern portion of the empire, signed an edict of toleration:

Christians may again exist and rebuild the houses in which

they used to meet, on condition that they do nothing contrary to
public order. (Quoted from Eusebius, History of the Church
8:17:5).

This reversal on the part of Galerius is striking because he had been the
moving force in the persecution of the church, urging Diocletian to go beyond that

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 Constantine, Arius, and Athanasius

which he had originally intended.

THE RIVAL EMPERORS

The growing power struggle between the four would-be emperors came to
a head with the death of Galerius in 311.

• Maximinus took over the eastern empire.

• Licinius took Greece.
• Maxentius took Rome.
• Constantine continued to hold Britain and Gaul.

1. The Battle for the Milvian Bridge

Constantine moved against Maxentius, invading Italy in 312 and

defeating him at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Maxentius was killed in
the battle, leaving Constantine in charge of the entire western empire.

Milvian Bridge, Rome

Constantine maintained that, on the way to this decisive battle, he

had seen a sign in the sun: a Greek “X” superimposed with a Greek “P”
(our letter R). He took this symbol to refer to Christ since it was the two
letters of the word “Christos,” and he heard a voice saying, “In this sign
conquer.” Constantine had this symbol of Christianity, known as the
“Labarum,” placed on the shield of all his soldiers who were about to go
into battle.

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 Constantine, Arius, and Athanasius

2. The Edict of Milan.

Following Constantine’s
victory, Licinius met with him
and formed a truce. One of the
results of this meeting was that
the Edict of Toleration was
broadened. Although
commonly known as
Constantine’s “Edict of
Toleration,” the resulting
document was actually set forth
by Licinius in Nicomedia and,
rather than being an edict, was
actually a rescript; that is, it
merely restated and expanded
on the Edict of Toleration.

3. The Victory of Licinius.

In 313 Licinius attacked

and defeated Maximinus,
thereby securing for himself the
entire eastern empire. The next
ten years saw a strained relation
between Licinius and
Constantine, especially when
Licinius departed from his
earlier stance and began to The author and a bust of Constantine the Great, Rome
persecute Christians. In 324
Constantine swept into the eastern empire, defeating Licinius.

THE REFORMS OF CONSTANTINE

There were two phases in which Christianity, once a hated and persecuted
religion among the Romans, rose to prominence under Constantine.

• First, Christianity was made equal to the other Roman religions in 313.
• Then in 323 Christianity was given a favored status above the other Roman
religions.

1. Christians Exempted from Pagan Rituals.

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 Constantine, Arius, and Athanasius

The first step of the equality of Christians was in exempting them

from required participation in pagan rituals. This was accompanied by a
number of other legal reforms.

• The tax on celibacy was abolished.

• Jews were forbidden to persecute or put to death those from their
race who converted to Christianity.
• The kidnaping of children and child abuse were given heavy
penalties.

2. Christianity was Awarded Favored Status.

Following the defeat of Licinius, Constantine became even more

friendly with the church as he was seen as the savior of the Christians. He
became personal friends with such highly placed church leaders as
Eusebius of Caesarea and Hosius. Eusebius went so far as to write a highly
euphemistic “Life of Constantine.”
Bishops were given the legal right to judge civil cases based upon
an understanding of 1 Corinthians 6. Sunday was made into a public
holiday. Constantine re-issued his Edict of Toleration, but this time it was
aimed at Christians who were required to tolerate and not persecute pagans.

3. The Building of Constantinople.

Constantine ordered that a new capital city should be built on the

Bosporus. The city was built on the site of a previous Greek colony named
Byzantium, but this new city would be far larger. Occupying a peninsula
with the apt name, “the Golden Horn,” it would have excellent defenses
that would serve its protection for the next thousand years. The city was
completed in 330 and named Constantinopolis (“city of Constantine”). It
included a statue of the sun god with Constantine’s features.

4. Baptism and Death.

Like many in that day, Constantine had postponed his baptism,

expressing a desire to eventually be baptized in the Jordan River. He
became sick in the spring of 337 and received baptism at the hands of
Eusebius, the Arian Bishop of Nicomedia, the city in which he had fallen
ill. He died five days later.

RESULTS OF CONSTANTINE’S POLICIES

Constantine had a two-fold effect upon Christianity and the church. On the

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 Constantine, Arius, and Athanasius

one hand, he brought a freedom from persecution so that the gospel could be
proclaimed unhindered throughout the Roman world. On the other hand, as it
became popular to be a Christian, the church began to be filled with those who had
an insincere faith.

Before Constantine After Constantine

There was a purity within the There was a lessening of the purity of
church. the church
There were long periods of There was a lessening of any required
catechism training prior to training to become a Christian.
receiving baptism.
Christians were known for their There was a loosening of the standards.
very strict lifestyle.
A martyr mentality was to be A monastic mentality began to emerge
found among the pious. among the pious.

It was not long before Christians were sitting in judgment of other religions
and persecuting them. And yet, we must not make the mistake of thinking that
Christianity had become the official religion of the Roman Empire. That would not
take place until 381 under the reign of Emperor Theodosius.

ARIUS: 250-336
Arius was born in Libya. He was a student of Lucian of Antioch who
followed the teachings of Paul of Somosata. This involved a belief in
Monarchianism, the teaching that God is one in terms of His person and being.
There were two prominent views that had already been labeled as heresy by the
church.

Adoptionists Docetism
Taught that Christ was adopted by God Taught that God only appeared to
(this was the Ebion heresy). reveal Himself in the form of Christ
(Sabellian heresy).

Arius followed the Adoptionist teachings. He taught that Christ was a

created being who had been fashioned by the Father before the world began.

God was not always a Father, but there was a time when

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God was not a Father. The Word of God was not always, but
originated from things that were not; for God that is, has made him
that was not, of that which was not; wherefore there was a time
when He was not; for the Son is a creature and a work. Neither is
He like in essence to the Father; neither is He the true and natural
Word of the Father; neither is He His true Wisdom; but He is one
of the things made and created, and is called the Word and
Wisdom by an abuse of terms, since He Himself originated by the
proper Word of God, and by the Wisdom that is in God, by which
God has made not only all other things but Him also (Deposition
of Arius, Alexander of Alexandria, Section 2).

Arius taught that, because God is self-existent, the Son, who is not self-
existent, cannot be God, The Son must therefore be deemed a creature who has been
created by God.
Arius became a deacon in the church at Alexandria. He was
excommunicated in 307 for criticizing the church in its actions against heretics. He
managed to get himself reinstated and was ordained as a priest in 311. He was
placed in charge of the church of Baucalis, under the authority of Alexander, the
Bishop of Alexandria.
Arius accused Alexander of preaching Sabellianism because he had said
that “God is always and the Son is always.” Alexander called a synod in Alexandria
and had Arius deposed from office.
Arius traveled to Nicomedia where he found in Eusebius, the bishop of that
city. Letters flew back and forth as the controversy continued to grow. Finally, the
Emperor Constantine stepped in, urging Alexander and Arius to resolve their
differences. When this did not succeed, Constantine ordered that the entire church
should be called together for a council and the Empire would pay the expenses.

THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA: 325

The council met at Nicaea, forty-five miles to the east of Constantinople.
It has been called the First Ecumenical Council, but the title is misleading, since out
of 300 bishops in attendance, only five were from the west. In addition to the
bishops, there were hundreds of lesser clergy and laymen. They were polarized into
three groups:

Arius and His Party This included Eusebius of Nicomedia and those
who held to the teachings of Arius.

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 Constantine, Arius, and Athanasius

Alexander, Bishop of This party included a former student of

Alexandria Alexander’s named Athanasius who was a
deacon in the church at Alexandria.
The Undecided The majority of people attending the council
Majority were undecided in the key issues. Among this
groups was Eusebius of Caesarea who was
inclined to favor the Arians because he felt that
Alexander’s position was too close to
Sabellianism.

Athanasius attended the council as a non-voting member, but he played a

significant role in the proceedings. He has already written two books entitled The
Incarnation and Against the Heathen. In rebuttal to the teaching of Arius that
Christ is different from the Father, Athanasius pointed out that the names, titles,
attributes, and work that is ascribed in the Bible to the Father is also ascribed to the
Son. There were a number of issues that came before the council for discussion:

1. The Deity of Christ. A later story comes down to us about

the bishop of Bari known to us as
As we have already noted, the Saint Nicholas who was in attendance
at the Council of Nicaea. According
first and foremost issue was over the to this legend, Nicholas was angered
question of the deity of Christ. Arius at the arguments being proposed by
one of the supporters of Arius and
contended that Christ was the Son of slapped him. One version of the story
God, but still a created being. He has Nicholas slapping Arius himself.
said that if Christ were considered to
be God, then there would be more
than one God and that would be polytheism. Alexander and Athanasius, on
the other hand, maintained that Christ was one in substance with the Father.

2. The Date of Easter.

There had been a difference of opinion regarding which date should

be used for the observance of Easter. Some wanted to celebrate it on a
Sunday while others wanted to celebrate it on the 14th of Nissan, no matter
what day of the week in which it happened to fall. It was ultimately
determined to celebrate it on the Sunday after the first full moon following
the vernal equinox.

3. The Lapsed Bishops.

During the persecutions in the days of Diocletian, a number of

bishops had surrendered copies of the Bible to be burned. These bishops
were now under the threat of being removed from their churches.

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 Constantine, Arius, and Athanasius

Likewise, it was argued that people who had been baptized by these lapsed
bishops were in need of being rebaptized.

4. The Celibacy of the Clergy.

It was already commonplace for leaders within the church to

remain celibate. Some of the church fathers wanted to pass a law that
would mandate this for all clergy. This was defeated and the council did
not require celibacy at this time.

Eusebius of Caesarea, in an effort to find some middle ground between the

parties of Arius and Athanasius, brought a confession that indicated Christ was of
one substance with the Father. His draft was taken and re-edited by the council
until it reached a final form. The following creed was henceforth adopted:

We believe in one God the Father All-sovereign, maker of

all things. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten
of the Father, only-begotten, that is, of the substance of the Father,
God of God, Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten not
made, of one substance with the Father, through whom all things
were made, things in heaven and things on the earth; who for us
men and for our salvation came down and was made flesh, and
became man, suffered, and rose on the third day, ascended into the
heavens, and is coming to judge living and dead. And in the Holy
Spirit. And those that say “There was when he was not,” and,
“Before he was begotten he was not,” and that, “He came into
being from what-is-not,” or those that allege, that the son of God
is “Of another substance or essence” or “created,” or
“changeable” or “alterable,” these the Catholic and Apostolic
Church anathematizes.

The teachings of Arius were thus proclaimed to be heretical. This original

Nicene Creed would later be embellished into the form that we know today.

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 THE TRINITARIAN COUNCILS
OF THE CHURCH
324 - 451
“Who do people say that the Son of Man is?” (Matthew 16:13b).

“What do you think about the Christ, whose son is He?” (Matthew
22:42).

These questions are central to Christianity for the simple reason that the
person of Jesus Christ is central to Christianity. Is Jesus only the Son of David or
is He also the Son of God? If we agree with the writers of the New Testament that
Jesus is the Son of God, what do we mean by that? A careful reading of the New
Testament will demonstrate that Jesus is claimed to be both God and man. But the
Scriptures do not set forth an exact creedal statement of how this is to be
understood. The church did not begin to wrestle with this problem until it was
confronted with the false teachings of Gnosticism and similar doctrines which
stated that Jesus was either not fully God or that He was not fully man. It was only
then that the church was forced to begin to carefully define its beliefs concerning
the person of Jesus.
The initial defining process which took place was done as a reaction to false
teaching. For this reason, there was perhaps a tendency to overreact . An example
of such an overreaction is considered in Tertullian of Carthage.

1. Tertullian of Carthage (160-220).

We have mentioned Tertullian earlier, but must now point out that

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 The Trinitarian Councils of the Church

he seems to have been responsible for coining the term trinitas (“trinity”)
as referring to the three persons of the Godhead. In responding to modalists
who taught that God only manifests Himself in three ways, He noted that,
while there is a Father, a Son, and a Holy Spirit, that these three are one
God. He wrote a scathing rebuke against Marcion and his teachings that
Jesus only seemed to have a body:

Having taken bread and having distributed it to

His disciples, He made it His own body by saying, “This
is my body” – that is, the “figure of my body.” A figure,
however, there could not have been, unless there was in
truth a body. (Against Marcion).

It will be remembered that Marcion taught that Christ only seemed to have
a body. Tertullian answers this with a bit of heavy sarcasm:

…if He pretended that bread were His body, because in

truth He lacked a body, then He must have given bread for
us. It would support the vanity of Marcion had bread been
crucified! But why call His body bread, and not rather a
pumpkin, which Marcion had in place of a brain (Against
Marcion).

There are times when we read Tertullian and he is admittedly not

as advanced in Trinitarian theology as we might wish. However, we should
remember that this theology was still being developed by the church and
that is was therefore “under construction.”

Thus, the Father makes Him (the Son) equal to

Himself; and the Son, by proceeding from Him, was made
the first-begotten, since He was begotten before all things;
and the only-begotten, because He alone was begotten of
God, in a manner peculiar to Himself (Against Praxeas 7).

Tertullian was not considered to be a heretic in his day since these

statements of belief were made in the context of what was considered to be
an even greater heresy, that of modalism which taught that there is no
Trinity and that the Son and the Spirit are only different ways that the one
God reveals Himself. It would be left to Origen to modify and correct
Tertullian’s views.

2. Origen of Alexandria (185-254).

Origen modified Tertullian’s view of the Trinity by saying that,

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 The Trinitarian Councils of the Church

although the Son is begotten from the Father, it is to be understood as an

eternal begetting. Thus, he viewed the main difference between the Father
and the Son to be in that the Son is not self-existent in Himself, but rather
springing from the Father, yet without an actual beginning.

THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA (325)

The first ecumenical council of the church at Nicaea set forth the question
of the deity of Christ. Arius contended that Christ was a created being. He said
that, if Christ were considered to be God, then there would be more than one God
and this would be polytheism. In defense of his position, Arius was able to cite
Tertullian as authenticating his teaching. It should be noted that Tertullian did
teach that Christ became God while Arius never admitted to the divinity of Jesus
prior to the incarnation. Arius was opposed by Alexander and Athanasius who
maintained that Christ was one in substance with the Father.

The creed which was adopted by the council described Christ as “God of
very God” (Theos ek Theou) and as consubstantial. The Greek term used here was
homoousios, taken from two Greek words meaning “same” and “nature or
substance.” It was not made entirely clear what this meant and it would be left to
future councils to further define what this involved. However, the creed rejected
the teachings of Arius that claimed Jesus to be a created being. Arius was declared

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 The Trinitarian Councils of the Church

to be a heretic.
The council had been called by the Emperor Constantine to settle the issue.
The Emperor himself switched his own views back and forth several times, but in
the end, he accepted the decision of the council. Following his death, the Empire
was divided up between his three sons.

• Constantius ruled the eastern empire.

• Constants ruled Italy and North Africa.
• Constantine II ruled the western empire.

This situation did not continue for long as the two brothers in the west soon
had a falling out and went to war with one another. Constantine II was killed in
battle in 340, leaving Constants with the entire western empire. Ten years later, he
was assassinated leaving Constantius as the sole emperor. However, he was
sympathetic to the Arian position and he moved against Athanasius, forcing him
into exile.
In order to find a solution that was acceptable to “For that the power to
all parties, a new term was offered to describe the deity of distinguish between
Christ. It was suggested that, rather than being good and less good is
the property of wisdom
homoousios, Christ should be understood as homoiousios, is evident surely even to
like or similar (homoi) in nature (oiusios). This suggested the witless; so that the
serpent was a benefactor
compromise was meant to says that Jesus was merely like rather than a destroyer
the Father in His nature. of the human race.” -
To complicate matters, Constantius died and his Julian the Apostate,
Against the Galileans
cousin Julian was installed as emperor. Though he had
been raised in the church, he had secretly rejected the
tenants of Christianity, though this did not become public knowledge until after he
had been installed as the emperor. He is therefore known in history as Julian the
Apostate.
The privileges that the church had enjoyed under Constantine and his sons
were revoked. Julian
announced his intention
to restore paganism as
the religion of Rome.
Christians were
excluded from teaching
in public education and
Julian published as
work entitled Against
the Galileans that
argued against such
Biblical stories as the
Garden of Eden or the
Death of Julian the Apostate T o we r o f Ba b e l ,

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 The Trinitarian Councils of the Church

claiming that logic showed that different gods had been responsible for developing
different ethnic groups.
Julian’s reign lasted only three years. He was killed in battle against the
Parthians. An apocryphal story has it that, as he lay dying on the field of battle, he
raised his fist to heaven and called out, “You have won, O Galilean!” After this,
every emperor of the Roman Empire would claim to be a Christian.

THE TWO SCHOOLS

In the years that followed, two primary schools of thought developed, both
with reference to the decisions of the Council of Nicaea as well as over how
Christians should interpret and even preach from the Scriptures.

1. The School of Alexandria.

Those at Alexandria tended to stress the divine element in Christ, even if

it mean to the exclusion of the human. In their handling of the Scriptures,
there was a movement not to be content with the plain or surface reading,
but to look beneath that surface to see the types, shadows, and allegories
that might be present. Origen best exemplifies this in his treatment of the
parable of the Good Samaritan.

The Parable What it Represents

The man who was going down Adam
Jerusalem Paradise
Jericho The world
The robbers Hostile powers
The priest The law
The Levite The prophets
The Samaritan Christ
The wounds Disobedience
The beast The Lord’s body
The inn The church
The manager of the inn The head of the church

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The Samaritan’s promise to The Lord’s Second Coming

return

Another of the representatives of this school had been a friend of

Athanasius prior to his death. His name was Apollinaris, Bishop of
Laodicea in Syria (this is different from the Laodicea mentioned in the
Book of Revelation).

2. The School of Antioch.

Those at Antioch emphasized the human element of Christ to the extent that
some even seemed to suggest that within Jesus there were two separate
beings. The approach of those within this school tended to avoid
allegorization of Scripture in favor of what they saw as its plain sense.
Theodore of Mopsuestia exemplified the thinking of this school of thought.

When therefore, they ask, “Is Mary Mother of Men or

Mother of God?” we answer, “Both!” The one by the very
nature of what was done, and the other by relation.
Mother of Man, because it was a Man who was in the
womb of Mary and who came forth from there; and
Mother of God, because God was in the Man who was
born, not in Him in a circumscribable way according to
nature, but existing in Him by the intention of will.”
(Theodore of Mopsuestia, The Incarnation).

One of his followers who would take the teachings of Theodore of

Mopsuestia to a new conclusion was Nestorius.

Each of these two schools had good teachers and leaders, but each would also
ultimately produce heretics whose teachings would be judged contrary to
orthodoxy.

THE CAPPADOCIAN FATHERS

The region of Cappadocia lies to the north of Syria and on the western side
of Anatolia. If twas from this area that three Christian leaders would take up arms
in the Trinitarian conflict.

1. Basil of Caesarea (330-379).

Basil and his brother, Gregory, were born into a wealthy Christian

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family. They both entered ministry and Basil was ordained first as a
deacon and then as a presbyter and, when Eusebius of Caesarea died, Basil
succeeded him as the Bishop of Caesarea (this is not the same Caesarea that
is in Israel, but instead is located in Cappadocia). Eusebius had been of the
opinion that Arianism was not a heresy and he had many followers in the
church that Basil now inherited. The church was filled with Arians and it
became Basil’s job to combat them. He had a flair for organization and he
worked to solidify his support by establishing men of like mind in key
positions throughout the church.

2. Gregory, Bishop of Nazianzus (335-394).

Gregory was the son of the bishop of Nazianzus, a small city in

Cappadocia. Obtaining a education in Caesara and Athens, he was a fellow
student with Basil as well as with the young Julian who was destined to
become the Roman emperor known as Julian the Apostate. Basil and
Gregory entered a monastery together for a time and they collaborated on
organizing an anthology of the works of Origen.
Returning to his hometown of Nazianzus, Gregory was ordained as
a presbyter in his father’s church. He soon became known as an excellent
preacher. When his father died, he continued to serve the church there, but
after the early death of Basil, Gregory was called to reorganize the church
of Constantinople where he was eventually installed as bishop. It would be
here that he would initially lead the Council of Constantinople.

3. Gregory, Bishop of Nyssa (335-395).

This Gregory was the younger brother of Basil and while Basil was
the consummate administrator and Gregory of Nazianzus was the
compelling orator, this Gregory was the theologian of the group. Quiet and
studious, Gregory was content to let his older brother take the lead, but that
was to change with the early death of his brother.

FIRST COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE

The Council of Nicaea had drawn up the battle lines between the Arians and
the Trinitarians, but it had not made the problem go away. Just as Constantine had
called the Council of Nicaea to bring some order and stability to the conflicting
views among the Christians of his day, a new emperor named Theodosius now
sought to do the same.
While the teachings of Arius were still an ongoing issue, this new council
took on a different focus, brought about through a close friend of Athanasius and
a defender of the Nicene Creed. This was Apollinaris, the bishop of Laodicea.

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While holding that Jesus is God, Apollinaris believed that all men consist of body,
soul and spirit. In defining the person of Christ, Apollinaris stated that the divine
Logos took the part of the human spirit within the person of Jesus. Thus, in order
to claim that Jesus was fully God, he abandoned the idea that Jesus was also fully
man. This brought Apollinaris into the camp of the Docetists, that group that taught
Jesus only appeared to be a man. The council was convened in Constantinople in
381. It was to accomplish several goals.

• It confirmed the Nicene Creed. Though Arianism had been condemned at

Nicaea, many of hits adherents had survived during the following years as
events favored first one group and then the other.

• Gregory of Nazianzus was confirmed as the bishop of Constantinople. He

had been placed into that position a year earlier by the emperor. When this
appointment became a politically divisive issue at the council, he stepped
down from the office, saying that he would be like the prophet Jonah who
was thrown overboard in order to quell the storm. Gregory’s actions did
indeed succeed in helping to bring unity to the council

The council ratified a creed which is known to us today as the

Constantinople Creed. While following the same general outline of the Nicene
Creed, this new creed made one significant addition in relation to the Holy Spirit.
Whereas the Nicene Creed merely mentions a belief in the Holy Spirit, the
Constantinople Creed professes a belief...

...in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of life, who is proceeding
from the Father, who together with the Father and the Son is
adored and glorified, who spoke through the prophets.

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 The Trinitarian Councils of the Church

Thus, the creed set a standard of belief in a specific definition of the Holy Spirit.
At the same time, the humanity of Jesus was reaffirmed.

Place Date Parties Issues

Nicaea 325 Arius vs. Athanasius Deity of Christ
Constantinople 381 Apollinaris vs. the Three Humanity of Christ
Cappadocians

Because of the similarity of these two creeds, the second is often referred to as the
Nicene-Constantinople Creed, since it is in reality an expansion of the Nicene
Creed.

THE COUNCIL OF EPHESUS

The issues which led to the Council of Ephesus revolved around the person
of Nestorius who had become Bishop of Constantinople. While admitting to both
the humanity and the deity of Christ, Nestorius felt that it was inappropriate to refer
to Mary as the Theotokos (“God-bearer”). Instead, he suggested that she be called
only the Christotokos, the “Christ-bearer.” At first glance, it would appear that
Nestorius is merely arguing against the naming of Mary as the “mother of God.”
But that is not really the issue. Nestorius really seemed to hold that the second
member of the God-head was really two persons, one the divine Logos, and the
other the human Christ.
Nestorius was
opposed by Cyril, the
bishop of Alexandria.
Cyril argued that, if you
only refer to Mary as the
Ch r i s t-b e a r e r w h i l e
excluding any reference to
her as the God-bearer,
then you are saying that
the One whom she bore
was not really God, but
that He was only a part of
God. Thus, Cyril saw
himself as contending for
the unity of the person of
Jesus.
The council of
The author with a group at the Church of St Mary in Ephesus
Ephesus met in 431at the

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 The Trinitarian Councils of the Church

Church of St. Mary. Both Nestorius and Cyril were in the city, but eastern bishops
were late in arriving. After waiting for two weeks, Cyril began the council without
them, in spite of the protests of Nestorius, his supporting bishops, and the imperial
representative. The council deposed Nestorius as a “new Judas,” condemning his
teachings.
Four days later, the bishops from Antioch arrived and convened their own
assembly under John of Antioch. With only 43 bishops in attendance, they
excommunicated Cyril. After a month of these two councils condemning each
other, the Emperor Theodosius II ordered that all bishops go home. He deposed
both Cyril and Nestorius, ordering their arrest. Cyril escaped and made his way
back to Alexandria while Nestorius confined himself to a monastery where he lived
out the remainder of his life.
Ten years later, in 433, John of Antioch and Cyril worked out a Formulary
of Reunion which came to a compromise between the two positions while affirming
that in Christ “there had been a union of two natures” and confessing Mary to be
“Theotokos.”

THE “ROBBER COUNCIL”

The Formulary of Reunion was denounced by Eutyches, the head of the
monastery in Constantinople. He stated that Christ was originally made up of two
natures, but that these natures came together in the incarnation to become one
combined nature. This view would come to be known as Monophycitism. His view
is best understood in contrast to that of Nestorius.

Nestorius: Jesus is Eutyches: Jesus is one

made up of two person with one
separate persons combined nature

Eutyches was excommunicated at a synod at Constantinople in 448 by

Flavian, the bishop of Constantinople. Eutyches appealed the decision to the
Emperor and to Leo I, the bishop of Rome. Eutyches was supported by Dioscurus,
the patriarch of Alexandria. A request was made for a council to meet to decide the
case and this council was held at Ephesus in 449.
Deoscurus headed the council and, although Leo I had written a thome
denouncing the position of Eutyches, this was not permitted to be read at the
council. The council restored Eutyches and deposed Flavius and excommunicated
Leo I. When the Emperor Theodosius II died the following year, the actions of the
council were overturned. This council was eventually dubbed the “Robber
Council” but the churches in both the east and the west, though it continues to be
endorsed by the Coptic Church in Egypt which refers to it as the Second Council
of Ephesus.

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 The Trinitarian Councils of the Church

THE COUNCIL OF CHALCEDON

Leo I wasted no time in requesting the newly crowned Emperor Marcian for
a new council. It was held at Chalcedon in 451, just across the Bosporus Straits
from Constantinople. It was the largest assembly of bishops up to that time with
around 600 bishops in attendance. The following actions were taken:

• The Nicene and Constantinople Creeds were reaffirmed.

• The adoption of Cyril’s synodical letters, refuting the teachings of

Nestorius as heretical.

• The adoption of Leo’s Thome which served as a refutation against the

teachings of Eutyches.

A new creed was set forth, giving better definition to an understanding of the person
of Christ. The Alexandrian School tended to be Monophysite in holding to the
unity of Christ to the exclusion of His two natures. The Antioch School tended to
make too much of a distinction between the divine nature of Christ and His human
nature.
In answer to this position, the Creed of Chalcedon described the one person
of the Son who took into union with His divine nature a human nature. The creed
said described Jesus as “one and the same Son, one and the same Christ, Son, Lord,
Only-begotten God, Word, the Lord Jesus Christ, who is one person and one
substance, not parted or divided into two persons, whose natures are without
division in the church.” Thus, the creed drew a line of demarcation between a
“person” as a self-conscious entity and a “nature” as a series of attributes. This
description of Christ as “one person with two natures” is still used today to refer to
Christ.

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Place Date Parties Issues

Nicaea 325 Arius vs. Athanasius Deity of Christ
Constantinople 381 Apollinaris vs. the Three Humanity of Christ
Cappadocians and Holy Spirit
defined
Ephesus 431 Nestorius & John of Unity of Christ’s
Damascus vs. Cyril of person
Alexandria
Chalcedon 451 Eutyches vs. Leo\s Thome Christ’s two natures
are unmixed and
inseparable

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 AUGUSTINE
354 - 430
For You have made us for Yourself and restless is our
heart until it comes to rest in You. (Augustine, Confessions 1:1).

The greatest of the church fathers was Augustine. He has been recognized
as the greatest thinker and theologian of Christian antiquity. Both Luther and
Calvin would express their indebtedness to him.

EARLY LIFE
Augustine was born in the city
of Tagaste in North Africa. His father,
Patricius, was an unbeliever and
remained so for most of his life. His
mother, Monica, was a strong Christian
who prayed for the salvation of her son.
Augustine had an
unquestionable desire of knowledge. As
a boy, he learned to pray, but his prayers
were more so that men would be
impressed with his eloquence than for
the benefit of God. He tells the story in
his Confessions how he and some other
boys stole some fruit from a
neighborhood garden, not because he
was hungry, but because it was
forbidden. St. Augustine, by Botticelli

He attended school in Carthage

where he showed considerable promise in the field of rhetoric, the ability to give
convincing speeches. He frequented the theater and fell in love with the idea of
love. He took to himself a mistress with whom he would live for the next fourteen
years. She bore him a son named Adeodatus; it is a Latin name meaning, “Gift of
God.”
While reading Cicero, he was challenged by the idea of truth. He had
determined to reject the Christian religion because he thought it to be too
unphilosophical for an educated man to hold. Instead, he became a Manachaen,

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 Augustine

following the teachings of the Persian philosopher Manee with his dualistic view
of the universe.

CONVERSION IN MILAN
Leaving North Africa, Augustine traveled to Rome and taught rhetoric there
for a short time before moving to Milan to take up a teaching post in that city.
People would travel from afar to hear him lecture and debate on various issues.
Augustine met Ambrose, the bishop of the church at Milan. While
Augustine was an excellent speaker, he did not have the experience or polish of the
older Ambrose and Augustine was entranced as he began to attend the church to
listen to the sermons of the older man. By listening to these sermons, Augustine
learned of the reliability of the Old Testament.
Augustine’s mother joined him in Milan and she noted the gradual change
that was coming over her son. But there were still two stumbling blocks in his life.
First, he lacked the ability to think of God as spiritual. His reading of the neo-
platonic writers helped him to overcome this hurdle. Yet these same writers
maintained a whole pantheon of spirit beings. Secondly, Augustine lacked the
ability to overcome the lusts of the flesh.
At about this time, Victorinus, a scholar who had translated Plato’s writings
into Latin, became a Christian and confessed his sins. Victorinus was one of the
great intellectuals of his day and this created a great stir in Milan. When Augustine
heard of this, he began to seek a similar experience. One day, as he sitting in an
enclosed garden, weeping over his lost condition, he heard a child’s voice calling
from over a nearby wall, chanting the words to a game:

“Tolle lege! Tolle lege!” (Take up and read! Take up and read!)

Augustine happened to have a codex containing Paul’s epistle to the

Romans nearby. In answer to the child’s call, he went over and picked up the book
and let the pages fall open, letting his eyes fall on a random page. He found himself
reading the following words:

Let us behave properly as in the day, not in carousing and

drunkenness, not in sexual promiscuity and sensuality, not in strife
and jealousy. 14 But put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no
provision for the flesh in regard to its lusts. (Romans 13:13-14).

Augustine was converted that day. Along with his son, he was baptized by
Ambrose on Easter Sunday of that following year (387). Soon after his baptism, his
mother died, content that she had seen the salvation of her son.

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BISHOP OF HIPPO
Following the death of his mother, Augustine returned to North Africa. For
a time, he lived in Tagaste where he spent three years living in a communal
monastery. While visiting Hippo in 391, he was pressured into accepting the office
of a priest serving under the bishop of the city. When that old priest died in 395,
Augustine assumed the office of bishop of Hippo.
There were several churches in and around Hippo over which Augustine
presided. He preached regularly in these churches. Another part of his duties
involved the judging of legal cases that were brought before him, a practice based
upon 1 Corinthians 6. He also had a ministry of teaching children, twelve of whom
went on to become bishops. However, his most enduring ministry was that of
writing.

HIS WRITINGS
Of all the church fathers, none have written so well or so much as
Augustine. It is often the case that we are uncertain how extensively a certain
author from the past has written, but in Augustine’s case, he has left to us a list of
all of his writings, cataloging 270 letters, over 1000 sermons, and a number of
books.

1. The Confessions.

Augustine writes his confessions as a spiritual journal addressed to

the Lord. This is seen in his opening words: “Accept this sacrifice of my
confessions from the hand of my tongue. You didst form it and have
prompted it to praise your name” (Confessions 1:1). It serves as a journal
of his path to salvation, though his actual conversion does not take place
until chapter 8. It is not really an autobiography as much as it is a series of
meditations and remembrances of the grace of God.
The book follows the life of Augustine from his birth to his
conversion in Milan and the death of his mother. It has relatively few
historical notes. Instead, it contains the personal feeling and thought of the
greatness and graciousness of God in his life.

2. The City of God.

This was Augustine’s philosophy of history. It is a 22 volume

work occasions by the public consternation over the sack of Rome by
Aleric in the year 410. As people saw Rome fall to an outside invader, they
began to wonder if Christianity itself was no also falling. After all, this city

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 Augustine

had become the home of the Christian church. Others began to question
whether it was Christianity itself that had weakened Rome and brought
about its fall.
Marcelinus, a friend of Augustine’s, wrote to him and asked him
to make a defense against those who claimed that the fall of Rome was the
fault of the Christians. He began to write this work in 413 and would
complete it in 426.
Only the first ten books deal with the question of the fall of Rome.
The rest of the volumes present a universal history of mankind and how
Christians can live in this world and be both faithful to God while at the
same time being citizens of Rome. Thus, the book has two different
audiences:

Books 1-10 Written to critics of Christianity, using their own

words and ideas to defend Christianity
Books 11-22 Written for Christians as to how they can serve the
Lord and yet still be a citizen of Rome

The title of the book is drawn from a sermon he had preached many
years earlier. He points out that there are really two cities in which the
Christian finds himself living.

And thus it has come to pass, that though there are very
many and great nations all over the earth, whose rites and
customs, speech, arms, and dress, are distinguished by
marked differences, yet there are no more than two kinds
of human society, which we may justly call two cities,
according to the language of our Scriptures. The one
consists of those who wish to live after the flesh, the other
of those who wish to live after the spirit; and when they
severally achieve what they wish, they live in peace, each
after their kind. (City of God 14:1).

Accordingly, two cities have been formed by two

loves: the earthly by the love of self, even to the contempt
of God; the heavenly by the love of God, even to the
contempt of self. The former, in a word, glories in itself,
the latter in the Lord. For the one seeks glory from men;
but the greatest glory of the other is God, the witness of
conscience. The one lifts up its head in its own glory; the
other says to its God, “Thou art my glory, and the lifter up
of mine head.” In the one, the princes and the nations it
subdues are ruled by the love of ruling; in the other, the

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princes and the subjects serve one another in love, the

latter obeying, while the former take thought for all. The
one delights in its own strength, represented in the persons
of its rulers; the other says to its God, “I will love Thee, O
Lord, my strength.” (City of God 14:28).

Augustine has often been described as a neo-Platonist, but there are

some very obvious distinctions between his views and that of neo-Platonic
thought.

Neo-Platonism Augustine
Seeks to understand God through “I believe in order that I may
rationalization know”
God’s being emanates outward to God created the universe by an
make up the created universe act of His will
God cannot enter time and space God works in time and space,
particularly in the person of
Christ
God is hidden God has revealed Himself to men

The Greeks taught that history is circular and that there are cycles
to history. “History repeats itself,” was a Greek maxim. But Augustine
taught that history is linear and teleological; that there is a design to history
and that history is going somewhere, even if we cannot see the design or
know the precise direction in which we are traveling. He taught that there
are certain divisions within past history that conformed to the image of the
life of a man.

Infancy The period from Adam to Noah

Childhood From Noah to Abraham
Adolescence From Abraham to King David
Manhood From King David to the Babylonian Captivity
Old Age From the Babylonian Captivity to the birth of Christ
The Church From the birth of Jesus to the fulness of times
Militant

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The Age of The last day when Christ shall fully be our
Rest Redeemer

Note that Augustine did not hold to a literal future millennium. His view
of Revelation 20 was that the thousand years referenced where was the age
in which he lived. He was not the originator of this view; it had been very
early in the history of the church. But it would now be the generally
accepted view for the next thousand years.

3. Retractationes (Corrections).

Written toward the end of his life, Augustine wrote a critical

commentary of his own writings. Its Latin title have caused some to think
that he was retracting or correcting some of her earlier teachings, but this
is not the case. Instead, the majority of this work is spent of expanding and
more carefully explaining his former teachings.

THE PELAGIAN CONTROVERSY

One of the most important controversies to enter the church came during
the life of Augustine. It came from a British monk named Pelagius. He had come
to Rome in the 4th century and was shocked by the scandalous living of people who
claimed to be Christians. He blamed this loose living on the teachings of Augustine
regarding total depravity and God’s grace. He felt that these teachings undercut the
need for individual responsibility.
When the Goths were moving against Rome in 409, Pelagius and one of his
converts, Celestius, left Italy and moved through Sicily to arrive at North Africa.
This would bring him into the orbit of Augustine. It was not long before they had
clashed over certain key issues:.

Augustine Pelagius
Man is born in sin and spiritually Man is essentially good
dead
Man’s will was affected by the fall so Man’s will is neutral; he has the free
that, apart from the Spirit, he does will either to follow God or reject
not choose God God
Salvation is a gift of God to Salvation comes as men imitate
undeserving men Christ

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 Augustine

They began by writing each other privately, but then Pelagius wrote a book
titled The Freedom of the Will in which he taught that man’s moral responsibility
is equal to man’s ability. Thus, if God requires men to be righteous, then they will
be righteous if they try hard enough. He denied the existence of original sin,
teaching that man sins only out of his individual desire to do so.
Augustine responded with a number of written refutations against Pelagius.
However, Augustine’s personal attitude toward Pelagius himself was always
gracious. Indeed, he seems to have admired the man, describing his reputation as
that of a holy and praiseworthy man and “a Christian of considerable religious
development,” while detesting his teachings.
In his book, On the Spirit and the Letter, Augustine taught that man’s will
is unable to obey God’s commands. Man needs the Spirit to empower him. God’s
grace must be given to those who will be saved.

A man's free-will, indeed, avails for nothing except to sin, if he

knows not the way of truth; and even after his duty and his proper
aim shall begin to become known to him, unless he also take
delight in and feel a love for it, he neither does his duty, nor sets
about it, nor lives rightly. Now, in order that such a course may
engage our affections, God's “love is shed abroad in our hearts,”
not through the free-will which arises from ourselves, but "through
the Holy Ghost, which is given to us (On the Spirit and the Letter,
Chapter 5).

Augustine taught the doctrine of “prevenient grace” (from two Latin words;
pre, before and venio, to come). This means the grace that will change your life
must come when you are still dead in your sins. It is the work of God that makes
you alive and able to respond to the gospel.
Pelagius only remained in Carthage for a year before leaving for Palestine.
He arrived in Jerusalem in 412 and soon clashed with Jerome, a monk who lived in
Bethlehem who was working on a translation of the Bible into Latin. Pelagius was
brought up on charges of heresy, but was acquitted at two different synods. After
the second acquittal, some of the more zealous followers of Pelagius entered and
vandalized Jerome’s monastery. Pelagius was excommunicated by Pope Innocent
I in 417. The pope died that same year and his successor, Pope Zosimus, was
initially more partial to the cause of Pelagius. However, when he read Pelagius’
commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, he confirmed the excommunication and
added Celllestius to the ranks of the heretics.
Pelagius was deeply stung by his excommunication and he recanted his
position, stating that grace is necessary for salvation, not only for every hour and
moment, but for each individual action of our lives. His confession was not
accepted and he was banished from Jerusalem. He left and was not heard from
again.
Although Pelagius departed from the scene, the controversy that he had

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generated was far from over. Pelagianism was condemned at the Council of
Carthage in 418 and again at the Council of Ephesus in 431. Several compromise
positions arose which adopted parts of each position. Robert Walton gives this
excellent summary (1986:17):

The Pelagian Controversy

Position Major Proponents Summary

Pelagianism Pelagius, Man is born essentially good and capable

Coelestius, Julian of of doing what is necessary for salvation
Eclanum

Augustinianism Augustine of Hippo Man is dead in sin; salvation is totally by

the grace of God, which is given only to
the elect

Semi-Pelagianism John Cassian The grace of God and the will of man
work together in salvation, in which man
must take the initiative

Semi- Caesarius of Aries The grace of God comes to all, enabling a

Augustinianism person to choose and perform what is
necessary for salvation

The real question comes down to this: Does man save himself with the help of God,
or does God save man apart from anything that man can do? He Scriptures give a
clear answer to this question,

But when the kindness of God our Savior and His love for
mankind appeared, 5 He saved us, not on the basis of deeds which
we have done in righteousness, but according to His mercy, by the
washing of regeneration and renewing by the Holy Spirit (Titus
3:4-5).

But as many as received Him, to them He gave the right to

become children of God, even to those who believe in His name, 13
who were born, not of blood nor of the will of the flesh nor of the
will of man, but of God. (John 1:12-13).

I have often noted that, when Christians pray for the salvation of their loved
ones, I never hear them pray, “Lord, I ask that my loved one will exercise his free
will to decide whether or not he wants to believe you.” Each and every Christian
I have ever heard pray for a loved one has asked that the Lord would give them ears
to heart, eyes to see, and a heart to believe. I suspect the reason that our prayers are
often so much better than our theology has something to do with the work of the
Holy Spirit. Augustine showed the work of the Spirit in his prayer when he

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approached the Lord in the midst of his journaling:

Give what you commandest and command what you will

(Confessions, chapter 29).

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 THE FALL OF ROME AND THE
RISE OF THE CHURCH
Who could have believe it that Rome, founded on triumph
over the whole world, could fall to ruin; and that she, the mother
of nations, should also be their grave? (Jerome, Commentary on
Ezekiel).

The Roman Empire spanned a history of a thousand years. From humble

beginnings as a small village on the banks of the Tiber River, Rome grew to become
the mistress of the world. There is an old French proverb that says, “Rome was not
built in a day,” but it is also true that the Roman empire was not destroyed in a day.
Edward Gibbon, the British historian, published his epic masterpiece, The Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire in 1776. What made it such an epic is that it covers
more than a thousand years of history.
The initial problem in speaking of the fall of Rome is to ask when this took
place. Several different dates can be noted. We have already spoken of the Sack
of Rome at the hands of the Gauls in 410. This was certainly a devastating event
and it led to the collapse and abandonment of many of the Roman territories. But
the Roman empire continued after this. It has become traditional to speak of the fall
of Rome as the deposing of the Emperor Romulus Augustus in 476, but he was only
the emperor of the western part of the empire and the eastern empire would
continue for nearly a thousand years until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Today
we refer to that eastern empire as the Byzantine Empire, but they did not call
themselves by that name. They continued to consider themselves as the continuing
Roman Empire, even though they no longer spoke Latin or had their capital in
Rome.
Gibbon lists several factors that were involved in bringing about the decline
and fall of the Roman Empire in the west. Admittedly, the empire had suffered its
share of disasters. The city of Rome itself was vulnerable to fire and flood and
these had left their marks on the city.
Rome had also seen its share of migrations in the past, but now these
increased in population levels and in intensity. As seen with the Gothic sack of
Rome in 410, these migrations were often violet and costly and they resulted in the
neglect of the outer areas of the empire. When the military governors and their
troops in the colony of Britannia were recalled back to Rome, the province found
itself cut off and abandoned. It was not long before new migrants were introduced
with new languages and new cultures. This same scenario was repeated again and
again.
If these outward attacks threatened the empire, they were at least assisted

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by Christianity, the relatively new state religion. Christianity taught men to love
their neighbors. This was at odds with killing them on the battlefield. The story is
told of how Clovis, king of the Franks, converted to Christianity and announced to
his people that they would all have to be baptized as part of their conversion. In
order to facilitate this, his soldiers were ordered to ride their horses across a river
and this would serve as their “baptism.” They complied, but each held his sword
arm out of the water so that it would not be
prevented from doing its soldierly duty of
Gibbon felt that Christianity was one
killing the enemies of state. of the factors which brought about the
Christianity also taught men to decline and fall of the Roman Empire.
It may indeed have been a factor, but
worship God rather than Caesar. This it should be remembered that, with the
competition between church versus state sole exception of Julian the Apostate,
would continue in Europe for the next every one of the emperors of the
eastern empire at Constantinople
thousand years. But we should not conclude were Christians, at least in name, and
that this was a failure on the part of that this empire would continue for a
thousand years. If Christianity is to be
Christianity. Although it is true that the considered a factor in the decline and
barbarians conquered Rome, it is also true fall of the western empire, then it must
that Christianity conquered the barbarians. be asked why it was not a factor in the
fall of the empire in the east.
Indeed, when the Vandals entered Carthage,
they had already converted to Christianity
and were shocked at the presence of houses of prostitution. They promptly
destroyed these while leaving the churches intact.

BARBARIAN INVASIONS
The Romans regarded as barbarians anyone who was not Roman. One was
either a part of the Roman Empire or one was a barbarian. Even the name
“barbarian” seems to have derived from the languages that non-Greeks and non-
Romans spoke. To the untrained ear, it sounded like they were saying, “Bar-bar-
bar....”
Bordering the Roman Empire on the north side of the Danube River were
a number of tribes known collectively as the Goths. They were introduced to
Christianity through the preaching ministry of Ulfias, a missionary bishop who
translated the Bible into the Gothic language. The Goths had no writing of their
own, so Ulfias took the Latin alphabet and added several letters to better adapt the
alphabet to the Gothic language.
The trouble began when the Goths found themselves being overrun by
Asiatic invaders from the east known as the Huns. The Huns were made up of
descendants of the Scythians and other nomadic tribes of an earlier age and they had
a reputation for being fierce cavalry soldiers. As the Huns moved westward, the
Goths scrambled to try to get out of their way. They made a request to enter the
Roman Empire, but were denied. Then something happened that was to cause long
lasting repercussions.

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The winter of 395-396 saw an exceptional cold snap in eastern Europe with
the result that the Danube River froze over, allowing the Goths to cross in mass.
Faced with this influx of refugees, the Romans allowed them to remain. However,
local Roman governors began to mistreat these settlers and even to enslave them
with the result that war broke out. The Romans were defeated by the Goths at the
Battle of Adrianople, about 150 miles west of Constantinople, Emperor Valens
himself being killed in the fighting. Though peace was eventually negotiated, the
Goths were now to be part of the Roman Empire.

Those who remained in the east were described as Ostrogoths (“eastern

Goths”). One group of Goths eventually traveled westward where they became
known as the Visigoths (“western Goths”). In 410, the Visigoths under Alaric
managed to capture the city of Rome. We have already discussed how this
occasioned Augustine’s writing his epic City of God, noting that, even though the
city of Rome had fallen, this did not mean that the plans and purposes of God had
been thwarted, for the Lord has another city that is not part of this world.
Following the sack of Rome, Alaric prepared a fleet of ships for an invasion
of North Africa, but it was sunk in a storm. Alaric died shortly thereafter and the
Visigoths departed from Italy, moving into Gaul and then across the Pyrenees into
Spain where they would eventually become the ruling class. One of the impacts
they would have upon the Mediterranean world is in the area of clothing styles and
is still in evidence today. The fact that Europeans today wear trousers instead of
togas is largely due to the Visigoth influence.
The next barbarian group to enter the Roman Empire were the Vandals.
The incursion of the Visigoths had left the northern borders of the empire
undefended and there was no resistence when the Vandals crossed the Danube in
406. Like their Gothic neighbors, the Vandals were Arian Christians. They moved
through Spain and crossed the Straits of Gibralter into North Africa. Using
Carthage as their base of operations, they would conduct their own sack of Rome
in 455, giving rise to the verb “vandalize.”

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It was pressure from the Huns that had begun these migrations and they
eventually cross the Danube under the leadership of Attila, their warrior chief who
had been given the nickname, “The Scourge of God.” Attila moved against
Constantinople, but its massive walls were a match for even his strength and he
abandoned the city and moved west in search of easier pickings. Meeting stiff
resistance in Gaul, Attila moved down into Italy on a collision course with Rome.
Pope Leo I rode out to meet with him and gained a private audience. The specifics
of the conversation are unknown to us, but Attila decided not to continue against
Rome and instead agreed to a peace treaty, packed up, and returned home. He died
in his sleep the following year.
The fall of Rome in the west saw its final culmination in the year 476 when
the German chieftain Odoacer forced the last Roman emperor, sixteen year oldr
Romulus Augustus, into exile in the area of Naples. Odoacer would not remain in
control of Italy, for he would also be defeated and killed, not at the hands of
Romans, but by the Ostrogoths.
There would be a brief resurgence in in Rome when the Ostrogoths were
driven from power by Justinian the Great and most of the old empire around the
Mediterranean would be reunited for a short time, but this would not last. Rome
had fallen and, to misquote the nursery rhyme, all the king’s horses and all the kings
men could not put this empire together again.
As the Roman Empire crumbled and the government collapsed, the only
leadership that remained in many of the areas was in the church. Where various city
officials were no longer on hand to see to the general welfare, these duties often
devolved upon the local bishop.

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