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Cashew Production and Post-Harvest Technologies

Edited by: Dr. Eradasappa, E., Dr. B Venkat Rao and Dr. Aswathy Chandrakumar

Edition: 2022. All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-93-91668-71-6

Copyright © 2022. National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE),

Hyderabad& ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka, India.

Citation: Eradasappa, E., Venkat Rao, B. and Aswathy Chandrakumar (2022). Cashew Production
and Post-Harvest Technologies. Hyderabad: National Institute of Agricultural Extension
Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad & ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka,
India.

This e-book is jointly edited and published by ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, (ICAR-DCR),
Puttur and National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad to
educate agricultural extension officers, students, research scholars, academicians in the field of
agriculture and allied sectors. The information published in this e-book is for educational and
knowledge sharing purpose only. Neither the publisher nor the contributors, authors and editors
assume any liability for any damage or injury to persons or property from any use of methods,
instructions, or ideas contained in the e-book. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted without prior permission of the publishers.

Published for Dr.P. Chandra Shekara, Director General, National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE),
Hyderabad, India by Dr. Srinivasacharyulu Attaluri, Program Officer, MANAGE and printed at MANAGE, Hyderabad as e-publication.

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 Cashew Production and Post Harvest Technologies, 16-18 February 2022
ICAR-DCR Puttur and MANAGE
List of Resource Persons and Their Affiliations
Sl. Topic Resource Person Page
No. No.
1. Cashew genetic resources in India Dr. G.S. Mohana 5-14
Principal Scientist
(Gen&Cytgen)
ICAR-DCR Puttur
2. Popular cashew varieties in India Dr. Eradasappa, E 15-30
Senior Scientist (Plant Breeding)
ICAR-DCR Puttur
3. Cashew processing: An Indian perspective Mr. Prakash Rao Kalbavi 31-36
Kalbavi Cashews, Mangaluru
4. Nutrient management in cashew Dr.S. Mangalassery 37-47
Senior Scientist (Soil Science)
ICAR-DCR Puttur
5. Soil and water conservation, and irrigation Dr.S. Mangalassery 48-59
management in cashew Senior Scientist (Soil Science)
ICAR-DCR Puttur
6. Establishment and management of cashew Dr. J.D. Adiga 60-72
orchards and intercropping in cashew Principal Scientist (Horticulture)
ICAR-DCR Puttur
7. Nursery management in cashew Dr. Yadukumar N 73-84
Rtd Principal Scientist
(Agronomy)
ICAR-DCR Puttur
8. Management of CSRB in cashew Dr. T.N. Raviprasad 85-87
Director (Acting)
ICAR-DCR Puttur
9. Management of TMB Dr. K. Vanitha 88-94
Senior Scientist (Agl. Ent.)
ICAR-DCR Puttur
10. Management of minor pests of cashew and Dr. K Vanitha, Dr. T N 95-101
pollinators of cashew Raviprasad, Dr. G L Veena
ICAR-DCR, Puttur
11. Raw cashew nut processing Dr. D. Balasubramanian 102-109
Principal Scientist (AS&PE)
ICAR-DCR Puttur
12. Cashew Apple Processing and Value Addition Dr. Rajkumar A.D. 110-131
Scientist (Food Technology)
ICAR-DCR Puttur

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13. Overview of Global Cashew Scenario and India’s Mr Appanna C.P. 132-149
Future Forward Ex General Manager-Technical
(Plantation and Horticulture),
NABARD,
Agri-Project Advisor &
Consultant
14. Application of contemporary ICTs for TOT in Dr. Aswathy Chandrakumar 150-152
cashew and extension strategies for promoting Scientist (Agrl. Extension)
cashew ICAR-DCR Puttur

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 Conservation and Utilization of Cashew Genetic Resources
Mohana, G.S.* and Eradasappa, E.

ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka

*for correspondence: mohangs2007@gmail.com

Introduction:

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and is a native of Brazil.
The family comprises of about 60 genera and 400 species of trees and shrubs with resinous bark, and
grows most abundantly in the tropics in both eastern and western hemisphere (Ohler, 1979). Several
other important fruits and nuts such as mango (Mangifera indica L.), the Pistachio nut (Pistacia vera
L.) and various speices of Spondias such as Otaheitc apple (S. cytherea), Hog-Plum (S. mombin) and
Spanish plum or red mombin (S. purpurea L.) belong to this family. According to Baily (1949), the
genus Anacardium contains eight tropical American species. Parente (1972) names 10 species but
Peixoto (1960) names twenty different species several of which had edible peduncles such as A.
nanum, St. Halaire, a very early bearing small shrub, A. subterranium Liais, a small shrub with its
trunk almost completely underground containing water reserves; A. microcarpum Ducke, a small tree
from sandy savannas, A. spruceanum Benth. a large tree and the largest species of the genus A.
giganteum Hancock which grows in Amazon forest. However, as per the latest working list of all plant
species, the Anacardium genus comprises of 20 species (Anonymous, 2010).

The cultivated species A. occidentale L. is andromonoecious, with male and hermophrodite flowers in
the same inflorescence and the phenomenon is almost similar in all the species of the genus
Anacardium (Damodaran, 1977). Within the species A. occidentale also, there is a wide variation in
colour, size and shape of the apple, as well as in size and shape of the nuts. The time of flushing,
flowering varies among different types. There are also differences in leaf size and leaf shape and
numerous other characters.

Origin and distribution:

Brazil is the original home of cashew. The earliest reports of cashew are coming from French,
Portuguese and Dutch observers (Johnson, 1973). The presence of cashew in other continents is to be
attributed to man's intervention. The Portuguese discovered cashew in Brazil and spread first to
Mozambique (Africa) and later into India (De Castro, 1994).

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Cashew was introduced to India by Portuguese during 16th century. Molecular studies have shown the
possibility of its introduction repeatedly over a period of time but at a single location i.e. west coast
(Archak, et al, 2009). Presently, the cashew plants in wild state as well as in well managed orchards
are seen in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala along the west coast, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal on the east coast. To a limited extent, the crop is also seen growing
in Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, Nagaland and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Singh, 1998). After the establishment of National Research Centre for
Cashew (NRCC) at Puttur, Karnataka in 1986 (upgraded to Directorate of Cashew Research in 2009),
the germplasm collection through vegetatively propagated material started and since then, a
coordinated approach was brought in the cashew germplasm collection by organizing joint survey
teams consisting of scientists of NRCC and the centers of All India Coordinated Research Project on
Cashew (AICRP on Cashew) of the respective States (Bhaskara Rao and Swamy, 2000).

The germplasm survey and collection were carried out in cashew growing states namely, Karnataka,
Kerala, Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal. The
non-traditional areas such as Garo Hills (Meghalaya), Bastar (Chhattisgarh), Gujarat, Dadra & Nagar
Haveli and Andaman & Nicobar Islands were also surveyed for germplasm collection. So far, 542
accessions have been collected and conserved in the National Cashew Field Gene Bank (NCFGB) at
the Directorate. Similarly, Regional Cashew Gene Banks (RCGBs) have been established at AICRP
Centers which are maintaining a total of 1726 accessions.

Efforts of conservation and utilization at the ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur,

Karnataka

For systematic characterisation of cashew germplasm, the collected scion material of the accession is
grafted onto a suitable root stock and each grafted accession is then grown in the field gene bank.
Recommended agronomic practices are adopted and observations are recorded on 3 selected plants in
each accession after 10th year of planting and after obtaining 6 annual harvests for 68 characters following
“Cashew Descriptors” (IBPGR, 1986). So far 506 clonal accessions out of 542 accessions have been
evaluated and 478 are conserved in a conservation block by planting 4 plants per accessions at a closer
spacing of 4 m x 4m.

The information on first set of 56 accessions planted in 1986 has published in the “Catalogue of Minimum
Descriptors of Cashew Germplasm Accessions-I”, 1997. The second set of 97 accessions planted in 1987
and 1988 have been documented in the “Catalogue of Minimum Descriptors of Cashew Germplasm

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Accessions-II”, 1998. The third set of 102 accessions planted in 1989 and 1990 have been included in the
“Catalogue of Minimum Descriptors of Cashew Germplasm Accessions-III, 2000. These are the first
efforts made in characterisation of clonal accessions of cashew in the world where 255 accessions have
been characterised and catalogued (Swamy et. al 1997, 1999 and 2000). Recently, fourth catalogue
containing information on 108 accessions planted during 1991-97 and fifth catalogue containing
information on 115 accessions planted during 1198-2003 have been published (Nayak et al, 2014;
Nayak et al, 2015). The germplasm accessions which are unique and have potential (verified /
verifiable) attributes of scientific/commercial value are registered in NBPGR, New Delhi

Development of cashew germplasm database management system

A robust Decision Support System (DSS) has been developed recently for cashew with 478 accessions
and 68 characters to manage and better utilize the germplasm resources. In the module, it is possible
to select accessions based on multiple character combinations with information such as frequency
distribution, images and pie diagrams. This is expected to help all the stakeholders involved in cashew
research, production and processing for selection and subsequent utilization of suitable germplasm
accessions. The module can be accessed at https://cashew. icar.gov.in/dcr

Genetic Architecture of Cashew Germplasm

The variability and genetic architecture was assessed deploying 13 important quantitative characters
of 478 cashew germplasm accessions evaluated and conserved in National Cashew Field Gene Bank,
Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur (Mohana et al, 2017). Considerable variability was observed
for all characters (Table 1) and the highest CV was observed for sex ratio followed by cumulative
yield per plant and apple weight. The lowest CV was observed for shelling percentage followed by
shell thickness. Frequency distribution patterns showed highly positively skewed distribution for
characters such as nut weight, sex ratio, apple weight and apple to nut ratio. Genetically, it is evident
that decreasing alleles are in excess and dominant for these characters. Whereas tree spread, kernel
weight and cumulative yield per plant showed moderately positively skewed distribution indicating
decreasing alleles are in slight excess and dominant. Flowering intensity showed moderately
negatively skewed distribution indicating the presence of increasing alleles in slight excess and their
dominant nature. Tree height, shell thickness, flowering duration, shelling percentage and leaf area
showed approximately symmetric distribution indicating increasing and decreasing alleles are in equal
proportion and the dominance is ambi-directional.

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Table 1: Descriptive statistics of 478 cashew germplasm accessions

SE of SE of SE of
Character Range Minimum Maximum Mean
Mean
SD CV (%) Skewness
Skewness
Kurtosis
Kurtosis

Tree Height (m) 8.20 1.50 9.70 5.01 0.07 1.43 28.56 0.47 0.11 -0.22 0.22

Tree Spread (m) 9.60 1.50 11.10 6.20 0.07 1.57 25.30 0.72 0.11 0.36 0.22

Nut Weight (g) 14.78 2.00 16.78 6.88 0.10 2.09 30.41 1.02 0.11 1.91 0.22

Sex Ratio 0.29 0.01 0.30 0.09 0.00 0.05 52.21 1.08 0.11 1.76 0.22

Apple Weight (g) 170.00 10.00 180.00 61.82 1.07 23.37 37.81 1.10 0.11 2.45 0.22

Shell Thickness (mm) 3.20 1.50 4.70 3.06 0.02 0.52 16.83 0.36 0.11 0.68 0.22

Flowering Duration (days) 88.00 42.00 130.00 82.54 0.82 18.03 21.85 0.16 0.11 -0.78 0.22

Apple to Nut ratio 26.10 2.00 28.10 9.32 0.14 3.14 33.64 1.10 0.11 2.75 0.22

Shelling Percentage 27.30 15.30 42.60 28.50 0.20 4.32 15.15 -0.10 0.11 0.42 0.22

Kernel Weight (g) 4.00 0.40 4.40 1.94 0.03 0.55 28.30 0.79 0.11 1.49 0.22

Leaf Area (sq.m) 131.30 37.00 168.30 87.33 1.11 24.30 27.83 0.36 0.11 -0.36 0.22

Cumulative Yield per plant (kg) 27.24 0.29 27.53 10.49 0.24 5.16 49.19 0.88 0.11 0.49 0.22

Flowering Intensity (%) 82.50 14.30 96.80 65.78 0.73 16.06 24.42 -0.60 0.11 0.00 0.22

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Significant positive correlations with cumulative yield per plant were observed for tree height, tree
spread, sex ratio, flowering duration, apple to nut ratio, shelling percentage and leaf area and
significant negative correlation for shell thickness. The present germplasm collection represents
sufficient number of accessions for both quantitative and qualitative characters in desired direction
(Table 2). However, based on the frequency distribution patterns, it is imperative to collect germplasm
with dwarfness, less tree spread, high nut weight, apple weight and high yield.

Unique types in germplasm accessions:

The germplasm accessions conserved in the NCFGB at NRCC, Puttur include the diverse types such
as high yield, bold nut, semi-tall, compact, Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) free, purple pigmented,
high shelling percentage, cluster bearing, big apple and early maturity types. Three wild species
namely, Anacardium pumilum, A. othonianum and A. microcarpum are also conserved. The collection
also has seedling accessions of 23 exotic collections of which nine were collected from Brazil, Nairobi,
Mtwara, Lindi, Nacala, Mozambique, Ex Tanganyka, Singapore and Australia and 14 from Republic
of Panama.

Development of Core Collections in cashew

As cashew is a perennial tree, it needs more land and other resources to maintain accessions.
Conservation through seeds is not feasible because of cross-pollination. Tissue culture efforts to
regenerate plants from mature explants are not successful. Therefore, efficient management of the field
gene bank particularly utilization requires designation of the core collection representing the spectrum
of diversity present in the entire collection. A relatively new technique, the advanced M strategy with
heuristic approach was deployed to develop the core collection in cashew (Mohana and Nayak, 2018).
Sixty-eight morphometric characters of 478 accessions were subjected to analysis resulting in the core
collection of 49 accessions. Further, another core collection of same number was constituted by K-
Means clustering to compare the efficiency of two approaches. The validation parameters like mean
difference, variance difference, coincidence rate, variable rate and class coverage among others were
employed for comparative analysis. The results of these parameters revealed that the core collection
designated by heuristic approach was better able to efficiently represent and retain the diversity of the
entire collection compared with the core identified by clustering approach. The core collection block
is already established and future conservation and breeding efforts will be focused on this cashew core
collection.

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Table 2: Number of cashew accessions for desirable quantitative characters
Character No.of Top accessions
accessions (character values in parenthesis)
Tree Height 5 NRC 153 (1.5), NRC 128(2.3), NRC 131 (2.4),
(< 2.5 m) NRC 100( 2.5), NRC 239 (2.5)
Tree Spread 4 NRC 153 (1.5), NRC 121(2.5), NRC 131(2.7), NRC 190(3.0)
(<3.0 m)
Leaf Area 50 NRC 270(168.3), NRC 291(159.0), NRC 279(156.0), NRC
( > 120 sq.m) 277(152.0), NRC 278(150.3)
Nut Weight 190 NRC 269(16.78), NRC 183 (15.4), NRC 161(15.0),
( > 7.0 g) NRC 402(14.2), NRC 383(13.4)
Sex Ratio (> 0.13) 74 NRC 60 (0.30), NRC 63 (0.29), NRC 68(0.27), NRC 279 (0.27),
NRC 278(0.25)
Weight of Cashew 306 NRC 385(180.0), NRC 301(169.8),NRC 140(142.8), NRC 164 (
Apple (> 52 g) 141.0), NRC 333(135.0)
Weight of Cashew 29 NRC 385(180.0), NRC 301(169.8),NRC 140(142.8), NRC 164 (
Apple (>100 g) 141.0), NRC 333(135.0)
Shell Thickness 40 NRC 152(1.5), NRC 153(1.5), NRC 285(1.5),
(<2.5 mm) NRC 87(1.7), NRC 281(1.8)
Shell Thickness 16 NRC 160(4.7), NRC 278(4.6), NRC 166 (4.5), NRC 180(4.5),
(>4.0 mm) NRC 270(4.5)
Flowering 50 NRC 266(42), NRC 246(47), NRC 238(48), NRC 265(48), NRC
Duration 221(50)
( <60 days)
Flowering 161 NRC 24(130), NRC 12( 128), NRC 11(128), NRC 03(121), NRC
Duration 20(121)
(>90 days)
Flowering 205 NRC 126(96.8), NRC 175(95.5), NRC 141(95.2),
Intensity (> 70 %) NRC 148 (95.0), NRC 385 (93.7)
Apple to Nut Ratio 51 NRC 298(2.0), NRC 156(3.2), NRC 255(3.3), NRC 238(3.4),
(<6.0) NRC 460(3.6)
Apple to Nut Ratio 74 NRC 41(28.1), NRC 385(18.9), NRC 370(18.6), NRC
(>12) 115(18.5), NRC 327(18.1)
Shelling 265 NRC 406(42.6), NRC 343(41.0), NRC 393(40.5),
Percentage NRC 405(40.5),NRC 327(40.3)
(>28 %)
Kernel Weight 62 NRC 183(4.4), NRC 323(4.0), NRC 333(4.0)
(>2.5 g) NRC 160(3.7), NRC 409(3.5)
Cumulative yield 48 NRC 352 (Ullal- 1 ;27.53 ), NRC 457 (Estamol-1 ;26.82), NRC
per plant 349 (NDR-2-1 ; 26.21), NRC 356 (Chintamani-1;26.08), NRC 354
(> 18 kg) –6 years (Ullal-3 ; 25.95), NRC 465 (Banjha Kusum-1 ;24.96), NRC 346
(Vengurla-4;24.65), NRC 475 (Amritha; 24.42), NRC 452
(Anakkayam-1; 24.06), NRC 434 (Petamalapalli-1; 23.70)

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Utilisation of germplasm:

Of the 28 cashew varieties and 14 hybrids released in the country, the varieties are per se selections made
from the germplasm material at different centres. About 155 germplasm accessions have been effectively
utilized for crossing programme at the Directorate of Cashew Research (DCR), Puttur and several of these
were also supplied to other cashew research centres for hybridization programme and other studies. For
instance, a total of 75 cashew accessions have been supplied to AICRP on Cashew Centers/ICAR
Research Complex for Goa for evaluation and hybridization programme. A total of 107 accessions (65
during 2001 and 42 during 2002 fruiting season) in NCFGB have been utilized as parents under the
research scheme “Network Programme on Hybridization in Cashew” which was in operation during
2000-2003. Leaf samples of 34 varieties and 153 germplasm accessions have been supplied to Division
of Horticulture, UAS, Bangalore for DNA Finger Printing of varieties and germplasm under the DST
funded project. Leaf samples of 142 accessions have also been supplied to NRC DNA Finger Printing,
New Delhi.
Presently, the hybridization programme is going on at DCR, Puttur and cashew research stations
at Bapatla, Bhubaneswar, Vridhachalam, Madakkathara and Vengurla. The review of performance of
varieties and hybrids indicated that in the States where both selections and hybrids were released for
cultivation, the performance of hybrids has been better than the selections. Hybrid vigour can easily be
exploited in cashew because of the amenability of this crop for vegetative propagation. Recently, a
program for development of varieties for cashew apple has been initiated at the Directorate and this is
expected to provide impetus for cashew apple utilisation.
In the Directorate of Cashew Research, it was observed that when tall accessions are crossed with
dwarf accessions, the majority of the resulting progenies have tall stature indicating that tall is dominant
over dwarf character. In Madakkathara centre, when three parents with prolific bearing and three bold
nut type parents were used for hybridisation, It was evident that wherever Brazil-18, an exotic bold nut
accession was used in hybridisation, the percentage of high yielding progenies was more compared to
other accessions within the country.

Diversity Analysis in cashew Germplasm through Molecular Markers

Moderate to high genetic diversity has been observed in germplasm collections in studies with RAPD
markers (Anik et al, 2002). Further it was found that among RAPD, ISSR and AFLP markers, AFLP
was found to have superior marker efficiency in differentiating germplasm accessions. A total of 172

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accessions comprising collections from nine states of India and exotic sources were fingerprinted using
both RAPD and ISSR markers (Thimmappaiah et al., 2009). Based on Shannon’s information index
and percentage of polymorphic loci, it is evident that high genetic variation was observed in the
collections of Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. There was more diversity (96% variation)
existed within the groups than between the collections (4% variation) from different states. Among
the accessions NRC-432 and NRC-119 were highly divergent and NRC-235 and NRC-216 were
highly similar. The cluster analysis performed to create dendrogram distinguished 17 clusters in all.
Although there was no correspondence between the centre of collections and clusters, there were some
exceptions as species from Brazil like A. othonianum and A. pumilum were found to cluster together
in the same sub-group and some sub-clusters were in agreement with morphological clusters.

Similarly, genetic diversity and species relationship in 10 diverse types of cashew including three
species (Anacardium pumilum St. Hillarie, A. microcarpum Ducke, A. othonianum, three inter-specific
hybrids i.e. V-5 (A. occidentale) x A. pumilum, A. pumilum X V-5 (A. occidentale) and A. orthonianum
X V-5 (A. occidentale) and four genotypes of A. occidentale was assessed using RAPD, Isozymes and
SSR markers. In the cluster analysis three broad groupings were distinguished: In first group
Anacardium pumilum was found clustering with two of its inter-specific hybrids, in the second group
Anacardium othonianum clustered with one of its inter-specific hybrid and a dwarf accession
Kodippady and while in the third group contained most accessions of Anacardium occidentale
clustering with Anacardium microcarpum thus indicating close affinity between A. occidentale and of
wild species A. microcarpum.

Future Areas of Work

Since there is a moderate amount of diversity available in Indian cashew germplasm due to limited
introduction episodes, it is essential to introduce and enhance genetic variability from countries of Central
and South America. The introduction of dwarf accessions from Brazil and subsequent development of
dwarf hybrids needs special mention since dwarf types are very much required for high density planting
systems to improve productivity. Introduction of A. gigantium from Surinam which with biggest apple
(200 g) will be advantageous, especially in states like Goa where the cashew apple utilization contributes
substantially to the economy of the state.

One of the main problems in cashew is that all the existing germplasm are susceptible to CSRB which
kills the trees. There is a need to screen the allied species (for their suitability as root stocks) which have
relatively hard wood and also posses smooth bark. It is suggested that introduction of species like A.

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rhinocarpus and A. spruceanum from Brazil which are reported to possess hard wood will be useful for
testing their suitability as root stocks. However, more comprehensive exploration is required for target
specific traits such as resistance to Tea Mosquito Bug (TMB) and Cashew Stem and Root Borer
(CSRB), high yield, dwarf, bold nut with cluster bearing, tolerance to drought, frost, salt and other
problematic soils etc.

Increased utilization of germplasm accessions in hybridization programs, exploitation of unique types

such as CNSL free and rich types are some of the areas that need to be attempted in the ensuing days.
Further, germplasm conservation through in vitro /cryopreservation needs attention as conserving in
field gene bank requires considerable space and time. However, this requires in first place, the
standardization of regeneration protocols for cashew which hitherto has not been successful. Pollen
cryopreservation to conserve nuclear genetic diversity also needs to be tried in cashew as it is
successful in some horticultural crops like mango, citrus, grape and papaya.

References

1. Anik Luke Dhanaraj, E.V.V. Bhaskara rao, K.R.M. Swamy, M.G. Bhat, D. Theertha Prasad
and Suresh N. Sondur, 2002, Using RAPDs to assess the diversity in Indian cashew
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Biotechnology 77(1): 41-47
2. Anonymous, 2010, The Plant List- A working list of all plant species
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3. Archak, S., A. B. Gaikwad, K. R.M. Swamy and J. L. Karihaloo, 2009, Genetic analysis and
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10. G.S. Mohana, M.G. Nayak and E. Eradasappa, 2017, Genetic architecture of cashew
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Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Nordeste (Brazil) no. 19.

21. Thimmappaiah, Santhosh, W.G., Shobha, D., Melwyn, G.S., 2009. Assessment of genetic
diversity in cashew germplasm using RAPD and ISSR markers. Sci. Hortic, 120, 411-417.

14
 Popular cashew varieties in India
Eradasappa E* and Mohana, G.S.
ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Darbe (P.O),
Puttur, Dakshina Kannada, Karnataka, India
*for correspondence:era.dasappa@gmail.com, eradasappa@icar.gov.in

Introduction

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L) is a member of family Anacardiaceae which also has mango and
pistachio. It is a fast growing; ever green perennial tree well suited to the wet / dry tropical climate.
The tree has a long productive life, perhaps up to 50 years, however in poor conditions the economic
life of tree would be reduced. The main product of cashew is nut containing a kernel. Cashew fruit also
known as cashew apple and cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) are the other products. The nut when
processed gives the kernel which is the economic product because of its taste and nutritional value. The
cashew apple has various uses; it can be eaten as fresh fruit, or processed into juice and other products
like jam, jelly, cider, pickles etc. Feni, a popular liquor is produced from cashew apple in the state of
Goa. CNSL oil is a by-product obtained during the processing of raw cashew nuts from the spent shells
of the nuts and is used in friction linings, paints, varnishes and other industrial applications.

Although cashew is native to Brazil, it has spread to many tropical countries of the world. Top five
cashew producing countries are Côte d'Ivoire, India, Vietnam, Cambodia and Nigeria (Sources: Global
Cashew Council and International Dried Fruit Council, INC 2022). The major export markets for the
kernel are USA, Europe, Canada, Japan and Australia. China is also emerging as a major market. India
has become a largest consumer of cashews in the world and hence has potential domestic market.

The production of cashew in India 7.43 lakh tonnes from an area of 11.05 lakh ha with productivity of
672.4 kg / ha (FAO 2019). Whereas the requirement is 17 lakh tonnes per year. Thus there is shortfall
of more than 50% in raw cashew nut production and hence India imports raw nuts from African
countries. There is also threat for the import because nowadays African countries also thinking of
processing cashew. The productivity is low particularly in Karnataka, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Odisha. The main factors for low productivity in these states are the large plantations under
seedling origin and poor management practices. This kind of situation demands adoption of scientific
strategies for increasing the domestic production in the light of declining import from cashew producing

15
countries due to various reasons. Cultivation of high yielding varieties is the most important step in
improving the productivity of cashew.

Development of high yielding cashew varieties

So far 61 varieties in India have been released for cultivation as a result of evaluation of germplasm
collection and hybridization and selection. These varieties have been released from different research
centers of SAUs and DCR (formerly NRCC). Among them 34 are selections and 27 are hybrids (Table
1). Out of these varieties, salient features of popular varieties are presented below.

Varieties released from AICRP (Cashew) Center, Bapatla, Dr.YSR Horticultural Unioversity,
West Godavari,
BPP 8 (H 2/16)
It is a hybrid (H2/16) derived from the cross Tree released from Bapatla so far. Kernel grade is W
No.1 x Tree No.39 and released in 1993 for 210 (export grade).
general cultivation in Andhra Pradesh. It has
been performing well in Orissa and West Bengal
also. This variety is superior to all the other six
varieties developed from Bapatla. The variety
has mean yield of 14 kg/tree with better nut size
(8.2g). Shelling percentage (29%) of this variety
is also better than the rest of the varieties
Varieties released from AICRP (Cashew) Center, Vridachalam, TNAU, Tamil Nadu
VRI-3 (M 26/2)
This is a selection from seedling progeny of a The kernel grade conforms to W 210 export
high yielding tree collected from a village grade. This variety is picking up fast among
Edayanchavadi in South Arcot District of Tamil farmers of not only of Tamil Nadu but also of
Nadu and was released in 1991. It has 12.1% other states.
perfect flowers. The average yield of this
variety is about 10 kg/tree, thus the increase
over VRI-2 and VRI-1 being 35 to 39%
respectively. The nut size is medium with 7.2g
nut weight and shelling percentage of 29.1%.

16
VRI (Cw)-5
It is a hybrid developed from the cross M 26/2 weight is ranging from 50.0 to 53.5 g. This is
(VRI-3) x M 26/1. This was released in the year recommended for all the cashew growing
2007. The canopy type is compact and districts of Tamil Nadu.
branching habit is spreading. The average yield
of this variety is about 13.2 kg/tree. The nut
size is medium with 7.2g nut weight and
shelling percentage of 30.5%. The kernel grade
is W 210. The apple colour is pink with yellow
tinge and the shape is round and the apple
Varieties released from AICRP (Cashew) Center, OUAT, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha
Bhubaneswar-1
It is a selection from seedling progeny of WBDC suitable for cultivation in the sandy and laterite
V (Vengurla 36/3), a collection from Regional soils of the East Coast.
Fruit Research Station, Vengurla and released in
1989. Flowering season is from January to
March with medium duration of 70 days. It has
cluster bearing habit with about 12 fruits per
bunch. This variety has average yield of 10
kg/tree with small nut size (4.6g nut weight).
The shelling percentage is high (32%) with
kernel grade of W 320. It has been found

Jagannath (BH 6)
It is a mid-season flowering (Jan-Mar) variety
having bold nuts with 8.6 g nut weight. The
variety gives an average nut yield of 2.1 t/ha
(10.5 kg/tree) and possesses high
shelling percentage (32.5 %).

17
Balabhadra (BH 85)

It is an Early flowering (Dec-Feb) variety having

bold nuts with 7.4 g nut weight. The variety gives an
average nut yield of 2.0 t/ha (10.0 kg/tree) and
possesses high shelling percentage (30.0 %).

Varieties released from AICRP (Cashew) Center, Jhargram, BCKV, Kalyani, West Bengal
Jhargram-1
It is a selection from T.No.16 originally
collected from Bapatla. It was released in the
year 1989. It has a medium compact canopy and
intensive branching habit. It has on an average,
6 fruits per bunch and yield of 8.5 kg/tree with
small nut size (5g nut weight). Shelling
percentage is 30 and kernel grade is W 320.
Bidhan Jhargram-2
It is selection made from seedling plantation of 180.The variety can yield 13.5 kg/tree in 7th
H-2/15 of Regional Research Station, Bidan harvest.
Chandra Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Jhargram,
West Bengal. The variety has mid-season
flowering habit with 3-4 fruits per panicle. Apple
is golden yellow with a weight of 63g and a mean
juice content of 68.9 per cent. The average nut
weight is 9.2g with a kernel weight of 2.85g and
high shelling (32%). The kernel grade is W

Varieties released from AICRP (Cashew) Center, Vengurla, KKV, Dapoli, Maharashtra
Based on the evaluation of selections from germplasm and hybrid progenies in varietal evaluation trials
conducted at Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurla, the Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth (KKV), Dapoli

18
has released the following seven varieties for cultivation in Maharashtra. These varieties have been
found to perform well in Goa also. Vengurla-1 and Vengurla-4 are doing well in Uttar Kannada district
of Karnataka also. Varieties such as Vengurla-4 and Vengurla-7 are in great demand from farmers.
Vengurla-4
This is a hybrid variety with the parentage of
Midnapore Red x Vetore 56 and was also
released in 1981. It is a cluster bearing type and
with percentage of perfect flowers of 35 and fruit
set of 6%. The yield of nuts is 17.2 kg/tree. The
nut weight is 7.7g and shelling percentage is
31. The colour of the apple is red. Kernel grade
is 210 (export grade).

Vengurla-7
Hybrid 255 evolved at Regional Fruit Research cent. Average weight of kernel is 2.9g. This
Station, Vengurla under Konkan Krishi variety is recommended for the Konkan region
Vidyapeeth, Dapoli was recommended for of Maharashtra and adjoining cashew growing
release under the name "Vengurla-7" in the XIII regions of Goa and Karnataka.
Biennial Workshop of AICRP on Cashew held
in November 1997. Vengurla-7 is a hybrid
developed from the cross Vengurla-3 x M 10/4
(VRI-1). The percentage of perfect flowers is
very high (40%). Average yield is 18.5 kg/tree.
It is a bold nut type with nut weight of 10g and
shelling percentage of 30.5. Kernel grade is W
180. The colour of apple is yellow with apple
weight of 60g and with juice content of 75 per

Vengurla-9
This is hybrid released in year 2015 in AGM -2015 weight: is 8.9 g with 112 nuts per kg. It gives high
of AICRP-Cashew. It is a cross between V-4 and yield (7.24 kg/tree) and has shelling percentage of
VRI-1 (M10/4). It is middle to late season variety 29.35%. The apple colour is reddish yellow and apple
with 111 days of flowering duration and is bunch weight: is 69.71 g.
bearing variety with intensive branching. The nuts

19
Varieties released from AICRP (Cashew) Center, ICAR-CCARI, Goa
Total of 2 cashew varieties were released from Goa state. Goa-1 was recommended for release in the
XIV Biennial Workshop of AICRP on Cashew held at Bhubaneswar in October 1999. Thus this is the
first time farmers of Goa are having opportunity to grow a cashew variety developed in their own state.
Goa-2 was recommended for release in the National Group Meeting of Scientists of AICRP-Cashew
held in Goa in November 2007.
Goa-1 (Balli-2)
Goa-1 was developed and released from ICAR Research Complex, Goa in 1999. It is the first cashew
variety released from the state of Goa. It is a selection from accession Balli-2 which is originated from
a tree located in Balli village of Quepem taluk of Goa. The average yield of Goa-1 is 7.0 kg/tree with
nut weight of 7.6 g (range : 7.3 - 7.9 g) and the shelling percentage of 30.0 (range : 28.9 - 31.0%).
Kernel weight is 2.2 g. The kernel grade is W 210. Apple colour is yellow and with average weight of
66.7 g and with average juice content of 68.0%. It is recommended to the state of Goa.
Goa-2 (Tiswadi-3)
Goa-2 was developed and released from ICAR Research Complex, Goa in 2007. It is a selection from
Ela village of Tiswadi taluk of North Goa District. The average yield of Goa-2 is 5.5 kg/tree with nut
weight of 9.4 g (range : 9.2 – 9.6 g) and the shelling percentage of 29.25. Kernel weight is 2.3 g. The
kernel grade is W 210. Apple colour is yellowish orange with cylindrical shape and with average weight
of 105 g. Juice content ranges from 68.0 – 72.0 per cent. It is recommended to the state of Goa.
Varieties released by AICRP (Cashew) Center, Madakkathara, KAU, Thrissur
Madakkathara-2
This is a selection from germplasm collection
made from Neduvellur in Kerala maintained at
CRS, Anakkayam. This variety was also
released in 1987. The mean yield is 17 kg/tree.
The nuts are bold (7.3 g nut weight) with shelling
percentage of 26.2%. Kernel weight is 2g
having a count of W 240 export grade. Apple
colour is red and with weight of apple 63.3g.
Reducing sugar content is 7.8%.

20
Kanaka (H 1598)
It is a hybrid of cross BLA 139-1 X H 3 - 13
released in 1993 from CRS, Madakkathara. It is
an early variety. Average yield is 19 kg/tree with
a mean nut weight of 6.8g. Shelling percentage
is 31%. Kernel weight is 2.1g and quality of
kernels conform to W 210 export grade. Colour
of apple is yellow.
Dhana (H 1608)
It is a hybrid of cross ALGD-1 X K 30-1 released
from CRS, Madakkathara in 1993. It has cluster
bearing habit. The mean yield is 17.5 kg/tree
with a shelling percentage of 28. Kernel weight
is 2.2g conforming to export grade of W 210.
Yellow is the apple colour.

Priyanka (H 1591)
This is a hybrid with parentage of BLA 139-1 X red. Apple weight is 135g. Apple has 57.4% of
K 30-1 with jumbo nut size developed and juice.
released from CRS, Madakkathara in 1995. The
yield of nuts is 16.9 kg/tree. The nut weight is
10.8g with kernel weight of 2.87g. Shelling
percentage is 26.5. The export grade of kernels
conforms to W 180. Colour of apple is yellowish

Amrutha (H 1597)
This is a hybrid with parentage of BLA 139-1 x yellow and apple weight is 76.0 g. Apple has
H 3-13 developed and released from CRS, 57.4% juice content. It is recommended to the
Madakkathara in 1999. It has yield potential of state of Kerala.
18.4 Kg/tree with nut weight of 7.2 g. Shelling
percentage is 31.6 and with kernel weight of 2.2
g and kernel grade W 210. Colour of apple is

21
Sulabha
It is selection released in 1996 with compact
canopy and intensive branching. It is bold nut
type with 9.8 g nut weight. The tree yields 21.9
kg of nuts with high shelling percentage
(29.4%). The kernel weight is 2.88 g and grade
is W 210. It bears light orange apples.

Varieties released from AHRS, Ullal, UAHS, Shivamogga, Karnataka

Ullal-1
This is a selection from the germplasm collected
from Taliparamba in Kerala (8/46 Taliparamba)
and released by ARS, UAS in 1984. The variety
has 2-3% of bisexual flowers. The average yield
is 16 kg/tree. The duration of harvest is long
(about 110 days). The nut weight is 6.7g with
shelling percentage of 30.7%. The colour of
apple is yellow. Kernel grade is W210.

Ullal-3
It is a selection from 5/37 Manjeri and released The colour of apple is red.
in 1993. It is early in flowering (November -
January) and fruiting period is very short (50-60
days). The fruiting is from January to March and
sometimes starts from last week of December. It
is a high yielding variety with average yield of
14.7 kg/tree. The nut size is medium with nut
weight of 7g. The shelling percentage is 30%
and the kernel grade conforming to W 210 grade.

22
Ullal-4
It is a selection from 2/77 Tuni Andhra and
released in 1994 for general cultivation. The
average yield is 9.5 kg/tree. The nut size is
medium with 7.2g nut weight. Shelling
percentage is 31%. Export grade of kernels
conforms to W 210 counts/lb. The colour of
apple is yellow and apple weight is 75g.

Varieties released from ICAR-DCR, Puttur

Bhaskara

This variety was released during March 2006 for orange and juice content is 67.5%. This variety is
coastal region of Karnataka. This is having very popular among the farmers of Dakshina
midseason flowering habit (Dec-Mar) with a Kannada District of Karnataka and also in
flowering duration of 60 days and has potential to neighbouring districts of Karnataka and Kerala.
escape from the attack of the tea mosquito bug
(TMB) under low to moderate outbreak situation. But
the regular insecticidal spray against TMB is
essential under severe outbreak situation. The
number of fruits per panicle (bunch) ranged from 4 -
13. The average yield on 13th year was 10.7 kg/tree
with highest yield of 19 kg/tree. The nut and kernel
weight are 7.4 g and 2.2 g respectively. The shelling
percentage is 30.6 and kernel grade conforms to
export grade W240. The apple colour is pinkish
Nethra Ganga

Nethra Ganga (H-130) is a jumbo nut hybrid, which has high shelling percentage (29.9%) with big
rd
yields 3 kg nuts / tree in 3 year of planting with kernels (3.5- 5.0g) and kernel grade is W-130-150.
cluster bearing (10-20 nuts/panicle), jumbo nut size
(12-13 g) was released for west coast region. It is
highly precious, early flowering type with long
fruiting duration. It responds well to pruning and
suitable for ultra-density planting system. The hybrid

23
Nethra Vaaman
The country was hitherto lacking dwarfcashew However, high yield cannot be expected because
genotypes and for the first time, the Directorate of its dwarf nature. Tree height (10thyear) is 2.5 m
has identified a dwarf cashew variety named (dwarf). Tree Spread (10thyear) without pruning is
Nethra Vaaman. The dwarf genotype was 6.0 m. It has precocious flowering with long
selected from theseedling progenies planted out duration (>90 days). Nut weight is 5.5 to 6.0 g. It
of importedbulk nuts samples of Brazil. Upon bears glossy, red colour, crispy and less fibrous

characterisation and evaluation, its slowgrowth cashew apples with 50 g weight. It has shelling
percentage of 30% and the kernel grade is W 320. It
and dwarf character was confirmed. This was
shows special character of stem galling. Its nut yield
evaluated for tenyears and recently it is released
is 1.2-1.5 kg (4th year of planting).
and recommended for cultivation. The Nethra
Vaaman can be maintained with minimum
pruning and trimming as an orchard
management practice. The genotype is
moderately susceptible to major pest of cashew
i.e Tea Mosquito Bug (TMB) like any other
cashew variety but it is easier to take up plant
protection sprays as plants are dwarf. The variety
seems to be also amenable for homestead and
terrace gardens, and for bonsai cultivation.
Nethra Jumbo-1 apples which weigh around 100g per apple with
Nethra Jumbo-1 is a jumbo nut hybrid released in conical to obovate shape. The apples have TSS of 13
2021 for west coast region. Nethra Jumbo is an early ∘ B with 72 per cent of juice content. The season of
season bearer with short flowering duration. The harvest starts from January and continues till March
flowering starts from December and continues up to end. The duration of harvesting period is less which
March and the peak flowering will be in January and helps to save the labour on picking of nuts. The early
February. The nut weight ranges from 11 to 13 g with availability of raw nuts will help to catch high market
an average nut weight of 12 g per nut. The nuts have price prevailing during early part of cashew season.
high shelling percentage (29.1) with 3.66 cm nut A ten-year-old tree has a potential to yield around 10
length, 2.73 cm nut width and 2.41 cm nut thickness kg per tree. The added advantage of this hybrid is
with 18.5 % of CNSL content in the shell. The uniformity in nut size, wherein, more than 90 % of
kernels are bold with 3.4 g average weight and fits in nuts are uniform in size. As this hybrid is an early
to kernel grade W130. It bears attractive red coloured flowering type, the advantage of higher market price

24
in the beginning of cashew season can be exploited.
This hybrid can also escape severe pre monsoon
moisture stress as compared to late varieties.

Varieties from HRS, Hogalagere (Earlier at Chintamani), UHS, Bagalkot

Chintamani-1
It is a selection from 8/46 Taliparamba, a is from January to April with 2-4 nuts per
germplasm collection from Taliparamba in panicle. The average yield of this variety is 7.2
Kerala and released in 1993 from ARS, kg/tree as against the 2 kg/tree of the local
Chintamani. This variety is recommended for varieties. The nut weight is 6.9g with shelling
plain region of Karnataka. Its flowering period percentage of 31%. The kernel grade is W 210.

Chintamani-2
It is a seedling selection from ME 4/4 of ARS, grade conforms to W 210. The colour of the
Ullal and released in 2007 from ARS, apple is red purple with average weight of apple
Chintamani. This variety is also recommended of 70g. Juice content is 60%.
for plain region of Karnataka. The canopy type
is compact and with intensive branching. Its
flowering period is from December to January.
The average yield of this variety is 12.4 kg/tree.
The nut weight is 7.9g with shelling percentage
of 30%. The kernel weight is 2.35 g. The kernel

25
 The state-wise varieties recommended are given below:
State Recommended varieties
Karnataka NRCC Sel-2, Bhaskara, Nethra Ganga (H-130), Nethra Vaaman, Nethra
Jumbo-1, Ullal-1, Ullal-3, Ullal-4, UN-50, Vengurla-1 (Uttara Kannada),
Vengurla-4 (Uttara Kannada), Vengurla-7 (Uttara Kannada)
Karnataka (Plains Chintamani-1, Chintamani-2, Dhana , Vengurla-4, Vengurla-7
region)
Kerala BLA-39-4 (Madak-1), NDR-2-1 (Madak-2), K-22-1, Kanaka (H 1598),
Dhana (H 1608), Priyanka (H 1591), Amrutha (H 1597), VRI-3
Maharashtra Vengurla-1, Vengurla-4, Vengurla-6, Vengurla-7 , Vengurla-8, Vengurla-9
Goa Goa-1, Goa-2, Goa-3, Goa-4, Vengurla-1, Vengurla-4, Vengurla-6, Vengurla-
7, Vengurla-9
West Bengal Jhargram-1, Bidan Jhargram-2, BPP-8
Orissa Bhubaneswar-1, Balabhadra, Jagannath, BPP-8, Dhana
Tamil Nadu VRI-3, VRI (Cw) 5
Andhra Pradesh BPP-4, BPP-6, BPP-8 , , BPP-10, , BPP-11
Chattisgarh Indira Kaju-1

Table 1: Varieties of cashew released from different cashew research centers in India

S.No. variety Hybrid Year of Nut weight Kernel Shelling Yield Export Remarks
/selection release (g) weight % (kg/tree) grade
(g)

Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur (Formerly NRCC)

1 NRCC Sel-1 Selection 1989 7.6 2.10 28.8 10.0 W 210 Withdrawn from
recommendation

2 NRCC Sel-2 Selection 1989 9.2 2.15 28.6 9.0 W 210 Short duration
and bold nuts

3 Bhaskara Selection 2006 7.4 2.20 30.6 10.7 W 240 Escapes from the
attack of TMB

4 Nethra Ganga Hybrid 2018 12.9 3.5 29.5 3.0 W 180 Bold nuts,
responds to
(H-130) (3rd year)
pruning

26
5 Nethra Vaaman Selection 2020 5.0 1.5 30.0 1.5 W 320 Dwarf, suitable
for UHDP

6 Nethra Jumbo-1 Hybrid 2021 12.0 3.4 29.1 10.0 W 180 Early bearing,
bold nuts

Cashew Research Station, Anakkayam, KAU, Thrissur

7 Annakkayam-1 Selection 1982 5.9 1.67 28.0 12.0 W 280 Early, vigorous
and short
flowering period

8 Dharasree Hybrid 1996 7.8 2.40 30.5 15.0 W 240 Mid season
flowering,
compact canopy

9 Akshaya Hybrid 1998 11.0 3.12 28.4 11.0 W 180 Bold nut type

10 Anagha Hybrid 1998 10.0 2.90 29.0 10.0 W 180 Bold nut type

Cashew Research Station, Madakkathara, KAU,Thrissur

11 K-22-1 Selection 1987 6.2 1.60 26.5 13.2 W 280 Compact canopy

12 Madakkathara-1 Selection 1990 6.2 1.64 26.8 13.8 W 280 Early flowering,
compact canopy

13 Madakkathara-2 Selection 1990 7.3 1.88 26.0 17.0 W 210 Late variety, high
yield

14 Kanaka Hybrid 1993 6.8 2.08 30.6 12.8 W 280 Mid season
flowering

15 Dhana Hybrid 1993 8.2 2.44 29.8 10.7 W 280 Mid season
flowering and
cluster bearing

16 Priyanka Hybrid 1995 10.8 2.87 29.6 17.0 W 180 Bold nut, mid
season and
drought tolerant

17 Sulabha Selection 1996 9.8 2.88 29.4 21.9 W 210 Mid season
flowering

18 Amrutha Hybrid 1998 7.2 2.24 31.6 18.4 W 210 Mid season
flowering

19 Damodar Hybrid 2002 8.2 2.00 27.3 13.7 W 240 ---

20 Raghav Hybrid 2002 9.2 2.27 26.6 14.7 W 210 --

21 Poornima Hybrid 2006 7.8 2.60 31.0 14.1 W 210

27
Agricultural Research Station, Ullal, University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shivamogga, Karnataka

22 Ullal -1 Selection 1984 6.7 2.05 30.7 16.0 W 210 Long duration,
Escapes from the
attack of TMB

23 Ullal -2 Selection 1984 6.0 1.83 30.5 9.0 W 320 Short duration,
small nuts

24 Ullal -3 Selection 1993 7.0 2.10 30.0 14.7 W 210 Short duration

25 Ullal -3 Selection 1994 7.2 2.15 31.0 9.5 W 210 Short duration

Agricultural research station, Chintamani, UAS, Bengaluru, Karnataka

26 Chintamani-1 Selection 1993 6.9 2.10 31.0 7.2 W 210 Uniform and
attractive nuts

27 UN-50 Selection 1995 9.0 2.24 32.8 10.5 W 180 Bold nuts and
high shelling
percentage

28 Chintamani-2 Selection 2007 7.9 2.35 30.0 12.4 W 210 ---

Cashew Research Station, Bapatla, Dr.YSR Hort Cultural University, West Godavari, Andhra Pradesh

29 BPP-1 Hybrid 1980 5.0 1.37 27.5 10.0 W 400 Flush colour is
pinkish, semi tall
and cluster
bearing

30 BPP-2 Hybrid 1980 4.0 1.04 25.7 11.0 W 450 Withdrawn from
recommendation

31 BPP-3 Selection 1980 4.8 1.34 28.1 11.0 W 400 --

32 BPP-4 Selection 1980 6.0 1.15 23.0 10.5 W 400 Poor Shelling %

33 BPP-5 Selection 1980 5.2 1.25 24.0 11.0 W 400 Early bearer and
poor Shelling %

34 BPP-6 Selection 1980 5.2 1.44 24.0 10.5 W 400 Long duration

35 BPP-8 Hybrid 1993 8.2 1.89 29.0 14.5 W 210 Early bearer

36 BPP-10 Hybrid 8.1 2.14 29.3 14.9 W 210 Bold nuts

28
37 BPP-11 Hybrid 6.8 1.87 28.0 14.7 W 240 Suitable for high
density planting

Regional Research Station, Vridhachalam, TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

38 VRI-1 Selection 1981 5.0 1.4 28.0 7.2 W 320 Suitable for
coastal region

39 VRI-2 Selection 1985 5.1 1.45 28.3 7.4 W 320 Wide

acceptability

40 VRI-3 Selection 1991 7.2 2.16 29.1 11.7 W 210 Early flowering

41 VRI-4 Selection 2000 6.6 -- 28.5 -- W 240 Mid season

flowering

42 VRI-5 Hybrid 2009 7.2 -- 30.5 13.2 W 210 Cluster bearing

Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurla, KKV, Dapoli, Maharashtra

43 Vengurla -1 Selection 1974 6.2 1.39 31.0 19.0 W 240 Early flowering
and medium size
nuts

44 Vengurla -2 Selection 1979 4.3 1.0 32.0 24.0 W 320 Short duration,
small nuts and
high yield

45 Vengurla -3 Hybrid 1981 9.1 2.09 27.0 14.4 W 210 Bold nuts

46 Vengurla -4 Hybrid 1981 7.7 1.91 31.0 17.2 W 210 Cluster bearing

47 Vengurla -5 Hybrid 1984 4.5 1.0 30.0 16.9 W 400 Compact canopy

48 Vengurla -6 Hybrid 1991 8.0 1.91 28.0 13.8 W 210 More fruiting
laterals

49 Vengurla -7 Hybrid 1997 10.0 2.9 30.5 18.5 W 180 Bold nuts

50 Vengurla -8 Hybrid 2001 11.6 -- --- 17.5 W 180 Bold nuts

51 Vengurla-9 Hybrid 2015 8.9 2.2 29.3 15.9 W 210 Bold nuts

Cashew Research Center, ICAR-CCARI, Goa

52 Goa -1 Selection 1999 7.6 2.2 30.0 7.0 W 210

29
53 Goa -2 Selection 2007 9.4 2.3 29.2 5.5 W 210 Yellow and big
apple

54 Goa Cashew -3 Selection 2017 8.2 2.26 29.5 10.0 W 210

55 Goa Cashew -4 Selection 2017 8.2 2.68 29.6 12.0 W 210

Regional Research Station, Jhargram, BCKV, Kalyani, West Bengal

56 Jhargram-1 Selection 1989 5.0 1.5 30.0 8.5 W 320

57 Bidhan Selection 2014 9.2 2.85 32.0 13.5 W 180 Bold nuts
Jhargram-2

Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

58 Bhubaneswar -1 Selection 1989 4.6 1.47 32.0 10.5 W 320 Cluster bearing
and high shelling
percentage

59 Jagannath Hybrid 2008 8.6 -- 32.5 10.5 -- Mid season

flowering

60 Balabhadra Hybrid 2008 7.4 -- 30.0 10.0 -- Early variety

Cashew Research Centre, Jagadalpur, Indira Gandhi Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya (IGKVV), Raipur, Chattisgharh

61 Indira Kaju-1 Selection 10.5 -- 28.6 15.5 -- Cold tolerance

30
 Cashew Processing: An Indian Perspective
Kalbavi Prakash Rao, Kalbavi Cashews, Mangaluru
History: Cracking the nuts
First organized Factory- Peirce Lesli India Ltd, Kulshekar, Mangalore
Evolution of seed treatment
▶ Hot Oil Bath Roasting
▶ Drum Roasting
▶ Steam Cooking
▶Steam Roasting Technique- Innovation of Mangalore
▶No alternate technology for the last 4 decades

Evolution of Cracking
▶ Stone or Mallet
▶ Venkappa’s Cutter
25 years- most efficient way to crack)
▶ Buddhi Automatic Sheller
Ushered in mechanization
Vietnam Cracking line
Ushered in scale of manufacturing
Reduced manual labour by 75%
Reduced processing cost by half making Vietnam the cheapest manufacturer

31
 Fig: Images showing evolution of cracking
The Rise of Machines
The Art of Drying and Humidification

32
DRYING PROCESS
▶ Brick Borma- Heat transfer by convection- shuffling of trays
▶ Metal Driers- Quick heating, Quicker drying
▶ Hot Air Driers- Fill it, Forget it.
HUMIDIFICATION PROCESS
▶ Stagnated water puddle and fan
▶ Foggers/humidifiers
▶ Humidification through Honey comb sheets
The Peeling Revolution
▶ Manual hand peeling
▶ Manual peeling-7 kgs per day
▶ Conversion of the Garlic peeler ( Air cleaning technology)
▶ Garlic Peeler- 100 kgs/hour
▶ Vietnam copy of Italian peeling machine( improvised )
▶ Vietnam Peeler – 450 kgs /hour
▶ Manual labour reduction- 3 per bag to 0.2 per bag

Grading Technology
▶ Manual grading – 50 kgs per day
▶ Colour sorting- 350 kgs per hour- accept/reject process
▶ Nano Sorting- 250 kgs per hour – single pass 5 grades

33
Manual vs Machines
▶ Manual – total employees required for 1 MT processing=88
▶ Mechanical processing – total employees required = 8
▶ @Avg Rs 500/employee-
▶ Manual processing cost/MT: Rs 44000.00
▶ Mechanical plant cost /MT: Rs 4000.00
▶ Can Rs 40/kg difference sustain?
Vietnam Story
▶ 1980- started processing manually: Avg Size of Factory -3 MT/day
▶ Total Processing: 150,000MT
▶ 1995- Started Mechanical processing: Avg size of factory- 7 MT/day
▶ Total processing: 500,000MT
▶ 2000- Introduced automation: Avg Size of Factory- 20 Mt/day
▶ Total processing: 800,000 MT
▶ 2005- Learnt to Scale – Avg size of factory- 50-60 MT/day
▶ Total processing: 15,00,000 MT
▶ 2020- Totally Automated the plant- Avg Size of Factory- 100-150 MT/day
▶ Total processing: 30,00,000 MT (66% of the world crop)

34
The Indian Story
▶ Remained manual processing till 2005: Avg Factory size: 3-5 MT/day
▶ Total Processing: 7,00,000 MT
▶ 2005- Introduced partial mechanization- Avg Size of Factory: 5-8MT
▶ Total Processing: 8,00,000 MT
▶ 2010- Cutting section mechanized- Avg Factory Size: 10-14 MT/day
▶ Total Processing: 10,00,000 MT
▶ 2015- Initiated copying Vietnam – Avg Factory Size: 14-20 MT/day
▶ Total Processing -12,00,000 MT
▶ 2020- 30% industries completely automated- Avg Factory Size: 20 MT/day
▶ Total Processing – 15,00,000 MT (33% of the Global crop)
India's Export Performance
▶ Y2000- Exports 127,000 MT, Domestic: 60,000 MT
▶ Y2005- Exports 110,000 MT, Domestic: 1,00,000 MT
▶ Y2010- Exports 75,000 MT, Domestic: 178,000 MT
▶ Y2015 – Exports 60,000 MT, Domestic: 239000 MT
▶ 2020- Exports 55,000 MT, Domestic: 336,000 MT
India vs World
▶ India 1990- Largest producer, Manufacturer, Exporter
▶ India 2020 – Largest consumer
▶ Vietnam 1990- Just commenced manufacture
▶ Vietnam 2020 – Largest manufacturer/Exporter
▶ Africa-1990- Only a Producer
▶ Africa-2020- Largest Producer, commenced Manufacture

Looming Threats
▶ Africa takes up processing agenda in a big way
▶ USA fixing supply chain, wants Africa to be the largest manufacturer
▶ Vietnam- Develops Cambodia as its backyard producer

35
▶ Vietnam- has a huge potential to develop China as its internal market
▶ India- Crop shrinking – urbanization, unviable for farmers, unable to
cope with scaling
▶ Indian Domestic market looks saturated- export vs Domestic prices narrow differences
▶ Indian market Highly protected by high duty on import of finished
kernels
▶ Lost out completely on export front; no buyer keen to visit India

The Way Forward….

▶ Increase Indian Crop to 2 MLN MT ASAP
▶ Replace existing plantations with 200 nut count varieties
▶ Post harvest treatment: A must for farmers to sustain value
▶ Introduce Productivity Linked Incentive (PLI) to encourage scaling and beat Vietnam
▶ Develop cashew clusters in Amul pattern

36
 Nutrient management in cashew
S. Mangalassery, J.D. Adiga, Babli Mog and V. Thondaiman
ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur 574202, Dakshina Kannada, Karnataka, India
Introduction
Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) is an important horticultural crop in India, contributing to foreign
exchange. In India, cashew is mainly cultivated along the coastal region of India. The important
cashew growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Goa along the west coast and Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Puduchery and West Bengal along the east coast. It is also grown in
other non-traditional areas such as Bastar region of Chhattisgarh and Kolar (Plains) regions of
Karnataka, Gujarat, Jharkhand and in NEH region. The total area under cashew cultivation in India
during 2016-17 is 10.41 lakh ha with a production of 7.79 lakh tones and average productivity of 745.6
kg ha-1. The productivity of cashew in India is only 745 kg ha-1 in the year 2014. Of the several factors
associated with low productivity, poor soil fertility and lack of adequate care are the major factor
limiting production. Being a hardy, fast growing drought tolerant tree, cashew is predominantly
cultivated as a rainfed crop in soils of low fertility and highly degraded lateritic hillocks. In traditional
farming, the cashew trees seldom receive nutrients and water. Continuous non application of fertilisers
and manures lead to multi-nutrient deficiencies in soil. The experimental studies shows that cashew
respond very well to fertiliser application.
Soil characteristics of cashew growing areas in India
The soil survey studies conducted at predominant cashew growing areas revealed depletion of
soil nutrients due to non replenishment of nutrient removal by the cashew trees. Organic carbon rated
as low in 2.7% samples in Puttur, Karnataka, in 20.0% samples in Vengurla, Maharashtra, 81.4%
samples in Bhubaneswar and 92.9% samples in Bapatla. Available nitrogen was recorded as low in
94.3% samples in Puttur, 37.1% samples in Vengurla, 94.3% samples in Bhubaneswar and 75.7%
samples in Bapatla. Cashew orchards in Pilicode, Kerala were found to be high in organic carbon and
available nitrogen. The percent samples rated as low in available potassium was 65.7% in Puttur,
41.4% in Vengurla, 58.6% in Bhubaneswar, 22.9% in Bapatla and 17.1% in Pilicode. The soils were
deficient in available phosphorus. The soils were also deficient in calcium and magnesium. The
micronutrients such as iron and manganese were sufficient. However the soils were generally deficient
in zinc (22.9 to 57.14% samples in different regions) and copper (8.57 to 32.9% samples in different
regions). These results indicate growing nutrient deficiencies in soils under cashew cultivation along

37
west coast and east coast. Under such situation, soil test based nutrient management can not only
improve the growth and productivity of cashew, but also arrest soil degradation.
Nutrient management in cashew
Like any other crops and organism, cashew too requires additional nutrient inputs for
producing potential yield. Being a perennial tree crop, cashew removes considerable amount of
nutrients from soil. A 30 year old cashew tree removes 2.847 kg N, 0.75 kg P2O5 and 1.265 kg K2O.
If the continuous removal by cashew tree is not balanced by application of manures and fertilisers, the
yield and quality of produce will be affected, apart from deterioration of soil health. The response to
nutrient application varies from location to location, based on initial soil nutrient status and
management practices followed. Integrated use of organic manure, inorganic fertilisers and
micronutrients provide sustainable yield while maintaining soil health.
6.1. Management of soil acidity
Cashew growing soils are generally acidic. Under high acidic soil conditions, nutrients such as
phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, boron and molybdenum become unavailable, and nutrients such as
iron, manganese and aluminium increase to toxic levels to affect plant growth. For correcting soil
acidity, liming is to be undertaken with lime, dolomite or other liming materials. Testing of soil for
pH will give an idea of soil acidity. However, for finding out lime requirement special test are to be
carried out, which can be done in any soil testing laboratory. Liming based on soil test is to be done
while establishing plantation and periodically based on soil test. Lime may be applied any time of the
year, however, to increase the efficiency, lime is to be applied immediately after cessation of heavy
rains since moisture is essential for lime-soil reaction. For new plantations, apply lime 2-3 months
before planting. For established plantations, once in 3-5 years will be sufficient. The ground liming
materials can be either incorporated into the soil or be broadcasted as per the lime requirement. The
top-dressed lime gets leached into the soil with rainfall. Incorporation of liming materials gives faster
results. The time of application is April – May before the onset of monsoon.
Manuring
Since the cashew growing soils are deficient in organic matter, application of 10-15 kg
farmyard manure or compost per grownup tree is recommended. This has to be undertaken in August-
September, during the receding periods of monsoon. This can be applied in the circular trench along
with the application of fertilizer discussed below.

38
In the absence of FYM, green manuring can be adopted as an alternative. Green manure crops such as
glyricidia, sesbania and sunhemp can be grown along boundaries and in between two rows of cashew.
Application of green manure increase organic matter content in soil. It also improves soil structure
and help to reduce runoff and soil erosion. Wherever available the poultry manure can be used in place
of FYM by applying at the rate of 10 kg per tree per year.
Management of major nutrients
The general nutrient recommendation for various cashew growing regions is presented in Table
1. These fertiliser doses are to be adjusted based on the soil test results, age of the plant and spacing
followed. The recommendation is for normal spacing. In high density planting system of cashew, the
fertilizer recommended is reasonable up to 80-100 per cent canopy coverage which is normally
achieved during the initial 6-8 years after planting. After certain stage of the crop, reduction in
recommended doses of fertilizers per plant may be necessary due to the nutrient build up in soil
contributed from the decomposing cashew biomass fall out. It again re-iterates the need for soil test
based site specific nutrient management.
Table 1. Recommended dose of fertilizers to cashew in different states
State Nutrient dose for mature cashew plantations (5th year of planting)
(g/tree/year)
N P2O5 K2O
Kerala 500 125 125
750 325 750
Karnataka 500 250 250
750 125 125
Tamil Nadu 500 200 300
Andhra Pradesh 500 125 125
1000 125 125

39
 Maharashtra 1000 250 250
Odisha 500 250 250
West Bengal 1000 250 250

Time and methods of application

Fertiliser is to be applied after cessation of heavy rains and after weeding and clearing the base of
individual trees. The key to enhance fertilizer use efficiency is to synchronize the time of fertilizer
application with the growth need of the crop and period of high root activity. Flushing and early
flowering phase (September to December) is the period of increased root activity aiding enhanced
absorption of nutrients from soil. Therefore effort should be made to coincide the fertiliser application
with this phase. During flushing phase there is heavy internal demand for nutrients as the tree is
entering re-productive phase. Hence proper fertiliser application is essential during this growth phase.
Preferably the fertilizers to cashew are to be applied in two split doses; one at the onset of the monsoon
and the second during the post-monsoon period, ensuring adequate soil moisture availability. If only
single application is possible due to labour constraint or other reasons, then this can be done during
post monsoon period when sufficient soil moisture is available. Circular trenches of 25 cm deep and
15 cm wide are opened at distance of 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5 m away from trunk during 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th
year after planting and onwards respectively in laterite soils in heavy rainfall areas in west coast. In
loamy soils of low rainfall east coast fertiliser can be applied in 50 cm circular strips. The trench
should be closed immediately after the application of fertilizers and green leaves can be spread as
mulch. During 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th year of planting 1/5th, 2/5th, 3/5th, 4/5th and full quantity of
recommended dose is to be applied.

40
Management of micronutrients
Among 17 essential nutrients, the nutrients that are required by plant in small quantities are called as
micronutrients. These include iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron and molybdenum. The functions
of these nutrients in cashew are summarised below (Table 2).
Table 2. Micronutrients and their role in plants
Micronutrient Role in plant
Iron It plays a major role in synthesis of chlorophyll and photosynthetic activity
within the plant and plays major role in nitrogen assimilation.
Manganese Manganese play role in chlorophyll synthesis, and are important in
functioning of many enzymes in plants.
Zinc Zinc is required for protein synthesis and for the formation of growth
regulating compounds in plants.
Copper It is important in chlorophyll formation. It is also a component of different
enzymes in plant.
Boron In plants B is required for cell division and elongation. It plays a major role
in flower and seed production and hence directly related to yield.
Molybdenum Important in protein synthesis.

The widespread occurrence of micro nutrient deficiencies in cashew growing areas is to be tackled by
adequate supplemental application of micro nutrient fertilisers either through soil application or foliar
spray.

Micronutrient fertilisers
Commonly used micronutrient fertilisers are listed below in Table 3; however, the list is not
exhaustive.
Table 3. Micronutrient fertilisers
Micronutrient Source Content (%)
Iron Ferrous suphate heptahydrate 20
Fe-EDTA 12
Manganese Manganese sulphate 30.5
Mn-EDTA 5-12

41
 Manganese chloride 17
Zinc Zn-EDTA 12
Zinc sulphate monohydrate 33
Zinc suphate heptahydrate 21
Copper Copper sulphate penthydrate 24
Copper sulphate monohydrate 35
Boron Borax 10.5
Boric acid 17
Di-sodium octaborate tetrahydrate 20
Solubor (for foliar application) 19
Molybdenum Ammonium molybdate 52
Sodium molybdate 39

Rate and method of application

Foliar application
Table 4 illustrates the recommended rates of micronutrient fertilisers for cashew. A grown up cashew
tree requires about 5 litre of spray solution. The foliar spray is to be carried out at start of flushing,
panicle initiation and fruit setting stages.

42
Table 4. Rate of micronutrient for foliar application
Nutrient Fertiliser to be used Rate (g/litre)
Iron Ferrous sulphate 5
Manganese Manganese sulphate 5
Zinc Zinc sulphate hepta hydrate 5
Boron Boric acid 1
Solubor 1
Borax 1
Molybdenum Ammonium molybdate 1
Copper Copper sulphate penta hydrate 1

Soil application of micronutrients

The general rates for soil application of micronutrients are available. The rate is 5 kg/ha for Zn, 2
kg/ha for B, and 1 kg/ha for Cu, 2.5 kg/ha for Mn and 0.5 kg/ha for Mo. This rate is as per nutrient
basis, and while applying this has to be converted on fertiliser basis, based on the micronutrient fertilise
to be used by the farmer. It is better to provide the micronutrient by including canopy coverage area
in calculation. At any cost excess application of micronutrients to soil should not be done as it will
adversely affect other nutrients, crop growth and yield. Soil application is only required once in two
years. Since the quantity of micronutrient to be given per tree is very small, it is better to mix it with
sand while applying.
Precautions in micronutrient soil application in soil.
- Apply only once in 2 years.
- Zinc fertilisers should not be applied along with phosphatic fertilisers.
- Apply only if deficiency is detected in soil testing and apply just the recommended dose.
Manuring and fertilisation in high density planting systems
Under high density planting the rate of fertilisers are to be adjusted based on the number of trees per
unit area. For some regions, specific fertiliser recommendations are available for high density planting.
For tree density of 400 plants/ha, 75:25:25 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha per year is recommended.
Nutrient management under organic farming in cashew
Soil fertility and nutrient supply are one of the important factors deciding yield. It is reported that only
20% of the cultivated area under cashew receives the nutrient application. Although cashew
plantations are reported to produce 1.38 to 5.20 t ha-1 of cashew leaf litter biomass with reported

43
composting efficiency of 65%, these are not adequately recycled in cashew plantations. The leaf litter
are removed to facilitate picking of nuts during harvest season. During other periods these may be
burned or composted. However, the prepared composts are applied to other crops such as arecanut,
coconut etc. These practices year after year lead to depletion of soil nutrients. Chemical fertilisers
though easier way to increase growth and yield, nowadays there is more preference for organic cashew
by some of the consumers. Also, there is also growing concern of increasing cost of fertilisers due to
government policies and environmental concerns.
Software and Mobile App for aiding the growers in nutrient management in cashew
One of the major constraints in realizing the potential yield in cashew is the limited attention given by
growers on nutrient management in cashew. The application of the right quantity of required fertilizer
at the right time is vital for the judicious management of resources and for achieving the maximum
benefit and income. Due to the wide variability in field conditions, and availability and choice of
fertilisers, the farmers cannot correctly determine the right quantity of fertiliser to be applied and they
may have to depend on scientists and extension personnel to get information on the correct doses. For
empowering the farmers to take informed decision by themselves, a software and a mobile App for
nutrient management in cashew was prepared under the project funded by RKVY-RAFTAAR at
ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur.
Software on Cashew nutrient manager
This software is available in both English and Kannada. It is available on the ICAR-DCR website for
calculating fertilizer requirement, lime requirement, foliar application of major and micronutrients.
The deficiency symptoms of major and micronutrients commonly observed in the field also included
in the software. The farmers can click on the images and understand the symptoms and find out the
options to correct the deficiency. The software also lets the farmers download the soil health card
issued by ICAR-DCR, Puttur. The link to the software is https://cashew.icar.gov.in/soil

44
The use of fertilizer calculator module
 The user needs to provide the no. of trees in the plantation. Or this will be automatically calculated
if the user gives spacing followed in the plantation and total area.
 The full recommended dose is required from 5th year onwards under normal density planting and
from 3rd year onwards under high-density planting. Columns are provided to enter this information
in the software.
 There are options to calculate fertilizer if the user follows the high-density planting either with
general fertilizer recommendation or special recommendation of fertilizer.
 If soil test reports are available, this information can be added. Based on soil nutrient status, the
fertilizer rate will be adjusted automatically.
 The user can choose the rate of fertilizer recommended for his/her area in the state from the drop
down menu.
 The type of fertilizer can be selected as per farmers' choice, or even a new fertilizer can be used in
the calculation, providing the percentage content of nutrients, which will be available on the
fertilizer bag.
 The user can generate the report with information on fertilizer rate per tree basis and the quantity
required for the plantation.
The use of lime calculator module
To calculate the lime requirement, the user has to get the soil tested for Lime requirement and use the
lime calculator. The user has to enter the information such as pH value (obtained after testing the soil
for lime requirement), the radius of the tree canopy, the liming material available for use, and the no.
of trees per unit area or spacing.
The use of foliar nutrition calculator module
For calculating, the user has to enter the following information.
 Choose the nutrient to be applied as a foliar spray
 Enter information on no. of trees or spacing & area in the plantation
 Provide the age of tree and capacity of the tank being used for spraying/mixing fertilizer.
Mobile App on cashew nutrient manager
The mobile app version of the software on the cashew nutrient manager was developed. The App has
got bilingual functionality (English and Kannada). The app can be downloaded from the Google play
store at
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.icarcashew.dcr_cashewnutrientmanager

45
Conclusions
Like any other crops, nutrient management is important in cashew also. The studies have
indicated the potential to increase yield by nutrient application in cashew. Being primarily grown in
lateritic acidic landscapes of low fertility, liming and nutrient application found to significantly
improve the net farm income.
Literature consulted
Anonymous, 2011. Methods manual - Soil testing in India. Department of Agriculture and
Coopertaion, Government of India, New Delhi, p. 217.
Anonymous, 2015. Guidelines for use of micronutrients, soil ameliorants and integrated
nutrient management practices in NFSM states. National Food Security Mission, Department of
Agriculture and Cooperation, Government of India, New Delhi, p. 27.
Anonymous. 2013. Indian fertiliser scenario 2013. Department of fertilisers, Ministry of Chemicals
and Fertilisers, Government of India. pp. 246.
DCCD, 2018. Area and production of cashew 2017-18, Directorate of Cashewnut and Cocoa
Development, Kochi.
https://www.floramax.com/nutrient-deficiencies/plant-deficiency-symptoms-flow-chart/ (Date
accessed: 03-09-2018).
Mangalassery, S., 2018. Ad-hoc recommendations on nutrient deficiency management in cashew.
ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, India, p. 7.

46
Nayak, M.G., Muralidhara, B.M., Mangalassery, S., 2018. Innovative production technologies to
enhance production and processing of cashew. In: Parameswaran, P.A., Jayalakshmi, V.S.,
Nikhil, V.M., Shine, K.K., Rohith, H.S., Lukose, V., Gopinath, L. (Eds.), National Conference
on Cashew Directorate of Cashewnut and Cocoa Development, Kochi, India Hotel Swosti
Premium, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India, pp. 28-37.
Poduval, M., Yadukumar, N., 2011. Effect of different doses of fertilizers on different densities of
cashew plantation. Journal of Plantation Crops 39, 35-40.
Rejani, R., Rupa, T.R., Nayak, M.G., 2013. Suitability of cashew growing areas in India - an appraisal
using GIS. Journal of Agrometeorology 15, 123-128.
Rejani, R., Yadukumar, N., 2010. Soil and water conservation techniques in cashew grown along steep
hill slopes. Scientia Horticulturae 126, 371-378.
Rupa, T.R., 2017. Nutrient and water management. In: Saroj, P.L. (Ed.), Cashew: improvement,
production and processing. Astral International Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, pp. 233-252.
Salam, M.A., Peter, K.V., 2009. Cashew-A monograph. Studium Press (India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
India. pp. 257.
Singh, D., Chhonkar, P.K., Dwivedi, B.S., 2016. Manual on soil, plant and water analysis. Westville
Publishing House, New Delhi.
Yadukumar, N., Rejani, R., Nandan, S.L., 2012. Effect of organic and inorganic nutrition in cashew.
Journal of Plantation Crops 40, 1-8.

47
 Soil and water conservation, and irrigation management in cashew
S. Mangalassery, J.D. Adiga, G.L. Veena and G.N. Manjesh
ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur 574202, Dakshina Kannada, Karnataka, India
Introduction
Cashew is one of the important foreign exchange earning crops and is traditionally grown in
the coastal region in India. The major cashew growing states in the west coast are Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka and Kerala. Along the east coast, the major cashew growing states are Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal. The non-traditional areas of cashew cultivation are Bastar region
of Chhattisgarh and Kolar (Plains) regions of Karnataka, Gujarat, Jharkhand and in NEH region. In
India, cashew is generally grown as a rainfed crop mainly along the coastal areas in low fertile soil.
Majority of cashew orchards in India are not irrigated. The productivity levels of cashew are low in
India compared to other producer countries. The research studies showed that the mean rainfall
distribution in cashew area ranged from low rainfall (1500-2000 mm in Gujarat) to high rainfall (2700
to 3500 mm in West coast and NEH region). In India, the vegetative development of cashew occurs
during rainy season, and the reproductive phase during the dry season. Although cashew is grown in
high rainfall environment, it experiences severe moisture stress during January to May with the highest
water deficit during March to May. Incidentally the critical growth phases such as flushing, flowering
and nut formation in cashew also occur during these periods. Any form of stress biotic and abiotic
stresses during these periods adversely affects the flowering and fruit set and results in premature nut
drop and finally reduces the yield and productivity of cashew. Lack of moisture availability during
fruiting season is one of the several factors associated with the low yield in cashew. Studies have
shown that supplemental irrigation can significantly improve the productivity and yield of cashew.
This bulletin addresses various issues in water management in cashew. The bulletin highlight the
importance of water management in cashew, different options available to address the issue of
irrigation, water conservation and water management for increasing the yield.
About cashew
Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.), is native to Brazil and was introduced to India by
Portugese travellers as a soil binding crop, to control soil erosion in coastal areas during 16th century.
Sooner its commercial importance and adaptability to adverse soil and environmental conditions were
recognized and its cultivation on commercial scale occurred along the east and west coast of India.
Export of cashew kernels and cashewnut shell liquid bring foreign exchange to the country. In India,
cashew is cultivated on a wide range of soil types such as sandy to sandy loam, laterite soil, loam and
48
red latosols. Due its drought hardiness, cashew is widely cultivated in degraded hillocks and slopy
lands, where profitable production of other crops are not possible. Majority of cashew growing soils
are low in soil fertility in terms of nitrogen, base status, cation exchange capacity and micronutrients
such as zinc and boron. Due to heavy precipitation in the coastal areas where cashew is grown, the
basic cations are washed out causing increased soil acidity. The high soil acidity in turn decreases the
nutrient uptake by the plant, making some of the nutrients unavailable for cashew.
Water requirement of cashew
In India, the vegetative development of cashew occurs during rainy season, and the
reproductive phase during the dry season. Although cashew is grown in high rainfall environment, it
experiences severe moisture stress during January to May. Incidentally the critical growth phases such
as flushing, flowering and nut formation in cashew also occur during these periods. Any form of stress
biotic and abiotic stresses during these periods adversely affects the flowering and fruit set and results
in premature nut drop and finally reduces the yield and productivity of cashew.
Water management in cashew
The cashew growing regions are characterised by high intensity rainfall over a short duration
which lead to runoff and soil erosion. Cashew experience moisture stress during December/January to
May which coincide with flowering and fruit setting phase of cashew, leading to flower drying and
immature nut drop. Moreover the traditional areas of cashew cultivation lack access to water sources
for irrigation purposes. Research studies indicate that cashew though a hardy crop respond well to
water and manure management. In areas with no access to irrigation water, the water deficit to the
crop can be managed to some extent by the adoption of region specific soil and water conservation
practices. Adoption of such practices is part of cashew production technology in case of slopy areas
to prevent surface runoff and soil erosion.
Soil and water conservation practices
Cashew plantations are raised on landscapes which are unsuitable for many other crops, and
generally lack source of water for irrigation. Arranging irrigation in such landscapes will be difficult
and costly. Adoption of proper soil and water conservation techniques in-situ in such sloppy and
degraded landscapes play very important role in preventing further soil degradation by controlling soil
erosion, conserving soil moisture and improving tree growth and productivity in a sustainable manner.
Among different soil and water conservation techniques studied, modified crescent bunds, staggered
trenches with coconut husk burial and reverse terrace are recommended for cashew orchards. The
other popular soil conservation practice recommended for cashew is terrace with catch pits. These

49
practices were found beneficial to harvest pre-monsoon rainfall and increase the cashew yield to the
tune of 32-35%. Other benefits are reduction in runoff velocity and soil loss, increased soil moisture
retention and ground water recharge. With the adoption of such soil and water conservation practices,
barren / sloppy lands can be brought under cashew cultivation in order to increase the farm income
and land productivity.
Different technologies for in-situ soil and water conservation recommended for cashew are
detailed below. The adoption of these practices should be done in accordance with the local conditions,
topography, water holding capacity and infiltration characteristics of soil.
Trenches
Continuous contour trench: These trenches are taken in sloppy areas (7 to 8% slope), running
through entire field length along the contour. The trench dimension recommended is 0.5 m x 0.6 m.
Modified crescent bund: The modified crescent bund consists of a crescent shaped bund of 6 m length,
1 m width and 0.5 m height at 2 m radius, which is to be taken at upstream of the cashew terrace which
will help to retain water as well as litter.

Modified crescent bund for soil and water conservation in cashew orchards
Staggered trench: The staggered trenches of size 5 m length, 1 m width and 0.5 m depth are to be
taken between two rows of cashew or in the middle of 4 plants, across the slope, in which coconut
husks can be buried to enhance water retention.
Reverse terraces: The recommended dimensions for reverse terraces are 2 m length, 2 m width and
0.7 m depth, which are constructed so as to be inclined from periphery to the centre.

50
Reverse terrace for soil and water conservation in cashew orchards
Catch pits: The recommended dimensions for catch pits are 3 m length, 0.5 m width and 0.5 m depth,
which are constructed upstream of cashew planted terrace, to catch and retain the runoff and to increase
percolation.

Terrace with catch pits for soil and water conservation in cashew in steep slopes
Tree base terrace: Formation of tree base terrace at 2 m radius around the plant, taken over three
years of planting shall be beneficial for moisture conservation. It is made by taking soil from the upper
side of the slope and filling at the lower portion. The upside shall be taken in such a way that it form
a catch pit to deposit soil and conserve moisture.

Bioengineering measures
Coconut husk burial: Adoption of coconut husk burial techniques with soil and water conservation
techniques like modified crescent bund, staggered trenches etc. improve the water retention in soil for
longer periods. This practice of coconut husk burial can be adopted around cashew plants also. Husks
are to be buried in trenches of 3.5 m length, 1 m width and 0.5 m depth, opened across the slope
between two rows of cashew. In such trenches 3 to 4 layers of husks can be buried with convex side

51
of first layer of husk touching ground. The last layer of husks should be placed with convex side upper
side. Thin layer of soil and leaf materials can be placed between layers of husks. Then the trench can
be filled with soil, leaving about 10 cm depth.

Coconut husk burial for soil and water conservation in cashew orchards
Use of bigger pits and mulching: This practice is to be followed during the establishment of
cashew plantations. Pits of 1 m3 size are to be dug open at recommended spacing following other soil
and water conservation measures such as terracing. These pits are to be filled with topsoil, organic
manure and rock phosphate at recommended rate up to 2/3rd depth. Plant the graft at centre of this pit
and proper mulching to be done.
Trenches with vegetative barriers: Inclusion of vegetative barrier along with continuous contour
trenches and staggered trenches (in reversely sloppy areas) can substantially reduce runoff and soil
loss. Stylosanthes hamata, Vetiveria zizanioides are some of the recommended vegetative barriers.
Apart from helping to reduce run off and soil loss, the vegetative barriers can be harvested to provide
additional income.
Green manuring and mulching: Growing green manure crops like Glyricidia at vacant spaces and
borders provide material for mulching. Mulching the tree basin with green mulch helps to conserve
the soil moisture.
Circular trench with leaf litter and coconut husk: This practice is generally recommended for
east-coast areas, wherein coconut husks and leaf litter are buried in circular trenches of 0.3 m width
and 0.5 m depth opened at 2 m away from the cashew trunk.

52
 Circular trench with leaf litter and coconut husk
Supplementary/Protective irrigation
While establishing the new plantations, the planted cashew grafts requires enough soil moisture
for establishment and hence it is recommended to plant the cashew grafts during the monsoon season.
Under drought situation, the newly planted grafts need to be watered once in every 3 to 7 days, to
ensure the root ball of the graft is kept moist, but not water logged. Once established, due to the deep
tap root system, the cashew trees can survive the moderate dry season without irrigation, but with
effect on yield. Cashew is known for its drought hardiness and generally grown as unirrigated,
however the yield can be increased if irrigated. Wherever source of irrigation water is available,
providing supplementary irrigation can benefit in improving the nut yield.
Providing irrigation @200 litres per tree at 15 days interval during November to March
increases the nut retention and yield. For yielding trees, protective irrigation is to be given only after
the plant enters flowering phase, during nut set and nut development stages.
By providing black polythene mulch the quantity of irrigation to be provided can be reduced to 60
L/tree once in fortnight

Drip irrigation
In drip system of irrigation water is applied through a network of pipelines and applied to the root
zone of crop drop by drop by use of emitters or drippers. In this system water is applied based on ET
demand of the crop and root zone is always maintained at field capacity levels.
Drip irrigation allows water saving to the tune of 40 to 70% in comparison to other methods of
irrigation and 25-80% increase in yield. The water requirement in cashew is decided based on the
climatic condition, canopy area and growth phase of the plant. Based on canopy coverage and daily
water evaporation, the water requirement of cashew can be calculated as follows.

53
To meet 20% CPE
Age of tree: 5 years
Canopy spread or diameter: 4 m [mean of EW and NS length of canopy]
Ground coverage of canopy: πr2 = 3.14 x 2 x 2 = 12.56 m2
Daily CPE = 5mm; 20% CPE = 1 mm
The quantity of water to be given to meet 1 mm of water in 12.56 m2 area = 12.56 x 1/1000 = 0.01256
m3.
1 m3 = 1000 L
0.01256 m3 = 12.56 L/tree/day
Advantages of drip irrigation
• It reduces direct loss of water by evaporation, seepage and percolation.
• Slow application rates facilitates easy infiltration to the soil.
• It reduces water consumption by weeds and grasses.
• It allows watering in the root zone of plant.
• Yield increases due to optimum soil moisture status at root zone.
• It can be adopted in undulating areas, where surface methods of irrigation is not possible.
• Increased water use efficiency.
Disadvantages of drip irrigation
• The drippers are clogged with soil/mineral particles and algae.
• The soil moisture is limited and depends on discharge of drippers, dripper spacing and the soil
type.
• The rodents and insects may damage some of teh components of drip system.
• The initial investment and annual maintenance cost are higher compared to other irrigation
methods.
Drip irrigation schedule for cashew
In cashew drip irrigation can be started from the second fortnight of December to end of March.
However for new plantations, irrigation can be continued upto end of May. For well established normal
density plantations, the rate of drip irrigation recommended is to meet 60% of the evaporative demand.
In general, this can be met by providing 4 drippers each of 6 L/h capacity, running for 1.5 hours (that
provide 36 litres of water per tree per day) during the months of December and January. The general
recommendation during February and March under normal density planting is to provide 48 L/tree/day

54
(4 drippers of 6 L/h capacity, running for 2 hours). These rates are for grown up trees. The drippers
should be installed at the base of the tree located at 1 m equidistance from the base of the tree.
In case of high density planting system drip irrigation is to be given to meet 20% of the evaporative
demand. This is provided by installing two drippers each of capacity 2 L/h at the base of the tree
located at 1 m equidistance from the base of the tree, running for 1 h 45 minutes (giving 7 litre water
per tree per day) during December and January and running for 2 h 15 minutes (giving 9 L water per
tree per day) during February and March.
Irrigation should be started only after flowering and stopped before starting the harvest. When drip
system is planned right from the establishment of plantations, two drippers can be placed at 0.5 m
away from the base of the tree on both sides on the lateral pipe, and another two drippers 1 m away
from the base of the tree on both sides of the cashew tree. Microtubes of 1.5 to 2 m length can be
connected to the drippers to facilitate changing the water dripping points near the root zone as the tree
grow up over different years.
Fertigation
It is the technique of applying plant nutrients by dissolving them in irrigation water mainly through
drip system. It helps to deliver the correct quantity of water and nutrients to plant roots zone. Fetigation
ensures almost 90% use efficiency for the applied fertilisers, as it enables applying the nutrients at the
most nutrient demanding stage of crop, at right place (at the zone of highest root activity) and right
time. The right combination of water and nutrients is to be used to obtain desired results through
ferigation. The advantages of fertigation are as follows.
• Higher nutrient use efficiency.
• Less pollution of water bodies through leaching of fertiliser nutrients.
• Savings of water, nutrients, energy, labour and money
• Effective application of micronutrients.
• Reduced weed growth.
• Increased yield and quality of the produce.
The disadvantages in fertigation is given below.
• Chances of non uniform distribution of fertilisers to different trees in case of any fault in the
drip irrigation system.
• Cloging of emitters / laterals pipes due to precipitation of chemicals.

55
Fertlisers used in fertigation
The fertilisers used in fertigation should be readily soluble in water, compatible with other fertilisers,
low content of insoluble matters and low corrosiveness. The general thumb rules on solubility is given
below.
• All ammonium, nitrate, potassium, sodium and chloride salts are soluble.
• All sulphates are soluble except for calcium sulphate.
• All oxides, hydroxides and carbonates are insoluble.
• Urea, MOP and chelated micronutrients are generally soluble.
• Phosphates, sulphates, calcium, magnesium and trace elements may lead to precipitation and
blocking if mixed or used with hard water (high in calcium and magnesium). For example,
ammonium sulphate causes precipitation of calcium sulphate and magnesium as sulphate.

• Tracer elements such as Mg, Zn, B, Fe, Cu etc ., are difficult to apply through drip irrigation
because they need in very low quantities, may reacts with salt in water and causes clogging.
• However chelated form such as Fe- EDDHA, Fe- DTPA can be used, on chelation the
solubility increases.
• Custom made liquid Liquid fertilizer designed for fertigation are also available in the market,
However this may be costly.

When fertilisers are solubilised by mixing together, they may react and tend to precipitate, if they are
not compatible. Such fertilisers are better applied separately through fertigation on different days/time
or different fertilisation tanks. Examples of such incompatible fertilisers are Ammonium sulphate and
potassium chloride; calcium nitrate with phosphates or sulphates or DAP, MAP; Phosphoric acid with
iron, zinc, copper and manganese etc.
Fertigation recommendation in cashew
It has been reported that fertigation can save 50% in the fertilizer requirement and doubled the cashew
yield. Under fertigation only 50% of the recommended dose of fertiliser be given through drip and
remaining may be applied in the form of castor cake (4 kg/tree/year in case of normal density planting
system Or 2 kg castor cake per tree per year in case of high density planting system). The application
of organic manure or castor cake may be done during August in pits dug out near water dripping point
located 1 m distant from the base of the trees. The recommended dose of fertiliser need to be given in
equal splits at weekly interval starting from the month of October to February. The required quantity
of fertilisers are to be dissolved in water and applied through drip system.

56
Immediately after cessation of monsoon rains, the flushing phase get intensified in cashew and
fertiliser application is highly essential during this phase. However, since flowering induction in
cashew needs dry period, irrigation is not recommended during these periods. So to meet the nutrient
demand 25% of the recommended dose needs to be applied as basal dose as soil application. Rest of
the dose may be applied in equal split doses at weekly intervals starting from the month of October
upto February. For young and establishing plantations irrigation is to be given at 100% CPE.
However under the actual field conditions, the no. of drippers, flow rate, availability of labour
to run the system daily, age of the cashew trees, its development stages etc vary widely and user need
to customise his/her requirement. Similarly in designing fertigation schedule the field conditions vary
widely under each farmer’s field and a general recommendation may not be useful. The availability of
fertiliser, soil conditions, density of planting, age of the tree etc needs to be taken into consideration
while formulating a fertigation schedule. To empower the users to do drip/fertigation calculations and
scheduling at their convenience by inputting their specific needs and resources, a software and mobile
App is being developed by ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur and will be shortly available
on ICAR-DCR website and Google Play store.
Maintenance of drip system

Daily maintenance
• Start the pump and allow developing stable pressure.
• Clean all the filters as per the protocol.
• Open the bye pass valve meant for sending water to the drip system to obtain desired pressure in
the system.
• Traverse the field and check for leakage or damage to any components. Rectify the defects by
replacing the parts, removing the folds and kinks in the laterals. Check the position of drippers and
microtubes and keep them in correct location if misplaced.
• Check the drippers for uniform discharge of water. Open and clean the filters if required. Do not
pull the emitter from laterals as it will lead to enlargement of hole and leakage.
• Remove the end stops and flush the laterals for about 1-2 minutes.
• Flush each submain at the end of irrigation to remove the debris. This is important, since dirt are
accumulated in mains and submains and if not flushed off, this may directly go the dripper and
clog the pores.

57
Fortnightly maintenance
Clean the filters
Sand filter: Clean the sand filter by backwash, after adjusting the flow using bypass valve such that
sand doesnot come out. Carefully stir the sand thoroughly while backwashing and also break the lumps
if any. Continue this until clean water flows out. If the sand is not filled upto the mark indicated,
refilling with new sand may be required. Since the sand filter uses special crushed silica, ordinary sand
will not serve the purpose.
Screen filter: Remove the filter from the assembly, remove the rubber seals from both ends and clean
with a light brush in running water.
Disc filter: Remove the filter from the assembly, remove the rubber seals and clean in running water.
Monthly maintenance
If required perform acid treatment to remove precipitated salts from drippers, microtubes and laterals.
Perform chlorine treatment to remova algal growth, slime and bacterial growth.
1. Clogging of emitters is one of the major problem in drip irrigation systems. Take out the
emitter/micro tube from lateral pipe and shake it or blow it to remove the trapped dirt. Openable types
of emitters can be opened and clean with accessories such as needle.
2. Leakage in the lateral, main and sub-mains: Cut the damaged part and connect it with
joiner/connector.
3. Flush and clean the filters by opening and cleaning the screen
4. Flush the sub-mains and laterals by releasing the end caps.
5.Lubricate the movable screws and parts of the system both after using and when not using.
Care during rainy season
Before the onset of rainy season, back wash by flushing the system after removing the end cap of the
lateral pipes. Replace the end cap of lateral pipes, roll the lateral pipes in circle and place near sub
main pipe at a high elevation.
Literature consulted
Anonymous, 2011. Methods manual - Soil testing in India. Department of Agriculture and
Coopertaion, Government of India, New Delhi, p. 217.
Anonymous, 2015. Guidelines for use of micronutrients, soil ameliorants and integrated nutrient
management practices in NFSM states. National Food Security Mission, Department of
Agriculture and Cooperation, Government of India, New Delhi, p. 27.

58
Anonymous. 2013. Indian fertiliser scenario 2013. Department of fertilisers, Ministry of Chemicals
and Fertilisers, Government of India. pp. 246.
DCCD, 2018. Area and production of cashew 2017-18, Directorate of Cashewnut and Cocoa
Development, Kochi.
https://www.floramax.com/nutrient-deficiencies/plant-deficiency-symptoms-flow-chart/ (Date
accessed: 03-09-2018).
Mangalassery, S., 2018. Ad-hoc recommendations on nutrient deficiency management in cashew.
ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, India, p. 7.
Nayak, M.G., Muralidhara, B.M., Mangalassery, S., 2018. Innovative production technologies to
enhance production and processing of cashew. In: Parameswaran, P.A., Jayalakshmi, V.S.,
Nikhil, V.M., Shine, K.K., Rohith, H.S., Lukose, V., Gopinath, L. (Eds.), National Conference
on Cashew Directorate of Cashewnut and Cocoa Development, Kochi, India Hotel Swosti
Premium, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India, pp. 28-37.
Poduval, M., Yadukumar, N., 2011. Effect of different doses of fertilizers on different densities of
cashew plantation. Journal of Plantation Crops 39, 35-40.
Rejani, R., Rupa, T.R., Nayak, M.G., 2013. Suitability of cashew growing areas in India - an appraisal
using GIS. Journal of Agrometeorology 15, 123-128.
Rejani, R., Yadukumar, N., 2010. Soil and water conservation techniques in cashew grown along steep
hill slopes. Scientia Horticulturae 126, 371-378.
Rupa, T.R., 2017. Nutrient and water management. In: Saroj, P.L. (Ed.), Cashew: improvement,
production and processing. Astral International Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, pp. 233-252.
Salam, M.A., Peter, K.V., 2009. Cashew-A monograph. Studium Press (India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
India. pp. 257.
Singh, D., Chhonkar, P.K., Dwivedi, B.S., 2016. Manual on soil, plant and water analysis. Westville
Publishing House, New Delhi.
Yadukumar, N., Rejani, R., Nandan, S.L., 2012. Effect of organic and inorganic nutrition in cashew.
Journal of Plantation Crops 40, 1-8.
Goyal, M.R., 2012. Management of drip/trickle or micro irrigation. Apple Academic Press, New
Jersey, USa. pp. 408.
http://jainpipe.com/Designtechnical/maintenance%20guidelines%20for%20filters.htm

59
 Establishment and management of cashew orchards and intercropping
in cashew
J. Dinakara Adiga
Principal Scientist (Horticulture)

ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Darbe (P.O), Puttur, Dakshina Kannada,Karnataka

A) Selection of site and soil management

Great harm has been done to cashew cultivation by notions like "cashew is very modest in its
soil requirements and can adopt itself to varying soil conditions without impairing productivity". As a
result, the worst soils have always been selected for cashew, where no other crop could give an economic
return. As a matter of fact, cashew performs much better on good than on poor soils, but its yield
potential has never been tried out on good soils, using the best available plant varieties, fertilizers and
pesticides such as those used for other crops to which cashew is compared.
To get fairly economical return from cashew it is always preferable to select proper land
suitable for cultivation. It is well known fact that cashew is fairly deep-rooted crop with its active roots
concentrated in the first 1 m depth of the soil and 2 m radius around the trunk of the tree. So, soil should
be minimum 1.5m deep without any hard laterite substratum or granite or any other hard pan which
obstructs root growth.
The best soils for cashew are deep, friable, well drained sandy loam soils without a hard pan
as explained above. Presence of water table at 5 to 20 m deep is quite congenial for this crop. Deep red
laterite soils are also very much suitable for this crop.
The land should be exposed to sunlight all round the day. The crop comes up well even in the very
slopy land also provided proper soil conservation measures are followed.
Soil management
In general the crop received minimum attention by the farmers. The crop is mostly raised in
poor soil which require proper management to enrich fertility level.
In the case of slopy land, particularly in Kerala and Dakshina Kannada district of Karnataka
the soil is very poor. Owing to frequent exposure to weather conditions, particularly heavy rainfall the
top soil is almost completely eroded and the subsoil with poor nutrient reserve is exposed in the elevated
and slopy lands. If the crop is planted in such soil the yield/tree is generally poor provided, proper soil

60
 management is not followed. The following soil conservation measures can be taken up to improve the
soil fertility subsequently.

1. Filling of natural gullies

The natural gullies formed during the rainy seasons have to be filled up at lower level at regular distances
with, boulders and soil and planting of grasses which bind the soil very quickly and reduces erosion of
fertile soil. In due course of time the gullies are filled up with soil settled at depressions. If the gully
checks, as discussed above, are constructed at regular distances, erosion of fertile soil can be arrested.
2. Contour bunding
Depending upon the slope of the land the contour bunds of 60 cm height and 2m width at regular
distances can be formed to check soil erosion during rainy season and to conserve moisture during pre-
monsoon and post monsoon showers. The distance from one bund to another bund will depend upon
the degree of slope. If the slope is more than 25%, the spacing from one contour bund to another is
around 8m. The crop can be planted at 8m distance along the contour line to further check soil erosion.
3. Terracing
By second or third year of planting terracing of 1.8m radius around the trunk of the plant has to be done
by cutting across the slope and spreading below. So that the water received through rain drop, runoff or
seepage is absorbed directly to the soil within 1.8m radius around the trunk of the plant to make it
available to the root zone. This minimises soil erosion, nutrient loss through runoff etc. A catch pit
across the slope at the periphery end of terrace is to be provided for withholding water during pre-
monsoon and post-monsoon showers in the slopy area. A small channel sidewise connecting the catchpit
is to be provided to drain out excess water during rainy season. If the terracing is done after 3 years the
roots of the crop get damaged while levelling. As a result the crop suffers. In the levelled land the base
of the plant is raised by applying soil all around wherever there is likelihood of water stagnation during
rainy season.
4. Growing cover crop
The cover crop seeds like Peuraria phasioloides, Calapagonia muconoides, Mimosa invisa @ 7.5 kg
seeds/ha on the contour bunds and also in the interspaces of the main crop at 3 to 4 m distance are to be
sown by loosening top soil enriched with farm yard manure with the onset of monsoon. The cuttings of
Mucuna bracteata can also be planted at 3 to 4 m distance.
Depending upon the fertility and moisture holding capacity and rainfall the cover crops spread and
cover the entire ground within two to three seasons. Excess growth of the cover crop can be cut and the

61
cut materials can be spread at the base of the plant as mulch. The cover crop not only conserves moisture,
by checking evaporation and reducing soil temperature but also improves the soil fertility level by adding
organic matter to the soil in the process of recycling. It also fixes atmospheric nitrogen and make
available this nutrient to the crop steadily. The cover crop even checks growth of noxious weeds like
Eupatorium odoratum and Pennisetum polystechyon by its smothering effect and competition. For the
early establishment of cover crop in the beginning, the uprooting of noxious weeds and other jungle
growth should be done.
B) Recommended Agronomic Practices
Till recently cashew plantation received very little attention. An analysis of production figures in
India shows that the increase in production has not been proportionate to the increase in area under
cashew. Cashew plantations are raised in marginal land where no other crop can give an economic
return.
The reason for the low production can be attributed to a large proportion of the plantations consisting
of seed sown seedlings under poor management, conceivably the production potential of these plantations
is very low.
Cashew can grow on poor or stony soil mainly due to its extensive root development and thereby,
increasing greatly the available volume of soil from which it can draw nutrients and water. Reasonable
yields are obtained as long as there is sufficient soil between the stones to allow the roots to penetrate
and specially if deeper, more favourable soil layers can be reached. Crops with less extensive root system
might perish on such soils. Scientific management of cashew orchards has become imperative to increase
the production of cashewnuts to the maximum extent possible within the shortest time.
Land preparation, manuring, irrigation, drainage, cultural operations, weeding, mulching, cover cropping,
pruning, high density planting and intercropping are some of the important aspects to be considered for
improving the production potentials of the cashew orchards.
Land preparation and sowing of cover crop seeds
With the onset of monsoon the land must be cleared of all bushy growth and noxious weeds. Soon
after the receipt of pre-monsoon showers the stumps of bushy growth should be uprooted and the noxious
weeds are also uprooted when the soil is soft with moisture. Soon after that with the onset of actual
monsoon season the cover crop seeds like Calapagonia muconoides or Mimosa invisa or Peuraria
phasioloides should be sown @ 7.5 kg seeds per hectare on the contour bunds if the land is slopy and
also in the interspaces of the rows of main crop proposed to be planted. The seeds are sown by loosening
top soil enriched with farm yard manure.

62
 The pits of 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm (lbd) are opened at 7 to 8 metre distance either following square
or triangular method. Hedge row system of planting can also be adopted ( the distance between rows
10m and between plants within row 5m). The size of pits is upto 1m x 1m x 1m in soils with hard pan or
hard laterite substratum. Opening the pits along the contour line is preferred in slopy area. The pits have
to be filled with mixture of top soil, compost (5 kg) or poultry manure (2 kg) and rock phosphate (200
g). A small channel above the pit is opened to divert water to the sides during rainy season in slopy lands.
The run off water should not accumulate in the pit which causes water stagnation during rainy season.
Planting
Planting is done preferably during the first week of June with the onset of monsoon. The soil in the
centre of the filled up pit is scooped out. The polythene bag (containing graft) covering the root and soil
is removed carefully and the graft with ball of earth intact is separated. The graft is placed gently in the
centre of the pit where soil was scooped out and covered with soil and pressed gently. The graft is planted
in such a away that the graft union is above the soil level. Sprouts, if any, below the graft union on the
root stock are removed with the help off sharp knife. Plastic ribbon covering the union is removed if not
done already. Later mulch is provided at the base around the plant to prevent soil disturbance during
rainy season and also to suppress weed growth and conserve moisture in the soil. The plant is then staked
by erecting. 1 m stick and loosely tied with coir or plastic string.
After care
Sprouts emerging from the rootstock are removed at regular intervals as and when seen. The graft
should be allowed to grow by maintaining single stem upto 0.75 to 1 m height by removing sprouts or
side shoots not only below the graft union (stock portion) but also above it (only side shoots on the scion
portion are removed allowing apical bud to grow). Staking the plant in the second year also by replacing
the spoiled and weak support fixed in the first year with strong stick is necessary. When the plant grows
to a height of 0.75 to 1 m with single stem, the graft is likely to lodge due to wind blow and hence it has
to be staked in the second year also with a strong support.
The flower panicles emerging later in the season need to be removed during the first two years of
growth of the graft to boost up proper vegetative growth and thereby achieving proper height and good
canopy. The plants are allowed to flower and fruit from third year onwards.
Weak and criss cross branches are removed leaving 4 to 5 strong ones. The canopy of the plant should
be round parallel to the ground and vertically semicircular Jettisoning branches on one side only when
noticed should be pruned for providing round and compact shape to the plant (open umbrella shape).

63
 Studies on root distribution of a 10 year old cashew trees revealed that more than 90 per cent of the
cashew roots are within 2 m radius and maximum depth upto which roots extended was 9.5 m. But more
than 90 per cent of the cashew roots are found within 1m depth. The cultural operations should then be
restricted to 1 m depth and 2m radius around the trunk of the tree, so that whatever nutrients applied can
go to the root zone. Cashew is commonly grown on slopy land in west and east coasts. Soil erosion and
leaching of plant nutrients are generally expected in such situations. To avoid soil erosion terracing and
catch pit opening are essential.
Terracing and opening catch pit
In the second and third year, terrace of 1.8 m radius around the trunk of the plant is to be formed in
slopy areas by cutting the soil across the slope and spreading below. A catch pit across the slope at the
periphery end of terrace is to be provided for withholding water during premonsoon and post monsoon
shower in slopy areas. A small channel connecting the catch pit-sidewise is to be provided to drain out
excess water during rainy season.
Manuring
Research findings do indicate that cashew require regular fertilizer application to ensure early and
higher yield in new plantation and regular high yields from mature trees. It was reported that a 30 year
old cashew tree removes 2.80 kg N, 0.75 kg P2O5 and 0.75 kg K2O per year.
Preliminary trials on nutrient requirements indicated that annual application of 750 g N, 150 g P2O5
and 150 g K2O per tree per year is optimum dose for cashew. It was advised to apply the fertilizer in
single dose in post-monsoon season when there is optimum moisture in the soil.
During the first year of planting 110 g urea and 200 g rock phosphate are to be applied. For application
of fertilizers, a circular trench of 10 cm depth at a distance of 0.5m from the centre of the trunk is to be
opened and the trench should be closed immediately after the application of fertilizers.
In the second year, ⅔ of recommended dose of fertilizer is applied in circular trench of 10 cm depth
at a radius of 0.75 m away from the plant and covered with soil immediately.
From the third year onwards, full dose of fertilizers is applied at the radius of 1.5m away from the
plant to the circular trench of 25 cm width and 15 cm depth and covered with soil.
Irrigation and drainage
Cashew being a hardy crop with extensive root system can absorb soil moisture from deeper layers
and in general the crop is not irrigated. However, in initial stage cashew may require irrigation in summer
especially in sandy soils. The experimental results showed that with irrigation cashew yield can be
increased to 1.5 to 2 times. For a grown up tree i.e., four years onwards irrigating @ 200 litres per tree

64
once in fifteen days from January to March is beneficial. Drip irrigation right from planting upto seven
years @ 60-80 litres per tree once in four days was also found equally beneficial. Care must be taken to
see that plants are irrigated only after flowering. Depending upon varietal character irrigation should be
started one or two weeks after flowering. Hence, wherever irrigation facilities are available, the crop can
be irrigated to get more yield and profit. Cashew cannot withstand water stagnation, flooding or impeded
drainage. Adequate drainage should be provided wherever there is possibility of water stagnation.
Weeding
Weeds may compete for nutrients, moisture and also for light with cashew plants. Keeping the cashew
orchards free of weeds is one of the important aspects of management. The first round of weeding may
be done before heavy rains and fertilizer application (June) and the second weeding may be taken up
during fertilizer application which falls normally in the month of August-September. Weeds have to be
slashed or uprooted before seed setting in weeds so that multiplication of weeds is reduced considerably.
In the initial two to three years of the establishment of graft in the main field, weeds are to be removed 2
m around the plant. The weeds prevailing in the remaining interspaces are to be slashed twice annually.
Mulching
Mulching the cashew plantations with organic matter prevents weed growth, reduce surface
evaporation, during summer regulates the soil temperature, improves the soil fertility and also prevents
soil erosion. Therefore, green matters obtained during weeding may be utilised for mulching the
plantations at the base of the respective trees.
Pruning
Cashew is sun loving tropical tree and does not tolerate excess shade. Providing uniform sunlight to
each and every part of the canopy therefore assumes major importance to increase the production. As
cashew bears flowers on current season shoots, pruning of leader or lateral shoots encourage new shoot
production.
Training of young cashew plantation
In case of the new plantations with the grafts the plants should be trained in the early years i.e., 2-3
years so as to provide better plant architecture which facilitates the easy inter-cultural operations.
Training indirectly assists in ease of other operations such as weeding, manuring and pest and disease
management (Satpathy, 1988). The lateral shoots arising from rootstocks need to be removed periodically
till 2-3 years. This will assure the proper growth of the scion portion of the grafts. The grafted plants
should be shaped by removing the branches and water-shoots growing from the main stem up to a height
of 0.75m to 1.0m from the collar region during first 3-4 years. Besides, weak and interloping branches

65
should also need to be removed. After the age of 4-5 years, in tall type of cashew plants the main trunk
may be de-topped at a height of 4-5 m from the ground region. This will ensure a round globular canopy
which helps to harvest maximum sun light for photosynthesis. Severe pruning of the young grafts may
be avoided at it may extend the juvenility and the pre-bearing period of the plants (Nayak et al., 1996).
In general, two types of training systems are being practiced in cashew, a) Modified leader system
and, b) Open centre system.
a) Modified leader system:
In this system, cashew grafts are allowed to grow as single stem up to a height of 75 to 100 cm by
removing side sprouts. Then lateral branches are allowed to grow at desirable direction by de-topping.
De-topping height varies from 2.5 to 4 m depending on spacing. Under normal spacing (8m x 8m), de-
topping at 4 m from ground level is recommended. Whereas, for high density planting (5m x 5m), de-
topping at 2.5 m from ground level is recommended. Removal of cris-cross branches and trimming of
branches has to be resorted to get dome shape canopy and the same should be maintained in later years
by imposing mild pruning. This kind of canopy helps in reducing week shoots and water shoots
development. Modified training system is suitable for both normal and high-density planting system.
b) Open centre system
Cashew grafts are allowed to grow straight upto 50-60 cm from ground level. The terminal growing
point is pinched off to form lateral branches. The branches are regulated to grow in four directions at
equal distance. Because of fast vegetative growth, the canopy spreads rapidly. To avoid this, canopy
centre needs to be opened once in a while to support more light interception to the interior plant parts.
This encourages flowering at inner and outer surface of canopy and thus increases the yield (Nayak et al.,
2019).
Pruning in the established plantations
The trees which are not received any training and pruning in the initial years grow haphazardly and
resulting in canopies without desirable shape and size. Besides, the development of deadwood, inter-
mingling of branches with neighboring trees, crisscross branches, development of water shoots etc. will
bring down the productivity of the tree (Nayak et al., 1996).
Deadwood/dry branches:
The dead wood/dry branches develop mainly because of the effect of shade on lower branches caused
by overlapping of the upper branches. Deadwood will be an additional burden to the plants. Furthermore,
the dead and decaying woods may invite the entry of pathogenic organisms or saprophytic growth which
may spread to heal their parts of the plant in due course of time.

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Crisscross branches:
The lower branches remain crawling on the ground for want of space and sunlight, where the plants
are not trained or pruned in the initial years. Similarly, the branches at higher level also grow haphazardly
in search of sunlight resulting in irregular canopy architecture.
Intermingling of branches:
The problem of entangling of branches starts after 10-12 years in regularly spaces (8x8 m) plantations.
The exterior branches get entangled with neighboring trees as a result only a portion of canopy (crown
portion) remains exposed to sunlight. Such a development inside the plantation is a hindrance to the
regular intercultural operations and general maintenance of the orchard.
Water shoots/sprouts:
Water shoots are vegetative shoots which are extraordinarily vigorous growing from dormant buds at
higher points on main stem in upright direction. They grow at the expense of parent branches from which
they arise. They are erect in growth and much thicker in size than the normal branches and bear much
longer and coarser leaves. These branches outgrow the rest of the neighboring drooping branches. If water
shoots are not removed in time, they soon cover the centre of the canopy and obstruct sunlight.
The old trees with deadwood, crisscross branches, water shoots and inter mingling branches should be
pruned at least once in 2-3 years. Pruning can be taken up in dormant season i.e. at least 2-3 months
earlier to productive flushing. All the types of unwanted growth mentioned before are to be pruned off.
However, the plant should have a better look and structure after pruning. This can be achieved using one's
discretion and experience in pruning and orchard management.
Leader shoot pruning
Cashew trees enter a brief resting period after the harvest of the crop (May - June) and it continues up
to next productive flushing season (September - November). The flushes or flower bearing twigs are
known as lateral shoots. These shoots usually form the terminal portion of a leader shoot will give a single
shoot (lateral) from its terminal bud. If the terminal bud is disturbed by means of pruning the dormant
lateral buds will sprout resulting in more number of lateral shoots per unit area. This will result in
increased number of productive inflorescences.
Pruning the leader shoots can be taken up at least 2-3 months (July to August) before flushing. In a tree
about 50-60% of the leader shoots may be headed back to one-third of their original length. A pair of
leaves may be retained while pruning wherever possible. While pruning, the leader shoot should be of a
pencil thickness and should not have turned to ash color before taking up pruning.

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Precautions to be taken while pruning
As a natural response the cuts resulting from pruning will heal faster if cuts are smooth and non-
jagged. While attending pruning the following points are to be considered
a) While removing the deadwood the cut must be made back to living tissue as good callus formation and
healing cut end is only possible form properly made cut end only.
b) It is essential to make the cut close to the branch. The cut should be nearly even along the stem or
trunk leaving a minimum stub and clear wound for faster healing.
c) In the case of pruning off the diseased part care should be taken to remove all the infested parts.
d) Wherever larger branches are being removed, care should be taken to avoid breaking way of bark or
wood portion of the plant.
e) When a cut is made a considerable amount of hardwood will be exposed and it should be protected
from pests and pathogens. All the larger cuts may be treated with 10% Boredeaux paste while the leader
shoot pruned canopy may be sprayed with 1% Boredeaux mixture.
f) It is essential to relate the appearance of the plant while pruning. Plant should have a balanced and
natural appearance after pruning.
Mechanization of pruning
Selecting the best and using the right tools to prune trees and shrubs makes the pruning job quicker,
easier, and safer, resulting in less plant damage. Before starting the pruning task, set the target and select
the right tool for the job. It is important to use the tools as intended during the pruning work; and to
maintain and store the tools appropriately after the task has been completed. There are many types and
sizes of tools available for pruning. Manufacturer’s produces specialized pruning tools such as left-
handed models, small-hand pruners and tools with ergonomic handles. One who regularly uses pruner
should purchase tools that fit their hands and are easy to use.
Using the right pruning tool for the job and using it correctly is safer for the operator and produces cleaner
cuts on the plant. It is crucial not to twist or strain the blades when using cutting tools. Do not cut with
the tip of the blade, but set the branch to be cut as deep as possible in the jaws of the prunes to make a
clean cut. Twisting, dragging, or rotating the tool while cutting can often result in low quality cuts. Use
sharp scissors or a pruning knife to trim any tears or rough edges that result from a poor cut.
C) Intercropping And Mixed Cropping In Cashew
Introduction
Cashew is cultivated both in west coast and east coast regions of India. In west coast, lands are level at
the seashore and undulated in the interior areas. The climate is warm and humid with temperature ranging

68
from 22 to 38°C, relative humidity 75 to 85% and mean annual rainfall above 3500 mm. The soils are
mainly laterite or gravelly and porous with mostly acidic particularly in hilly tracts. Because of undulating
topography soil erosion is a major problem in exposed areas. In east coast land is level and soils are
sandy, red sandy loam, red loamy and laterite. This area receives rainfall ranging from 600 to 1500 mm
annually. Climate is warm and subhumid or dry with temperature ranging from 25 to 40° or 42°C and
relatively humidity from 40 to 60%. In arecanut and coconut plantations, intercropping and mixed
cropping in the interspace to reduce soil erosion and to augment additional income have been well
documented. Selection of intercrops in high density planting system is made with short and long term
perspectives, annuals for immediate returns and perennials and fuel trees for sustained income on a long
term basis. In India cashew is mainly grown by small holders in marginal lands despite the fact that it
fetches valuable foreign exchange. Only in recent years, its economic importance has been realized and
attempts were made to increase its productivity through improved management and better varieties.
Intercropping was not viable earlier as cashew itself was grown on soils with low water availability and
fertility. With establishment of large plantations and adoption of systematic package of practices,
intercropping is practiced to obtain returns during the initial years of cultivation. Once cashew canopy
becomes dense intercropping (legumes and millets) is discontinued. Mixed cropping with other tree
species is not widely practiced though there are some reports of casuarina being planted along with
cashew in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. Some of the common intercrops that can be grown in cashew
plantations in west coast and east coast of India are discussed in this paper with special emphasis on
labour and material inputs, returns and profit.
Options of intercrops in cashew orchards

Pineapple as intercrop

Pineapple can be grown as intercrop in cashew garden profitably for the first 7 years. Both main and
intercrop can be planted simultaneously . Normally pineapple can be grown as intercrop in the interspace
available between two rows of cashew plants. Here spacing maintained for cashew is 8m x 8m (156
trees/ha) or 7.5 m x 7.5 m (175 trees/ha) or 10 m x 5 m (200 trees/ha). Pineapple is planted with the onset
of pre-monsoon showers in three trenches dug out at 90 cm distance across the slope between two rows
of cashew. In leveled land straight trenches can be opened between two rows of cashew. Each trench is
of 1 m width, 0.5 m depth and convenient length. Pineapple suckers with 8-15 leaves are planted in each
trench in two rows at 60 cm apart. The distance between two plants within a row is 40 cm. Before
planting pineapple suckers the trench should be half filled with mixture of top soil, farm yard manure and

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rock phosphate. Nearly 2.5 kg of farm yard manure and 160 g of rock phosphate/metre length of trench
should be added and thoroughly mixed.
Fertilizers should be applied annually in two split doses (May-June and September-October).
Fertilizers are applied at the rate of 25 g N, 7 g P2O5 and 25 g K2O/pineapple sucker/year. Each time
whenever fertiliser is applied in September-October period, earthing up of soil at the base of suckers in
each row is done after weeding. This operation is most important for pineapple for better anchorage in
addition to better rooting. Nearly 35% of the plant population yields in the second year itself. Remaining
65% yield can be realized during the subsequent years. In the fourth year replanting of pineapple should
be done in the freshly opened trenches at the adjacent areas between the two existing trenches. Replanting
should not be done in the old trenches. Covering the fruits in the peak summer season with dry grass or
weeds and tying the crown leaves around the fruits will protect from sun scorch and crown damages.
Damage by rodents can be eliminated to some extent by keeping rat poisons in feed materials. Timely
harvesting as and when fruits have shown signs of ripening (yellow tinge at the bottom of fruits) is the
best way to avoid damages due to sunscorch and crows. The suckers having 8-10 leaves originated at
base below the fruit should be removed and planted afresh. Normally in the fourth year, replanting is
done and the same can be maintained for another 3 years. Beyond 7 years it is not advisable to take up
pine apple cultivation as intercrop in cashew garden as by then, the shade cast over the pineapple is too
much, resulting low recovery of yield which is not economical . Added to this it will be very difficult to
pick cashew nuts falling in pineapple trenches as cashew attains peak yielding stage during that period.
Advantages of growing pineapple in trenches dugout across the slope between two rows of cashew are
that there will be better soil and water conservation which will have indirect benefit over main crop
(cashew). Studies conducted at NRCC, Puttur showed that by growing pineapple as intercrops across the
slope between two rows of cashew in west coast region has indirect beneficial effect on main crop
(cashew) resulting in 1.5 times increase in yield as compared to plot where cashew alone is grown. This
was mainly due to increased soil moisture conservation and due to control of weed as interspace is used
for pineapple cultivation.
Pepper as inter / mixed crop
Pepper can be grown as intercrop trailing on the stem and branches of grown up cashew trees (more
than 6 years). Separate application of manure is necessary for pepper vine. With the onset of monsoon,
pit size of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm should be opened about 45 cm away from the cashew tree at the base
and pits should be filled with top soil, 200 g rock phosphate, 200 g lime and 0.5 kg neem cake. Rooted
pepper cuttings should be planted during June with the onset of monsoon (South-West Monsoon season).

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Once the vine establishes and starts growing the vine should be tied to the stem of the tree at the base
with jute thread. This practice should continue till vines grow to almost 1.5 m height all around the stem
surface of the cashew tree. Cashew stem girth will be around 30 cm when it is 6 years old and because of
the rough stem surface of the cashew tree, pepper vine easily clings to the plant and spreads to all the
remaining thick branches. This actually when exposed to filtered sunlight through cashew canopy, it
flowers profusely during rainy season. From second year onwards regular application of recommended
doses of fertilizers in split doses to pepper (100 g N, 40 g P2O5 and 140 g K2O g/tree/year) at 45 to 60 cm
away from the base results in better growth and yield. One split dose (⅓rd of full dose) may be applied in
May soon after the receipt of pre-monsoon showers and other split dose (⅔rd of full dose) during August
when moisture in soil still remains towards the end of rainy season. Pepper as intercrop trained on to
stem of grown up cashew tree can be grown in west coast region without irrigation. But with irrigation,
both main and intercrop will be benefited. In east coast region, growing pepper under unirrigated
condition may not be feasible due to low rainfall ranging from 600 to 1500 mm annually. However, this
can be grown under irrigated condition in east coast regions also using cashew plant as standard for
pepper vine. High price for pepper makes farmers in west coast region, particularly Kerala and coastal
districts of Karnataka to go for pepper cultivation on any live or dead standards. Growing pepper on
coconut and arecanut palms is a common practice in this regions. Even on cashew, pepper can be grown
and good profit can be obtained. Nearly 5 to 6 years after planting with fairly good management a farmer
can get up to 1.5 kg dry pepper per vine trained on to stem of cashew tree. Pepper vine can remain
normally for 18 years and it can fit in very well as an intercrop in cashew gardens.
Ginger as intercrop
Ginger can be grown as an intercrop in the initial 3 to 4 years of cashew plantation in west coast region.
Particularly this is more suitable in the interior areas of west coast on hillocks with forest surroundings.
Whenever forest surroundings are noticed growing ginger in the initial years before taking up regular
plantation is a common practice in west coast region. With the onset of pre-monsoon season (April-May)
raised beds of 2.5 m length, 1.5 m width and 0.25 m height should be prepared across the slope between
two rows of cashew. With this operation all the jungle growth including small bushes will be removed
and soil is loosened. Loose and made up soil present in the raised bed, acts as good soil and moisture,
conservation structure which also facilitates better penetration of cashew roots. Even the weeds will be
controlled while preparing beds for ginger. Approximately 10 quintal disease free ginger rhizomes are
required as seed material for planting one ha. Rhizomes of ginger should be planted in raised bed at 10
cm' distance from one planting spot to another spot. Farm yard manure or compost at the rate of 15

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tonnes/ha has to be applied initially to the bed after planting ginger rhizomes. Soon after planting, thick
mulch has to be applied at the rate of 10 t/ha. Application of heavy mulch is necessary to conserve
moisture during pre-monsoon and later to avoid soil erosion during rainy season. Heavy mulch also is
necessary to conserve moisture soon after the cessation of rain so that this will continue for another 3
months without necessitating irrigation. Ginger is prone for deadly disease Rhizome rot. Once this disease
appears, controlling is very difficult in west coast region.
Fodder and legume forages as intercrops
Experiments conducted at Agricultural Research Station, Ullal revealed that among the fodder crops
as intercrops, NB-21 grass gave the highest green fodder yield (41.9 t/ha) over Guinea grass (27.6 t/ha)
and para grass (18.0 t/ha). Among the legume fodder crops. Sonthus hamata ranked first in green fodder
yield (12.55 t/ha) followed by Mimosa invisa (10.25 t/ha) and Lupinus lupins (7.28 t/ha).
Vegetables as intercrops
In west cost region, growing bitter gourd as an intercrop during the Kharif season has been found most
profitable. Total yield expected from bitter guard is 100 kg/ha as intercrop. In east coast region possibility
of growing different vegetables and oil seed crops as intercrops is more, as the interspace between rows
of cashew can be easily ploughed by farm machines or bullock drawn inter cultivation implements due
to the availability of level lands and, it is easy to take up such intercrops during Kharif season. It was
observed that in Orissa and West Bengal growing cowpea as an intercrop has been found most profitable
Whereas, at Vridhachalam growing groundnuts was found most profitable as intercrop.

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 Nursery Management in Cashew
N. Yadulumar

Principal Scientist (Rtd.), ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Darbe (P.O), Puttur,
Dakshina Kannada,Karnataka, India

Cashew was introduced from Brazil during 16th Century for soil conservation purpose. During 1950s-
1980s Directorate of Soil Conservation,Orissa, planted cashew using seedlings as planting material
for soil conservation purpose but not with the intention of commercial viability. After 1970, it gained
commercial importance – as a horticultural crop. Then ICAR Funded Schemes /MSCP/AICRP on
Cashew Centres / NRCC.

Productivity of cashew

Productivity of cashew in India is 706 kg/ha whereas in in Vietnam it is 3040 kg/ha. Low productivity
in India is due to presence of 30 % of area under cultivation (mostly senile plantation) is seedling
origin of unknown varieties. This has to be replaced with grafts of known high yielding varieties.

Grafts produced in India and potential areas identified for planting

Nearly 75 to 80 lakh grafts are produced in India every year. These are used to replace senile
plantations and fresh planting in potential traditional and nontraditional areas. Nearly 25000 ha area
is freshly planted with grafts every year. Being a cross pollinated crop, cashew cannot produce true-
to-type progenies through seed. Vegetative propagation can preserve genetic identity. Though cashew
can be propagated by several vegetative means, “soft wood grafting(wedge-cleft) is most successful
one. Advantage is propagation all-round the year.

Terminologies
Grafting: - Joining of two plant parts.
Root stock: - Lower portion of the graft which has the root system.
Scion: - A short piece of detached shoot (lateral shoot) which when united with root stock results in
the upper portion / canopy of the grafted plant.
Wood / Sap wood (xylem): - Through wood sap is drawn up from the roots and translocated to leaves.
Bark (Phloem): - The carbohydrates synthesized in the leaves will be distributed to roots via phloem.
Protecting the phloem, there is an outer skin called the bark.

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Cambium layer:-One celled thick strip around the outer side of sap wood (xylem) and inner side of
bark (phloem). Manufactures new growth. Rapid multiplication of cells. Important in healing of graft
joint / establishing the connection between root stock and scion.

Infrastructure required for nursery

• Nursery area with fence.
• Store room, grafting sheds/poly houses.
• Water source (open well/bore well), overhead tank, Irrigation system with water points.
• Pandal / polyhouses.
• Power tiller/tractor, wheel barrows, sprayers, irrigation hose pipes.
• Spades, sickles, pruning secateurs, grafting knives, nursery stools, whet stones/sharpening
stones, plastic buckets etc.
• Cashew scion bank.

Establishing scion bank

• Select suitable variety.
• Grafted plants from high yielding mother plants to be planted at 4m x 4m spacing.
• Fertilize the plants @ 500:125:125 g NPK during mid monsoon
• 20-25 kg FYM/plant.
• Protect young sprouts from TMB attack by spraying 0.003% lambda cyhalothrin
• Remove the panicles for obtaining maximum scion sticks
• Pruning the plants in Sep-Oct at 1.5m height from ground level can restrict the height and
increase number of sprouts.
• Scion sticks will be available in Jan-Feb
• Farmers can establish their own scion bank by planting 8-10 plants in their garden

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 Fig: Scion bank
Selection and Preparation of Scion Sticks
• Select 3-5-month old scion sticks from lateral shoots.
• Selected shoot should be straight, 10-12 cm long, brown coloured and should have a dormant
bud at tip with thickness equal to that of a pencil.
• The top 4-5 leaves should be dark green in colour.
• Pre-Curing of scion sticks- removal of leaf lamina retaining only the stalk.
• Scion sticks will be ideal for collection 10 days after pre curing.
• Pre-curing increases the success of grafting
• Scion stick should be collected before the sprouting of buds.
• Select the shoots which are exposed to sun.

Fig: Scion ready for separation(collection)

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Collection of scion stick
• Scion sticks should be collected in cool hours of morning
• Immediately after separation dip the scion sticks in water
• Scion sticks wrapped in moist cloth can be stored for 3-4 days in 100 guage poly bags.

Fig: An ideal shoot for scion collection and scions

Raising rootstocks
Selection of nuts:
• Medium sized (6-7g) freshly collected nuts (February- April), sun dried for 3 days before
sowing.
• Nuts which sink in water should be selected for sowing.
Potting mix and filling of bags
• Potting mix should contain equal proportion of sand, soil and FYM.
• Mix 10g of Rock phosphate for every 2 kg of potting mix.
• Poly bag specification- 300guage thickness; size-25cm x 15 cm
• 30-40 holes per bag – for better drainage
• Fill the media tightly in to the bags.
• Improper filling will reduce the growth of seedlings
• Leads to stunted growth
• A bed containing 1000 bags can be prepared (@ 10 bags/row x 10 rows)
Sowing seed nuts
• Soaking of nuts overnight in water enhances germination
• Soaked nuts are sown at 1-inch depth
• Irrigate the bags after sowing.
• Mulching the poly bags will hasten the germination process.
• Remove the mulch after germination

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• Protect the plants with 50% shade during summer
• Regular watering of seedlings every day is most essential
• No need to water when it is raining.
• Nuts start germinating in 15-20 days
• Fresh nuts sown in summer germinate early.
• Protect the germinating seedlings from rodents and birds as the cotyledons are tasty.

Fig: Preparation media filled with poly bags, sowing of seed nuts, mulching and watering

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Management of rootstock
• Prevent water logging in bags during rainy season by pressing the sides of the bag
• Spray I % bordeaux mixer or 0.1% carbendazim at 10 days interval to control collar rot in
seedlings
• Sowing in rainy season invites root rot problem.
• Protect from rain in case rainy season sowing is taken up.
• Control the insects by spraying suitable insecticides.
• Ensure that the root stock grows straight by removing side shoots
• About 45-60 day old seedlings of 25-30 cm height will be ready for grafting

Fig: Root stocks ready for grafting

Soft wood grafting technique
Preparation of root stock
• Select a shady place for grafting (grafting shed)
• Leaving a pair of cotyledenory leaves, remove all the leaves in root stock seedling.
• At a height of 15-20 cm from the base chop off the top portion of seedlings
• Make a downward slit of 6-7 cm in the rootstock seedling.
Preparation of scion stick and grafting
• Select a scion stick matching the root stock and trim its length to about 10 cm

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 • Make a wedge shaped cut of 6-7 cm length in the basal portion of scion stick and insert it in
to the cleft (vertical slit) made in the rootstock seedling
• Cambial layers of both root stock and scion should be aligned, at least on one side.
• Tightly secure the graft joint with 100 guage poly strip of 2cm
• width and 30 cm length.
• Prevent desiccation of graft joint by covering it with a poly tube of 200 guage thickness, 20
cm length and 4 cm width.
• This will hasten the process of sprouting.
• Grafted plants to be kept in shade for 2-3 weeks for better sprouting of buds.
• Shift the grafted plants to sunny place after 2-3 weeks and
• remove the poly tubes .
• Successful grafts will show the symptom of growth in 3-4 weeks’ time.
• 70-80% grafts will sprout in 3-4 weeks.
• Success of grafting depends on selection of scion stick, skill of grafter, season of grafting,
grafting technique and environmental condition
• Usually 60-70% of final success can be obtained.
Factors influencing graft success
• Inherent compatibility of plants.
• Vigorously growing root stock – good success.
• Skillful grafting technique.
• Environmental factors that promote callus formation (Opt. tem.p. 26.50 C – 29.50 C).
• Preventing scion from drying out: At the time of transportation, At the time of grafting, After
grafting.
• Preventing the desiccation of the delicate callus tissue/graft joint: Tying the graft joint with a
polythene strip, inserting a long and narrow polythene cap helps conserve moisture and
prevents desiccation during period of healing at warm temperatures.
Stages in the formation of a graft union
Callusing stage
• From 10-30 days after grafting.
• Callus tissue is formed.
• Initially starts from the root stock, but later proliferates from both components.

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 Cambial bridge stage
• From 30-60 days after grafting.
• Cambial continuity between root stock and scion is established.
Healed union stage
• From 60-120 days after grafting.
• Vascular tissues are differentiated and complete union between root stock and scion takes
place.
Management of grafts in nursery
• Grafted plants can be arranged on a black poly sheet to prevent striking of roots to the ground
• Shifting of plants (grading) will improve the growth of grafts
• Protect the plants in summer by 50% shade.
• Water the plants regularly except during rains.
• Remove shade during rainy season and provide proper drainage to the bags.
• Control the collar rot by fungicides.
• Spray insecticides for controlling insects.
• Remove sprouts in root stocks and remove flower panicles
• Remove polythene strip from graft joint 4-5 months after grafting.
• Remove the cotyledonary leaves about 3 months after grafting.
• Cotyledonary leaves are removed when coppery colour of leaves in scion portion turns green.
• Grafts of 5 months and above are ready for planting.
• Ideal graft should have 30 cm height, 4-5 fully grown leaves and the graft joint should be 15-
20 cm above the ground.

Fig: Grafted plants in nursery provided with shade.

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 Fig: Grafts attacked with leaf miner, sprouts below graft union, with panicle and bent graft
due to girdling.

Graft production under polyhouse

• Monsoon season is the best season for softwood grafting.
• Grafting can be done almost throughout the year with a mean success of 60-70 per cent.
• Polyhouses with misting units may be used.
• Raising of root stocks, grafting, maintenance of grafts etc. can be done inside the polyhouses.
• Gives protection from rains during heavy rainy days.
• During summer shade nets may be used.

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Grafts standards for sale
• > 5 month old grafts should be used for planting.
• Healthy and erect growing.
• >25 cm tall.
• >5 mature leaves.
• Graft joint at a height of 15-20 cm.
• Graft joint should be perfect.
• Polythene strip from graft joint removed / no girdling.
• Root stock portion should be free from side shoots.
• Polythene bags should be intact / not torn.
Grafts Production Schedule
Number of polythene bags to be filled 85,500
Number of seeds to be sown (including resowing) 85,500
Number of seedlings to be grafted 72,000
Expected number of saleable grafts / target 50,000
Material required
Sl. No. Item Quantity Approx
Cost (Rs)
1. Graded cashew seeds 570 Kg 85500
(VRI-3,Ullal1,Ullal-3,Bhaskara)
2. LD Polythene bags
25 cm x 15 cm, 300 gauge 490 Kg
68,600
30 cm x 30 cm, 100 gauge 25 Kg 4,375
20 cm x 4 cm, 200 gauge 10 Kg 1750
3. LD Polythene sheet
Black, 300 gauge 200 Kg 28000
White, 300 gauge 50 Kg 7000
4. Red soil 15 lorry loads 9600
(200cft/lorry)
5. Coarse river sand 11 lorry 154000
loads
(200
cfts/lorry)
6. Cattle manure 55 tonnes 146,600
7. Copper Sulphate 10 Kg 3750
8. Karate (100 ml x 10 nos) 1 litre 700
9. Rock phosphate 500 Kg 3,500
10. Agro shade net 2 no. 6000
(Green colour,
50% shade); (3 mwidth 10 m
length roll)
Total 4,94,175
(Rs.9.8 per saleable graft)

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 Expenditure for each saleable graft
SL.No. Item Approx Cost (Rs.)
1 Preparation of potting mixture and filling of polythene 12.5 per saleable graft
bags with potting mixture, sowing, grafting and
maintenance up to 3 months (by contractor)
2 Maintenance of successful grafts in the nursery after the 5 per saleable graft
period of first work (By contractor) under Sl.No.1,
Operations like irrigation, weeding, spraying
insecticides, fungicides and nutrients and shading for 5
months

Economics
• It costs about 15 lakh rupees to produce 50,000 grafted plants, taking 65-70% as grafting
success.
• To produce 50,000 plants, 85,500 bags have to be filled with mixture; to produce 75,000 root
stock seedlings about 85,000 (approx. 570kg) seed nuts have to be sown.
• Cost of preparation of single graft will be around 27 rupees
• Above this supervision, watch and ward charges, depreciation value of infrastructures
developed.@ Rs.3. Total cost of production works out to be Rs. 30 per graft.

83
 Nursery Proforma-I

Month Name of No. No. of Germinationn No.of No. of Remar

of root of seeds percentage seedlings seedlings ks
sowing stock seeds germinat obtained utilized
(VTH sown ed for
174 / grafting
VRI-1 /
Bulk)

Nursery Proforma-II
Proforma for recording observations in cashew nursery – Graftsuccess percentage (Year:)

Mont Root Scion No. of No. of Initial No. of No. of No. of

h of stock variet grafts successful graft saleable grafts grafts
grafti variety y prepared grafts after success grafts sold carried
ng during 3 monthsof (%) produce during to next
grafting grafting d planting plantin
season during season of g
2016 the year 2017 season

84
 Management of cashew stem and root borer – a major pest of cashew
TN Raviprasad
Principal Scientist (Entomology)

ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Darbe (P.O), Puttur, Dakshina Kannada,Karnataka

Cashew farmers experience several hardships in cashew cultivation due to variation in climate, rainfall
and also due to severe insect pest incidence which finally leads to significant loss in nut yield. In
cashew, several insect pests attack during various stages of the crop and result in moderate to heavy
loss of the crop yield depending on level of insect pest population. Out of these pests, two are major
insect pests cause considerable yield loss in most of the cashew growing regions of our country. These
are a) Tea Mosquito Bug (TMB) scientifically known as Helopeltis antonii and b) Cashew Stem and
Root Borers (CSRB) scientifically known as Plocaederus ferrugineus and Plocaederus obseus.

The adults and nymphs of TMB suck plant sap and lead to drying up of shoots and flower panicles,
leading to considerable loss during that cropping season. However, incidence or absence of the pest
varies over the years. The other pest, cashew stem and root borers infest the vital bark portion of
yielding cashew trees and lead to gradual death of such infested cashew trees. The pest population of
CSRB increases over the years resulting in constant loss of tree population. Thus, productivity in a
given location gets reduced over the years.

In this brochure, the symptoms of infestation and various approaches to be adopted for managing this
pest is mentioned for the benefit of the cashew farmers of the country.

What is cashew stem and root borer?

The insect is normally noticed by cashew farmers at larval stage which feeds on the bark portions of
the stem and roots, by making irregular tunnels which enlarge as the larva grows in size. The farmers
can notice larvae, pupae and unemerged immature adults in the damaged portions of infested trees.
The adult insects belong to the “beetle” group of insects which have hard and stout body and are strong
fliers. The adult beetles of this group have long antennae and are active during the night. Hence, these
adult beetles are normally not noticed in the cashew plantations during day time.

85
What are the symptoms of pest damage?

At the base of the CSRB infested tree, gum and fibrous material are exuded in small quantities in the
initial stage of attack. During later stages of attack, the infested tree canopies show a sickly appearance
and the green leaves turn yellowish and start dropping prematurely. In the severe stages of attack, the
twigs dry off and the bark on the trunk starts splitting. At this stage, large quantity of chewed fibers
and gum (commonly known as frass) are seen as big lumps at the base of the CSRB infested tree.

When does the pest incidence occur?

Normally the pest incidence is noticed during the months of Dec. to May in different cashew growing
tracts of the country. Different stages of infestation are generally seen all round the year. However,
certain stages of the pest are noticed in certain months only. During the onset of rainy season the
healthy trees turn dark green, whereas, the infested trees remain yellowish, which is a sure indicator
of the pest attack in those trees. During the nut collection period, close observation of the tree bases
reveals the initial infestation symptoms which can be treated suitably prior to onset of monsoon.

How does the pest damage the cashew trees?

The adult female beetles lay eggs (which resemble rice grains) inside the crevices of the bark of stem
or exposed roots. Young grubs hatch from these eggs in 5 – 7 days and immediately start boring into
the bark. The grubs feed voraciously for a period of 6 to 8 months and grow rapidly in size and fill
the tunnels with chewed fibre and excreta. Their zigzag feeding interferes with movement of water
and nutrients in the tree trunk and root zone leading to premature leaf fall, drying of branches and
gradual death of the tree. Full grown larvae make tunnels in the heart wood and form a hard cocoon
made of calcium secretions. The pupae stay inside these cocoons for 60 – 90 days and adult beetles
emerge from such cocoons and continue the life cycle.

What are the insecticides which can manage the pest?

Several insecticides have been evaluated at various research centers, for over a decade. Some of the
insecticides have been recently banned / being withdrawn and hence, alternate effective insecticides
were evaluated later on. It is to be noted that any insecticidal treatment without removing the pest
stages will not be effective.

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 The pest stages of CSRB in the infested cashew trees (both in the stem region and in the root
zone also) have to be carefully removed by skillful chiseling of the tunnels in the infested portion and
destroyed. The larvae will be present on the fresh fiber portion of the tunnels both in the stem and in
the roots. The fresh fiber in the tunnels can be traced by their light color while, older fibers will be
darker. In case the larvae have entered into the heartwood for pupation, they can be killed by inserting
a gear wire / any other bending metal wire and poking into the tunnel till a slushy sound is heard or
white fluid flows out. After removing or destroying the larvae and other pest stages, the chiseled
portion should be swabbed thoroughly with fipronil 2.0 ml .

87
 Management of tea mosquito bug (TMB) in cashew
K. Vanitha, T.N. Raviprasad, Rajashekara, H.

ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Darbe (P.O), Puttur, Dakshina Kannada,Karnataka

Introduction
Cashew is known to be damaged by more than 300 insect pests and diseases worldwide limiting its
productivity. Nearly 50 % of annual crop loss results due of pests and disease problems in different
cashew growing regions if suitable control measures are not taken up timely. Among the pests, tea
mosquito bug and cashew stem and root borer are the primary pests, while others are regional specific
and are considered important in certain occasions. Depending on the climate, location, age and
management measures of the plantation, each geographic region has its own distinctive pest complex.
This topic presents details on tea mosquito bug, minor pests of cashew, and pollinators of cashew.
I. Tea mosquito bug
Cashew production is drastically affected by Tea Mosquito Bug (TMB) (Helopeltis spp., Miridae)
which is one of the major pests of cashew. In India, four TMB species viz., Helopeltis antonii Signoret,
Helopeltis bradyi Waterhouse, Helopeltis theivora Waterhouse and Pachypeltis maesarum Kirkaldy
occur on cashew. Among them, H. antonii is the dominant species. Cashewnut yield loss of 25-50 per
cent has been reported in different cashew growing states, and even 100 % yield loss can occur under
outbreak situations.
Pest appearance:
• Adult H. antonii are slender, elongate, 6-8 mm long, reddish brown in colour, black head with
reddish/ brownish/ blackish thorax and black and white abdomen. The nymphs of H.
antonii are light brownish to brown in colour.
• H. bradyi closely resembles H. antonii, but has a minute colour variation in the hind femur and
abdominal region. The nymphs are brownish in colour.
• H. theivora has longer antennae and yellowish pronotal ring and greenish white patch in the
abdomen. Nymphs are greenish to greenish yellow in colour.
A pin-like knobbed scutellar process is present dorsally in both the nymphs (except first instar) and
adults. Nymphs are translucent reddish brown having long antennae. The size of nymphs of H.
antonii and H. bradyi are almost similar except slight variation in colour, whereas, the nymphs of H.
theivora are comparatively smaller and slender.
88
 (From left : H. antonii, H. bradyi, H. theivora and P. maesarum)
Biology
The eggs are white, ovoelongate, 1.0 to 1.30 mm long having two unequal extra-chorionic processes.
Eggs are embedded in plant tissue singly or in small groups usually with the operculum and
extrachorionic processes exposed. Incubation periods vary depending on locality, season and host
plant, but generally in the range of 6 to 11 days. Helopeltis spp. has five nymphal instars that vary in
size, colour and development of body parts. Mean nymphal developmental period of 12.60 ± 0.50 days
has been reported for H. antonii on cashew. The pre-oviposition and oviposition periods ranged from
3 to 5 days and 5 to 10 days, respectively. The longevity varied from 7 to 46 days and fecundity from
10 to 220 days. Three pronotal colour variants occur in the adults of the H. antonii and H. bradyi: dark
red (DR), black (B) and brownish black (BB). DR variants are generally more in H. antonii.
Host range
Variety of plants are infested by all four species of tea mosquito bug, mostly by H. antonii and H.
theivora. H. antonii is highly polyphagous in habit and the nymphs and adults of feed on a wide variety
of crop plants (more than 100 species). Important host plants include neem (Azadirachta indica), cocoa
(Theobroma cacao), guava (Psidium guajava), drumstick (Moringa oleifera), cotton
(Gossypium spp.), Singapore cherry (Muntingia calabura), black pepper (Piper nigrum), allspice
(Pimenta dioica), henna (Lawsonia inermis), mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), eucalyptus
(Eucalyptus sp.), apple (Malus domestica), avocado (Persea americana), camphor (Cinnamomum
camphora), cinchona (Cinchona sp.), cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), grapes (Vitis vinifera),
red gram (Cajanus cajan), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), tea (Camellia sinensis), pepper (Piper
nigrum), cocoa (Theobroma cacao) etc. Apart from these, a few weed plants in the cashew plantations
also support TMB during off season especially Chromolaena odorata, Calycopteris floribunda etc.
But, cashew is the most preferred host for TMB during the cropping season.

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Distribution of the pest
The pest is distributed in most of the cashew growing regions of our country including Kerala,
Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh and Orissa. The
pest is severe in West coast regions compared to East coast regions. Neem is the primary host of H.
antonii especially in Tamil Nadu and southern parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The pest
spreads to cashew from neem in these areas, whereas in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Chhattisgarh it is
confined mainly to cashew. H. bradyi is also found in high altitude Tura region, Meghalaya, while H.
theivora is predominant on cashew in the north east region.
Nature and symptoms of damage
The nymphs and adults feed on the leaves, new shoots, panicles, and on the developing nuts. Typical
feeding damage appears as a discoloured necrotic area or lesion around the point of entry of the labial
stylets into the plant tissue. The lesion can be elongate or spherical and becomes darker with age.
During severe infestations, the young shoots and panicles dry up, giving the infested trees a scorched
appearance. The lesions on shoots and panicles coalesce and ultimately result in shoot blight and
blossom blight. Successive attacks on new growth can result in stunting or death of the tree. Damage
to immature nuts causes them to shrivel, while older nuts develop a blistered or scabby appearance.
Infestations during the early stages of fruit set often result in an immature fruit drop. Each insect can
damage 3-4 shoots or panicles during its life cycle thereby, leading to heavy loss in nut yield.
In the salivary gland of H. antonii, hydrolytic enzymes (protease and lipase), oxido-reductase enzymes
(catecol oxidase, catalase and peroxidase) and free amino acids were detected. These salivary enzymes
were implicated for the phytotoxaemia on various host plants as well as detoxification of defensive
chemicals produced by the host plants.

90
Seasonality of pest incidence
Helopeltis spp. exhibit a more or less continuous cycle of generations throughout the year. In India,
the build-up of TMB populations on cashew in October/November is synchronized with the emergence
of new foliage following the cessation of the monsoon rains. Peak abundance is reached in
January/February when cashew trees are in full bloom, the insects remaining active on the plants until
the onset of the monsoon rains in June. In young plantations, the pest is noticed continuously with a
higher intensity during January till March. There is also evidence indicating that TMB populations
fluctuate in response to more localized and less regular climatic events, tending not to do well under
conditions of heavy rain, high winds, or low relative humidity.
Management measures
Proper surveillance and monitoring at regular intervals for damage symptoms during flushing,
flowering and fruiting period of cashew as well as on important host plants present in the surroundings
of cashew plantations are required so as to initiate the management measures. Proper surveillance is
very essential as the pest has a short life cycle and can inflict serious damage within a few days.
Whenever, the incidence of pest is noticed on 5-10 per cent of the flushes, management measures
should be initiated.
Host plant resistance
The identification of promising cashew types having tolerance to TMB infestation would be one of
the most desirable and eco-friendly non-chemical strategies to manage the pest and augment the
productivity. All the released varieties and nearly all the germplasms screened at ICAR-DCR, Puttur
are susceptible for TMB attack and there is no completely tolerant cashew type exists against TMB
infestation. Least susceptible types to H. antonii contain higher phenols which cannot be implicated
towards resistance, because of its potential salivary detoxification mechanism. Under low to moderate
pest incidence, variety ‘Bhaskara’ escapes TMB damage because of its mid-season flowering nature.
Some varieties like Nethra Vaaman, VRI-3 shows moderate resistance nature, as they produce flushes
and flowers even after initial infestation of TMB. The existence of antibiosis mechanism is also remote
in cashew.
Natural enemies of TMB
A total of four endo-parasitoids have been recorded parasitizing eggs of TMB in West coast regions
of the country. They are Erythmelus helopeltidis Gahan. (Mymaridae) Telenomus cuspis Rajmohana
and Srikumar (Scelionidae), Chaetostricha sp. (Trichogrammatidae) and Gonatocerus sp. nr.

91
bialbifuniculatus Subba Rao. In the East coast, Ufens sp. is the only parasitoid observed on TMB eggs.
Nymphal adult parasitoid of genus Leiophron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) was also reported on
Helopeltis antonii. All these species are solitary parasitoids. The highest parasitism up to 70.8 per cent
by Telenomus cuspis in certain months was recorded. Parasitism by T. cuspis is negligible in the eggs
of H. antonii laid on neem in east coast (Tamil Nadu) whereas it is a dominant species in cashew
ecosystem of west coast of India. Ufens sp., is the dominant species in the neem ecosystem of Tamil
Nadu. However, the attempts to multiply these endo-parasitoids under laboratory conditions were not
successful.
Predators also appear to play an important role in the natural control of Helopeltis spp. The main
predators include spiders, reduviids, mantids and ants but all these are general predators and could not
provide efficient control of TMB under higher incidence. Similarly, Aspergillus flavus and A. tamarii
are reported as entomopathogens on TMB. Specific strain of Beauveria bassiana is also found causing
mortality of TMB in certain months. However, detailed information on the effectiveness and
methodology of application needs to be further developed.
Management using botanicals
The plant products tested for their insecticidal activities against TMB showed poor response in general.
Neem formulations evaluated against H. antonii indicated low mortality and also with low feeding
deterrence. However, kernel extracts of Pongamia, Calophyllum and Pongamia oil extracts gave
increased mortality of H. antonii than any other plant extract.
Insecticidal management
The first round of pesticide spray should be given on 5-10 per cent pest incidence of the flushes. The
second round of the spray should be invariably completed within 3-4 weeks, if the TMB population
persists. If panicle damage is severe (> 50%) because of delayed insecticidal application, further sprays
will not result in improved yields. Chemicals that can be sprayed in rotation are lambda cyhalothrin
(0.6 ml/lit), thiamethoxam (0.2 g/lit) and acetamiprid (0.5 g/lit). The third spray can be a need based
on in case pest population persists even after the second spray. Same insecticide should not be used
for spraying for subsequent sprays in general. Although, cashew is an insect pollinated crop, spraying
of insecticides during flowering season did not find to influence the fruit set. Once foraging bees face
accidental death during sprays, succeeding bee progenies including many species of wild bees would
have taken over the foraging activity. But it is advisable to avoid insecticidal sprays during peak
foraging period of bees i.e., 11.00 am to 1.00 pm. Spraying should be done in the early hours of the

92
day (7 - 11 am) or in the evenings (3 – 5 pm). Spraying should be taken up immediately when initial
symptoms of TMB damage are noticed. If it rains immediately after spraying, the spraying must be
repeated, and entire canopy area should be sprayed. Approximately, 6-8 litres of solution is required
for a tree of 15 -20 years depending upon the canopy.
Behavioural means of management
Presence of sex pheromone activity in female TMB is confirmed in studies conducted at DCR, wherein
virgin TMB and mated female tend to attract males. The research is underway to identify the chemical
nature of pheromone and to investigate the possibility of synthesizing it so as to use under field
conditions.
Association of TMB with disease incidence
The feeding injury by the bug is one of pre-disposing factors for the infection and expression of die-
back disease. hen the dried shoot is split open, discolouration may be seen in matured softwood region
indicating the manifestation of the fungal disease. A loss of 25 to 50 per cent nut in nut in yield has
been reported from Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa, Kerala, and West Bengal due to combined effect of
TMB and disease incidence. Whenever die-back disease is noticed, the affected shoots and branches
below the site of infection should be pruned and destroyed. The cut surface should be protected with
Bordeaux paste (10%). Spraying the canopy with Bordeaux mixture (1%) may be followed.
To conclude, improving the non-insecticidal methods like use of tolerant varieties, biocontrol
agents, biotechnological approaches and synthetic sex pheromone will have better scope to manage
this pest and reduce the dependency on insecticidal control of TMB.

Selected References
Bhat, P.S. Sundararaju, D. and Raviprasad, T.N 2002. Integrated Management of Insects, Pests and
Diseases. In: Indian Cashew Industries. Ed. Singh, H.P. Balasubramanian P.P. and Venkatesh
Hubballii, DCCD, Kochi. pp.111-117.
Cashew pest database. ICAR-DCR. https://cashew.icar.gov.in/pestsite/
Freire, F.C.O., Cardoso, J.E., dos Santos, A.A. and Viana, F.M.P. 2002. Diseases of cashew nut plants
(Anacardium occidentale L.) in Brazil. Crop Protection, 21: 489–494.
Pillai. G.B, O.P. Dubey and Vijaya Singh. 1976. Pests of cashew and their control in India- a review
of current status. Journal of Plantation Crops, 4 (2): 37-50.

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Rai, P.S. 1984. Hand Book of Cashew Pests. Research Co- publications, East Azadnagar. Delhi. 124
p.
Sundararaju D. 1984. Studies on cashew pests and their natural enemies in Goa. Journal of Plantation
Crops, 12: 38-46.

94
 Management of minor pests of cashew and pollinators of cashew
K. Vanitha, T.N. Raviprasad and Veena, G.L.

ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Darbe (P.O), Puttur, Dakshina Kannada,Karnataka

Minor pests of cashew

Among the other insect pests damaging cashew, shoot tip caterpillars, thrips, leaf miner, leaf and
blossom webbers, apple and nut borers are also the important pests of cashew in certain regions. Some
of these pests may be problematic in certain regions. In general, management actions taken for
managing TMB could manage these pests also, but separate spraying may be required during certain
periods to prevent economic loss. The details of important minor pests are detailed hereunder.
(a). Shoot tip caterpillar
During active flushing period, damage to shoot tips of cashew trees can occur due to shoot tip
caterpillars. This pest is regularly reported from the east coast tracts. The pale yellowish green
caterpillar (Anarsia epotias Meyr., F: Gelechiidae) with black head webs together the tender leaves
and feed within it at the early stage. Later, they bore into the terminal shoots and tunnel inside up to
2-3 cm. A gummy substance oozes out from the infected tips and finally the attacked shoots dry up.
The egg, larval and pupal period lasts for 3-4 days, 12-16 days and 7-10 days respectively and the life
cycle is completed in 25-29 days. Similarly, the tiny, yellowish to greenish-brown larvae of Hypotima
(=Chelaria) haligramma M. (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) also damage shoot tips by folding the fresh
leaves and feed within. Tender shoot tips are bored occasionally up to 25-35 mm, leading to drying up
of shoot tips. These both larvae also damage inflorescences in the subsequent period.
(b). Leaf miner
The leaf miner, Acrocercops syngramma M. (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae) is a common pest of cashew
during post monsoon period all over the country. Young plants are more prone to attack.
Caterpillars mine and feed below the epidermal layer of the tender leaves and tender shoots causing
extensive leaf blisters which later dry up causing distortion, browning and curling of
the leaves. As the attacked leaf ages, holes develop due to drying out of the damaged portion. During
the developmental period larvae are dull white in colour and turn pinkish before pupation. After full
development, larvae fall off to the soil for pupation and silvery grey adults emerge after 7-9 days. The
life cycle of this pest is 20 to 25 days. Larval parasitoids viz., Chelonus sp. (Braconidae), Sympiesis

95
sp. (Eulophidae), Chrysocharis sp. (Eulophidae) were reported and parasitism up to 40 % has been
recorded in field conditions at Puttur, Karnataka.
(c). Leaf thrips
Thrips are minute, fragile, slender, active insects and adults have fringed wings. Foliage thrips
(Thysanoptera: Thripidae) viz., Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard), Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood
and Retithrips syriacus (Mayet) attack cashew. The adults and immature stages of thrips colonise the
lower surface of leaves. The thrips destroys the cells on which it
feeds cause leaf distortion, unsightly dark coloured droplets or blotches of excrement can be
seen on the leaf surface. The infested leaves become pale brown and crinkle with roughening of the
upper surface. Honeydew excreted from thrips gives rise to black sooty mould. In severe cases,
shedding of leaves and stunting of growth results. If infestation occurs on cashew seedlings, whole
seedling may dry up. S. dorsalis breeds also on many annual crops and it is observed on Calycopteris
floribunda Lamk. (Combretaceae), throughout the year which is a quite common shrub in the cashew
plantations in west coast regions.
(d) Leaf folder and leaf rollers
Several caterpillars fold and/or roll the tender cashew leaves emerging after post monsoon and feed
within. Light yellowish larvae of Caloptilia tiselaea M. cause damage by folding the tender leaves
terminally. Larvae of Anigraea albomaculata damage tender leaves by making spindle shaped folds.
While larvae of Macalla albifusa Hamps. join the leaves one above the other by silken threads and
feed on them. Larvae are very active and wriggle out when disturbed and the damaged portion dries
up gradually. In few places, larvae of Sylepta auranticollis F. during their early stages roll the tender
leaves and scrape the green matter, later they defoliate the entire leaves.
(e). Leaf beetles
During southwest monsoon, the red coloured chrysomelid leaf beetles, Monolepta longitarsus Jal.
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) damage cashew to certain extent. These appear abundantly especially in
young trees and skeletonise the leaves which gradually dry up. Tender shoots are also attacked, and
shoot terminals finally dry off. When nursery seedlings are attacked the entire seedlings dry up.
Tapioca, Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) paniculata Roth (Combretaceae) are alternate hosts of this pest.
(f) Inflorescence caterpillars
A complex of webbers, loopers, bud worms, caterpillars etc occur on cashew flowers. Important
species include, Hypatima haligramma M., Anarsia sp., Lamida moncusalis W., Nanaguna sp.,

96
Thylacoptila paurosema M., Archips sp., Euproctis sp., Aetholix flavibasalis G. Other caterpillars
are Dudua aprobola, Oenospila flavifusata, Tinolius sp., Perixera sp., Bombotelia jocosatrix etc.
Infestation by lepidopterans especially by H. haligramma and Anarsia sp. starts soon after the
emergence of inflorescences and panicle/bud expansion stage. The infestation by lepidopterans
gradually increases from December first week reaching a peak during the last week of December or
first fortnight of January. But the population of most of the lepidopteran species decreases drastically
during March. Incidence of certain leaf feeding caterpillars like B. jocosatrix, O. flavifusata, Pingasa
ruginaria, Perixera sp., Hyposidra spp., Euproctis sp. and A. flavibasalis can also be noticed on
cashew flowers between December and January especially during delayed flushing and early
flowering seasons.

Damaged portions of buds, flowers, panicle rachis, drying of flowers, webbing of flower clumps and
reduced nut set. Studies indicate that timely application of insecticides against lepidopteran flower
pests can minimize the yield loss by 20-50 per cent depending on the nature of pest infestations and
damage intensity.
(g). Apple and nut borer
Several lepidopteran, coleopteran, dipteran and hemipteran pests damage apples and nuts of cashew
during different developmental stages. Among them, Thylocoptila paurosema M. and
Hyalospila leuconeurella R. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) are important. Dark pink larvae initially
damage flowers and later bore inside the tender nuts and developing apples resulting in shrivelling and
premature fall. In the developed green nuts and apples, caterpillars tunnel near
the junction of apple and nut and the boreholes are plugged with frass and excreta. There are
5 larval instars lasting 15- 33 days. The fully grown larvae drop to the ground for pupation and emerge
as moths. The larvae of H. leuconeurella bore through the apple from one end to the other end and
remain inside the apple till the fruit drops and when nuts are attacked, they get deformed. Recently,
infestation of apples and nuts by Citripestis sp. has also been reported in Karnataka.
On H. leuconeurella, a chalcid, Brachymeria sp. and an Ichneumonid Cremastus sp. have been
recorded as parasitoids. Besides, Lamida moncusalis Wlk., Orthaga exvinacea Hamps.and Euproctis
spp. occurs as external feeders on tender fruits and apples.
(h). Leaf and blossom webber
Cashew shoots bearing fresh flushes and flowers are attacked by Lamida (= Macalla) moncusalis Wlk.
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Orthaga exvinaceae Hamps. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Of these, L.
97
moncusalis is a major pest in East Coast tracts. Symptoms of infestation are presence of webs on
terminal portions, with clumped appearance, and drying of webbed shoot/ inflorescences. The
caterpillar is dark green with yellow longitudinal bands and pinkish dorsal lines. The egg, larval, pre-
pupal and adult stages last 4-7, 16-22, 9-15 and 3-6 days respectively. The life cycle is completed in
32- 47 days.
(i). Flower thrips
Flower thrips on cashew include Rhynchothrips raoensis G., Haplothrips ganglbaueri (Schmutz), H.
ceylonicus Schmutz, (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae), Thrips hawaiensis (Morgan), Frankliniella
schultzei (Trybom) and Scirtothrips dorsalis H., (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). They attack buds, flowers,
immature apples and nuts. Thrips infestation causes shedding of flowers, immature fruit drop,
formation of scabby as well as, malformed apples and nuts. Up to 15-25 per cent fruit drop is noticed
due to thrips damage.
(j). Mealy bug
Mealy bugs, Ferrisia virgata, Planococcus lilacinus, Planococcus citri and Phenococcus solenopsis
are serious in certain cashew pockets. They are soft bodied, having milky white coating on the body.
The nymphs and adults suck sap from the tender plant parts results in withering of growing shoots,
inflorescence and developing fruits. It can be seen on the lower surfaces of tender leaves, twigs,
inflorescence panicles and fruit peduncles. Due to honey dew secretion by mealy bugs, sooty mould
develops on the affected portions. Two parasitoids viz., Aenasius advena Campere (Encyrtidae) and
Blepyrus insularis Cameron were recorded on F. virgata.

Other minor pests

Apart from these pests, there are several chrysomelid beetles (importantly Monolepta longitarsus
Jacoby, Neculla pollinaria Baly), lepidopteran caterpillars (Lymantria sp. (Lymantridae), Metanastria
hyrtaca Cram. (Lasiocampidae), Euproctis spp. (Lymantridae) defoliate cashew mostly during post
monsoon flushing period. In few regions, leaf folders, leaf rollers, aphids cause damage to tender
cashew shoots. Besides, there are several other minor pests damaging flower buds and flowers. Most
of these pests occur at very low population level, for which, management measures are generally not
required.
Management of minor insect pests of cashew
• Generally, the plant protection measures taken up against tea mosquito bug usually take

98
 care of the infestation of most of foliage pests, hence spraying for other pests is required
only under severe infestation.
• Removal of weeds in cashew plantations should be taken care, as weeds like Chromolaena
odorata, Terminalia paniculata, Getonia sp. and are not only competitors
of cashew but also serve as host plants for some of the cashew pests.
• In young cashew plants, wherever possible, removal of different stages of pests like egg
laden leaves or shoots, caterpillars, pupa or cocoons gradually reduces the pest population.
• Removal and destruction of mealy bug and aphid infested plant parts helps to minimize
their infestation and spread. Spraying of dichlorvos 76 WSC 0.2% (@ 2.5ml / lit) or dimethoate
30 EC 0.05% (@ 1.75ml/lit) in combination with fish oil resin soap @ 20 g
per litre of water reduces mealy bug incidence effectively.
• Under unsprayed conditions, an array of predators viz., spiders, ants, reduviids, coccinellids,
neuropterans, hemipteran bugs and praying mantises take care of many of
the minor pests of cashew. Red ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) are the potential biocontrol
agents in cashew plantations that feed on bugs, caterpillars, hoppers, moths etc. Red ant
colonized old cashew trees are generally free from pests. Trees harbouring ant nests especially
red ants should be spared of spraying to allow them to take care of pests naturally.
• Botanical insecticides are good biological weapons that can be best integrated with
insecticides. Neem (Azadirachta indica) oil @ 3-5%, Karanj (Pongamia pinnata) oil @ 2%,
Fish Oil Rosin Soap and neem seed kernel extract @ 1% are some of the botanical preparations
effective against many of the foliage pests of cashew like leaf miners and leaf feeding
caterpillars. While using botanicals, emulsifiers (soap water/ bar soap 0.5 % @ 5g/lit or teepol
@ 0.1 %) should be used in the spray fluid.

Importance of Pollinators in Cashew

Fruit set in cashew is mainly influenced by the activity of pollinators. In cashew, inflorescences
develop on current season lateral shoots. Each inflorescence has both staminate (male) and
hermaphrodite flowers (bisexual) in it. Pollen grains are sticky in nature, thus wind pollination is
difficult and because of position of style in the hermaphrodite flowers, self pollination is very difficult.
In general, cashew flowers are visited by diverse group of insects like ants, thrips, butterflies,
flies, wasps and bees. Insect visitors documented on cashew flowers at ICAR-DCR include 40 species
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belonging to 13 families of three insect orders. Many of the dipterans are just visitors of cashew
flowers, and not pollinators. Similarly, wasps like sphecids and vespids
move among cashew flowers frequently which might be for nectar as well as prey insects. Similarly,
several ant species move over the cashew inflorescence throughout the day period
in abundance, but the major need is for EFN at the base of flowers and buds as well as the honey dew
from certain sucking pests attacking cashew inflorescences.

Based on the abundance and foraging activity, eight bee species are considered as main pollinators of
cashew, viz. Apis cerana indica, Apis florea, Braunsapis spp., Ceratina hieroglyphica, Tetragonula
sp., Lasioglossum sp., Pseudapis oxybeloides and Seledonia sp. Most species of bees visited the
flowers simultaneously, and activities of A. c. indica, A. florea and Tetragonula sp. are noticed
throughout the observation period. Peak foraging period of pollinators coincides with peak anthesis of
hermaphrodite flowers and high pollen build-up in male flowers, which is very much advantageous
for effective pollination in cashew. Since pollen was the foraging reward for most of the bee species,
fresh male flowers were mostly preferred. Most bees collected pollen followed by nectar in the same
male flower or nectar followed by pollen. Nevertheless, it is observed that the same hermaphrodite
flower was visited by multiple bee species consequently, thus effecting pollination.

From left: Pseudapis oxybeloides, Ceratina hieroglyphica, Braunsapis picitarsis

Pollinator exclusion studies by bagging experiments indicated that bees are efficient pollinators of
cashew increasing fruit set. Thus, sufficient pollinator population is required to realize good yield of
cashew, as hermaphrodite flowers need to be pollinated within 4 hours of peak stigma receptivity.
Encouraging bees especially the native bees by their conservation and identifying cashew genotypes
with high pollinator attraction are important to enhance the productivity of cashew. Artificial bee nests
100
designed at ICAR-DCR, Puttur having wooden blocks with drilled holes (6 cm deep and diameter of
3.00 mm; 2.5 mm) and sticks of bamboo, lantana, Johnson’s grass and cashew were very successfully
occupied by Braunsapis spp., which are important and abundant native bee species found in the region.
Thus, these trap nests can be useful tools for conservation of this bee species and pollination purpose.

Selected References
Bhat, P.S. Sundararaju, D. and Raviprasad, T.N 2002. Integrated Management of Insects, Pests and
Diseases. In: Indian Cashew Industries. Ed. Singh, H.P. Balasubramanian P.P. and Venkatesh
Hubballii, DCCD, Kochi. pp.111-117.
Cashew pest database. ICAR-DCR. https://cashew.icar.gov.in/pestsite/
Freitas BM, Paxton RJ (1998). A comparison of two pollinators: the introduced honey bee Apis
mellifera and an indigenous bee Centris tarsata on cashew Anacardium occidentale in its native
range of NE Brazil. J Appl Ecol., 35(1):109–121.
Pillai. G.B, O.P. Dubey and Vijaya Singh. 1976. Pests of cashew and their control in India- a review
of current status. Journal of Plantation Crops, 4 (2): 37-50.
Rai, P.S. 1984. Hand Book of Cashew Pests. Research Co- publications, East Azadnagar. Delhi. 124
p.
Sundararaju D (2000). Foraging behaviour of pollinators on cashew. The Cashew, 14:17–20.
Sundararaju D. 1984. Studies on cashew pests and their natural enemies in Goa. Journal of Plantation
Crops, 12: 38-46.
Vanitha, K. and T. N. Raviprasad. 2019. Diversity, Species Richness and Foraging Behaviour of
Pollinators in Cashew. Agric Res., 8(2):197–206.

101
 Cashewnut Processing
D. Balasubramanian
Principal Scientist (AS & PE)

ICAR- Directorate of Cashew Research, Darbe (P.O), Puttur, Dakshina Kannada,Karnataka

Introduction

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a versatile tree nut and a precious gift of nature to
mankind. The world production of raw cashew nut is to the tune of 37.5 lakh MT in the last fiscal year
and about 32 countries contributed to this global production. Cashew nut took deep roots in the entire
coastal region of India after the introduction of cashew during 16th century by the Portuguese.
Beginning as a poor man’s crop, it ends up as the rich man’s favorite snack-food all over the world.
World demand for cashew kernels has been rising steadily for several years in the past conferring
significant price increase, the processing of cashew remains still a highly profitable industry. Cashew,
one of the most important commercial crops in India, produced 6.13 lakh MT of raw nuts from an area
of 9.23 lakh ha (DCCD, 2010). Cashew kernel exported from India reached an all time high of Rs
2,906 crores by exporting 1.08 lakh MT of kernels during the year 2009-10, accounting 60 per cent of
global share.
Cashewnut processing Industries
Cashewnut processing industries have a simple organizational structure and mostly under
private management i.e., either proprietorship or partnership. About 67 % of the processing units are
categorized under "Labour oriented ", 18% follows mechanization partially and 15% are fully
automated. Total employees’ strength of these units varied from 50 to 400. Among the women force
deployed, 90-95% is employed primarily is shelling, peeling, grading and packaging. Men labourers
are involved in drying, stacking, roasting/ steaming, kernel drying and packing. The State Government
fixes labour wages and it differs from state to state.
Structure of raw cashewnut
The raw cashew nut is the main commercial product of the cashew tree, though yields of the
cashew apple are eight to ten times the weight of the raw nuts. The by-product CNSL obtained either
during or after processing of the raw nuts has industrial and medicinal applications. The skin of the
edible kernel is high in tannins and can be recovered and used in the tanning of hides. The Pseudo-

102
fruit of the cashew tree can be made into a juice with high vitamin ‘C’ content and fermented to give
a high proof spirit.

Fig 1. Cross sectional view of raw cashewnut

Raw cashewnut procurement

Cashewnut is a seasonal crop, harvesting of nuts in India starts from March to June. While
procuring raw cashewnuts, normally following quality tests are conducted to assess the quality and to
fix up the price.

i) Visual test Size and colour of the nuts to check the maturity

ii) Counts Number of nuts per kg and ratio of cashew kernels obtained by
shelling a kilo of raw cashewnuts

iii) Floating test A random sample (2kg) is put in a vessel containing water. After
continuous stirring floaters are collected and counted. Mostly
immature nuts, due to its lower density than water, improperly filled
nuts and deteriorated nuts floats.

iv) Cutting test A random sample of 2 kg is cut open using hand cutting tool. Based
on the kernel appearance i.e. white, shriveled dotted or rejects, the
percentage of good kernel is calculated.

Cashewnut processing

It can be defined as the recovery of edible kernel from conditioned raw nut by manual or
mechanical means. In India, the processing is mostly manual and it consists of steaming / roasting,
shelling, kernel drying, peeling, grading and packing. Grading of raw cashewnuts before processing

103
reduces broken kernel. Conditioning of raw cashewnuts is to make the shell brittle and to loosen the
kernel from the shell. Three methods are being followed in India, they are: (i) Drum roasting; (ii) Oil
bath roasting and (iii) Steam boiling.
Drum roasting

In this process, the nuts are fed into an inclined rotary drum which is heated initially to such
an extent that the exuding oil ignites and burns, thus charring the shell. The drum maintains its
temperature because of the burning cashewnut shell liquid (CNSL) oozing out of the nuts. Roasting
generally takes about 30-45 sec and the drum is rotated manually. The shell becomes brittle and rate
of shelling and the outturn of whole kernels reported to be highest among the three methods of roasting.

Fig 2. Drum roasting of raw cashewnuts

This method is adopted in the factories where hand and leg operated shelling machines are
used. The nuts after steam conditioned in a twin bottle type steaming unit for 20-25 minutes at 85 -
100 PSI. This process helps to loosen the kernel and make it amenable for shelling operation.

Fig 3. Steaming process for raw cashewnuts

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(b) Oil bath roasting

Though it is an outdated method, few processing industries in Kerala and Karnataka are still
following it. In this method raw nuts are passed for 1-3 minutes through a bath of heated CNSL
maintained at a temperature of approximately 190-200°C by means of screw or belt conveyor. The
roasting equipment consists of a rectangular vessel, 2-3 feet wide and 3 feet deep, with a flat
bottom. The whole assembly is embedded in brickwork furnace which uses spent cashew shell as fuel.
Shelling conditioned nuts
Nuts after roasting are shelled manually in most of the units in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Manual
shelling is requiring dexterity, wherein nuts are knocked 2-3 times on each of the long edge by a wooden mallet
taking care to see that the whole kernels are released without damage or breakage as far as possible. The outturn
will be 90 per cent of whole kernels. Individual workers' output is about 15-20 kg per 8 h working day. Workers
smear ash or clay on their hands to avoid contact of corrosive shell oil with the skin. Due to air pollution, certain
restrictions are imposed for this process.

Fig 4. Drum roasted nuts and manual cracking process

The mechanical shelling gadget consists of two blades, between which the raw nut is inserted.
The gap is adjustable and therefore it will be advantageous if the raw nuts are pre-graded on the basis
of size. The pedal of the shelling unit is operated in such a way that nut it is held between two blades
and lifting the lever by hand will split open the nut without damaging the kernel inside. Intact kernel
is then scooped out by means of sharp needle.

105
 Fig 5. Steamed nuts and shelling process
The output per worker per 8 hours shift in this method is estimated to be 14-22 kg of kernel.
Semi- mechanized and automated shelling machines have been introduced in the line of processing to
increase operational capacity.
Kernel Drying

The kernels after separation from the shells are dried to reduce the moisture and loosen the
adhering testa. The most commonly used drier is ‘Borma dryer’. Kernels are placed in trays with wire
mesh bottom and loaded into metal chambers. Indirect hot air from furnace and blower assembly helps
to dry out the kernel moisture.

Fig 6. Borma dryer and Steam assisted cross flow dryer

Each tray can hold 10 kg of material to a depth of 5-7 cm, temperature ranging from 70-100°C
will be prevailing inside the whole chamber. In order to get uniform drying, the position of trays is
changed at intervals of 10-30 min. The normal duration of heating is 6-12 h. Recently developed cross-

106
flow dryer has the capacity ranging from 250 – 1000 kg in a 8 h shift works at 80°C. The moisture
content of the dried samples will be in the range of 1-2 per cent (d.b).
Peeling

Peeling is the operation of removal of the testa from the kernels. As the kernels are quite brittle
after removal from the dryer, it needs to be cooled for 24-48 h for moisture infusion. A slight pressure
applied through the fingers separates the testa. Sharp bamboo sticks or stainless-steel knife are also
used to remove the adhering testa. The average peeling capacity is 7-10 kg/person/day. Pneumatic
peelers are the recent introduction for bulk production which ranges from 60 kg to 250 kg per h.

Fig 7. Manual peeling of cashew kernels

Grading and conditioning

Kernels are graded on the basis of specification prescribed by Govt. of India under the export
(quality control and inspection) Act 1963, which recognizes 23 different export grades of kernels. The
kernels are conditioned before packing in sealed tins. If the kernels are too dried at the time of packing,
they are liable to breakage during transport by land and sea. If the moisture exceeds limit of 5 per cent,
kernels become susceptible to microbial and oxidative spoilage.

Fig 8. Kernel grading in operation

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Packaging of kernels

Cashewnuts are subjected to rancidity and very quickly go stale. Therefore,

packing should have low permeability of oxygen and moisture. Method of packing
should involve either vacuum or inert gas inside the packing. Bulk of cashewnuts is
packed in tin containers weighing 25 lbs. Tins kept on vibrating platforms are filled
with kernels through a chute. After filling and weighing the tins are evacuated filled
with CO2 with the help of "VITAPACK" machine and sealed. At present, flexible
packaging (Mould vacuum packaging) with nitrogen as inert gas is followed by majority of the
cashew industries as tin container packaging is not accepted in the international trade.

Fig 9. Vita packing of cashew kernels

Quality standards

Standards for cashew kernels concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of food
products moving in international trade is developed. The purpose of the standard is to define the quality
requirements of the cashew kernels at the export control stage after preparation and packaging.

(a) Minimum requirement Free from any deterioration; Clean, practically free from any visible
foreign matter; Free from mould or rancidity; Free from adhering testa and shell liquid; Free of any
foreign smell or taste.

(b) Moisture content Cashew kernels shall have a moisture content equal to or more than 3%
but not more than 5%.

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(c) Classification

WHITE SCORCHED DESSERT WHITE SCORCHED DESSERT

WHOLES WHOLES WHOLES PIECES PIECES PIECES
WW-180 SW-180 SSW B (Butts) SS DP (Dessert
WW-210 SW-210 (Scorched JH (Jumbo (Scorched Pieces)
WW-240 SW-240 Wholes Half) Splits)
WW-320 SW-320 Seconds) S (Splits) SP
WW-450 SW-450 DW LWP (Scorched
WW-500 SW-500 (Dessert (Large Pieces)
wholes) White
Pieces)
SWP (Small
White
Pieces)
BB (Baby
Bits)

109
 Cashew Apple Processing and Value Addition
Rajkumar A.D.
Scientist (Food Technology)
ICAR-Directortae of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka
Introduction:
Cashew apple is a tropical fruit rich in vitamins and minerals. The cashew apple contains 8-
11 % of fermentable sugars and 260 to 340 mg/100 g of Vitamin C, which is almost six times that of
citrus fruits (40 mg/100g) and almost ten times more than that of pineapple, an important tropical fruit.
With a current annual cashew nut output of 7.28 lakh tonnes, cashew apple production in India is
estimated as 60 lakh tonnes per annum (figures are subject to change); of which very little is consumed
either as fresh fruit or in few cases processed into drinks or pulp, the rest gets wasted; because of its
perishable nature. Considering the fact that cashew apples are harvested over a period of 4 -5 months
during a year, its use as a raw material for a variety of fruit-based products can trigger revolution in
cashew industry. This, apart from making cashew juice products available year round, will equalize
supply from one year to another and will improve earnings from cashew for the farmers. Cashew apple
can be processed as wine, gin, brandy, syrup, vinegar and jam some of which are being produced in
commercial scale in Brazil, India and Mozambique. Cashew apple contains 85% juice, 10% of which
is sugar.

1. Cashew apple Lime Blend RTS Nectar: “CASHLIME” A Functional Beverage

Cashew apple juice is sweet and nutritious, but has astringency due to the presence of
tannins (0.2-0.3%), which makes it less palatable at the same time limits processing and marketability
of its value added processed products. In order to overcome this problem attempts were made by
compatibly blending the cashew apple juice with lime juice and by adding water. The threshold value
for the sensation of astringency of tannins is 0.1%. Bellow this concentration astringency cannot be
sensed. The concentration of cashew apple juice in the “Cashlime” is so adjusted that it will contribute
maximum to the nutritional value of the product and naturally bring down the concentration of tannins
bellow threshold value through optimum dilution with water. Blending with lime juice resulted in to
delightful and delicious beverages with improved organoleptic quality and nutritive value as well.
Keeping in view the nutritive and health benefits of cashew apple and lime, the present technology is
developed where lime possess bland taste and cashew apple can serve as the best functional food by
blending with lemon as taste improver. The product falls in the category of “Ready to Serve Nectar”
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(RTS Nectar) beverage in food technological terms since the fresh fruit juice content of the beverage
is more than 20%.

Methodology:

Out of eleven released varieties from DDT plot of this directorate, five varieties viz.,
Vengurla-3, Accession-301, Dhana, Bhaskara and Ullal-3 found to be suitable for the preparation of
RTS beverage in terms of overall acceptability through organoleptic evaluation and biochemical
composition. It is also concluded that the varieties having TSS more than 90Bx and tannin content less
than 0.6% are suitable for making such beverage.

The fresh, well ripe and damage free cashew apples were collected, washed, followed by
cutting in to 2-4 halves (stem end and nut end were discarded). The halves were fed to pulper/juicer
and obtained pulp is strained in through screens/ 2-4 fold muslin cloth. Depending upon the extent of
suspended particles the juice is allowed to settle for 2-4 hours preferably at refrigeration temperature
(100C) or at room temperature. Leaving the sediments at the bottom the juice is decanted and used for
product preparation. Similarly the lime juice is obtained from fresh and firm yellow lemons. To make
out the difference in the palatability and overall acceptance, a control sample product was prepared
from the cashew apple juice only and compared with the RTS prepared by blending lime juice with
different levels of concentration keeping cashew apple juice content same in all the preparations. To
overcome the little flat aftertaste all the formulations were added with 0.250g citric acid per litre of
the cashew apple juice. The concentration of citric acid was determined by conducting a small trial of
experiments. The final quantity of the RTS was made by adding sugar (100Bx) and water as per the
recipe and the mixture was pasteurized and filled in PET bottles with food grade colour and 70 ppm
KMS as a preservative. The product prepared from formula E (Sample E, Table 1) was found superior
after conducting organoleptic evaluation based on 9 point hedonic scale (Fig.1). The exact recipe of
the product preparation will be disclosed as per the directions of ITMU/ITMC.

The prepared and organoleptically proven best combination of cashew apple- lime blend
RTS was analyzed for its nutritive value. The product which stood best among the different
combinations was analyzed for its nutritive value and antioxidant activity (Table 2). Antioxidant
activity of fresh cashew apple juice, cashew apple lime juice blend RTS, RTS from cashew apple juice
only and one commercial same category beverage named “nimbooz” for comparision was determined
by DPPH scavenging assay (Das et al. 1988). The concentration of phenolics and tannins in the juice
111
was determined using spectrophotometric (Folin-Ciocalteu’s) method (Singleton et al., 1999).TSS of
the juices was determined by hand refractometer (ERMA). Vitamin C content was measured by 2,6-
Dichlorophenol – Indophenol visual titration method (Ranganna,2000).

Table 1. Organoleptic evaluation of Cashew apple- Lime blend RTS

Sample Overall
Colour Flavour Astringency Taste
Code Acceptability
A (Only
CA
Juice) 3.9 4.5 5.4 4.9 4.5
B 4.9 5.1 5.7 5.0 5.0
C 4.7 4.4 5.4 5.7 5.2
D 6.2 6.4 6.7 7.0 6.4
E 7.6 7.6 7.8 8.2 7.9
F 6.1 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.4
SEd 0.5538 0.4480 0.5544 0.4753 0.3839
CD (.05) 1.1103 0.8983 1.1116 0.9530 0.7697
CD(.01) 1.4796 1.1971 1.4814 1.2700 1.0258
CV% 22.24 17.58 19.89 17.05 14.55
(Nine point hedonic scale where, score 1: Disliked Extremely; 9: Liked Extremely)

Health Beverage:

Ascorbic acid is an important nutrient for the human physiology, and it has a role in the
production and maintenance of collagen, wound healing, and the reduction in susceptibility to
infections, formation of bones and teeth, iron absorption and prevention of scurvy. Phenolic
compounds are metabolites that have the ability to neutralize reactive species, helping to protect the
body against oxidative stress and have antioxidant activity. Cashew apple juice is a rich source of both
of these functional nutrients having nutracuiticals properties which in turn makes the product a
functional one, unlike traditional fruit drinks.

Nutrient value:

It is clearly understood that the RTS prepared from the selected combination of Juices was
superior over that of from cashew apple juice only. The product could retain maximum of ascorbic
acid (75.9 mg/100ml), total phenolics (0.06%). The tannin content (86.62mg/100ml) of the product
was found bellow threshold level of sensation of astringency (≤0.1%) , at this concentration the
112
product won’t give an astringent taste. Presence of sufficient amount of ascorbic acid, tannins and
phenolics made the product more functional than the traditional one, DPPPH scavenging activity of
the selected combination (sample-E) was greater (281.6 µmoles/15min/100 µl juice) than the product
prepared only from cashew apple juice (203.8 µmoles/15min/100 µl juice). This is attributed to
additional antioxidants in the product due to the presence of extra 3% lime juice unlike the control.
The other proximate chemical components of the juices are mentioned in following table.

Table 2. Nutritional value and functional properties of the product compared with fresh juice
and RTS without lime juice

Sl.No. Parameter Raw Juice RTS Without Cashew Commercial

Lime Juice Apple- Lime RTS
Lime Blend (Nimbooz)
RTS
1. TSS (0Bx) 11.5 10.0 10.0 10.0
2. Ascorbic acid (mg/100ml) 330.0 68.0 75.9 13.2
3. Tannin (mg/100ml) 289.0 90.86 86.62 3.7
4. Total phenol (%) 0.28.0 0.04 0.06 0.02
5. DPPH Scavenging 1184.2 203.8 281.6 117.0
Activity
(µmoles/15min/100 µl
juice)
6. Acidity (%) 0.48 0.33 0.38 0.46
7. Carbohydrates (%) 14.05 13.02 13.06 13.0

8. Sugars (%) 12.04 11.04 12.06 12.02

9. Protein (%) 0.18 ---- ---- ----

10. Fat (%) 0.09 ---- ---- ----
11. Energy (Kcal/100ml) 51 47 51 50

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 9
Colour Flavour Astringency Taste Overall Acceptability
8

7
Score

3
A 20:00 B 20:1.5 C 20: 2.0 D 20: 2.5 E 20: 3.0 F 20: 3.5
Sample Code
Fig.1. Organoleptic Evaluation of Cashew apple- Lime Blend RTS

Major Requirements of Processing Plant Establishment

Cottage Scale: (≤ 200 L per day)

Sl. Particulars Quantity

No. required
(Minimum)
1. A Room 12X16 ft

2. Potable water supply 24x7

3. Power/ electric supply 24x7

4. Plastic Crates (20Kg capacity) for fruit collection and 20 in number

waste disposal

5. Deep SS Pans (50 L capacity) for apples washing and 3 in number

Juice making

6. Deep SS Pans (20 L capacity) Miscellaneous work 3 in number

7. Aluminum or SS Trays (2X4 ft) for fruit Cutting 10 in number

8. Sharp Knives for fruit Cutting: minimum 10 in number

9. Heavy Duty Fruit processor/ Mixer Grinder Three in number

10. Muslin cloth/ Filter cloth Min. 2 meters per

day

114
 11. Packaging Material: PET bottles as per
requirement
depending upon
filling size
12. Plungers, Spoons and raw material storage boxes As required

13. Labor Min 3/ Max 5

Major Requirements of Processing Plant Establishment

Large Scale: (≥ 1000 L per day)

Sl. Particulars Quantity

No. required
(Minimum)
1. Plant 2000sq ft

2. Potable water supply 24x7

3. Power/ electric supply/ boiler heat supply 24x7

4. Plastic Crates (20Kg capacity) for fruit collection and minimum 100 in
waste disposal number

5. Steam Jacketed/ heating Kettles (150-200 L capacity) Three in number

6. Deep SS Pans (50 L capacity) Miscellaneous work minimum 10 in

number
7. Aluminum or SS Trays (2X4 ft) for fruit Cutting minimum 50 in
number
8. Fruit Juice (100 kg fruit per hour capacity) one/two

9. Packaging Material: PET bottles as per

requirement
depending upon
filling size

Waste Utilisation:
The pomace remaining behind can be used for/as:
1. Poultry/Cattle feed
2. Compost
3. With sophisticated technology further it can be used in foods like Bakery products

Training:
At a time ten people can be trained at laboratory scale for this technology Commercialization

115
Cost of Technology: Tentative estimation of technology cost*

Sl. Particulars Time in Cost/ salary

No. months incurred (Rs.)
1. Total scientific man months 3 months 130,000.00
2. Technical (contractual) man 1.5 months 18,000.00
power months
3. Travel expenses -- 5,000.00
4. Power/ fuel input -- 6,000.00
5. Raw material input -- 15,000.00
Total: 174,000.00

* Added to this the final license fees/ technology cost and its sale based on either exclusive or
nonexclusive licensing will be decided by the ITMU/ITMC.

2. Cashew Apple Cider: An Antioxidant Rich Functional Food

Cashew apple cider is prepared from four different varieties separately (Dhana, Madakathara-2,
V-4, NRCC-301) out of eleven screened and also from mixed variety cashew apple juice through
anaerobic fermentation at room temperature by yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Other varieties may
also result in to a good quality product. Any variety rich in sugars, tannins and phenols will be suitable
for the cider making. The pH (4.2-4.4) for the efficient fermentation was identified and maintained by
using suitable buffers at different stages of fermentation. The sugar is added to the tune of 1-2% if the
TSS of fresh juice is bellow 100Bx. The alcohol content of the product is in the range of 3.5-6.0 % v/v
As per the preliminary sensory analysis of the prepared product the one prepared from mixed juices
was found to be superior attributed to contribution of flavor characteristics by different unidentified
unique constituents of each variety.

The prepared product analyzed for polyphenols and other antioxidants as in the case of grape
wine. Presence of these nutrients adds to the therapeutic value of the product. The cider prepared was
observed for its stability with respect to its sensory attributes (colour and flavour) and few chemical
changes during storage. It is observed that the product below 3.5 % residual sugar content do not
undergo significant change in its sensory and chemical attributes whereas if residual TSS is more than
4% surface scum formation and colour darkening was evident. Cider prepared from NRCC -301 has
a positive appeal towards its colour characteristics owing to ability to retain red colour of skin in the
juice unlike other varieties.

116
Methodology:

Out of eleven released varieties from DDT plot of this directorate, five varieties viz.,
Bhaskara, NRC-301, Dhana, Madakathara-2, V-4 and mixed variety juice was found to be suitable
based on their Biochemical composition and subsequent sensory quality of the product (Table No. 1).

Table 1 : Alcohol content of cider from different varieties based on TSS

Variety TSS Before TSS Before Alcohol Content

Fermentation (0Bx) Fermentation (0Bx) (%v/v)
Dhana 9.0 1.0 4.20
Madakathara-2 10.0 1.5 4.74
V-4 9.5 1.7 4.11
NRCC-301 11 1.5 5.03
Bhaskara 8.5 2.0 3.42
Mixed Juice 10.2 1.5 4.60

The fresh, well ripe, firm and damage free cashew apples from selected varieties were
collected, washed, followed by cutting in to 2-4 halves (stem end and nut end were discarded). The
halves were fed to pulper and obtained pulp is either used directly for the jelly preparation of stored at
frozen temperature for future use. The prepared pulp was then filtered through double layered muslin
cloth. The juice obtained was heated to60-620C (inactivation of enzymes and mesophilic
microorganisms). The inoculums (standardised) of yeast is prepared in 100ml of preheated and cooled
(38-400C) cashew apple juice with addition of 1% table sugar for early activation of yeast cells from
the active dry yeast obtained from market. Prepared inoculums is then added to the pre heated and
cooled (38-400C) juice in the fermentor and the fermentor is kept open for pre decided time and then
closed to create anaerobic conditions for the efficient fermentation of sugars in to alcohol. An air lock
is used to discharge the CO2 released during fermentation. Fermentation progress is monitored
intermittently by checking the TSS and pH of the infusion.

The fermentation completes in 5 to 6 days and a result of which the yeast cells settles all the
way at the bottom of the fermentor. The fement is then decanted without disturbing the sediments of
yeast cells followed by pasteurisation at 56-580C to inactivate the yeast cells in the cider. The product

117
so prepared is then filled in to the umber coloured glass/ PET bottles, sealed and stored in
refrigerator/cool place. Based on the nutrient composition of the product during storage the shelf life
of cashew apple cider is estimated to be 6 months at room temperature and 9-12 months when stored
at refrigeration temperature. (https://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/12540-how-to-determine-the-
shelf-life-of-food-guidance-document). The exact recipe of the product preparation will be disclosed
as per the directions of ITMU/ITMC.

The prepared jelly was analyzed for its nutritive value. Antioxidant activity of the jelly was
determined by DPPH scavenging assay (Das et al. 1988). The concentration of phenolics and tannins
in the jelly was determined using spectrophotometric (Folin-Ciocalteu’s) method (Singleton et al.,
1999).TSS of the jm was determined by hand refractometer (ERMA). Vitamin C content was
measured by 2,6- Dichlorophenol – Indophenol visual titration method (Ranganna,2000).

Functional Beverage:

Ascorbic acid is an important nutrient for the human physiology, and it has a role in the
production and maintenance of collagen, wound healing, and the reduction in susceptibility to
infections, formation of bones and teeth, iron absorption and prevention of scurvy. Phenolic
compounds are metabolites that have the ability to neutralize reactive species, helping to protect the
body against oxidative stress and have antioxidant activity. Cashew apple cider is a rich source of both
of these functional nutrients having nutracuiticals properties which in turn makes the product a
functional one, unlike traditional fruit drinks.

Nutrient value:

Table 3. Nutritional value and functional properties of Cashew Apple Cider

Sl.No. Parameter Value

1. TSS (0Bx) 1-1.5
2. Ascorbic acid (mg/100ml) 150-220
3. Tannin (mg/100ml) 112-186
4. Total phenol (mg/100ml) 140-205
5. Antioxidant activity (CUPRAC) 65-100
(mg/100ml)

118
 6. Antioxidant activity FRAP (mg/100ml) 250-400
7. Carbohydrates (%) 1.5-2.0
8. Sugars (%) 1-1.5
9. Ethanol (%) 3.5-6
10. Protein (%) ---
11. Fat (%) ---
12. Energy (Kcal/100ml) 40-50

Major Requirements of Processing Plant Establishment

Cottage Scale: (≤ 200 L per day)

Sl. Particulars Quantity required

No. (Minimum)
1. A Room 12X16 ft

2. Potable water supply 24x7

3. Power/ electric supply 24x7

4. Plastic Crates (20Kg capacity) for fruit 20 in number

collection and waste disposal

5. Deep SS Pans (50 L capacity) for apples 3 in number

washing and Juice making

6. Deep SS Pans (20 L capacity) Miscellaneous 3 in number

work
7. Aluminum or SS Trays (2X4 ft) for fruit 10 in number
Cutting
8. Sharp Knives for fruit Cutting: minimum 10 in number
9. Heavy Duty Fruit processor/ Mixer Grinder Three in number

10. Biostatic Fermentor (250L/Day) 1

11. Muslin cloth/ Filter cloth Min. 2 meters per day

12. Packaging Material: Umber colored glass/PET bottles

depending upon filling size
13. Plungers, Spoons and raw material storage As required
boxes

14. Labour Min. 3-Max.5

119
 Major Requirements of Processing Plant Establishment
Large Scale: (1000 L per day)

Sl. Particulars Quantity required

No. (Minimum)
1. Plant 2000sq ft

2. Potable water supply 24x7

3. Power/ electric supply/ boiler heat supply 24x7

4. Plastic Crates (20Kg capacity) for fruit collection and waste minimum 100 in
disposal number

5. Steam Jacketed/ heating Kettles (150-200 L capacity) Three in number

6. Deep SS Pans (50 L capacity) Miscellaneous work minimum 10 in

number
7. Aluminum or SS Trays (2X4 ft) for fruit Cutting minimum 50 in
number
8. Fruit Juicer (100 kg fruit per hour capacity) one/two

9. Biostatic Fermentor (1000 L/Day) 1

9. Packaging Material: Umber colored
glass/PET bottles
depending upon
filling size

Training:
At a time five people can be trained at laboratory scale for this technology commercialization

Cost of Technology: Tentative estimation of technology cost*

Sl. Particulars Time in Cost/ salary

No. months incurred (Rs.)
1. Total scientific man months 10 months 500,000.00
2. Technical (contractual) man 2 months 24,000.00
power months
3. Travel expenses -- 5,000.00
4. Power/ fuel input -- 6,000.00
5. Raw material input -- 15,000.00
Total: 550,000.00

* Added to this the final license fees/ technology cost and its sale based on either exclusive or
nonexclusive licensing will be decided by the ITMU/ITMC.
120
 3. Cashew Apple Jam: An Antioxidant Rich Functional Food
Though only eleven released varieties were considered for screening but there is every
chance that other varieties or accessions we may find suitable for the preparation of jam and jelly
depending upon its chemical composition and most importantly the pectin content. Pectin content of
cashew apple is very low as compared to other fruits which are preferred for jam and jelly making
(Table 1). Hence need of external source of pectin becomes crucial to set a quality jam. In view of that
the suitable concentration of commercial pectin was worked out to set a jam and part of it was replaced
by a natural source of pectin i.e. dried orange peel powder extract (Boiled).

Table 1: Pectin Content of various fruits in comparison with cashew apple

Sl.No. Fruit Pectin (%) pH Acidity (%)

1. Apple 0.7 3.2-3.5 0.52
2. Sweet Cherry 0.36 3.4-3.7 1.36
3. Plums 0.76 3.1-3.4 2.21
4. Peaches 0.54 3.4-3.8 0.62
5. Straw berries 0.81 3.2-3.5 1.11
6. Cashew Apple 0.24 4.2-4.4 0.42

Methodology:

Out of eleven released varieties from DDT plot of this directorate, three varieties viz.,
Bhaskara, NRC-301, and VTH-174 found to be suitable based on their pectin content (Table 2) for the
preparation of jam. Though only three released varieties were considered suitable out of eleven
screened, but there is every chance that some more other varieties or accessions we may find suitable
for the preparation of jam.

121
Table 2: Cashew apple pectin content of different released varieties

Sl.No. Variety Colour TSS (0B) Acidity (%) Pectin (%)

1 Bhaskara Red 9 0.43 0.19

2 Madakkathara - 2 Red 10 0.59 0.09

3 Ullal-3 Red 10.5 0.29 0.1

4 Vengurla -4 Red 9.5 0.37 0.12

5 NRC-301 Red 9 0.27 0.17

6 NRCC Selection-2 Red 11 0.48 0.07

7 Dhana Yellow 9 0.4 0.09

8 Priyanka Yellow 10.5 0.41 0.09

9 VTH-174 Yellow 11.5 0.52 0.24

10 Kanaka Yellow 12 0.39 0.14

11 Vengurla-3 Yellow 10.5 0.4 0.15

The fresh, well ripe, firm and damage free cashew apples from selected varieties were
collected, washed, followed by cutting in to 2-4 halves (stem end and nut end were discarded). The
halves were fed to pulper and obtained pulp is either used directly for the jam preparation of stored at
frozen temperature for future use. The pulp is then kept in deep SS pan or in a steam jacketed kettle
for boiling with timely addition of sugar, acid, commercial pectin, natural source of pectin (dried
orange peel powder extract) and permitted edible colour as per the recipe standardised. The infusion
is heated till the TSS reaches to 68.5 - 700 Bx or till the temperature of infusion reaches to 1050C
(cooking end point). The hot preparation is then filled in glass jars at around 60-700C (hot filling) or
at 55-600C in PET jars. The product is self stable at room temperature (six months) but should be kept
in cool and dry places to preserve its organoleptic properties. The exact recipe of the product
preparation will be disclosed as per the directions of ITMU/ITMC.

The prepared jam was analyzed for its nutritive value. Antioxidant activity of the jam was
determined by DPPH scavenging assay (Das et al. 1988). The concentration of phenolics and tannins in the jam
was determined using spectrophotometric (Folin-Ciocalteu’s) method (Singleton et al., 1999).TSS of the jm

122
was determined by hand refractometer (ERMA). Vitamin C content was measured by 2,6-
Dichlorophenol – Indophenol visual titration method (Ranganna,2000).

Functional Food:

Ascorbic acid is an important nutrient for the human physiology, and it has a role in the
production and maintenance of collagen, wound healing, and the reduction in susceptibility to
infections, formation of bones and teeth, iron absorption and prevention of scurvy. Phenolic
compounds are metabolites that have the ability to neutralize reactive species, helping to protect the
body against oxidative stress and have antioxidant activity. Cashew apple jam is a rich source of both
of these functional nutrients having nutracuiticals properties which in turn makes the product a
functional one, unlike traditional fruit drinks.

Nutrient value:

The product could retain maximum of ascorbic acid (121 mg/100ml), total phenolics (134
mg/100ml). The tannin content (112 mg/100ml) of the product was found bellow threshold level of
sensation of astringency (≤0.1%) and higher concentration of sugar in the product also mask the
astringency if present to some extent. Presence of sufficient amount of ascorbic acid, tannins and
phenolics made the product more functional than the traditional one. High antioxidant activities
recorded by CUPRAC assay (403mg/100ml) and by FRAP assay (200 mg/100ml). This is attributed
to the presence of high level of vitamin C and phenolics in the cashew apple juice. The other proximate
chemical components and nutritional facts in comparison with a market jam (Kisaan Mixed Fruit Jam)
are mentioned in following Table No. 2 where it can be clearly understood that the cashew apple jam
is nutritionally superior over the market jam.

Table 3. Nutritional value and functional properties of Cashew Apple Jam

Sl.No. Parameter CA Jam Kisaan Mix

Fruit Jam
1. TSS (0Bx) 68.5
2. Ascorbic acid (mg/100ml) 121.0
3. Tannin (mg/100ml) 112.0 Not
4. Total phenol (mg/100ml) 134.0 Determined

123
 5. Antioxidant activity (CUPRAC) (mg/100ml) 403.0
6. Antioxidant activity FRAP (mg/100ml) 200.0
7. Carbohydrates (%) 69.0 70.5
8. Sugars (%) 68.7 69.0
9. Dietary Fiber (%) 1.6 1.0
10. Protein (%) 0.17 ---
11. Fat (%) 0.12 ---
12. Energy (Kcal/100g) 277 285

Major Requirements of Processing Plant Establishment

Cottage Scale: (≤ 200 L per day)

Sl. Particulars Quantity required

No. (Minimum)
1. A Room 12X16 ft

2. Potable water supply 24x7

3. Power/ electric supply 24x7

4. Plastic Crates (20Kg capacity) for fruit collection and 20 in number

waste disposal

5. Deep SS Pans (50 L capacity) for apples washing and 3 in number

Juice making

6. Deep SS Pans (20 L capacity) Miscellaneous work 3 in number

7. Aluminum or SS Trays (2X4 ft) for fruit Cutting 10 in number

8. Sharp Knives for fruit Cutting: minimum 10 in number

9. Heavy Duty Fruit processor/ Mixer Grinder Three in number

10. Muslin cloth/ Filter cloth Min. 2 meters per day

11. Packaging Material: Glass Jar or PET jars as per

requirement depending upon
filling size
12. Plungers, Spoons and raw material storage boxes As required

124
 Major Requirements of Processing Plant Establishment
Large Scale: (1000 L per day)

Sl. Particulars Quantity required

No. (Minimum)
1. Plant 2000sq ft

2. Potable water supply 24x7

3. Power/ electric supply/ boiler heat supply 24x7

4. Plastic Crates (20Kg capacity) for fruit collection and minimum 100 in number
waste disposal

5. Steam Jacketed/ heating Kettles (150-200 L capacity) Three in number

6. Deep SS Pans (50 L capacity) Miscellaneous work minimum 10 in number

7. Aluminum or SS Trays (2X4 ft) for fruit Cutting minimum 50 in number

8. Fruit Juice (100 kg fruit per hour capacity) one/two

9. Packaging Material: Glass Jar or PET jars as per

requirement depending upon
filling size

Training:
At a time five people can be trained at laboratory scale for this technology commercialization

Cost of Technology: Tentative estimation of technology cost*

Sl. Particulars Time in Cost/ salary

No. months incurred (Rs.)
1. Total scientific man months 4 months 200,000.00
2. Technical (contractual) man 2 months 24,000.00
power months
3. Travel expenses -- 5,000.00
4. Power/ fuel input -- 6,000.00
5. Raw material input -- 15,000.00
Total: 250,000.00

* Added to this the final license fees/ technology cost and its sale based on either exclusive or
nonexclusive licensing will be decided by the ITMU/ITMC.

125
 4. Cashew Apple Jelly: An Antioxidant Rich Functional Food
Though only eleven released varieties were considered for screening but there is every
chance that other varieties or accessions we may find suitable for the preparation of jelly depending
upon its chemical composition and most importantly the pectin content. Pectin content of cashew apple
is very low as compared to other fruits which are preferred for jelly making (Table 1). Hence need of
external source of pectin becomes crucial to set a quality jelly. In view of that the suitable
concentration of commercial pectin was worked out to set a jelly and part of it was replaced by a
natural source of pectin i.e. cooked guava (unripe/firm) pulp extract was added at different level of
concentration and a suitable concentration is fixed to set a quality jelly.

Table 1 : Pectin Content of various fruits in comparison with cashew apple

Sl.No. Fruit Pectin (%) pH Acidity (%)

1. Apple 0.7 3.2-3.5 0.52
2. Sweet Cherry 0.36 3.4-3.7 1.36
3. Plums 0.76 3.1-3.4 2.21
4. Peaches 0.54 3.4-3.8 0.62
5. Straw berries 0.81 3.2-3.5 1.11
6. Cashew Apple 0.24 4.2-4.4 0.42

Methodology:

Out of eleven released varieties from DDT plot of this directorate, three varieties viz.,
Bhaskara, NRC-301, and VTH-174 found to be suitable based on their pectin content (Table 2) for the
preparation of jelly. The product can also be prepared from any other varieties with addition of
commercial pectin or natural source of pectin at the rate of 0.1 to 0.5 % (depending upon the original
pectin content of cashew apple) more than the selected varieties.

126
 Table 2: Pectin content of Cashew apples of different released varieties

Sl.No. Variety Colour TSS (0B) Acidity (%) Pectin (%)

1 Bhaskara Red 9 0.43 0.19

2 Madakkathara - 2 Red 10 0.59 0.09

3 Ullal-3 Red 10.5 0.29 0.1

4 Vengurla -4 Red 9.5 0.37 0.12

5 NRC-301 Red 9 0.27 0.17

6 NRCC Selection-2 Red 11 0.48 0.07

7 Dhana Yellow 9 0.4 0.09

8 Priyanka Yellow 10.5 0.41 0.09

9 VTH-174 Yellow 11.5 0.52 0.24

10 Kanaka Yellow 12 0.39 0.14

11 Vengurla-3 Yellow 10.5 0.4 0.15

The fresh, well ripe, firm and damage free cashew apples from selected varieties were collected,
washed, followed by cutting in to 2-4 halves (stem end and nut end were discarded). The halves were
fed to pulper and obtained pulp is either used directly for the jelly preparation of stored at frozen
temperature for future use. The pulp is then kept in deep SS pan or in a steam jacketed kettle for boiling
with timely addition of sugar, acid, commercial pectin, natural source of pectin (dried orange peel
powder extract) and permitted edible colour as per the recipe standardised. The infusion is heated till
the TSS reaches to 650 Bx or till the temperature of infusion reaches to 1050C (cooking end point).
The hot preparation is then filled in glass jars at around 60-700C (hot filling) or at 55-600C in PET
jars. The product is self stable at room temperature (six months) but should be kept in cool and dry
places to preserve its organoleptic properties (https://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/12540-how-to-
determine-the-shelf-life-of-food-guidance-document). The exact recipe of the product preparation will
be disclosed as per the directions of ITMU/ITMC.

The prepared jelly was analyzed for its nutritive value. Antioxidant activity of the jelly was
determined by DPPH scavenging assay (Das et al. 1988). The concentration of phenolics and tannins

127
in the jelly was determined using spectrophotometric (Folin-Ciocalteu’s) method (Singleton et al.,
1999).TSS of the jm was determined by hand refractometer (ERMA). Vitamin C content was
measured by 2,6- Dichlorophenol – Indophenol visual titration method (Ranganna,2000).

Functional Food:

Ascorbic acid is an important nutrient for the human physiology, and it has a role in the
production and maintenance of collagen, wound healing, and the reduction in susceptibility to
infections, formation of bones and teeth, iron absorption and prevention of scurvy. Phenolic
compounds are metabolites that have the ability to neutralize reactive species, helping to protect the
body against oxidative stress and have antioxidant activity. Cashew apple jelly is a rich source of both
of these functional nutrients having nutracuiticals properties which in turn makes the product a
functional one, unlike traditional fruit drinks.

Nutrient value:

The product could retain maximum of ascorbic acid (121 mg/100ml), total phenolics (134
mg/100ml). The tannin content (112 mg/100ml) of the product was found bellow threshold level of
sensation of astringency (≤0.1%) and higher concentration of sugar in the product also mask the
astringency if present to some extent. Presence of sufficient amount of ascorbic acid, tannins and
phenolics made the product more functional than the traditional one. High antioxidant activities
recorded by CUPRAC assay (403mg/100ml) and by FRAP assay (200 mg/100ml). This is attributed
to the presence of high level of vitamin C and phenolics in the cashew apple juice. The other proximate
chemical components and nutritional facts in comparison with a market jelly (Kisaan Mixed Fruit Jam)
are mentioned in following Table No. 2 where it can be clearly understood that the cashew apple jelly
is nutritionally superior over the market jelly.

128
Table 3. Nutritional value and functional properties of Cashew Apple Jelly

Sl.No. Parameter CA Jelly Kisaan Mix

Fruit Jam
1. TSS (0Bx) 65.0
2. Ascorbic acid (mg/100ml) 142.0
3. Tannin (mg/100ml) 93.0 Not
4. Total phenol (mg/100ml) 117.0 Determined
5. Antioxidant activity (CUPRAC) (mg/100ml) 316.0
6. Antioxidant activity FRAP (mg/100ml) 152.0
7. Carbohydrates (%) 66.0 70.5
8. Sugars (%) 65.5 69.0
9. Dietary Fiber (%) Traces* 1.0
10. Protein (%) 0.06 ---
11. Fat (%) 0.08 ---
12. Energy (Kcal/100g) 261 285
*Since the product is prepared from strained cashew apple juice the dietary fiber content is very low

Major Requirements of Processing Plant Establishment

Cottage Scale: (≤ 200 L per day)

Sl. Particulars Quantity required

No. (Minimum)
1. A Room 12X16 ft

2. Potable water supply 24x7

3. Power/ electric supply 24x7

4. Plastic Crates (20Kg capacity) for fruit collection and 20 in number

waste disposal

5. Deep SS Pans (50 L capacity) for apples washing and 3 in number

Juice making

6. Deep SS Pans (20 L capacity) Miscellaneous work 3 in number

7. Aluminum or SS Trays (2X4 ft) for fruit Cutting 10 in number

129
 8. Sharp Knives for fruit Cutting: minimum 10 in number

9. Heavy Duty Fruit processor/ Mixer Grinder Three in number

10. Muslin cloth/ Filter cloth Min. 2 meters per day

11. Packaging Material: Glass Jar or PET jars as

per requirement
depending upon filling
size
12. Plungers, Spoons and raw material storage boxes As required

13. Labor Min 3/ Max 5

Major Requirements of Processing Plant Establishment

Large Scale: (1000 L per day)

Sl. Particulars Quantity required

No. (Minimum)
1. Plant 2000sq ft

2. Potable water supply 24x7

3. Power/ electric supply/ boiler heat supply 24x7

4. Plastic Crates (20Kg capacity) for fruit collection and minimum 100 in number
waste disposal

5. Steam Jacketed/ heating Kettles (150-200 L capacity) Three in number

6. Deep SS Pans (50 L capacity) Miscellaneous work minimum 10 in number

7. Aluminum or SS Trays (2X4 ft) for fruit Cutting minimum 50 in number

8. Fruit Juice (100 kg fruit per hour capacity) one/two

9. Packaging Material: Glass Jar or PET jars as

per requirement
depending upon filling
size

Training:
At a time five people can be trained at laboratory scale for this technology commercialization

130
Cost of Technology: Tentative estimation of technology cost*

Sl. Particulars Time in Cost/ salary

No. months incurred (Rs.)
1. Total scientific man months 4 months 200,000.00
2. Technical (contractual) man 2 months 24,000.00
power months
3. Travel expenses -- 5,000.00
4. Power/ fuel input -- 6,000.00
5. Raw material input -- 15,000.00
Total: 250,000.00

* Added to this the final license fees/ technology cost and its sale based on either exclusive or
nonexclusive licensing will be decided by the ITMU/ITMC.

131
 Overview of Global Cashew Scenario & India’s Future Forward
C.P. APPANNA
(EX-General Manager, NABARD)
Agri-Project advisor & Consultant

Cashew-World Scenario-Background
Cashew (A. occidentale L.) is native to Latin America and has a primary center of diversity in Amazonia, and
a secondary one in the Planalto of Brazil. Natural occurrence of cashew has been reported from Mexico to
Peru, and in the West Indies. It was one of the first fruit trees from the New World to be widely distributed
throughout the tropics by the early Portuguese and Spanish adventurers. The name cashew is from the
Portuguese caju, which in turn comes from the Tupi-Indian word acaju. The incoming colonists in what is
now Brazil found that the native Indians valued both the cashew nut and the so-called apple, the fleshy pedicel
or stalk of the fruit (Deckers et al., 2001). Cashew was discovered by Portuguese traders and explorers in
Brazil in 1578. It was introduced into West and East Africa and India by the Portuguese travelers in the 16th
century. By then, cashew was considered a suitable crop for soil conservation, forestation, and also wasteland
development. Therefore, the initial aim of cashew introduction to those areas was not to produce nuts and
apples (pseudo-fruits), but to help control soil erosion on the coast (Bradtke, 2007). Use of cashew nuts and
apples developed much later, and the international nut trade did not start until the 1920s (Rieger, 2006).
Thereafter, cashew gradually gained commercial importance and spread in other places. It is now naturalized
in many tropical countries, particularly in coastal areas of East Africa (Tanzania, Kenya, Mozambique,
Madagascar and Uganda), West and Central Africa (Ivory Coast, Nigeria and Angola), Florida, Peru, Hawaii,
Tahiti, Mauritius, Seychelles, Panama, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malay Peninsula and Philippine. The
cashew industry ranks third in the world production of edible nuts with world production in 2000 at about 2
million tonnes of nuts-in-shell and an estimated value in excess of US$2 billion. India and Brazil are the major
cashew exporters, with 60 percent and 31 percent respectively of world market share. The major importers are
the United States (55 percent), the Netherlands (ten percent), Germany (seven percent), Japan (five percent)
and the United Kingdom (five percent). Cashew kernels are ranked as either the second or third most expensive
nut traded in the United States. Macadamia nuts are priced higher and pecan nuts can be more costly, if the
harvest is poor. The extensive market connections of exporters from Brazil and India make it difficult for the
smaller exporters to make gains in the United States market. Importers may appreciate the low prices offered
by small suppliers, but the lack of reliability in quality tends to make them favors the larger, more reputable
suppliers.
132
133
134
Cashew in Africa

Africa produces 42% of the estimated 2.6 million tonnes of raw cashews every year. Of this, it exports 90%
to the rest of the world, retaining the rest for domestic produce. In the recent past, while most of the efforts
were aimed at improving farm level productivity through seed programmes, replantation and rejuvenation,
training and capacity building on farm management practices etc., a lot has also been done on reforming
markets and revitalizing institutional infrastructure too. Tanzania, through the Cashew Board of Tanzania, has
put in place a robust warehouse receipt-based auction system to ensure quality nuts get fair price and small-
holder farmers are not discriminated against. This has been working very well. Further, the Cashew Board of
Tanzania is going ahead with establishment of three processing plants under public-private partnership model
with the involvement of producer cooperative and government. Like-wise, Cote d’Ivoire, through its
regulatory body, the Cotton and Cashew Council (CCC), sealed raw cashew movement through the land route
and restricted raw cashew exports only through Abidjan and San Padro ports to bring in accountability.
Besides, it fixed a minimum price for raw cashew for 2014 season and ensured farmers do not sell below it.
Cote d’Ivoire with its significant production volume thus brought in necessary discipline in the raw cashew
trade and exports. Simultaneously, CCC have started engaging with Vietnam at government to government to
level to get access to Vietnam cashew processing technology into Cote d’Ivoire in exchange for assured supply
of raw cashews to Vietnam. Cote d’Ivoire is largely replicating its successful model of cocoa in cashew. These
are just two examples. The gist is every major raw cashew producer is evolving its own model to add value to
raw cashew and in the process generate employment and wealth for the nation. Organisations such as ACA
and ACi along with its partners are enabling and hastening this transition. Africa, undoubtedly is the most
happening place for cashew and rightfully, this decade belongs to African cashew industry

Cashew Processing in Africa

Africa produces 42 % of the world’s cashew. The processing of cashew nuts has a long history on the African
continent. Mozambique was the first country in Africa to process cashew nuts on an industrial scale. In the
1960s, Mozambique was the world’s largest producer of cashew nuts, accounting for an average annual share
of 35 per cent of global production. In parallel, a local cashew-processing industry emerged. More recently,
the cashew-processing industry in Mozambique has begun to re-emerge and, in 2018, ranked second in
capacity and output in Africa (table A).

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Table A: Processing capacity and utilization:

Selected cashew- Estimated processing Processed, Utilization rate

growing countries capacity, 2018 (tons) 2018 (tons) (percentage)

India 2000000 1675000 83.8

Viet Nam 1800000 1450000 80.6
Côte d’Ivoire 140100 68000 48.5
Mozambique 105700 53517 50.6
United Republic of 42073 10000 23.8
Tanzania
Ghana 45750 23300 50.9
Nigeria 48000 20000 41.7
Benin 35000 18750 53.6
Burkina Faso 18000 8701 48.3
Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on data from Com Cashew, DCCD and United Republic of Tanzania, 2020.

Côte d’Ivoire is the country with the largest cashew processing industry on the African continent, with a
capacity of 70,000 tons per year. Other countries in Africa with significant cashew-processing industries
include Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mozambique, Nigeria and the United Republic of Tanzania. However,
the capacity of these countries is still much lower than their respective production of RCN. The opposite is
the case in India and Viet Nam, which have the largest processing capacities in the world. In both countries,
the domestic processing capacity is far larger than cashew nut production, which gives rise to their strong
import demand for RCN in international markets. A common feature of the processing industries in Africa is
the high level of disparity between capacity and utilization. Among the main cashew-processing countries in
Africa featured in table A, the average ratio of capacity to utilization was less than 50 per cent in 2018, which
indicates that they face difficulties in securing a stable and sufficient supply of raw materials to keep their
operations going throughout the year. This suggests that policies aimed at increasing cashew processing in
Africa need to focus not only on adding new processing sites but also on increasing the utilization rates of
existing units. Another way of highlighting the potential for value addition that is foregone if cashew nuts are
exported as RCN is to consider the prices paid at different stages of the value chain.

Future trade strategy

The global cashew market is characterized by fragmentation and long supply chains. While more than 50 per
cent of global cashew nut production takes place in Africa, more than 85 per cent of shelling industries are
located in Asia and more than 60 per cent of cashew kernel exports are destined to the United States and the
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European Union. Cashew-growing countries that mainly export RCN rather than processing them at scale
forego significant potential for value creation and employment generation. The addition of value to cashew
byproducts such as shells and apples represents a significant underutilized potential in many cashew growing
countries. Since production typically takes place on smallholdings in rural areas, there is a direct link between
value addition in the cashew sector and the achievement of poverty reduction and other Sustainable
Development Goals. This untapped potential is greatest on the African continent, where, in 2018, less than 15
per cent of harvested RCN were processed and the bulk of cashew by-products was discarded as waste. Current
market trends and developments in the main cashew consumer markets offer opportunities for existing cashew
processors and potential investors in the sector. The global demand for cashew kernels is on a sustained growth
path, which creates opportunities for new market entrants. In addition, the traceability, transparency and
sustainability of food supply chains is becoming increasingly important for consumers and suppliers, which
could benefit processors in Africa that source RCN locally rather than through long supply chains and from
multiple sources. For instance, the Sustainable Nut Initiative aims to increase the transparency and
sustainability of nut supply chains. Furthermore, the growth of the organic food sector creates opportunities
to develop certified organic cashew products that can be marketed at premium prices. For instance, in 2009–
2018, retail sales of organic products in the European Union grew by 121 per cent. For such opportunities to
materialize, the entire cashew value chain needs to be strengthened in cashew growing countries that aspire to
develop and expand cashew-processing industries. Therefore, strategies and policy interventions in the cashew
sector need to be based on clear objectives and take a holistic view that includes production, processing and
trade. A stable supply of high-quality RCN is the backbone of every cashew industry. Therefore, the
agricultural policy framework needs to be supportive of practices and investments that increase the
productivity and output quality of cashew orchards. In addition to a reliable supply of RCN, cashew processors
need a policy environment that enables them to operate with competitive transformation costs and facilitates
access to the main export markets for cashew kernels. Promoting the development of cashew byproducts such
as CNSL, briquettes from de-oiled cashew shells and products based on the cashew apple can further
strengthen value and job creation in the cashew sector. Finally, regional cooperation and trade facilitation, in
particular in Africa, can contribute to market stability and help to reduce supply-side risks for processors

Vietnam Cashew Industry: A Quick view

Raw Cashew Nuts Sector: Cashew is grown in 300,000 ha in Vietnam with an average productivity of
1000 kg/ha. Moving plantations from mountains, better seed programme, choosing proper seasons for

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seeding and harvesting and use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Vietnam aims to increase
productivity to 1700 – 2000 kg/ha. Vietnam has a challenge of not being able to allocate more land to
cashew. Thus, productivity improvement is the option.

Raw cashew Nuts import (Metric Tonnes)

2017 1291726
2018 1211720

2019 (till Sept) 1288121

Cashew Kernel Market:

Vietnam cashew industry in 1980s was similar to the cashew industry in Africa today. Processing started in
1990. In three decades, Vietnam has raised itself into becoming the second largest processor of Raw Cashew
and the largest exporter of cashew kernel (for the 8th consecutive year since 2006).

Cashew Kernel export (Metric Tonnes)

2017 355939
2018 379774
2019 (till Sept) 325121

Resource person’s Personal interventions/participation-Experience sharing

Commercial Cashew Plantation – Madagascar (Africa)

Was involved with agency Verama at Madagascar with a consultancy task of one of the largest Cashew
plantations in Madagascar (Africa) which has its cashew plantation established in about 500 Hectares. We
assessed their growth & yield potential of existing Cashew plantation, exploring avenues for boosting its yield
levels by way of adoption of new/improvised/latest intercultural practices focusing mainly on its training
/pruning/replanting or any other scientific approach. We also explored the possibilities for new planting of
Cashew under area expansion approach to enable the company to produce nuts to the requisite volume to make
it a globally competitive unit.

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Top working:

It was proposed to have immediate action plan for taking up top working in the area which was already planted
at the VERAMA plantation at present Existing commercial area that is a poor yielder was also be brought
under this plan. Top working was being carried out to the extent of 135 hectares which is to the extent of 30%
of the total plantation programme (450 Hectares)

The Top working activity is for a period of 3 years with 30 Hectares, 45 Hectares and 60 Hectares to be top
worked during the 1st, 2nd and 3rd years respectively. The Top working will have a good mix of the proposed
varieties in the percentage of 20% of each variety out of the 5 varieties recommended.

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Mali-Bamako

A brief stint at Mali with Malian Cashew Corporation (MACC)for understanding their trade and business
practices and to forge a business plan ahead was carried out. The MACC has its presence in 7 countries across
west Africa exclusively dealing with export of raw cashew nut (RCN) and other agri-forest produce and
products from their network countries in the region.

MAILIAN CASHEW CORPORATION

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A collaborative workshop was organised by Karnataka Cashew Development Corporation (KCDC)
Mangalore in Cashew titled “Recent developments in cashew processing and raw nut handling by growers and
traders” on 16th October 2019 at BIRD (NABARD Training Campus-Bondel) in Mangalore. GOI,
Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa Development (DCCD), Kochi, Directorate of Cashew Research (DCR),
Puttur, Industrialists, Professionals, Entrepreneurs, Scientists, Agri-business, MACC-Bamako and farmers in
the field of Cashew and others participated in the aforesaid workshop.

The objective of the workshop is to discuss the emerging trends related to Cashew processing, so as to upgrade
with the recent or advanced technologies and look forward to improved packaging and also for forging a firm
bond between growers and traders involved in raw cashew nut trade.

Integrated Agriculture Complex in Guinea Republic (Conakry)-West Africa

A high profile multi-sectoral Agri-development project was conceived, prepared and commenced in
November 2019 for Development of 1700 hectares of existing fallow, partly cultivated, even terrain land into
an “Integrated multi-crop and multi-activity complex with crop husbandry, processing, trade, market, farm
advise and related services” involving an investment of 160.014 million AED. The site is located 100 Km
away from the city of Conakry of Guinea Republic.

The entire boundary of the proposed integrated crop complex was having Cashew plants planted as border
planting concept which when calculated (Total No of plants) was roughly was of 400 hectares.

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Cashew in India

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is an important tropical perennial tree crop, originally grown in coastal
areas, but now extending also far inland. Cashew is known by many names. In Mozambique, the Maconde
tribe refer to it as the "Devil's Nut". It is offered at wedding ceremonies as a token of fertility and is considered
by many to have aphrodisiac properties. The cashew tree, native to Brazil, was introduced to Mozambique and
then India in the sixteenth century by the Portuguese, as a means of controlling coastal erosion. It was spread
within these countries with the aid of elephants that ate the bright cashew fruit along with the attached nut.
The nut was too hard to digest and was later expelled with the droppings. It was not until the nineteenth century
that plantations were developed and the tree then spread to a number of other countries in Africa, Asia and
Latin America. Cashew processing, using manual techniques, was started in India in the first half of the
twentieth century. It was exported from there to the wealthy western markets, particularly the United States.
It is a major export crop in terms of foreign exchange earnings in countries like Brazil, Vietnam, India, Nigeria,
Tanzania, Indonesia, Guinea-Bissau, Cote D’Ivoire, Mozambique and Benin. Cashew nuts are common
appetizers, like peanuts and pistachio nuts. They are also used in the food industry, and as an ingredient in
various confectionery products. The cashew nut kernels have good nutritional values to human beings. Due to
its high nutritional value, even small and broken pieces of cashew nut kernels find a market in confectionery
products. Almost all varieties of A. occidentale produce sweet juicy apples, with high soluble sugar (fructose
and sucrose) content, which are consumed as fresh fruits; or used to make various apples products, such as
juice and wine.

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 During 60’s, India, Mozambique, Tanzania, Brazil and Cote d’Ivoire were the only producers of RCN. Till
mid of 70’s, the same trend continued with some new entrants in the market. In 70’s, Indonesia and in 80’s
Vietnam became one among the new entrants of RCN in the world.

India is the largest producer of raw cashew nut in the world with 1.01 million ha area under cultivation and
0.75 million tons production in 2013. The area under RCN has been increasing consistently year-aft er-year.
From 1961, cashew cultivation

Over the past years cashew nut production in India has been increasing steadily with the release of new
high yielding graft s and adoption of good agronomical practices. Recently many farmers in India started to
adopt High Density Planting (HDP) which accommodates 625 plants in a hectare which definitely reflects on
production in near future.

Kerala, Goa and Karnataka states are the traditional RCN producers and processors for a long ti me in India.
Later the RCN cultivation expanded towards other states like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Tamil
Nadu. Commencement of National Horti culture Mission (NHM) Schemes in India during 2005-06 has
become a boon for development of cashew sector. There are about 100 regional cashew nurseries under public
and private sector catering to the needs of graft requirement in addition to large number of small to medium
cashew nurseries. At present, RCN production is gaining momentum across the country. From being south
centric, RCN production and processing is now expanding to the central India and is further expected to expand
to the other parts of the country. The recent non-traditional entrants into RCN production include Assam, West
Bengal, Tripura, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Andaman Nicobar, Chhattisgarh, etc.

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Cashew Processing in India

Cashew processing, using manual techniques, was started in India in the first half of the twentieth century. It
was exported from there to the wealthy western markets, particularly the United States. It is a major export
crop in terms of foreign exchange earnings in countries like Brazil, Vietnam, India, Nigeria, Tanzania,
Indonesia, Guinea-Bissau, Cote D’Ivoire, Mozambique and Benin. Cashew nuts are common appetizers, like
peanuts and pistachio nuts. They are also used in the food industry, and as an ingredient in various
confectionery products.

Cashew processing is a very competitive but also a potentially lucrative activity that can and should be
exploited by more small-scale processors. There are several good reasons why small-scale producers and
processors should get involved in cashew processing, including the following:

• Cashew kernels are a high value luxury commodity with sales growing steadily at an annual rate of seven
percent, with every expectation that the market will remain strong.

• There is substantial potential to exploit cashew by-products, such as cashew butter, from broken nuts, CNSL
for industrial and medicinal purposes and the juice of the cashew apple that can be processed further.

• Cashew is a good crop for smallholder farmers. It requires few inputs and harvesting does not coincide with
peak labour demands for other food crops.

Thus, cashew has the potential to increase the incomes of poor producers, to create employment
opportunities during harvesting and processing and to increase exports. However, as with all small-scale
processing operations, cashew processing is not without risk or problems. In order for the small-scale
processor to succeed, there are certain constraints, which also need to be addressed from time to time.

• Cashew production is very weather dependent so supply is variable.

• World prices, although stable on average, are Highly volatile in the short term.
• Luxury goods must be of high quality in order to compete directly in the world market, have to maintain a
high level of standards,
• Branding and marketing are required.
• Exploitation of by-products requires new technology, which may be expensive or difficult to obtain.

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 Discussions, Views, Trends, Points to Ponder and

Future Forward

Comparisons between major cashew countries

India

 We now are better placed as INDIA is now one of the largest consumers of cashew
 Domestic production of RCN -50%-Scope for expansion
 Potential land pockets are available hence expansion of area possible

VIETNAM

 Low domestic consumption

 Fully dependent on exports (90%)
 Domestic RCN production-Limited scope for expansion as potential land pockets are absent
 Rely heavily on Africa for RCN supply
AFRICA

 Economy weak coupled with poor governance

 Plenty of land for production expansion-High growth potential

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 Processing sector still at nascent stage
 Low domestic consumption of kernels
 Depend primarily on export of RCN

Cashew in India-Past and present

Before: Till the year 1975

 India Global leaders in cashew

 85% of Exports
 90% of the Processing
 60% of the Global production
Present

 Today-India exports 10% of the world trade in Cashew Kernels

 35% of processing (Continues as one of the largest processors)
 18.68% of Global production of RCN is from India
 India now is one of the largest consumers of cashew kernel
 Vietnam has since displaced India as a leader in Cashew Global scenario
 Involves large number of small and marginal farmers- About 70%
 Nearly 2.00 lakh workers, more than 90% of whom are women, are directly employed
 Nearly two million people- involved, directly and indirectly

Points to Ponder

Cashew-Crop & Segment

 Cashew quality- One of the best in the world

 Cashew is recently introduced crop in India- Only 4 centuries old
 Initially Cashew crop was taken up as a waste land-commercial crop
 If one considers past average per unit area production, the present situation/trend is very encouraging
 Sales- well balanced, export Versus Domestic
 Fewer stages before export in most of the African countries
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 Cashew Processing sector

 Financing institute friendly

 Compact block
 Good potential for future expansion
 Sun rise industry- better profit margins
 Organised work force
 Productivity ranges up to 85-95%
 Indian cashew skill like Brazilian slum hand embroidery
 70% of process innovations originated from here
 Entrepreneurship spirit continues to be very high
 Relatively Lesser non-productive investments
 Working approach-structured
 Accountability of products
 Diversified products
 High value & quick realization - Efficient conversions
 Minimum wastage/residue
 Minimum pollution related issues
 Scope for Future expansion of unit
Risks

 Large scale project- Higher responsibility

 Out and out industry- Stringent norms
 Total outsourcing concept/ dependent
 Electricity high consumption- can affect viability
 More tilt towards infrastructure and other services
 High investment per unit area
 High liability

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 Future Forward

EXPORT

 India exports mostly bulk packs of cashew nuts, hence boost needed for export of value-added products
 Address presence of chlorophenol in Indian cashew
IMPORT

 Being Agri commodity- Reduction in GST on imported RCN

 Grading at port of dispatch before import of RCN -Mandatory
EXPANSION

 One India one cashew model

 Golden Cashew Neck lace-Gujarat to West Bengal
 Combination of Co win Portal model & Fastag -incentive (2 prong) for Cashew expansion
 Aggressive & time bound thrust/focus on Cashew New Planting/Existing Planting/Replanting/Top working

CORPORATIONS

 KCDC -ha: 25,655 & OSCDC -ha: 27878-Good existing potential base-Excellent scope for crop production
potential tapping
DOMESTIC
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 Backward integration-traceability-Future ready
 Farmer hand holding needed in post-harvest aspects
 Calls for establishment of an exclusive world class farmer run platform for cashew -cashew exchange

References: GIZ, FAO, UNCTAD, DCCD, Cashe

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 Application of Contemporary ICTs for Transfer of Technology in
Cashew and extension strategies for promoting Cashew
Aswathy Chandrakumar
ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur
Introduction

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) is a native of Eastern Brazil. It was introduced to India

along the west coast by the Portuguese during the 16th century to control soil erosion. However, India
became the hub for processing raw cashew nuts and bulk of the cashew kernel requirement of the
global market was met by our country. The availability of cheap manual labour in India when
compared to many African countries helped India to offer kernels at competitive prices in the world
market during 1950s. Cashew has attained the status of commercial plantation, providing gainful
employment to more than one million people especially women in India. As on 2018-19, Cashew is
cultivated in an area of 11.05 lakh ha, producing 7.43 lakh tonnes raw cashew nuts in India. At global
level, production more than doubled during the period from 2000-2018 as a result of increased demand
for cashew kernels. Keeping in view of the significance of the crop to India, the present chapter
discusses about the existing extension strategies for promoting the crop and leveraging the potential
of ICTs for increasing the production and protection of crop.

India has a long history of cashew processing and trading as early as 1920s. Efforts were made
to formulate targeted policies and establish dedicated agencies for the promotion of the crop. Today
we have the Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa Development in Kochi, Kerala as the nodal agency for
promoting all developmental activities related to Cashew while ICAR-Directorate of Cashew
Research, a research institute under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research caters the research
needs of the country. Being a nodal agency for promotion of the crop, DCCD has different schemes
which is tabulated below-

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 Table 1: Schemes promoted by DCCD to give financial assistance for cultivation of cashew

Sl. Name of the Scheme Particulars

No.
1. Establishment of New Financial assistance @ Rs.20, 000/- per ha for meeting the
Plantations of Cashew (3 years) expenditure on planting materials and cost of materials for
INM/IPM in three installments in 60:20:20 subject to survival
rate of 75% in 2nd year and 90% in 3rd year without integration
with drip system.
2. Cashew productivity Financial assistance @ Rs.40, 000 per ha for meeting the
improvement programme expenditure on planting materials and cost of materials for
through High Density Planting INM/IPM in three instalments in 60:20:20 subject to survival
(5m x 5m spacing) rate of 75% in 2nd year and 90% in 3rd year without integration
(3 years) with drip system.
3. Establishment new plantations The pattern of assistance will be as per NHM guidelines i.e.
by replacement of senile 40% of the cost subject to Rs.20000/- per ha in three instalments
plantations and replanting with of 60:20:20 subject to the survival rate of 75% in second year
high yielding varieties (3 years and 90% in third year.
for Forest department and
Corporations)
4. Establishment andFor setting up big nursery maximum of 20.00 lakhs per units as
Modernisation of Cashewproject based activity. For small nursery maximum of 7.50
Nurseries (1 year) lakhs per units as project based activity. For
modernization/upgradation of existing cashew nursery, Rs.5.00
lakhs
(Source: DCCD website)
Issues and Challenges in Cashew sector

Despite the various developmental efforts initiated at the global and regional levels, several
issues and constraints are faced in the sector which are enlisted below-

 Low price for the cashew nuts

 The “Low maintenance crop” myth that persists
 There is no rejuvenation of senile cashew orchard that takes place, which leads to some cashew
plants dying.
 Plant protection measures against Tea Mosquito Bug (Helopeltis Antonii) and Cashew stem and
root borer have not been initiated.
 There is a wide knowledge gap among cashew growers on the canopy management issues which
effects their productivity.
 Cashew apple is underutilised

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 Lack of organized value chain in Cashew
 High cost of processing
 Improper drying of nuts at farmers’ field causing more delay and burden for the processors.
 Competition from other countries like Vietnam where mechanization is more
Leveraging the potential of ICTs for promoting Cashew

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) play a key role in information

dissemination and have important implications in the field of agriculture. Some of the ICT
interventions implemented from ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur includes-

1. Cashew India App

This android based app gives comprehensive information on cashew cultivation aspects and
market aspects which will be beneficial for all the stakeholders in Cashew. This app is available on
google playstore. It is available in 11 languages and currently 3262 people have downloaded this app.
There is facility to book grafts through this app and presently 20005 grafts have been booked through
this.
2. Cashew Pest Database
This database is available on ICAR-DCR website providing complete information with
photographs regarding the important pests of cashew, minor pests, pest calendar and the symptoms
and damages caused by each of these pests.
3. Cashew Nutrient Manager
This mobile based app available in google play store and helps the users to calculate the
fertilizer doses based on the soil conditions and general recommendations of nutrients can also be
taken from this app. The app also provides information on liming application and foliar application.
4. Cashew Community whatsapp group
This whatsapp group managed by ICAR-DCR provides an online platform to voice the
opinions of all the stakeholders like cashew farmers, cashew processors, scientists and policy makers.
Presently, 203 participants from various states are members of this group. The whatsapp group is very
active in terms of discussion on various aspects of cashew cultivation.
References:
https://cashew.icar.gov.in/
https://www.dccd.gov.in/

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