Accountancy

Financial Accounting
Part I
Textbook for Class XI

2015-16
 ISBN 81-7450-507-5
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2015-16
 FOREWORD

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that

children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This
principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which
continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home
and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF
signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to
discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between
different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly
further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in
the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals
and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own
learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must
recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new
knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults.
Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one
of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat
children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of
knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode
of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour
in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of
teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for
teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook
proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather
than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to
address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and
reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for
child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook
attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space
to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee

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 iv

responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the

advisory group in Social Sciences Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief
Advisor for this book, Professor R.K. Grover, (Retd.) Director, School of
Management Studies (IGNOU), New Delhi for guiding the work of this
committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this
textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We
are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously
permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We
are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher
Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the
Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande,
for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed
to the systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable
us to undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training

2015-16
 TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

CHAIRPERSON , ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT

U PPER PRIMARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta,
Kolkata
CHIEF ADVISOR
R. K. Grover, Professor, (Retd.), School of Management Studies, IGNOU,
New Delhi.
MEMBERS
A.K. Bansal, Reader, PGDAV College, Nehru Nagar, New Delhi.
Amit Singhal, Lecturer, Ramjas College, Delhi University, Delhi.
Ashwini Kumar Kala, PGT Commerce, Hiralal Jain Senior Secondary
School, Sadar Bazar, Delhi.
D.K Vaid, Professor, Department of Education in Social Sciences and
Humanities, NCERT, New Delhi.
Deepak Sehgal, Reader, Deen Dayal Upadhaya College, Delhi University,
Delhi.
H.V. Jhamb, Reader, Khalsa College, Delhi University, Delhi.
Ishwar Chand, PGT Commerce, Government Sarvodaya Bal Vidyalaya,
West Patel Nagar, New Delhi.
K. Sambasiva Rao, Professor, Department of Commerce, Andhra
University, Visakhapatnam.
M. Srinivas, Professor, Department of Commerce, College for Women,
Osmania University, Hyderabad.
P.K. Gupta, Reader, Department of Management Studies, Jamia Millia
Islamia, New Delhi.
Rajesh Bansal, PGT Commerce, Rohtagi A.V. Senior Secondary School,
Nai Sarak, Delhi.
S.K. Sharma, Reader, Khalsa College, Delhi University, Delhi.

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 vi

S.S. Sehrawat, Assistant Commissioner, Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan,

Chandigarh.
Savita Shangari, PGT Commerce, Gyan Bharati School, Saket, New Delhi.
Shiv Juneja, PGT Commerce, Nirankari Boys Senior Secondary School,
Paharganj, Delhi.
Sushil Kumar, PGT Commerce, Government Sarvodaya Bal Vidyalaya,
Kailash Puri, Delhi.
Vanita Tripathi, Lecturer, Department of Commerce, Delhi School of
Economics, Delhi University, Delhi.

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Shipra Vaidya, Professor, Department of Education in Social Sciences
NCERT, New Delhi.

2015-16
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T h e N a t i o n a l Co u n c i l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h a n d T r a i n i n g
acknowledges the valuable contributions of the Textbook Development
Committee which took considerable pains in the development and review
of manuscript as well.
Special thanks are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head,
Department of Education in Social Sciences, NCERT for her support,
during the development of this book.
The Council acknowledges the efforts of Computer Incharge,
Dinesh Kumar; DTP Operators, Dev Prakash Sharma and Arvind Sharma;
Proof Readers, Deepti Sharma and Rishi Mehra.
The Contribution of APC-Office, administration of DESS, Publication
Department and Secretariat of NCERT in bringing out this book are also
duly acknowledged.

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2015-16
 CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Accounting 1
1.1 Meaning of Accounting 2
1.2 Accounting as a Source of Information 6
1.3 Objectives of Accounting 10
1.4 Role of Accounting 13
1.5 Basic Terms in Accounting 14
Chapter 2 Theory Base of Accounting 22
2.1 Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) 23
2.2 Basic Accounting Concepts 24
2.3 Systems of Accounting 33
2.4 Basis of Accounting 34
2.5 Accounting Standards 35
Chapter 3 Recording of Transactions - I 41
3.1 Business Transactions and Source Document 41
3.2 Accounting Equation 45
3.3 Using Debit and Credit 47
3.4 Books of Original Entry 56
3.5 The Ledger 64
3.6 Posting from Journal 67
Chapter 4 Recording of Transactions - II 91
4.1 Cash Book 92
4.2 Purchases (Journal) Book 117
4.3 Purchases Return (Journal) Book 119
4.4 Sales (Journal) Book 121
4.5 Sales Return (Journal) Book 123
4.6 Journal Proper 129
4.7 Balancing the Accounts 131

Chapter 5 Bank Reconciliation Statement 150

5.1 Need for Reconciliation 151
5.2 Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statement 156

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 x
Chapter 6 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 181
6.1 Meaning of Trial Balance 181
6.2 Objectives of Preparing the Trial Balance 182
6.3 Preparation of Trial Balance 185
6.4 Significance of Agreement of Trial Balance 190
6.5 Searching of Errors 192
6.6 Rectification of Errors 193
Chapter 7 Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves 227
7.1 Depreciation 227
7.2 Depreciation and other Similar Terms 231
7.3 Causes of Depreciation 231
7.4 Need for Depreciation 232
7.5 Factors Affecting the Amount of Depreciation 234
7.6 Methods of calculating Depreciation Amount 235
7.7 Straight Line Method and Written Down Method 240
A Comparative Analysis
7.8 Methods of Recording Depreciation 242
7.9 Disposal of Asset 251
7.10 Effect of any Addition or Extension to the 261
Existing Asset
7.11 Provisions 264
7.12 Reserves 266
7.13 Secret Reserve 270
Chapter 8 Bill of Exchange 279
8.1 Meaning of Bill of Exchange 280
8.2 Promissory Note 282
8.3 Advantages of Bill of Exchange 284
8.4 Maturity of Bill 285
8.5 Discounting of Bill 285
8.6 Endorsement of Bill 286
8.7 Accounting Treatment 286
8.8 Dishonour of a Bill 293
8.9 Renewal of the Bill 298
8.10 Retiring of the Bill 301
8.11 Bills Receivable and Bills Payable Books 303
8.12 Accommodation of Bills 317

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Introduction to Accounting 1

O ver the centuries, accounting has remained

confined to the financial record-keeping
functions of the accountant. But, today’s rapidly
changing business environment has forced the
accountants to reassess their roles and functions
both within the organisation and the society. The
role of an accountant has now shifted from that of
a mere recorder of transactions to that of the
member providing relevant information to the
decision-making team. Broadly speaking,
accounting today is much more than just book-
keeping and the preparation of financial reports.
Accountants are now capable of working in exciting
new growth areas such as: forensic accounting
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(solving crimes such as computer hacking and the
After studying this chapter theft of large amounts of money on the internet); e-
you will be able to: commerce (designing web-based payment system);
• state the meaning and financial planning, environmental accounting, etc.
need of accounting; This realisation came due to the fact that accounting
• discuss accounting as is capable of providing the kind of information that
a source of information ; managers and other interested persons need in
• identify the internal order to make better decisions. This aspect of
and external users of accounting gradually assumed so much importance
accounting information;
that it has now been raised to the level of an
• explain the objectives information system. As an information system, it
of accounting;
collects data and communicates economic
• describe the role of information about the organisation to a wide variety
accounting;
of users whose decisions and actions are related to
• explain the basic terms its perf o rmance. This introductory chapter
used in accounting.
therefore, deals with the nature, need and scope of
accounting in this context.

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2 Accountancy

1.1 Meaning of Accounting

In 1941, The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) had
defined accounting as the art of recording, classifying, and summarising in a
significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which
are, in part at least, of financial character, and interpreting the results thereof’.
With greater economic development resulting in changing role of accounting,
its scope, became broader. In 1966, the American Accounting Association
(AAA) defined accounting as ‘the process of identifying, measuring and
communicating economic information to permit informed judgments and
decisions by users of information’.

Fig. 1.1 : Showing the process of accounting

In 1970, the Accounting Principles Board of AICPA also emphasised that

the function of accounting is to provide quantitative information, primarily
financial in nature, about economic entities, that is intended to be useful in
making economic decisions.
Accounting can therefore be defined as the process of identifying,
measuring, recording and communicating the required information relating
to the economic events of an organisation to the interested users of such

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Introduction to Accounting 3

information. In order to appreciate the exact nature of accounting, we must

understand the following relevant aspects of the definition:
• Economic Events
• Identification, Measurement, Recording and Communication
• Organisation
• Interested Users of Information

Box 1
History and Development of Accounting

Accounting enjoys a remarkable heritage. The history of accounting is as old as

civilisation. The seeds of accounting were most likely first sown in Babylonia and
Egypt around 4000 B.C. who recorded transactions of payment of wages and taxes
on clay tablets. Historical evidences reveal that Egyptians used some for m of
accounting for their treasuries where gold and other valuables were kept. The incharge
of treasuries had to send day wise reports to their superiors known as Wazirs (the
prime minister) and from ther e month wise reports were sent to kings. Babylonia,
known as the city of commer ce, used accounting for business to uncover losses
taken place due to frauds and lack of efficiency. In Greece, accounting was used for
apportioning the revenues received among tr easuries, maintaining total receipts,
total payments and balance of gover nment financial transactions. Romans used
memorandum or daybook wher e in receipts and payments wer e recor ded and
wherefrom they were posted to ledgers on monthly basis. (700 B.C to 400 A.D).
China used sophisticated for m of government accounting as early as 2000 B.C.
Accounting practices in India could be traced back to a period when twenty three
centuries ago, Kautilya, a minister in Chandragupta’s kingdom wrote a book named
Arthashasthra, which also described how accounting records had to be maintained.
Luca Pacioli’s, a Franciscan friar (mer chant class), book Summa de
Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportion at Proportionality (Review of Arithmetic and Geometric
proportions) in Venice (1494) is considered as the first book on double entry book-
keeping. A portion of this book contains knowledge of business and book-keeping.
However, Pacioli did not claim that he was the inventor of double entry book-keeping
but spread the knowledge of it. It shows that he probably r elied on then–current
book-keeping manuals as the basis for his masterpiece. In his book, he used the
present day popular terms of accounting Debit (Dr.) and Credit (Cr.). These were the
concepts used in Italian ter minology. Debit comes from the Italian debito which comes
from the Latin debita and debeo which means owed to the proprietor. Credit comes
from the Italian credito which comes fr om the Latin ‘credo ’ which means trust or belief
(in the proprietor or owed by the proprietor. In explaining double entry system, Pacioli
wrote that ‘All entries… have to be double entries, that is if you make one creditor, you
must make some debtor’. He also stated that a merchants r esponsibility include to
give glory to God in their enterprises, to be ethical in all business activities and to
earn a profit. He discussed the details of memorandum, journal, ledger and specialised
accounting procedures.

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4 Accountancy

1.1.1 Economic Events

Business organisations involves economic events. An economic event is known
as a happening of consequence to a business organisation which consists of
transactions and which are measurable in monetary terms. For example,
purchase of machinery, installing and keeping it ready for manufacturing is
an event which comprises number of financial transactions such as buying a
machine, transportation of machine, site preparation for installation of a
machine, expenditure incurred on its installation and trial runs. Thus,
accounting identifies bunch of transactions relating to an economic event. If
an event involves transactions between an outsider and an organisation, these
are known as external events. The following are the examples of such
transactions:
• Sale of Reebok shoes to the customers.
• Rendering services to the customers by Videocon Limited.
• Purchase of materials from suppliers.
• Payment of monthly rent to the landlord.
An internal event is an economic event that occurs entirely between the
internal wings of an enterprise, e.g., supply of raw material or components by
the stores department to the manufacturing department, payment of wages
to the employees, etc.

1.1.2 Identification, Measurement, Recording and Communication

Identification : It means determining what transactions to record, i.e., to identity
events which are to be recorded. It involves observing activities and selecting
those events that are of considered financial character and relate to the
organisation. The business transactions and other economic events therefore
are evaluated for deciding whether it has to be recorded in books of account.
For example, the value of human resources, changes in managerial policies
or appointment of personnel are important but none of these are recorded in
books of account. However, when a company makes a sale or purchase, whether
on cash or credit, or pays salary it is recorded in the books of account.
Measurement : It means quantification (including estimates) of business
transactions into financial terms by using monetary unit, viz. rupees and
paise as a measuring unit. If an event cannot be quantified in monetary
terms, it is not considered for recording in financial accounts. That is why
important items like the appointment of a new managing director, signing of
contracts or changes in personnel are not shown in the books of accounts.
Recording : Once the economic events are identified and measured in financial
terms, these are recorded in books of account in monetary terms and in a
chronological order. Recording is done in a manner that the necessary financial

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Introduction to Accounting 5

information is summarised as per well-established practice and is made

available as and when required.
Communication : The economic events are identified, measured and recorded
in order that the pertinent information is generated and communicated in a
certain form to management and other internal and external users. The
information is regularly communicated through accounting reports. These
reports provide information that are useful to a variety of users who have an
interest in assessing the financial performance and the position of an
enterprise, planning and controlling business activities and making necessary
decisions from time to time. The accounting information system should be
designed in such a way that the right information is communicated to the
right person at the right time. Reports can be daily, weekly, monthly, or
quarterly, depending upon the needs of the users. An important element in
the communication process is the accountant’s ability and efficiency in
presenting the relevant information.

1.1.3 Organisation
Organisation refers to a business enterprise, whether for profit or not-for-
profit motive. Depending upon the size of activities and level of business
operation, it can be a sole-proprietory concern, partnership firm, cooperative
society, company, local authority, municipal corporation or any other
association of persons.

1.1.4 Interested Users of Information

Accounting is a means by which necessary financial information about
business enterprise is communicated and is also called the language of
business. Many users need financial information in order to make important
decisions. These users can be divided into two broad categories: internal users
and external users. Internal users include: Chief Executive, Financial Officer,
Vice President, Business Unit Managers, Plant Managers, Store Managers,
Line Supervisors, etc. External users include: present and potential Investors
(shareholders), Creditors (Banks and other Financial Institutions, Debenture-
holders and other Lenders), Tax Authorities, Regulatory Agencies (Department
of Company Affairs, Registrar of Companies, Securities Exchange Board of
India, Labour Unions, Trade Associations, Stock Exchange and Customers,
etc. Since the primary function of accounting is to provide useful information
for decision-making, it is a means to an end, with the end being the decision
that is helped by the availability of accounting information. You will study
about the types of accounting information and its users later in this chapter.

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6 Accountancy

Box 2
Why do the Users Want Accounting Information?

• The owners/shareholders use them to see if they are getting a satisfactory retur n
on their investment, and to assess the financial health of their company/business.
• The directors/managers use them for making both inter nal and external
comparisons in their attempts to evaluate the per formance. They may compare
the financial analysis of their company with the industry figures in or der to
ascertain the company’s str engths and weaknesses. Management is also
concer ned with ensuring that the money invested in the company/organisation
is generating an adequate retur n and that the company/organisation is able to
pay its debts and remain solvent.
• The creditors (lenders) want to know if they are likely to get paid and look
particularly at liquidity, which is the ability of the company/or ganisation to pay
its debts as they become due.
• The prospective investors use them to assess whether or not to invest their
money in the company/or ganisation.
• The government and regulatory agencies such as Registrar of companies, Custom
departments IRDA, RBI, etc. r equire information for the payment of various taxes
such as Value Added T ax (VAT), Income Tax (IT), Customs and Excise duties for
protecting the interests of investors, cr editors(lenders), and also to satisfy the
legal obligations imposed by the Companies Act 1956 and SEBI from time-to-
time.

1.2 Accounting as a Source of Information

As discussed earlier, accounting is a definite processes of interlinked activities,
(refer figure 1.1) that begins with the identification of transactions and ends
with the preparation of financial statements. Every step in the process of
accounting generates information. Generation of information is not an end
in itself. It is a means to facilitate the dissemination of information among
different user groups. Such information enables the interested parties to
take appropriate decisions. Therefore, dissemination of information is an
essential
function of accounting. To be useful, the accounting information should
ensure to:
• provide information for making economic decisions;
• serve the users who rely on financial statements as their principal source
of information;
• provide information useful for predicting and evaluating the amount,
timing and uncertainty of potential cash-flows;
• provide information for judging management’s ability to utilise resources
effectively in meeting goals;

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Introduction to Accounting 7

• provide factual and interpretative information by disclosing underlying

assumptions on matters subject to interpretation, evaluation, prediction,
or estimation; and
• provide information on activities affecting the society.

Test Your Understanding - I

Complete the following sentences with appr opriate words:
(a) Infor mation in financial reports is based on ..................... transactions.
(b) Inter nal users are the ..................... of the business entity.
(c) A ..................... would most likely use an entities financial report to deter mine
whether or not the business entity is eligible for a loan.
(d) The Inter net has assisted in decreasing the ..................... in issuing financial
reports to users.
(e) ..................... users are groups outside the business entity, who uses the
information to make decisions about the business entity.
(f) Infor mation is said to be relevent if it is ......................
(g) The pr ocess of accounting starts with ............ and ends with ............
(h) Accounting measures the business transactions in ter ms of ............ units.
(i) Identified and measured economic events should be recording in ............ order.

The role of an accountant in generating accounting information is to observe,

screen and recognise events and transactions to measure and process them,
and thereby compile reports comprising accounting information that are
communicated to the users. These are then interpreted, decoded and used
by management and other user groups. It must be ensured that the information
provided is relevant, adequate and reliable for decision-making. The apparently
divergent needs of internal and external users of accounting information have
resulted in the development of sub-disciplines within the accounting discipline
namely, financial accounting, cost accounting and management accounting (refer
box 3).
Financial accounting assists keeping a systematic record of financial
transactions the preparation and presentation of financial reports in order to
arrive at a measure of organisational success and financial soundness. It
relates to the past period, serves the stewardship function and is monetary in
nature. It is primarily concerned with the provision of financial information to
all stakeholders.
Cost accounting assists in analysing the expenditure for ascertaining the
cost of various products manufactured or services provided by the firm and

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8 Accountancy

fixation of prices thereof. It also helps in controlling the costs and providing
necessary costing information to management for decision-making.
Management accounting deals with the provision of necessary accounting
information to people within the organisation to enable them in decision-making,
planning and controlling business operations. Management accounting draws
the relevant information mainly from financial accounting and cost accounting
which helps the management in budgeting, assessing profitability, taking pricing
decisions, capital expenditure decisions and so on. Besides, it generates other
information (quantitative and qualitative, financial and non-financial) which
relates to the future and is relevant for decision-making in the organisation.
Such information includes: sales forecast, cash flows, purchase requirement,
manpower needs, environmental data about effects on air, water, land, natural
resources, flora, fauna, human health, social responsibilities, etc.
As a result, the scope of accounting has become so vast, that new areas
like human resource accounting, social accounting, responsibility accounting
have also gained prominance.

Let’s Do It
Many People in today’s society think of an accountant as simply a glorified book-
keeper. But the role of an accountant is continually changing. Discuss in the
classroom what really the r ole of accounting is?

1.2.1 Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information

Qualitative characteristics are the attributes of accounting information which
tend to enhance its understandability and usefulness. In order to assess
whether accounting information is decision useful, it must possess the
characteristics of reliability, relevance, understandability and comparability.

Reliability
Reliability means the users must be able to depend on the information. The
reliability of accounting information is determined by the degree of
correspondence between what the information conveys about the transactions
or events that have occurred, measured and displayed. A reliable information
should be free from error and bias and faithfully represents what it is meant
to represent. To ensure reliability, the information disclosed must be credible,
verifiable by independent parties use the same method of measuring, and be
neutral and faithful (refer figure 1.3).

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Introduction to Accounting 9

Box 3
Branches of Accounting

The economic development and technological improvements have r esulted in an

increase in the scale of operations and the advent of the company form of business
organisation. This has made the management function mor e and more complex and
increased the importance of accounting infor mation. This gave rise to special branches
of accounting. These are briefly explained below :
Financial accounting : The purpose of this branch of accounting is to keep a record
of all financial transactions so that:
(a) the profit earned or loss sustained by the business during an accounting period
can be worked out,
(b) the financial position of the business as at the end of the accounting period
can be ascertained, and
(c) the financial infor mation required by the management and other inter ested
parties can be provided.
Cost Accounting : The purpose of cost accounting is to analyse the expenditur e so
as to ascertain the cost of various products manufactured by the fir m and fix the
prices. It also helps in controlling the costs and providing necessary costing
information to management for decision-making.
Management Accounting : The purpose of management accounting is to assist the
management in taking rational policy decisions and to evaluate the impact of its
decisons and actions.

Relevance
To be relevant, information must be available in time, must help in prediction
and feedback, and must influence the decisions of users by :
(a) helping them form prediction about the outcomes of past, present or
future events; and/or
(b) confirming or correcting their past evaluations.

Understandability
Understandability means decision-makers must interpret accounting
information in the same sense as it is prepared and conveyed to them. The
qualities that distinguish between good and bad communication in a message
are fundamental to the understandability of the message. A message is said
to be effectively communicated when it is interpreted by the receiver of the
message in the same sense in which the sender has sent. Accountants should
present the comparable information in the most intenlligible manner without
sacrificing relevance and reliability.

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10 Accountancy

Comparability
It is not sufficient that the financial information is relevant and reliable at a
particular time, in a particular circumstance or for a particular reporting entity.
But it is equally important that the users of the general purpose financial reports
are able to compare various aspects of an entity over different time period and
with other entities. To be comparable, accounting reports must belong to a
common period and use common unit of measurement and format of reporting.

Test Your Understanding - II

You are a senior accountant of Ramona Enterprises Limited. What three steps would
you take to make your company’s financial statements understandable and decision
useful?
1. ——————————————————————————————
2. ——————————————————————————————
3. ——————————————————————————————
[Hint : Refer to qualitative characteristics of accounting information]

1.3 Objectives of Accounting

As an information system, the basic objective of accounting is to provide useful
information to the interested group of users, both external and internal. The
necessary information, particularly in case of external users, is provided in
the form of financial statements, viz., profit and loss account and balance
sheet. Besides these, the management is provided with additional information
from time to time from the accounting records of business. Thus, the primary
objectives of accounting include the following:

1.3.1 Maintenance of Records of Business Transactions

Accounting is used for the maintenance of a systematic record of all financial
transactions in book of accounts. Even the most brilliant executive or manager
cannot accurately remember the numerous amount of varied transactions
such as purchases, sales, receipts, payments, etc. that takes place in business
everyday. Hence, a proper and complete records of all business transactions
are kept regularly. Moreover, the recorded information enables verifiability
and acts as an evidence.

1.3.2 Calculation of Profit and Loss

The owners of business are keen to have an idea about the net results of their
business operations periodically, i.e. whether the business has earned profits

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Introduction to Accounting 11

Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information

Decision Makers
(Users of Accounting Information)

Understandability

Decision Usefulness

Relevance Relability

Timliness

Dedicative Feedback Verifiability Faithfulness

Value Value

Nutrality

Comparability

Fig. 1.3 : The qualitative characteristics of accounting information

or incurred losses. Thus, another objective of accounting is to ascertain the

profit earned or loss sustained by a business during an accounting period
which can be easily workout with help of record of incomes and expenses
relating to the business by preparing a profit or loss account for the period.
Profit represents excess of revenue (income), over expenses. If the total revenue
of a given period is Rs 6,00,000 and total expenses are Rs. 5,40,000 the profit
will be equal to Rs. 60,000(Rs. 6,00,000 – Rs. 5,40,000). If however, the total
expenses exceed the total revenue, the difference reflects the loss.

1.3.3 Depiction of Financial Position

Accounting also aims at ascertaining the financial position of the business
concern in the form of its assets and liabilities at the end of every accounting
period. A proper record of resources owned by business organisation (Assets)

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12 Accountancy

and claims against such resources (Liabilities) facilitates the preparation of a

statement known as balance sheet position statement.
1.3.4 Providing Accounting Information to its Users
The accounting information generated by the accounting process is
communicated in the form of reports, statements, graphs and charts to the
users who need it in different decision situations. As already stated, there are
two main user groups, viz. internal users, mainly management, who needs
timely information on cost of sales, profitability, etc. for planning, controlling
and decision-making and external users who have limited authority, ability
and resources to obtain the necessary information and have to rely on financial
statements (Balance Sheet, Profit and Loss account). Primarily, the external
users are interested in the following:
• Investors and potential investors-information on the risks and return on
investment;
• Unions and employee groups-information on the stability, profitability
and distribution of wealth within the business;
• Lenders and financial institutions-information on the creditworthiness of
the company and its ability to repay loans and pay interest;
• Suppliers and creditors-information on whether amounts owed will be
repaid when due, and on the continued existence of the business;
• Customers-information on the continued existence of the business and
thus the probability of a continued supply of products, parts and after
sales service;
• Government and other regulators- information on the allocation of
resources and the compliance to regulations;
• Social responsibility groups, such as environmental groups-information
on the impact on environment and its protection;
• Competitors-information on the relative strengths and weaknesses of their
competition and for comparative and benchmarking purposes. Whereas
the above categories of users share in the wealth of the company,
competitors require the information mainly for strategic purposes.

Test Your Understanding - III

Which stakeholder g roup… would be most interested in
_____________________________ (a) the VAT and other tax liabilities of the firm
_____________________________ (b) the potential for pay awards and bouns deals
_____________________________ (c) the ethical or environmental activities of the firm
_____________________________ (d) whether the fir m has a long-term futur e
_____________________________ (e) profitability and share performance
_____________________________ (f) the ability of the fir m to carry on providing a
service or producing a product.

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1.4 Role of Accounting

For centuries, the role of accounting has been changing with the changes in
economic development and increasing societal demands. It describes and
analyses a mass of data of an enterprise through measurement, classification
and summarisation, and reduces those date into reports and statements,
which show the financial condition and results of operations of that enterprise.
Hence, it is regarded as a language of business. It also performs the service
activity by providing quantitative financial information that helps the users in
various ways. Accounting as an information system collects and communicates
economic information about an enterprise to a wide variety of interested parties.
However, accounting information relates to the past transactions and is
quantitative and financial in nature, it does not provide qualitative and non-
financial information. These limitations of accounting must be kept in view
while making use of the accounting information.

Test Your Understanding - IV

Tick the Correct Answer

1. Which of the following is not a business transaction?
a. Bought furniture of Rs.10,000 for business
b. Paid for salaries of employees Rs.5,000
c. Paid sons fees from her personal bank account Rs.20,000
d. Paid sons fees from the business Rs.2,000
2. Deepti wants to buy a building for her business today. Which of the following is the
relevant data for his decision?
a. Similar business acquired the required building in 2000 for Rs. 10,00,000
b. Building cost details of 2003
c. Building cost details of 1998
d. Similar building cost in August, 2005 Rs. 25,00,000
3. Which is the last step of accounting as a process of infor mation?
a. Recording of data in the books of accounts
b. Preparation of summaries in the form of financial statements
c. Communication of information
d. Analysis and interpretation of information
4. Which qualitative characteristics of accounting information is reflected when
accounting information is clearly presented?
a. Understandability
b. Relevance
c. Comparability
d. Reliability
5. Use of common unit of measurement and common for mat of reporting promotes;
a. Comparability
b. Understandability
c. Relevance
d. Reliability

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14 Accountancy

Box 4
Different Roles of Accounting

ü As a language – it is perceived as the language of business which is used to

communicate information on enterprises;
ü As a historical record- it is viewed as chronological r ecord of financial transactions
of an organisation at actual amounts involved;
ü As current economic reality- it is viewed as the means of determining the true
income of an entity namely the change of wealth over time;
ü As an information system – it is viewed as a process that links an infor mation
source (the accountant) to a set of receivers (external users) by means of a channel
of communication;
ü As a commodity- specialised information is viewed as a service which is in demand
in society, with accountants being willing to and capable of providing it.

1.5 Basic Terms in Accounting

1.5.1 Entity
Entity means a reality that has a definite individual existence. Business entity
means a specifically identifiable business enterprise like Super Bazaar, Hire
Jewellers, ITC Limited, etc. An accounting system is always devised for a specific
business entity (also called accounting entity).

1.5.2 Transaction
A event involving some value between two or more entities. It can be a purchase
of goods, receipt of money, payment to a creditor, incurring expenses, etc. It
can be a cash transaction or a credit transaction.

1.5.3 Assets
Assets are economic resources of an enterprise that can be usefully expressed
in monetary terms. Assets are items of value used by the business in its
operations. For example, Super Bazar owns a fleet of trucks, which is used by
it for delivering foodstuffs; the trucks, thus, provide economic benefit to the
enterprise. This item will be shown on the asset side of the balance sheet of
Super Bazaar. Assets can be broadly classified into two types: Fixed Assets
and Current Assets.
Fixed Assets are assets held on a long-term basis, such as land, buildings,
machinery, plant, furniture and fixtures. These assets are used for the normal
operations of the business.

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Introduction to Accounting 15

Current Assets are assets held on a short-term basis such as

debtors(accounts receivable), bills receivable (notes receivable), stock (inventory),
temporary marketable securities, cash and bank balances.

1.5.4 Liabilities
Liabilities are obligations or debts that an enterprise has to pay at some time in
the future. They represent creditors’ claims on the firm’s assets. Both small and
big businesses find it necessary to borrow money at one time or the other, and
to purchase goods on credit. Super Bazar, for example, purchases goods for Rs.
10,000 on credit for a month from Fast Food Products on March 25, 2005. If
the balance sheet of Super Bazaar is prepared as at March 31, 2005, Fast Food
Products will be shown as creditors on the liabilities side of the balance sheet. If
Super Bazaar takes a loan for a period of three years from Delhi State Co-operative
Bank, this will also be shown as a liability in the balance sheet of Super Bazaar.
Liabilities are classified as long-term liabilities and short-term liabilities (also
known as short-term liabilities).
Long-term liabilities are those that are usually payable after a period of one
year, for example, a term loan from a financial institution or debentures (bonds)
issued by a company.
Short-term liabilities are obligations that are payable within a period of one
year, for example, creditors, bills payable, bank overdraft.

1.5.5 Capital
Amount invested by the owner in the firm is known as capital. It may be
brought in the form of cash or assets by the owner for the business entity
capital is an obligation and a claim on the assets of business. It is, therefore,
shown as capital on the liabilities side of the balance sheet.

1.5.6 Sales
Sales are total revenues from goods or services sold or provided to customers.
Sales may be cash sales or credit sales.

1.5.7 Revenues
These are the amounts of the business earned by selling its products or
providing services to customers, called sales revenue. Other items of revenue
common to many businesses are: commission, interest, dividends, royalities,
rent received, etc. Revenue is also called income.

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16 Accountancy

1.5.8 Expenses
Costs incurred by a business in the process of earning revenue are known as
expenses. Generally, expenses are measured by the cost of assets consumed
or services used during an accounting period. The usual items of expenses
are: depreciation, rent, wages, salaries, interest, cost of heater, light and water,
telephone, etc.

1.5.9 Expenditure
Spending money or incurring a liability for some benefit, service or property
received is called expenditure. Payment of rent, salary, purchase of goods,
purchase of machinery, purchase of furniture, etc. are examples of expenditure.
If the benefit of expenditure is exhausted within a year, it is treated as an
expense (also called revenue expenditure). On the other hand, the benefit of
an expenditure lasts for more than a year, it is treated as an asset (also called
capital expenditure) such as purchase of machinery, furniture, etc.

1.5.10 Profit
The excess of revenues of a period over its related expenses during an
accounting year is profit. Profit increases the investment of the owners.

1.5.11 Gain
A profit that arises from events or transactions which are incidental to business
such as sale of fixed assets, winning a court case, appreciation in the value of
an asset.

1.5.12 Loss
The excess of expenses of a period over its related revenues its termed as loss.
It decreases in owner’s equity. It also refers to money or money’s worth lost
(or cost incurred) without receiving any benefit in return, e.g., cash or goods
lost by theft or a fire accident, etc. It also includes loss on sale of fixed assets.

1.5.13 Discount
Discount is the deduction in the price of the goods sold. It is offered in two
ways. Offering deduction of agreed percentage of list price at the time selling
goods is one way of giving discount. Such discount is called ‘trade discount’.
It is generally offered by manufactures to wholesellers and by wholesellers to
retailers. After selling the goods on credit basis the debtors may be given
certain deduction in amount due in case if they pay the amount within the
stipulated period or earlier. This deduction is given at the time of payment on

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Introduction to Accounting 17

the amount payable. Hence, it is called as cash discount. Cash discount acts as
an incentive that encourages prompt payment by the debtors.

1.5.14 Voucher
The documentary evidence in support of a transaction is known as voucher. For
example, if we buy goods for cash, we get cash memo, if we buy on credit, we get
an invoice; when we make a payment we get a receipt and so on.

1.5.15 Goods
It refers to the products in which the business unit is dealing, i.e. in terms of
which it is buying and selling or producting and selling. The items that are
purchased for use in the business are not called goods. For example, for a
furniture dealer purchase of chairs and tables is termed as goods, while for
other it is furniture and is treated as an asset. Similarly, for a stationery merchant,
stationery is goods, whereas for others it is an item of expense (not purchases)

1.5.16 Drawings
Withdrawal of money and/or goods by the owner from the business for personal
use is known as drawings. Drawings reduces the investment of the owners.

1.5.17 Purchases
Purchases are total amount of goods procured by a business on credit and on
cash, for use or sale. In a trading concern, purchases are made of merchandise
for resale with or without processing. In a manufacturing concern, raw
materials are purchased, processed further into finished goods and then sold.
Purchases may be cash purchases or credit purchases.

1.5.18 Stock
Stock (inventory) is a measure of something on hand-goods, spares and other
items in a business. It is called Stock in hand. In a trading concern, the stock
on hand is the amount of goods which are lying unsold as at the end of an
accounting period is called closing stock (ending inventory). In a manufacturing
company, closing stock comprises raw materials, semi-finished goods and
finished goods on hand on the closing date. Similarly, opening stock (beginning
inventory) is the amount of stock at the beginning of the accounting period.

1.5.19 Debtors
Debtors are persons and/or other entities who owe to an enterprise an amount
for buying goods and services on credit. The total amount standing against

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18 Accountancy

such persons and/or entities on the closing date, is shown in the balance sheet
as sundry debtors on the asset side.

1.5.20 Creditors
Creditors are persons and/or other entities who have to be paid by an enterprise
an amount for providing the enterprise goods and services on credit. The total
amount standing to the favour of such persons and/or entities on the closing
date, is shown in the Balance Sheet as sundry creditors on the liabilities side.

Test Your Understanding - V

Mr. Sunrise started a business for buying and selling of stationery with Rs. 5,00,000
as an initial investment. Of which he paid Rs.1,00,000 for fur niture, Rs. 2,00,000
for buying stationery items. He employed a sales person and clerk. At the end of the
month he paid Rs.5,000 as their salaries. Out of the stationery bought he sold some
stationery for Rs.1,50,000 for cash and some other stationery for Rs.1,00,000 on
credit basis to Mr.Ravi. Subsequently, he bought stationery items of Rs.1,50,000
from Mr. Peace. In the first week of next month ther e was a fire accident and he lost
Rs. 30,000 worth of stationery. A part of the machinery, which cost Rs. 40,000, was
sold for Rs. 45,000.
From the above, answer the following :
1. What is the amount of capital with which Mr. Sunrise started business.
2. What are the fixed assets he bought?
3. What is the value of the goods purchased?
4. Who is the creditor and state the amount payable to him?
5. What are the expenses?
6. What is the gain he earned?
7. What is the loss he incurred?
8. Who is the debtor? What is the amount receivable fr om him?
9. What is the total amount of expenses and losses incurred?
10. Deter mine if the following are assets, liabilities, revenues, expenses or none of
the these: sales, debtors, cr editors, salary to manager, discount to debtors,
drawings by the owner.

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Meaning of Accounting : Accounting is a process of identifying, measuring,

recording the business transactions and communicating thereof the required
information to the interested users.
2. Accounting as a sour ce of information : Accounting as a source of infor mation
system is the process of identifying, measuring, recording and communicating
the economic events of an or ganisation to interested users of the infor mation.

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Introduction to Accounting 19

3. Users of accounting information : Accounting plays a significant role in society

by providing infor mation to management at all levels and to those having a
direct financial interest in the enterprise, such as present and potential
investors and cr editors. Accounting information is also important to those
having indirect financial interest, such as regulatory agencies, tax authorities,
customers, labour unions, trade associations, stock exchanges and others.
4. Qualitative characteristics of Accounting : To make accounting information
decision useful, it should possess the following qualitative characteristics.
• Reliability • Understandability
• Relevance • Comparability
5. Objective of accounting : The primary objectives of accounting are to :
• maintain r ecords of business;
• calculate profit or loss;
• depict the financial position; and
• make infor mation available to various groups and users.
6. Role of accounting : Accounting is not an end in itself. It is a means to an end.
It plays the role of a :
• Language of a business
• Historical r ecord
• Current economic reality
• Infor mation system
• Service to users

Questions for Practice

Short Answers
1. Define accounting.
2. State what is end product of financial accounting.
3. Enumerate main objectives of accounting.
4. Who are the users of accounting information.
5. State the nature of accounting information required by long-term lenders.
6. Who are the external users of information?
7. Enumerate information needs of management.
8. Give any three examples of revenues.
9. Distinguish between debtors and creditors; profit and gain
10. ‘Accounting information should be comparable’. Do you agree with this
statement. Give two reasons.
11. If the accounting information is not clearly presented, which of the qualitative
characteristic of the accounting information is violated?
12. “The role of accounting has changed over the period of time”- Do you agree?
Explain.
13. Giving examples, explain each of the following accounting ter ms :
• Fixed assets • Revenue • Expenses
• Short-term liability • Capital
14. Define revenues and expenses?

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15. What is the primiary reason for the business students and others to
familiarise themselves with the accounting discipline?
Long Answers
1. What is accounting? Define its objectives.
2. Explain the factors which necessitated systematic accounting.
3. Describe the informational needs of external users.
4. What do you mean by an asset and what are different types of assets?
5. Explain the meaning of gain and profit. Distinguish between these two terms.
6. Explain the qualitative characteristics of accounting information.
7. Describe the role of accounting in the modern world.

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding – I
(a) Economic (b) Management/Employees (c) Creditor
(d) Time-gap (e) External (f) Free from bias
(g) Identifying the transactions and communicating information
(h) Monetary (i) Chronological
Test Your Understanding - II
1. Reliability, i.e. Verifiability, Faithfulness, Nutrality
2. Relevance, i.e. T imeliness
3. Understandability and Comparibility
Test Your Understanding - III
(a) Government and other regulators
(b) Management
(c) Social responsibility groups
(d) Lenders
(e) Suppliers and Creditors
(f) Customers
Test Your Understanding - IV
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a)
Test Your Understanding - V
1. Rs. 5,00,000 2. Rs. 1,00,000, 3. Rs. 2,00,000
4. Mr. Reace, Rs. 1,50,000 5. Rs. 5,000 6. Rs. 5,000
7. Rs. 30,000 8. Mr. Ravi, Rs. 1,00,000 9. Rs. 35,000
10. Assets : debtors; Liabilities : creditors; drawings; Revenues : sales expenses,
discount, salary.

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Introduction to Accounting 21

Hints to ‘Let’s Do It’

Accountants today can work in exciting new growth areas such as forensic
accounting, budget accounting, cost accounting, environmental accounting,
e-commerce and the various agencies within the public sector.The advent of
information technology have resulted in the development of necessary skills
for today’s accountant include the ability to:
• Develop competence in systems analysis and computer technology;
• Develop facilitation skills, such as persuasion and communication
skills;
• Acquire a broad business knowledge in strategy, operations, human
resources, marketing, finance and economics;
• Develop analytical skills;
• Develop a willingness to embrace change and assume risk;
• Complete an internship in business and/or public accounting;
• Develop proficiency in accounting and tax issues.

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22 Accountancy

Theory Base of Accounting 2

A s discussed in the previous chapter, accounting

is concerned with the recording, classifying and
summarising of financial transactions and events
and interpreting the results thereof. It aims at
providing information about the financial
performance of a firm to its various users such as
owners, managers employees, investors, creditors,
suppliers of goods and services and tax authorities
and help them in taking important decisions. The
investors, for example, may be interested in knowing
the extent of profit or loss earned by the firm during
LEARNING OBJECTIVES a given period and compare it with the performance
After studying this chapter, of other similar enterprises. The suppliers of credit,
you will be able to: say a banker, may, in addition, be interested in
• identify the need for liquidity position of the enterprise. All these people
theory base of acco- look forward to accounting for appropriate, useful
unting; and reliable information.
• explain the nature of For making the accounting infor mation
Generally Accepted meaningful to its internal and external users, it is
Accounting Principles important that such information is reliable as well
(GAAP);
as comparable. The comparability of information is
• state the meaning and required both to make inter -firm comparisons, i.e.
purpose of the basic
accounting concepts;
to see how a firm has performed as compared to
the other firms, as well as to make inter-period
• list the accounting
standards issued by comparison, i.e. how it has performed as compared
Institute of Chartered to the previous years. This becomes possible only if
Accountants of India; the information provided by the financial statements
• describe the systems is based on consistent accounting policies, principles
of accounting; and and practices. Such consistency is required
• describe the basis of throughout the process of identifying the events and
accounting. transactions to be accounted for, measuring them,
communicating them in the book of accounts,

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Theory base of Accounting 23

summarising the results thereof and reporting them to the interested parties.
This calls for developing a proper theory base of accounting.
The importance of accounting theory need not be over-emphasised as no
discipline can develop without a sound theoretical base. The theory base of
accounting consists of principles, concepts, rules and guidelines developed
over a period of time to bring uniformity and consistency to the process of
accounting and enhance its utility to different users of accounting information.
Apart from these, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, (ICAI), which
is the regulatory body for standardisation of accounting policies in the country
has issued Accounting Standards which are expected to be uniformly adhered
to, in order to bring consistency in the accounting practices. These are discussed
in the sections to follow.

2.1 Generally Accepted Accounting Principles

In order to maintain uniformity and consistency in accounting records, certain
rules or principles have been developed which are generally accepted by the
accounting profession. These rules are called by different names such as
principles, concepts, conventions, postulates, assumptions and modifying
principles.
The term ‘principle’ has been defined by AICPA as ‘A general law or rule
adopted or professed as a guide to action, a settled ground or basis of conduct
or practice’. The word ‘generally’ means ‘in a general manner’, i.e. pertaining to
many persons or cases or occasions. Thus, Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles (GAAP) refers to the rules or guidelines adopted for recording and
reporting of business transactions, in order to bring uniformity in the
preparation and the presentation of financial statements. For example, one of
the important rule is to record all transactions on the basis of historical cost,
which is verifiable from the documents such as cash receipt for the money
paid. This brings in objectivity in the process of recording and makes the
accounting statements more acceptable to various users.
The Generally Accepted Accounting Principles have evolved over a long period
of time on the basis of past experiences, usages or customs, statements by
individuals and professional bodies and regulations by government agencies
and have general acceptability among most accounting professionals. However,
the principles of accounting are not static in nature. These are constantly
influenced by changes in the legal, social and economic environment as well as
the needs of the users.
These principles are also referred as concepts and conventions. The term
concept refers to the necessary assumptions and ideas which are fundamental
to accounting practice, and the term convention connotes customs or traditions
as a guide to the preparation of accounting statements. In practice, the same
rules or guidelines have been described by one author as a concept, by another
as a postulate and still by another as convention. This at times becomes

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confusing to the learners. Instead of going into the semantics of these terms, it
is important to concentrate on the practicability of their usage. From the
practicability view point, it is observed that the various terms such as principles,
postulates, conventions, modifying principles, assumptions, etc. have been
used inter-changeably and are referred to as Basic Accounting Concepts in the
present chapter.

2.2 Basic Accounting Concepts

The basic accounting concepts are referred to as the fundamental ideas or
basic assumptions underlying the theory and practice of financial accounting
and are broad working rules for all accounting activities and developed by the
accounting profession. The important concepts have been listed as below:

• Business entity; • Revenue recognition (Realisation);

• Money measurement; • Matching;
• Going concern; • Full disclosure;
• Accounting period; • Consistency;
• Cost • Conservatism (Prudence);
• Dual aspect (or Duality); • Materiality;
• Objectivity.

2.2.1 Business Entity Concept

The concept of business entity assumes that business has a distinct and
separate entity from its owners. It means that for the purposes of accounting,
the business and its owners are to be treated as two separate entities. Keeping
this in view, when a person brings in some money as capital into his business,
in accounting records, it is treated as liability of the business to the owner.
Here, one separate entity (owner) is assumed to be giving money to another
distinct entity (business unit). Similarly, when the owner withdraws any money
from the business for his personal expenses(drawings), it is treated as reduction
of the owner’s capital and consequently a reduction in the liabilities of the
business.
The accounting records are made in the book of accounts from the point of
view of the business unit and not that of the owner. The personal assets and
liabilities of the owner are, therefore, not considered while recording and
reporting the assets and liabilities of the business. Similarly, personal
transactions of the owner are not recorded in the books of the business, unless
it involves inflow or outflow of business funds.

2.2.2 Money Measurement Concept

The concept of money measurement states that only those transactions and
happenings in an organisation which can be expressed in terms of money
such as sale of goods or payment of expenses or receipt of income, etc. are to

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Theory base of Accounting 25

be recorded in the book of accounts. All such transactions or happenings which

can not be expressed in monetary terms, for example, the appointment of a
manager, capabilities of its human resources or creativity of its research
department or image of the organisation among people in general do not find a
place in the accounting records of a firm.
Another important aspect of the concept of money measurement is that the
records of the transactions are to be kept not in the physical units but in the
monetary unit. For example, an organisation may, on a particular day, have a
factory on a piece of land measuring 2 acres, office building containing 10
rooms, 30 personal computers, 30 office chairs and tables, a bank balance of
Rs.5 lakh, raw material weighing 20-tons, and 100 cartons of finished goods.
These assets are expressed in different units, so can not be added to give any
meaningful information about the total worth of business. For accounting
purposes, therefore, these are shown in money terms and recorded in rupees
and paise. In this case, the cost of factory land may be say Rs. 2 crore; office
building Rs. 1 crore; computers Rs.15 lakh; office chairs and tables Rs. 2 lakh;
raw material Rs. 33 lakh and finished goods Rs. 4 lakh. Thus, the total assets
of the enterprise are valued at Rs. 3 crore and 59 lakh. Similarly, all transactions
are recorded in rupees and paise as and when they take place.
The money measurement assumption is not free from limitations. Due to
the changes in prices, the value of money does not remain the same over a
period of time. The value of rupee today on account of rise in prices is much
less than what it was, say ten years back. Therefore, in the balance sheet,
when we add different assets bought at different points of time, say building
purchased in 1995 for Rs. 2 crore, and plant purchased in 2005 for Rs. 1
crore, we are in fact adding heterogeneous values, which can not be clubbed
together. As the change in the value of money is not reflected in the book of
accounts, the accounting data does not reflect the true and fair view of the
affairs of an enterprise.

2.2.3 Going Concern Concept

The concept of going concern assumes that a business firm would continue to
carry out its operations indefinitely, i.e. for a fairly long period of time and
would not be liquidated in the foreseeable future. This is an important
assumption of accounting as it provides the very basis for showing the value of
assets in the balance sheet.
An asset may be defined as a bundle of services. When we purchase an
asset, for example, a personal computer, for a sum of Rs. 50,000, what we are
buying really is the services of the computer that we shall be getting over its
estimated life span, say 5 years. It will not be fair to charge the whole amount
of Rs. 50,000, from the revenue of the year in which the asset is purchased.
Instead, that part of the asset which has been consumed or used during a

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26 Accountancy

period should be charged from the revenue of that period. The assumption
regarding continuity of business allows us to charge from the revenues of a
period only that part of the asset which has been consumed or used to earn
that revenue in that period and carry forward the remaining amount to the
next years, over the estimated life of the asset. Thus, we may charge Rs. 10,000
every year for 5 years from the profit and loss account. In case the continuity
assumption is not there, the whole cost (Rs. 50,000 in the present example)
will need to be charged from the revenue of the year in which the asset was
purchased.
2.2.4 Accounting Period Concept
Accounting period refers to the span of time at the end of which the financial
statements of an enterprise are prepared, to know whether it has earned profits or
incurred losses during that period and what exactly is the position of its assets and
liabilities at the end of that period. Such information is required by different users
at regular interval for various purposes, as no firm can wait for long to know its
financial results as various decisions are to be taken at regular intervals on the
basis of such information. The financial statements are, therefore, prepared at regular
interval, normally after a period of one year, so that timely information is made
available to the users. This interval of time is called accounting period.
The Companies Act 1956 and the Income Tax Act require that the income
statements should be prepared annually. However, in case of certain
situations, preparation of interim financial statements become necessary.
For example, at the time of retirement of a partner, the accounting period can
be different from twelve months period. Apart from these companies whose
shares are listed on the stock exchange, are required to publish quarterly
results to ascertain the profitability and financial position at the end of every
three months period.

Test Your Understanding - I

Choose the Correct Answer

1. During the life-time of an entity accounting produce financial statements in
accordance with which basic accounting concept:
(a) Conservation
(b) Matching
(c) Accounting period
(d) None of the above
2. When infor mation about two different enterprises have been prepared presented
in a similar manner the information exhibits the characteristic of:
(a) Verifiability
(b) Relevance
(c) Reliability
(d) None of the above

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Theory base of Accounting 27

3. A concept that a business enterprise will not be sold or liquidated in the near
future is known as :
(a) Going concern
(b) Economic entity
(c) Monetary unit
(d) None of the above
4. The primary qualities that make accounting information useful for decision-making
are :
(a) Relevance and freedom from bias
(b) Reliability and comparability
(c) Comparability and consistency
(d) None of the above

2.2.5 Cost Concept

The cost concept requires that all assets are recorded in the book of accounts
at their purchase price, which includes cost of acquisition, transportation,
installation and making the asset ready to use. To illustrate, on June 2005, an
old plant was purchased for Rs. 50 lakh by Shiva Enterprise, which is into the
business of manufacturing detergent powder. An amount of
Rs. 10,000 was spent on transporting the plant to the factory site. In addition,
Rs. 15,000 was spent on repairs for bringing the plant into running position
and Rs. 25,000 on its installation. The total amount at which the plant will be
recorded in the books of account would be the sum of all these, i.e.
Rs. 50,50,000.
The concept of cost is historical in nature as it is something, which has
been paid on the date of acquisition and does not change year after year. For
example, if a building has been purchased by a firm for Rs. 2.5 crore, the
purchase price will remain the same for all years to come, though its market
value may change. Adoption of historical cost brings in objectivity in recording
as the cost of acquisition is easily verifiable from the purchase documents. The
market value basis, on the other hand, is not reliable as the value of an asset
may change from time to time, making the comparisons between one period to
another rather difficult.
However, an important limitation of the historical cost basis is that it does
not show the true worth of the business and may lead to hidden profits. During
the period of rising prices, the market value or the cost at (which the assets
can be replaced are higher than the value at which these are shown in the
book of accounts) leading to hidden profits.

2.2.6 Dual Aspect Concept

Dual aspect is the foundation or basic principle of accounting. It provides the
very basis for recording business transactions into the book of accounts. This
concept states that every transaction has a dual or two-fold effect and should

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therefore be recorded at two places. In other words, at least two accounts will
be involved in recording a transaction. This can be explained with the help of
an example. Ram started business by investing in a sum of Rs. 50,00,000 The
amount of money brought in by Ram will result in an increase in the assets
(cash) of business by Rs. 50,00,000. At the same time, the owner’s equity or
capital will also increase by an equal amount. It may be seen that the two
items that got affected by this transaction are cash and capital account.
Let us take another example to understand this point further. Suppose the
firm purchase goods worth Rs. 10,00,000 on cash. This will increase an asset
(stock of goods) on the one hand and reduce another asset (cash) on the other.
Similarly, if the firm purchases a machine worth Rs. 30,00,000 on credit from
Reliable Industries. This will increase an asset (machinery) on the one hand
and a liability (creditor) on the other. This type of dual effect takes place in
case of all business transactions and is also known as duality principle.
The duality principle is commonly expressed in terms of fundamental
Accounting Equation, which is as follows :

Assets = Liabilities + Capital

In other words, the equation states that the assets of a business are always
equal to the claims of owners and the outsiders. The claims also called equity
of owners is termed as Capital(owners’ equity) and that of outsiders, as
Liabilities(creditors equity). The two-fold effect of each transaction affects in
such a manner that the equality of both sides of equation is maintained.
The two-fold effect in respect of all transactions must be duly recorded in
the book of accounts of the business. In fact, this concept forms the core of
Double Entry System of accounting, which has been dealt in detail, in
chapter 3.
2.2.7 Revenue Recognition (Realisation) Concept
The concept of revenue recognition requires that the revenue for a business
transaction should be included in the accounting records only when it is realised.
Here arises two questions in mind. First, is termed as revenue and the other,
when the revenue is realised. Let us take the first one first. Revenue is the
gross inflow of cash arising from (i) the sale of goods and services by an
enterprise; and (ii) use by others of the enterprise’s resources yielding interest,
royalties and dividends. Secondly, revenue is assumed to be realised when a
legal right to receive it arises, i.e. the point of time when goods have been sold
or service has been rendered. Thus, credit sales are treated as revenue on the
day sales are made and not when money is received from the buyer. As for the
income such as rent, commission, interest, etc. these are recongnised on a
time basis. For example, rent for the month of March 2014, even if received in
April 2014, will be taken into the profit and loss account of the financial year
ending March 31, 2014 and not into financial year beginning with April 2014.

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Theory base of Accounting 29

Similarly, if interest for April 2014 is received in advance in March 2014, it will
be taken to the profit and loss account of the financial year ending
March 2014.
There are some exceptions to this general rule of revenue recognition. In
case of contracts like construction work, which take long time, say 2-3 years to
complete, proportionate amount of revenue, based on the part of contract
completed by the end of the period is treated as realised. Similarly, when goods
are sold on hire purchase, the amount collected in installments is treated as
realised.

2.2.8 Matching Concept

The process of ascertaining the amount of profit earned or the loss incurred
during a particular period involves deduction of related expenses from the
revenue earned during that period. The matching concept emphasises exactly
on this aspect. It states that expenses incurred in an accounting period should
be matched with revenues during that period. It follows from this that the
revenue and expenses incurred to earn these revenues must belong to the
same accounting period.
As already stated, revenue is recognised when a sale is complete or service
is rendered rather when cash is received. Similarly, an expense is recognised
not when cash is paid but when an asset or service has been used to generate
revenue. For example, expenses such as salaries, rent, insurance are recognised
on the basis of period to which they relate and not when these are paid. Similarly,
costs like depreciation of fixed asset is divided over the periods during which
the asset is used.
Let us also understand how cost of goods are matched with their sales
revenue. While ascertaining the profit or loss of an accounting year, we should
not take the cost of all the goods produced or purchased during that period
but consider only the cost of goods that have been sold during that year. For
this purpose, the cost of unsold goods should be deducted from the cost of the
goods produced or purchased. You will learn about this aspect in detail in the
chapter on financial statement.
The matching concept, thus, implies that all revenues earned during an
accounting year, whether received during that year, or not and all costs incurred,
whether paid during the year, or not should be taken into account while
ascertaining profit or loss for that year.
2.2.9 Full Disclosure Concept
Information provided by financial statements are used by different groups of
people such as investors, lenders, suppliers and others in taking various
financial decisions. In the corporate form of organisation, there is a distinction

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between those managing the affairs of the enterprise and those owning it.
Financial statements, however, are the only or basic means of communicating
financial information to all interested parties. It becomes all the more important,
therefore, that the financial statements makes a full, fair and adequate
disclosure of all information which is relevant for taking financial decisions.
The principle of full disclosure requires that all material and relevant facts
concerning financial performance of an enterprise must be fully and completely
disclosed in the financial statements and their accompanying footnotes. This
is to enable the users to make correct assessment about the profitability and
financial soundness of the enterprise and help them to take informed decisions.
To ensure proper disclosure of material accounting information, the Indian
Companies Act 1956 has provided a format for the preparation of profit and
loss account and balance sheet of a company, which needs to be compulsorily
adhered to, for the preparation of these statements. The regulatory bodies like
SEBI, also mandates complete disclosures to be made by the companies, to
give a true and fair view of profitability and the state of affairs.

2.2.10 Consistency Concept

The accounting information provided by the financial statements would be
useful in drawing conclusions regarding the working of an enterprise only
when it allows comparisons over a period of time as well as with the working of
other enterprises. Thus, both inter-firm and inter-period comparisons are
required to be made. This can be possible only when accounting policies and
practices followed by enterprises are uniform and are consistent over the period
of time.
To illustrate, an investor wants to know the financial performance of an
enterprise in the current year as compared to that in the previous year. He
may compare this year’s net profit with that in the last year. But, if the
accounting policies adopted, say with respect to depreciation in the two years
are different, the profit figures will not be comparable. Because the method
adopted for the valuation of stock in the past two years is inconsistent. It is,
therefore, important that the concept of consistency is followed in preparation
of financial statements so that the results of two accounting periods are
comparable. Consistency eliminates personal bias and helps in achieving results
that are comparable.
Also the comparison between the financial results of two enterprises would
be meaningful only if same kind of accounting methods and policies are adopted
in the preparation of financial statements.
However, consistency does not prohibit change in accounting policies.
Necessary required changes are fully disclosed by presenting them in the
financial statements indicating their probable effects on the financial results
of business.

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Theory base of Accounting 31

2.2.11 Conservatism Concept

The concept of conservatism (also called ‘prudence’) provides guidance for
recording transactions in the book of accounts and is based on the policy of
playing safe. The concept states that a conscious approach should be adopted
in ascertaining income so that profits of the enterprise are not overstated. If the
profits ascertained are more than the actual, it may lead to distribution of dividend
out of capital, which is not fair as it will lead to reduction in the capital of the
enterprise.
The concept of conservatism requires that profits should not to be recorded
until realised but all losses, even those which may have a remote possibility,
are to be provided for in the books of account. To illustrate, valuing closing
stock at cost or market value whichever is lower; creating provision for doubtful
debts, discount on debtors; writing of intangible assets like goodwill, patents,
etc. from the book of accounts are some of the examples of the application of
the principle of conservatism. Thus, if market value of the goods purchased
has fallen down, the stock will be shown at cost price in the books but if the
market value has gone up, the gain is not to be recorded until the stock is sold.
This approach of providing for the losses but not recognising the gains until
realised is called conservatism approach. This may be reflecting a generally
pessimist attitude adopted by the accountants but is an important way of
dealing with uncertainty and protecting the interests of creditors against an
unwanted distribution of firm’s assets. However, deliberate attempt to
underestimate the value of assets should be discouraged as it will lead to
hidden profits, called secret reserves.

2.2.12 Materiality Concept

The concept of materiality requires that accounting should focus on material
facts. Efforts should not be wasted in recording and presenting facts, which
are immaterial in the determination of income. The question that arises here is
what is a material fact. The materiality of a fact depends on its nature and the
amount involved. Any fact would be considered as material if it is reasonably
believed that its knowledge would influence the decision of informed user of
financial statements. For example, money spent on creation of additional
capacity of a theatre would be a material fact as it is going to increase the
future earning capacity of the enterprise. Similarly, information about any
change in the method of depreciation adopted or any liability which is likely to
arise in the near future would be significant information. All such information
about material facts should be disclosed through the financial statements and
the accompanying notes so that users can take informed decisions. In certain
cases, when the amount involved is very small, strict adherence to accounting
principles is not required. For example, stock of erasers, pencils, scales, etc.
are not shown as assets, whatever amount of stationery is bought in an
accounting period is treated as the expense of that period, whether consumed

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or not. The amount spent is treated as revenue expenditure and taken to the
profit and loss account of the year in which the expenditure is incurred.

2.2.13 Objectivity Concept

The concept of objectivity requires that accounting transaction should be
recorded in an objective manner, free from the bias of accountants and others.
This can be possible when each of the transaction is supported by verifiable
documents or vouchers. For example, the transaction for the purchase of
materials may be supported by the cash receipt for the money paid, if the same
is purchased on cash or copy of invoice and delivery challan, if the same is
purchased on credit. Similarly, receipt for the amount paid for purchase of a
machine becomes the documentary evidence for the cost of machine and
provides an objective basis for verifying this transaction. One of the reasons
for the adoption of ‘Historical Cost’ as the basis of recording accounting
transaction is that adherence to the principle of objectivity is made possible by
it. As stated above, the cost actually paid for an asset can be verified from the
documents but it is very difficult to ascertain the market value of an asset
until it is actually sold. Not only that, the market value may vary from person
to person and from place to place, and so ‘objectivity’ cannot be maintained if
such value is adopted for accounting purposes.

Test Your Understanding - II

Fill in the correct word:

1. Recognition of expenses in the same period as associated revenues is called
_______________concept.
2. The accounting concept that refers to the tendency of accountants to resolve
uncertainty and doubt in favour of understating assets and revenues and
overstating liabilities and expenses is known as _______________.
3. Revenue is generally recongnised at the point of sale denotes the concept
of _______________.
4. The _______________concept requires that the same accounting method should
be used from one accounting period to the next.
5. The_______________concept requires that accounting transaction should be free
from the bias of accountants and others.

2.3 Systems of Accounting

The systems of recording transactions in the book of accounts are generally
classified into two types, viz. Double entry system and Single entry system.
Double entry system is based on the principle of “Dual Aspect” which states
that every transaction has two effects, viz. receiving of a benefit and giving of a
benefit. Each transaction, therefore, involves two or more accounts and is
recorded at different places in the ledger. The basic principle followed is that

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Theory base of Accounting 33

every debit must have a corresponding credit. Thus, one account is debited
and the other is credited.
Double entry system is a complete system as both the aspects of a
transaction are recorded in the book of accounts. The system is accurate and
more reliable as the possibilities of frauds and mis-appropriations are
minimised. The arithmetic inaccuracies in records can mostly be checked by
preparing the trial balance. The system of double entry can be implemented by
big as well as small organisations.
Single entry system is not a complete system of maintaining records of
financial transactions. It does not record two-fold effect of each and every
transaction. Instead of maintaining all the accounts, only personal accounts
and cash book are maintained under this system. In fact, this is not a system
but a lack of system as no uniformity is maintained in the recording of
transactions. For some transactions, only one aspect is recorded, for others,
both the aspects are recorded. The accounts maintained under this system are
incomplete and unsystematic and therefore, not reliable. The system is, however,
followed by small business firms as it is very simple and flexible (you will study
about them in detail later in this book).

2.4 Basis of Accounting

From the point of view the timing of recognition of revenue and costs, there
can be two broad approaches to accounting. These are:
(i) Cash basis; and
(ii) Accrual basis.
Under the cash basis, entries in the book of accounts are made when cash is
received or paid and not when the receipt or payment becomes due. Let us say, for
example, if office rent for the month of December 2014, is paid in January 2015,
it would be recorded in the book of account only in January 2015.
Similarly sale of goods on credit in the month of January 2015 would not
be recorded in January but say in April, when the payment for the same is
received. Thus this system is incompatible with the matching principle, which
states that the revenue of a period is matched with the cost of the same period.
Though simple, this method is inappropriate for most organisations as profit
is calculated as a difference between the receipts and disbursement of money
for the given period rather than on happening of the transactions.
Under the accrual basis, however, revenues and costs are recognised in
the period in which they occur rather when they are paid. A distinction is
made between the receipt of cash and the right to receive cash and payment of
cash and legal obligation to pay cash. Thus, under this system, the monitory
effect of a transaction is taken into account in the period in which they are
earned rather than in the period in which cash is actually received or paid by

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the enterprise. This is a more appropriate basis for the calculation of profits as
expenses are matched against revenue earned in relation thereto. For example,
raw material consumed are matched against the cost of goods sold.

2.5 Accounting Standards

As discussed in the preceding section, the Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles in the form of Basic Accounting Concept have been accepted by the
accounting profession to achieve uniformity and comparability in the financial
statement. This is aimed at increasing the utility of these statement to various
users of the accounting information. But the difficulty is that GAAP permit a
variety of alternative treatments for the same item. For example, various
methods of calculation of cost of inventory are permissible which may be
followed by different enterprises. This may cause problem to the external
users of information, which becomes inconsistent and incomparable. This
necessitates brining in uniformity and consistency in the reporting of
accounting information.
Recognising this need, the Institute of Charted Accountants of India (ICAI)
constituted an Accounting Standards Board (ASB) in April, 1977 for developing
Accounting Standards. The main function of ASB is to identify areas in which
uniformity in standards is required and develop draft standards after wide
discussion with representative of the Government, public sector undertakings,
industry and other organisations. ASB gives due consideration to the
International Accounting Standards as India is a member of International
Account Setting Body. ASB submits the draft of the standards to the Council
of the ICAI, which finalises them and notifies them for use in the presentation
of the financial statements. ASB also makes a periodic review of the accounting
standards.
Accounting standards are written statements of uniform accounting rules
and guidelines or practices for preparing the uniform and consistent financial
statements and for other disclosures affecting the user of accounting
information. However, the accounting standards cannot override the provision
of applicable laws, customs, usages and business environment in the country.
The Institute tries to persuade the accounting profession for adopting the
accounting standards, so that uniformity can be achieved in the presentation
of financial statements. In the initial years the standards are of recommendatory
in nature. Once an awareness is created about the requirements of a standard,
steps are taken to enforce its compliance by making them mandatory for all
companies to comply with. In case of non-compliance, the companies are
required to disclose the reasons for deviations and the financial effect, if any,
arising due to such deviation.

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Theory base of Accounting 35

2.6 International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs)

International Financial reporting Standards (IFRSs) are globally accepted
accounting standards developed by International Accounting Standard Board
(IASB). IFRS is a set of accounting standards for reporting different types of
business transactions and events in the financial statements. The objective is
to facilitate international comparisons for true and fair valuation of a business
enterprise. The qualitative characteristics associated with the preparation of
financial statements are useful to the users of accounting information in making
financial decisions.
In an effort to narrow down the gap in the presentation of corporate financial
statements, the Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Government of India has opted
for the convergence of Indian Accounting Standards with IFRSs for bringing
uniformity, comparability, transparency, rationalization and adaptability in
the field of accounting. This has resulted to the introduction of revised schedule
VI to the Companies Act 1956.
Benefits to Convergence to IFRSs
1. Easy access to global or international capital markets.
2. Easy comparisons and transparency.
3. True and fair valuation.
4. Increased trust and reliance.
5. Eliminates multiple reporting.
The institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) has however clarified
that the convergence with IFRSs does not mean adoption of IFRSs in toto. As
cited in IAS-1 relating to Presentation of Financial Statements ‘ Financial
Statements shall not be described as complying with IFRSs unless they comply
with the requirements of IFRSs’.
Time Schedule for IFRSs Implementation in India
1. For companies other than Insurance, Banking and NBFCs
PhaseApplicable to Applicable from
I •
Companies which are part of NSE-Nifty 50 April 01, 2011
•
Companies which are part of BSE-sensex 30
•
Companies whose shares or other securities
are listed on the stock exchange outside India
• Companies, whether listed or not which have a
net worth in excess of Rs. 1,000 crores.
II • Companies, whether listed or not having a net April 01, 2013
woth exceeding Rs. 500 crores but not exceeding
Rs. 1,000 crores.
III • Listed companies which have a net worth of April 01, 2014
Rs. 500 crores or less
For Insurance Companies, Banking Companies & NBFCs
Insurance Companies April 01, 2012

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36 Accountancy

Banking Companies
• All scheduled commercial banks and those April 01, 2013
urban co-operative banks which have a net
worth in excess of Rs. 300 crores.
• Urban co-operative banks which have a net worth in excess April 01, 2014
of Rs. 200 crores but not exceeding Rs. 300 cr ores.
Non Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs)
• Companies which are part of NSE Nifty-50 April 01, 2013
• Companies which are part of BSE sensex 30 April 01, 2013
• Companies, whether listed or not which have a net worth in
excess of Rs. 1000 crores·
• All listed NBFCs and those unlisted NBFCs which do not fall in April 01, 2014
the above categories and which have a net worth in excess of
Rs. 500 cror es.
IFRSs that are Currently Applicable
List of IAS/IFRS and corresponding Ind-As notified by Ministry of Corporate Affairs
IAS NO. Title Corresponding
converged Ind AS
IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements Ind AS 1
IAS 2 Inventories Ind AS 2
IAS 7 Cash Flow Statement Ind AS 7
IAS 8 Accounting policies, change in accounting Ind AS 8
estimates and errors
IAS 10 Events after the Balance sheet date Ind AS 10
IAS 11 Construction contracts Ind AS 11
IAS 12 Income taxes Ind AS 12
IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment Ind AS 16
IAS 17 Leases Ind AS 17
IAS 18 Revenue Ind AS 18
IAS 19 Employee Benefits Ind AS 19
IAS 20 Accounting for Gover nment grants and disclosure Ind AS 20
of Government Assistance
IAS 21 The Effects of Changes in the Foreign Exchange Rates Ind AS 21
IAS 23 Borrowing Costs Ind AS 23
IAS 24 Related Party Disclosures Ind AS 24
IAS 26 Accounting and Reporting by Retirement Benefits Plan Ind AS 26
IAS 27 Consolidated and separate financial statements Ind AS 27
IAS 28 Investments in associates Ind AS 28
IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyper Inflationary Economics Ind AS 29
IAS 31 Interest in Joint ventures Ind AS 31
IAS 32 Financial Instruments Presentation Ind AS 32
IAS 33 Earnings per share Ind AS 33
IAS 34 Interim Financial Reporting Ind AS 34
IAS 36 Impairment Assets Ind AS 36
IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent liabilities and Contingent assets Ind AS 37
IAS 38 Intangible Assets Ind AS 38
IAS 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition
and\measurement Ind AS 39
IAS 40 Investment Property Ind AS 40
IAS 41 Agriculture Ind As under
preparation

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Theory base of Accounting 37

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Cost • Conservatism(Prudence) • Operating guidelines
• Matching • Going concern • Accounting period
• Materiality • Comparibility • Money measurement
• Objectivity • Full discloser • Accounting concept
• Consistency • Generally accepted • Accounting Principles (GAAP)
• Dual aspect • Revenue Relisation

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) : Generally Accepted Accounting
principles refer to the rules or guidelines adopted for recording and r eporting of business
transactions in order to bring uniformity in the pr eparation and presentation of financial
statements. These principles are also r eferred to as concepts and conventions. From
the practicality view point, the various ter ms such as principles, postulates, conventions
modifying principles, assumptions, etc. have been used interchangeably and are referred
to as basic accounting concepts, in the present book.
2. Basic Accounting Concepts : The basic accounting concepts are referred to as the
fundamental ideas or basic assumptions underlying the theory and practice of financial
accounting and are broad working rules of accounting activities.
3. Business Entity : This concept assumes that business has distinct and separate
entity fr om its owners. Thus, for the purpose of accounting, business and its owners
ar e to be treated as two separate entities.
4. Money Measur ement : The concept of money measurement states that only those
transactions and happenings in an organisation, which can be expressed in terms of
money are to be r ecorded in the book of accounts. Also, the records of the transactions are
to be kept not in the physical units but in the monetary units.
5. Going Concern : The concept of going concer n assumes that a business firm would
continue to carry out its operations indefinitely (for a fairly long period of time) and
would not be liquidated in the near future.
6. Accounting Period : Accounting period refers to the span of time at the end of which
the financial statements of an enterprise ar e prepared to know whether it has earned
profits or incurred losses during that period and what exactly is the position of its
assets and liabilities, at the end of that period.
7. Cost Concept : The cost concept requires that all assets ar e recorded in the book of
accounts at their cost price, which includes cost of acquisition, transportation,
installation and making the asset ready for the use.
8. Dual Aspect : This concept states that every transaction has a dual or two-fold effect
on various accounts and should therefore be recorded at two places. The duality
principle is commonly expr essed in terms of fundamental accounting equation, which
is :
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
9. Revenue Recognition : Revenue is the gross in-flow of cash arising from the sale of
goods and services by an enterprise and use by others of the enterprise r esources
yielding interest royalities and divididends. The concept of revenue recognition requires
that the r evenue for a business transaction should be considered realised when a
legal right to receive it arises.
10. Matching : The concept of matching emphasises that expenses incurr ed in an

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accounting period should be matched with revenues during that period. It follows
from this that the revenue and expenses incurr ed to earn these revenue must belong
to the same accounting period.
11. Full Disclosure : This concept requires that all material and relevant facts concerning
financial per formance of an enterprise must be fully and completely disclosed in the
financial statements and their accompanying footnotes.
12. Consistency : This concepts states that accounting policies and practices followed by
enterprises should be unifor m and consistent one the period of time so that results
ar e composable. Comparability results when the same accounting principles are
consistently being applied by different enterprises for the period under comparison,
or the same firm for a number of periods.
13. Conservatism : This concept r equires that business transactions should be recorded
in such a manner that profits ar e not overstated. All anticipated losses should be
accounted for but all unrealised gains should be ignor ed.
14. Materiality : This concept states that accounting should focus on material facts. If
the item is likely to influence the decision of a reasonably prudent investor or creditor,
it should be regarded as material, and shown in the financial statements.
15. Objectivity : According to this concept, accounting transactions should be recorded
in the manner so that it is free from the bias of accountants and others.
16. Systems of Accounting : There are two systems of r ecording business transactions,
viz. double entry system and single entry system. Under double entry system every
transaction has two-fold ef fects where as single entry system is known as incomplete
records.
17. Basis of Accounting : The two broad appr oach of accounting are cash basis and
accrual basis. Under cash basis transactions are recorded only when cash are received
or paid. Wher eas under accrual basis, revenues or costs are r ecognises when they
occur rather than when they are paid.
18. Accounting Standards : Accounting standards are written statements of unifor m
accounting rules and guidelines in practice for preparing the uniform and consistent
financial statements. These standar ds cannot over ride the provisions of applicable
laws, customs, usages and business environment in the country.
Questions for Practice
Short Answers
1. Why is it necessary for accountants to assume that business entity will remain a
going concern?
2. When should revenue be recognised? Are there exceptions to the general rule?
3. What is the basic accounting equation?
4. The realisation concept determines when goods sent on credit to customers are to be
included in the sales figure for the purpose of computing the profit or loss for the
accounting period. Which of the following tends to be used in practice to determine
when to include a transaction in the sales figure for the period. When the goods have
been:
a. dispatched b. invoiced c. delivered d. paid for
Give reasons for your answer.

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Theory base of Accounting 39

5. Complete the following work sheet:

(i) If a firm believes that some of its debtors may ‘default’, it should act on this by
making sure that all possible losses are recor ded in the books. This is an example
of the ___________ concept.
(ii) The fact that a business is separate and distinguishable from its owner is best
exemplified by the ___________ concept.
(iii) Everything a firm owns, it also owns out to somebody. This co-incidence is
explained by the ___________ concept.
(iv) The ___________ concept states that if straight line method of depr eciation is
used in one year, then it should also be used in the next year.
(v) A fir m may hold stock which is heavily in demand. Consequently, the market
value of this stock may be increased. Normal accounting procedure is to ignore
this because of the ___________.
(vi) If a fir m receives an order for goods, it would not be included in the sales figure
owing to the ___________.
(vii) The management of a firm is r emarkably incompetent, but the firms accountants
can not take this into account while preparing book of accounts because of
___________ concept.
Long Answers
1. ‘The accounting concepts and accounting standards are generally referred to as the
essence of financial accounting’. Comment.
2. Why is it important to adopt a consistent basis for the preparation of financial
statements? Explain.
3. Discuss the concept-based on the premise ‘do not anticipate profits but pr ovide for
all losses’.
4. What is matching concept? Why should a business concern follow this concept?
Discuss.
5. What is the money measurement concept? Which one factor can make it difficult to
compare the monetary values of one year with the monetary values of another year?

Project Work
Activity 1
Ruchica’s father is the sole proprietor of ‘Friends Gifts’, a firm engaged in the sale of gift
items. In the process of preparing financial statements, the accountant of the fir m Mr.
Goyal fell ill and had to proceed on leave. Ruchica’s father was urgently in need of the
statements as these had to be submitted to the bank, in pursuance of a loan of Rs. 5 lakh
applied for the expansion of the business of the firm. Ruchica who is studying Accounting
in her school, volunteered to complete the work. On scrutinising the accounts, the banker
found that the value of building bought a few years back for Rs. 7 lakh has been shown in
the books at Rs. 20 lakh, which is its present market value. Similarly, as compar ed to the
last year, the method of valuation of stock was changed, resulting in value of goods to be
about 15 per cent higher. Also, the whole amount of Rs. 70,000 spent on purchase of
personal computer (expected life 5 years) during the year had been charged to the pr ofits
of the curr ent year. The banker did not rely on the financial data provided by Ruchica.
Advise Ruchica for the mistakes committed by her in the preparation of financial statements
in the context of basic concepts in accounting.

2015-16
40 Accountancy

Activity 2
A customer has filed a suit against a trader who has supplied poor quality goods to
him. It is known that the court judgment will be in favour of the customer and the
trader will be required to pay the damages. However, the amount of legal damages
is not known with certainity. The accounting year has already been ended and the
books are now finalised to ascertain true profit or loss. The accountant of the
trader has advised him not to consider the expected loss on account of payment of
legal damages because the amount is not certain and the final judgment of the
court is not yet out. Do you think the accountant is right in his approach.

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding - I
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b)
Test Your Understanding - II
1. Matching 2. Conservatism 3. Revenue Realisation
4. Consistency 5. Objectivity

2015-16
Recording of Transactions-I 3

I n chapter 1 and 2, while explaining the

development and importance of accounting as a
source of disseminating the financial information
along with the discussion on basic accounting
concepts that guide the recording of business
transactions, it has been indicated that accounting
involves a process of identifying and analysing the
business transactions, recording them, classifying
LEARNING OBJECTIVES and summarising their ef fects and finally
communicating it to the interested users of
After studying this chapter, accounting information.
you will be able to:
In this chapter, we will discuss the details of each
• describe the nature of
transaction and source
step involved in the accounting process. The first
documents; step involves identifying the transactions to be
• explain the prepa- recorded and preparing the source documents
ration of accounting which are in turn recorded in the basic book of
vouchers; original entry called journal and are then posted to
• apply accounting individual accounts in the principal book called
equation to explain the ledger.
ef fect of transactions;
• record transactions 3.1 Business Transactions and Source Document
using rules of debit
and credit; After securing good percentage in your previous
• explain the concept of
examination, as promised, your father wishes to
book of original entry buy you a computer. You go to the market along
and r ecording o f with your father to buy a computer. The dealer gives
transactions in journal; a cash memo along with the computer and in
• explain the concept of exchange your father makes cash payment of
ledger and posting of Rs. 35,000. Purchase of computer for cash is an
jour nal entries to the example of a transaction, which involves reciprocal
ledger accounts.
exchange of two things: (i) payment of cash,
(ii) delivery of a computer. Hence, the transaction

2015-16
42 Accountancy

involves this aspect, i.e. Give and Take. Payment of cash involves give aspect
and delivery of computer is a take aspect. Thus, business transactions are
exchanges of economic consideration between parties and have two-fold effects
that are recorded in at least two accounts.
Business transactions are usually evidenced by an appropriate documents
such as Cash memo, Invoice, Sales bill, Pay-in-slip, Cheque, Salary slip, etc. A
document which provides evidence of the transactions is called the Source
Document or a Voucher. At times, there may be no documentary for certain items
as in case of petty expenses. In such case voucher may be prepared showing the
necessary details and got approved by appropriate authority within the firm. All
such documents (vouchers) are arranged in chronological order and are serially
numbered and kept in a separate file. All recording in books of account is done
on the basis of vouchers.

Transaction Voucher
Name of Firm :
Voucher No :
Date :
Debit account :
Credit account :
Amount (Rs.) :
Narration :

Authorised By : Prepared By :

Fig. 3.1 : Showing specimen transaction voucher

3.1.1 Preparation of Accounting Vouchers

Accounting vouchers may be classified as cash vouchers, debit vouchers, credit
vouchers, journal vouchers, etc. There is no set format of accounting vouchers.
A specimen of a simple transaction voucher is used in practice is shown in
figure 3.1.
These must be preserved in any case till the audit of the accounts and tax
assessments for the relevant period are completed. Now a days, accounting is
computerised and the necessary accounting vouchers showing the code
number and name of the accounts to be debited and credited are prepared for
the purpose of necessary recording of transactions. A transaction with one
debit and one credit is a simple transaction and the accounting vouchers
prepared for such transaction is known as Transaction Voucher, the format of

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Recording of Transactions - I 43

which is shown in figure 3.1. Voucher which records a transaction that entails
multiple debits/credits and one credit/debit is called compound voucher.
Compound voucher may be: (a) Debit Voucher or (b) Credit Voucher; the specimen
is shown in figure 3.2.

Debit Voucher
Name of Firm :
Voucher No : Date :
Credit Account :
Amount :

Debit Accounts

S. No. Code Account Name Amount Narration (i.e. Explanation)

Rs.

Authorised By : Prepared By :

CreditVoucher
Name of Firm :
Voucher No : Date :
Debit Account :
Amount :

Credit Accounts

S. No. Code Account Name Amount Narration (i.e. Explanation)

Rs.

Authorised By : Prepared By :

Fig. 3.2 : Showing debit and credit vouchers

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44 Accountancy

Transactions with multiple debits and multiple credits are called complex
transactions and the accounting voucher prepared for such transaction is
known as Complex Voucher/ Journal Voucher. The format of a complex
transaction voucher is shown in figure 3.3.
Journal Voucher
Name of Firm :
Voucher No : Date :

Debit Accounts

S. No. Code Account Name Amount Narration (i.e. Explanation)

Rs.

Credit Accounts

S. No. Code Account Name Amount Narration (i.e. Explanation)

Rs.

Authorised By : Prepared By :

Fig. 3.3 : Showing specimen of complex transaction voucher

The design of the accounting vouchers depends upon the nature, requirement
and convenience of the business. There is no set format of an accounting
voucher. To distinguish various vouchers, different colour papers and different
fonts of printing are used. Some of the specimen of the accounting vouchers
are given in the earlier pages. A accounting voucher must contain the following
essential elements :
• It is written on a good quality paper;
• Name of the firm must be printed on the top;
• Date of transaction is filled up against the date and not the date of recording
of transaction is to be mentioned;
• The number of the voucher is to be in a serial order;
• Name of the account to be debited or credited is mentioned;

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - I 45

• Debit and credit amount is to be written in figures against the amount;

• Description of the transaction is to be given account wise;
• The person who prepares the voucher must mention his name along with
signature; and
• The name and signature of the authorised person are mentioned on the
voucher.

3.2 Accounting Equation

Accounting equation signifies that the assets of a business are always equal
to the total of its liabilities and capital (owner’s equity). The equation reads as
follows:
A=L+C
Where,
A = Assets
L = Liabilities
C = Capital
The above equation can also be presented in the following forms as its
derivatives to enable the determination of missing figures of Capital(C) or
Liabilities(L).
(i) A – L = C
(ii) A – C = L
Since, the accounting equation depicts the fundamental relationship among
the components of the balance sheet, it is also called the Balance Sheet
Equation. As the name suggests, the balance sheet is a statement of assets,
liabilities and capital.
At any point of time resources of the business entity must be equal to the
claims of those who have financed these resources. The proprietors and
outsiders provide the resources of the business. The claim of the proprietors
is called capital and that of the outsides is known as liabilities. Each element
of the equation is the part of balance sheet, which states the financial position
of the business on a particular date. When we analyse the transactions, we
actually try to know that how balance sheet of a business entity gets affected.
Asset side of the balance sheet is the list of assets, which the business
entity owns. The liabilities side of the balance sheet is the list of owner’s
claims and outsider’s claims, i.e., what the business entity owes. The equality
of the assets side and the liabilities side of the balance sheet is an undeniable
fact and this justifies the name of accounting equation as balance sheet
equation also.

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46 Accountancy

For example, Rohit started business with a capital of Rs. 5,00,000. From the
accounting point of view, the resources of this business entity is in the form of
cash, i.e., Rs. 5,00,000. Sources of this business entity is the contribution by
Rohit (Proprietor) Rs. 5,00,000 as Capital .
(For the purpose of understanding we will refer this example as example 1,
throughout the chapter) .
If we put this information in the form of equality of resources and sources,
the picture would emerge somewhat as follows:
Books of Rohit
Balance Sheet as at ..........
Liabilities Amount Assets Amount
Rs. Rs.
Capital 5,00,000 Cash in hand 5,00,000
5,00,000 5,00,000

In the above balance sheet, the total assets are equal to the liabilities of
the business. Since, the business has not yet started its activities and has not
earned any profits; the amount invested in business is still Rs. 5,00,000. In
case any profits are earned, it will increase the invested amount in business.
On the other hand, if business suffers any losses, it will decrease the invested
amount in business.
We will now analyse the transactions listed in example 1 and its effect on
different elements and you will observe that the accounting equation always
remain balanced:

Example 1.
1. Opened a bank account in State Bank of India with an amount of
Rs. 4,80,000.
Analysis of transaction: This transaction increases the cash at bank (assets)
and decreases cash (asset) by Rs. 4,80,000.
2. Bought furniture for Rs. 60,000 and cheque was issued on the same day.
Analysis of transaction: This transaction increases furniture (assets) and
decreases bank (assets) by Rs. 60,000.
3. Bought plant and machinery for the business for Rs. 1,25,000 and an
advance of Rs. 10,000 in cash is paid to M/s Ramjee Lal.
Analysis of transaction: This transaction increases plant and machinery
(assets) by Rs. 1,25,000, decreases cash by Rs. 10,000 and increases
liabilities (M/s Ramjee lal as creditor) by Rs. 1,15,000.

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - I 47

4. Goods purchased from M/s Sumit Traders for Rs. 55,000.

Analysis of transaction: This transaction increases goods (assets) and
increases liabilities (M/s Sumit Traders as creditors) by Rs. 55,000.
5. Goods costing Rs. 25,000 sold to Rajani Enterprises for Rs. 35,000.
Analysis of transaction: This transaction decreases stock of goods (assets)
by Rs. 25,000 and increases assets (Rajani Enterprises as debtors
Rs. 35,000) and capital (with the profit of Rs. 10,000)
The final equation as per the above analysis table can be summarised in
the form of a balance sheet as under:
Balance Sheet as at.....2015
Liabilities Amount Assets Amount
Rs. Rs.

Outsider’s Claims (Creditors) 1,70,000 Cash 10,000

Capital 5,10,000 Bank 4,20,000
Debtors 35,000
Stock 30,000
Furniture 60,000
Plant & Machinery 1,25,000
6,80,000 6,80,000

In terms of accounting equation

A=L+C
Rs. 6,80,000 = Rs. 1,70,000 + Rs. 5,10,000

3.3 Using Debit and Credit

As already stated every transaction involves give and take aspect. In double
entry accounting, every transaction affects and is recorded in at least two
accounts. When recording each transaction, the total amount debited must
equal to the total amount credited. In accounting, the terms — debit and credit
indicate whether the transactions are to be recorded on the left hand side or
right hand side of the account. In its simplest form, an account looks like the
letter T. Because of its shape, this simple form called a T-account (refer
figure 3.4). Notice that the T format has a left side and a right side for recording
increases and decreases in the item. This helps in ascertaining the ultimate
position of each item at the end of an accounting period. For example, if it is
an account of a customer all goods sold shall appear on the left (debit) side of
customer’s account and all payments received on the right side. The difference
between the totals of the two sides called balance shall reflect the amount due
to the customer. In a T account, the left side is called debit (often abbreviated
as Dr.) and the right side is known as credit (often abbreviated as Cr.). To

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 48
The summary of effects of transactions on accounting equation is in the following analysis table:

(Figures in rupees)

Transaction Cash Bank Assets Goods Furniture Plant and Total Liabilities Capital Total
No. Debtors (Stock) Machinery Assets

5,00,000 5,00,000 ....... 5,00,000 5,00,000

1. (4,80,000) 4,80,000 ....... ....... .......

Post Trans. 20,000 4,80,000 5,00,000 5,00,000 5,00,000
Equation
2. ....... (60,000) 60,000 ....... ....... .......
Post Trans. 20,000 4,20,000 60,000 5,00,000 5,00,,000 5,00,000
Equation
3. (10,000) 1,25,000 1,15,000 1,15,000 1,15,000
Post Trans. 10,000 4,20,000 60,000 1,25,000 6,15,000 1,15,000 5,00,000 6,15,000
Equation
4. 55,000 55,000 55,000 55,000
Post Trans. 10,000 4,20,000 55,000 60,000 1,25,000 6,70,000 1,70,000 5,00,000 6,70,000
Equation
5. 35,000 (25,000) 10,000 10,000 10,000
Final 10,000 4,20,000 35,000 30,000 60,000 1,25,000 6,80,000 1,70,000 5,10,000 6,80,000
Equation

Accountancy
2015-16
Recording of Transactions - I 49

enter amount on the left side of an account is to debit the account. To enter
amount on the right side is to credit the account.
Account T itle

(Left Side) (Right Side)

Fig. 3.4 : Showing T -account

3.3.1 Rules of Debit and Credit

All accounts are divided into five categories for the purposes of recording the
transactions: (a) Asset (b) Liability (c) Capital (d) Expenses/Losses, and (e)
Revenues/Gains.
Two fundamental rules are followed to record the changes in these accounts:
(1) For recording changes in Assets/Expenses (Losses):
(i) “Increase in asset is debited, and decrease in asset is credited.”
(ii) “Increase in expenses/losses is debited, and decrease in expenses/
losses is credited.”
(2) For recording changes in Liabilities and Capital/Revenues (Gains):
(i) “Increase in liabilities is credited and decrease in liabilities is debited.”
(ii) “Increase in capital is credited and decrease in capital is debited.”
(iii) “Increase in revenue/gain is credited and decrease in revenue/gain
is debited.”
The rules applicable to the different kinds of accounts have been
summarised in the following chart:

Rules of Debit and Credit

Asset Liabilities
(Increase) (Decrease) (Decrease) (Increase)
+ – – +
Debit Credit Debit Credit
Capital

(Decrease) (Increase) Expenses/Losses

– +
Debit Credit (Increase) (Decrease)
Revenues/Gains + –
Debit Credit
(Decrease) (Increase)
– +
Debit Credit

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50 Accountancy

The transactions in Example 1 on page 46 will help you to learn how to

apply these debit and credit rules. Observe the analysis table given on page 48
carefully to be sure that you understand before you go on to the next one. To
illustrate different kinds of events, three more transactions have been added
(transactions 7 to 9).
1. Rohit started business with cash Rs. 5,00,000
Analysis of Transaction : The transaction incr eases cash on one hand and increases
capital on the other hand. Increases in assets are debited and incr eases in capital
are credited. Therefore record the transaction with debit to Cash and credit to Rohit’s
Capital.
Cash Account Capital Account

(1) 5,00,000 (1) 5,00,000

(6) 10,000

2. Opened a bank account with an amount of Rs. 4,80,000

Analysis of T ransaction: The transaction increases the cash at bank on one hand
and decreases cash in hand on the other hand. Increases in assets are debited and
a decreases in assets are credited. Therefore, record the transactions with debit to
Bank account and credit to Cash account.

Cash Account Bank Account

(1) 5,00,000 (2) 4,80,000 (2) 4,80,000

3. Bought furniture for Rs. 60,000 and issued cheque for the same
Analysis of Transaction : This transaction incr eases furniture (assets) on one hand
and decreases bank (assets) on the other hand by Rs. 60,000. Increases in assets
are debited and decreases are cr edited. Therefore record the transactions with debit
to Furniture account and credit to Bank account.
Furniture Account Bank Account

(1) 60,000 (2) 4,80,000 (3) 60,000

4. Bought Plant and Machinery from Ramjee lal for the business for Rs. 1,25,000
and an advance of Rs. 10,000 in cash is given.
Analysis of T ransaction : This transaction increases plant and machinery (assets) by
Rs. 1,25,000, decreases cash by Rs. 10,000 and increases liabilities (M/s Ramjee
Lal as creditor) by Rs. 1,15,000. Incr eases in assets are debited whereas decr eases
in assets are credited. On the other hand increases in liabilities are credited. Therefore,
record the transaction with debit to fur niture account and with credit to Cash and
Ramjee Lal’s account.

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Recording of Transactions - I 51

Cash Account Plant and Machinery Account

(1) 5,00,000 (2) 4,80,000 (4) 1,25,000

(4) 10,000

Ramjee Lal’s Account

(4) 1,15,000

5. Goods purchased from Sumit Traders for Rs. 55,000

Analysis of transaction : This transaction increases purchases (expenses) and
increases liabilities (M/s Sumit T raders as creditors) by Rs. 55,000. Increases in
expenses are debited and increases in liabilities are credited. Therefore r ecord the
transaction with debit to Purchases account and credit to Sumit Traders account.
Purchases Account Sumit Traders Account

(5) 55,000 (5) 55,000

6. Goods costing Rs. 25,000 sold to Rajani Enterprises for Rs. 35,000
Analysis of transaction : This transaction increases sales (Revenue) and incr eases
assets (Rajani Enterprises as debtors). Increases in assets are debited and incr eases
in revenue ar e cr edited. Therefore record the entry with credit to Sales account and
debit to Rajani Enterprises account.

Sales Account Rajani Enterprises Account

(6) 35,000 (6) 35,000

7. Paid the monthly store rent Rs. 2,500 in cash

Analysis of transaction : The payment of rent is an expense which decr eases capital
thus, are recorded as debits. Cr edit cash to record decrease in assets.

Rent Account Cash Account

(7) 2,500 (7) 5,00,000 (2) 4,80,000

(4) 10,000
(7) 2,500

8. Paid Rs. 5,000 as salary to the office employees

Analysis of transaction : The payment of salary is an expense which decr eases capital
thus, are recorded as debits. Credit Cash to r ecord decrease in assets.

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52 Accountancy

Salary Account Cash Account

(8) 5,000 (1) 5,00,000 (2) 4,80,000

(4) 10,000
(7) 2,500
(8) 5,000

9. Received cheque as full payment from Rajani Enterprises and deposited same
day into bank
Analysis of transaction : This transaction increase assets( Bank) on the one hand
and decreases assets(Rajani Enterprises as debtors) on the other hand. Increase in
assets is debited whereas decr ease in assets is credited. Therefore record the entry
with debit to Bank account and credit to Rajani Enterprises account.

Rajani Enterprises Account Bank’s Account

(6) 35,000 (9) 35,000 (2) 4,80,000 (3) 60,000

(9) 35,000

Test Your Understanding - I

1. Double entry accounting requires that :

(i) All transactions that create debits to asset accounts must create credits to
liability or capital accounts;
(ii) A transaction that requires a debit to a liability account r equire a credit to an
asset account;
(iii) Every transaction must be recorded with equal debits equal total cr edits.
2. State different kinds of transactions that increase and decr ease capital.
3. Does debit always mean incr ease and credit always mean decrease?
4. Which of the following answers properly classifies these commonly used accounts:
(1) Building (2) Wages (3) Credit sales (4) Cr edit purchases (5) Electricity charges
due but not yet paid(outstanding electricity bills) (6) Godown rent paid in
advance(prepaid godown rent) (7) Sales (8) Fr esh capital introduced (9) Drawings
(10) Discount paid
Assets Liabilities Capital Revenue Expense
(i) 5,4, 3, 9,6 2,10 8,7
(ii) 1, 6 4, 5 8 7, 3 2,9,10
(iii) 2,10,4 4,6 8 7,5 1,3,9

Illustration 1
Analyse the ef fect of each transaction on assets and liabilities and show that the both
sides of Accounting Equation (A = L + C) remains equal :
(i) Introduced Rs. 8,00,000 as cash and Rs. 50,000 by stock.

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - I 53

(ii) Purchased plant for Rs. 3,00,000 by paying Rs. 15,000 in cash and balance at a
later date.
(iii) Deposited Rs. 6,00,000 into the bank.
(iv) Purchased office furniture for Rs. 1,00,000 and made payment by cheque.
(v) Purchased goods worth Rs. 80,000 for cash and for Rs. 35,000 in credit.
(vi) Goods amounting to Rs. 45,000 was sold for Rs. 60,000 on cash basis.
(vii) Goods costing to Rs. 80,000 was sold for Rs. 1,25,000 on credit.
(viii) Cheque issued to the supplier of goods worth Rs. 35,000.
(ix) Cheque received fr om customer amounting to Rs. 75,000.
(x) Withdrawn by owner for personal use Rs. 25,000.
Solution
Transaction (i) It affects Cash and Inventory on the assets side and Capital on the other
hand. There is increase in cash by Rs. 8, 00,000 and Inventory of goods by Rs. 50,000 on
assets side of the equation. Capital is increased by Rs. 8, 50,000.
Rs.
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
Cash + Inventory(Stock)
8,00,000 + 50,000 = 8,50,000

Total 8,50,000 = 8,50,000

Transaction (ii) It affects Cash and Plant and Machinery on the assets side and liabilities
on the other side of the equation. There is an increase in plant and machinery by
Rs. 3, 00,000 and decrease in cash by Rs. 15,000. Liability to pay to the supplier of plant
and machinery increases by Rs. 2,85,000.
Rs.
Assets = Liabilities+ Capital
Cash +Inventory + Plant and Machinery
8,00,000 + 50,000 = 8,50,000
(15,000) 3,00,000 = 2,85,000
7,85,000 + 50,000 +3,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000

Total 11,35,000 = 11,35,000

Transaction (iii) It af fects assets side only. The composition of the asset side changes.
Cash decreases by Rs. 6,00,000 and by the same amount bank increases.
Rs.
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
Cash + Inventory + Plant and + Bank =
Machinery
7,85,000 + 5,0000 + 3,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000
(6,00,000) + 6,00,000
1,85,000 + 50,000 + 3,00,000 + 6,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000

Total 11,35,000 = 11,35,000

Transaction (iv) It af fects assets side only. The composition of the asset side changes.
Furnitur e increases by Rs. 1,00,000 and by the same amount bank decr eases.

2015-16
54 Accountancy

Rs.
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
Cash + Inventory + Plant and + Bank + Furniture
Machinery
1,85,000 + 50,000 + 3,00,000 + 6,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000
(1,00,000) + 1,00,000
1,85,000 + 50,000 +3,00,000 +5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000

Total 11,35,000 = 11,35,000

Transaction (v) It affects Cash and Inventory on the assets side and liability on the other
side. There is decrease in cash by Rs. 80,000 and increase of inventory of goods by
Rs. 1,15,000 on the assts side of the equation. Liabilities increases by Rs. 35,000.
Rs.
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
Cash + Inventory +Plant and + Bank + Furnitur e
Machinery
1,85,000 + 50,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000
(80,000) + 1,15,000 = 35,000
1,05,000 + 1,65,000 +3,00,000 +5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 3,20,000 + 8,50,000

Total 11,70,000 = 11,70,000

Transaction (vi) It af fects Cash and Inventory on the assets side and capital on the other
side. There is an increase in cash by Rs. 60,000 and decrease in inventory of goods by
Rs. 45,000 on the assets side of the equation. Capital increases by Rs. 15,000.
Rs.
Assets = Liabilitie + Capital
Cash + Inventory + Plant and + Bank + Furnitur e
Machinery
1,05,000 + 1,65,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 3,20,000 + 8,50,000
60,000 + (45,000) + 15,000
1,65,000 + 1,20,000 +3,00,000 +5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 3,20,000 + 8,65,000

Total 11,85,000 = 11,85,000

Transaction (vii) It affects Debtors and Inventory on the assets side and capital on the
other side. There is increase in debtors by Rs. 1, 25,000 and decrease in Inventory of
goods by Rs. 80,000 on the assets side of the equation. Capital increases by Rs.45, 000.
Rs.
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
Cash + Inventory +Plant and + Bank + Furnitur e + Debtors
Machinery
1,65,000 + 1,20,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 3,20,000 + 8,65,000
(80,000) + 1,25,000 = + 45,000
1,65,000 + 40,000 +3,00,000 +5,00,000 + 1,00,000 + 1,25,000 = 3,20,000 + 9,10,000

Total 12,30,000 = 12,30,000

Transaction (viii) It affects Bank on the assets side on one side and liability on the other
side. There is decrease in bank by Rs. 35,000 on the assets side and liability also decreases
by Rs. 35,000.

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Recording of Transactions - I 55

Rs.
Assets =Liabilities + Capital
Cash + Inventory + Plant and + Bank + Furniture + Debtors
Machinery
1,65,000 + 40,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,00,000 + 1,00,000 + 1,25,000 = 3,20,000 + 9,10,000
(35,000) = (35,000)
1,65,000 + 40,000 + 3,00,000 +4,65,000 + 1,00,000 + 1,25,000= 2,85,000 + 9,10,000

Total 11,95,000 = 11,95,000

Transaction (ix) It affects assets side only. The composition of the assets side changes.
Bank incr eases by R. 75,000 and by the same amount Debtors decreases.
Rs.
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
Cash + Inventory +Plant and + Bank + Furnitur e + Debtors
Machinary
1,65,000 + 40,000 + 3,00,000 + 4,65,000 + 1,00,000 + 1,25,000 = 2,85,000 + 9,10,000
+ 75,000 (75,000)
1,65,000 + 40,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,40,000 + 1,00,000 + 50,000 = 2,85,000 + 9,10,000

Total 11,95,000 = 11,95,000

Transaction (x ) It affects Cash on the asset side and Capital on the other hand. There
is decrease in Cash by Rs. 25,000 on the assets side wher eas capital decr eases
by Rs. 25,000.
Rs.
Assets = Liabilities + Capital
Cash + Inventory +Plant and + Bank + Furnitur e + Debtors
Machinery
1,65,000 + 40,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,40,000 + 1,00,000 + 50,000 = 2,85,000 + 9,10,000
(25,000) + (25,000)
1,40,000+ 40,000 +3,00,000 +5,40,000 + 1,00,000 + 50,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,85,000

Total 11,95,000 = 11,95,000

3.4 Books of Original Entry

In the preceding pages, you learnt about debits and credits and observed how
transactions affect accounts. This process of analysing transactions and recording
their effects directly in the accounts is helpful as a learning exercise. However, real
accounting systems do not record transactions directly in the accounts. The book in
which the transaction is recorded for the first time is called journal or book of original
entry. The source document, as discussed earlier, is required to record the transaction
in the journal. This practice provides a complete record of each transaction in one
place and links the debits and credits for each transaction. After the debits and
credits for each transaction are entered in the journal, they are transferred to the
individual accounts. The process of recording transactions in journal is called
journalising. Once the journalising process is completed, the journal entry provides

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56 Accountancy

a complete and useful description of the event’s effect on the organisation. The process
of transferring journal entry to individual accounts is called p o s t i n g .
This sequence causes the journal to be called the Book of Original Entry and
the ledger account as the Principal Book of entry. In this context, it should be
noted that on account of the number and commonality of most transactions,
the journal is subdivided into a number of books of original entry as follows:
(a) Journal Proper
(b) Cash book
(c) Other day books:
(i) Purchases (journal) book
(ii) Sales (journal) book
(iii) Purchase Returns (journal) book
(iv) Sale Returns (journal) book
(v) Bills Receivable (journal) book
(vi) Bills Payable (journal) book
In this chapter you will learn about the process of journalising and their
posting into ledger. The cash book and other day books are dealt in detail in
chapter 4.

3.4.1 Journal
This is the basic book of original entry. In this book, transactions are recorded
in the chronological order, as and when they take place. Afterwards,
transactions from this book are posted to the respective accounts. Each
transaction is separately recorded after determining the particular account to
be debited or credited. The format of Journal is shown is figure 3.5

Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

Fig. 3.5 : Showing the for mat of jour nal

The first column in a journal is Date on which the transaction took place.
In the Particulars column, the account title to be debited is written on the first
line beginning from the left hand corner and the word ‘Dr.’ is written at the
end of the column. The account title to be credited is written on the second
line leaving sufficient margin on the left side with a prefix ‘To’. Below the

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Recording of Transactions - I 57

account titles, a brief description of the transaction is given which is called

Narration. Having written the Narration a line is drawn in the Particulars
column, which indicates the end of recording the specific journal entry. The
column relating to Ledger Folio records the page number of the ledger book on
which relevant account is appears. This column is filled up at the time of
posting and not at the time of making journal entry.
The Debit amount column records the amount against the account to be
debited and similarly the Credit Amount column records the amount against
the account to be credited. It may be noted that, the number of transactions
is very large and these are recorded in number of pages in the journal book.
Hence, at the end of each page of the journal book, the amount columns are
totaled and carried forward (c/f) to the next page where such amounts are
recorded as brought forward (b/f) balances.
The journal entry is the basic record of a business transaction. It may be
simple or compound. When only two accounts are involved to record a
transaction, it is called a simple journal entry.
For Example, Goods Purchased on credit for Rs.30,000 from M/s Govind Traders
on December 24, 2014, involves only two accounts: (a) Purchases A/c (Goods), (b)
Govind Traders A/c (Creditors). This transaction is recorded in the journal as
follows :
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.24 Purchases A/c Dr. 30,000
To Govind Traders A/c 30,000
(Purchase of goods- in-trade from
Govind Traders)

It will be noticed that although the transaction results in an increase in

stock of goods, the account debited is purchases, not goods. In fact, as
explained in chapter 4 the goods account is divided into five accounts, viz.
purchases account, sales account, purchases returns account, sales returns
account, and stock account. When the number of accounts to be debited or
credited is more than one, entry made for recording the transaction is called
compound journal entry. That means compound journal entry involves multiple
accounts. For example, Office furniture is purchased from Modern Furniture’s
on July 4, 2014 for Rs. 25,000 and Rs. 5,000 is paid by cash immediately and
balance of Rs. 20,000 is still payable. It increases furniture (assets) by Rs.
25,000, decreases cash (assets) by Rs. 5,000 and increases liability by
Rs. 20,000. The entry made in the journal on July 4, 2014 is :

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58 Accountancy

Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
July 4 Of fice Fur niture A/c Dr. 25,000
To Cash A/c 5,000
To Moder n Furnitur e A/c 20,000
(Purchase of office furnitur e from
Moder n Furnitur es)

Now refer to example 1(on page 46 again and observe how the transactions
listed are recorded in the journal:
Books of Rohit
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
Cash A/c Dr. 5,00,000
To Capital A/c 5,00,000
(Business started with cash)
Bank A/c Dr. 4,80,000
To Cash A/c 4,80,000
(Opened bank account with State
Bank of India)
Fur niture A/c Dr. 60,000
To Bank A/c 60,000
( Purchased furnitur e and made
payment through bank))
Plant and Machinery A/c Dr. 1,25,000
To Cash A/c 10,000
To Ramjee Lal 1,15,000
(Bought Plant and Machinery fr om
M/s Ramjee Lal, made an advance
payment by cash for Rs. 10,000 and
balance at the later date )
Purchases A/c Dr. 55,000
To M/s Sumit Traders A/c 55,000
(Goods bought on credit)
Rajani Enterprises A/c Dr. 35,000
To Sales A/c 35,000
(Goods sold on pr ofit)
Total 12,55,000 12,55,000

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Recording of Transactions - I 59

I llustration 2.
Soraj Mart furnishes the following information :
Transactions during the month of April, 2014 are as under :

Date Details
01.4.2014 Business started with cash Rs. 1,50,000.
01.4.2014 Goods purchased form Manisha Rs. 36,000.
01.4.2014 Stationery purchased for cash Rs. 2,200.
02.4.2014 Open a bank account with SBI for Rs. 35,000.
02.4.2014 Goods sold to Priya for Rs. 16,000.
03.4.2014 Received a cheque of Rs. 16,000 from Priya.
05.4.2014 Sold goods to Nidhi Rs. 14,000.
08.4.2014 Nidhi pays Rs. 14,000 cash.
10.4.2014 Purchased goods for Rs. 20,000 on credit from Ritu.
14.4.2014 Insurance paid by cheque Rs. 6,000.
18.4.2014 Paid rent Rs. 2,000.
20.4.2014 Goods costing Rs. 1,500 given as charity.
24.4.2014 Purchased office furniture for Rs. 11,200.
29.4.2014 Cash withdrawn for household purposes Rs. 5000.
30.4.2014 Interest received cash Rs.1,200.
30.4.2014 Cash sales Rs.2,300.
30.4.2014 Commission paid Rs. 3,000 by cehque.
30.4.2014 Telephone bill paid by cheque Rs. 2,000.
30.4.2014 Payment of salaries in cash Rs. 12,000.

Journalise the transactions.

Solution

Books of Saroj Mart

Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr.01 Cash A/c Dr. 1,50,000
To Capital A/c 1,50,000
(Business started with cash)
Apr.01 Purchases A/c Dr. 36,000
To Manisha A/c 36,000
(Goods purchase on credit)
Apr.01 Stationery A/c Dr. 2,200
To Cash A/c 2,200
( Purchase of stationery for cash)
Total c/f 1,88,200 1,88,200

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60 Accountancy

Total b/f 1,88,200 1,88,200

Apr.02 Bank A/c Dr. 35,000
To Cash A/c 35,000
(Opened a bank account with SBI)
Apr.02 Priya A/c Dr. 16,000
To Sales A/c 16,000
(Goods sold to Priya On Credit)
Apr.03 Bank A/c Dr. 16,000
To Priya A/c 16,000
(Cheque Received from Priya)
Apr.05 Nidhi A/c Dr. 14,000
To Sales A/c 14,000
(Sale of goods to Nidhi on credit)
Apr.08 Cash A/c Dr. 14,000
To Nidhi A/c 14,000
(Cash received from Nidhi)
Apr.10 Purchases A/c Dr. 20,000
To Ritu A/c 20,000
(Purchase of goods on credit)
Apr.14 Insurance Premium A/c Dr. 6,000
To Bank A/c 6,000
(Payment of Insurance premium by
cheque)
Apr.18 Rent A/c Dr. 2,000
To Cash A/c 2,000
(Rent paid)
Apr.20 Charity A/c Dr. 1,500
To Purchases A/c 1,500
(Goods given as charity)
Apr.24 Fur niture A/c Dr. 11,200
To Cash A/c 11,200
(Purchase of of fice furnitur e)
Apr.29 Drawings A/c Dr. 5,000
To Cash A/c 5,000
(W ith drawl of cash from the business
for personal use of the proprietor)
Apr.30 Cash A/c Dr. 1,200
To Interest received A/c 1,200
(Inter est received)
Apr.30 Cash A/c Dr. 2,300
To Sales A/c 2,300
(Sale of goods for cash)
Total c/f 3,32,400 3,32,400

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Total c/f 3,32,400 3,32,400

Apr.30 Commission A/c Dr. 3,000
To Bank A/c 3,000
(Commission paid by cheque)
Apr.30 Telephone expenses A/c Dr. 2,000
To Cash A/c 2,000
(Payment of telephone bill)
Apr.30 Salaries A/c Dr. 12,000
To Cash A/c 12,000
(Payment of salary to the office persons)
Total 3,49,400 3,49,400

Illustration 3
Prove that the accounting equation is satisfied in all the following transactions of Sita
Ram house by preparing the analysis table. Also record the transactions in Journal.
(i) Business commenced with a capital of Rs. 6,00,000.
(ii) Rs. 4,50,000 deposited in a bank account.
(iii) Rs. 2,30,000 Plant and Machinery Purchased by paying Rs. 30,000 cash
immediately.
(iv) Purchased goods worth Rs. 40,000 for cash and Rs. 45,000 on account.
(v) Paid a cheque of Rs. 2, 00,000 to the supplier for Plant and Machinery.
(vi) Rs. 70,000 cash sales (of goods costing Rs. 50,000).
(vii) Withdrawn by the proprietor Rs. 35,000 cash for personal use.
(viii) Insurance paid by cheque of Rs. 2,500.
(ix) Salary of Rs. 5,500 outstanding.
(x) Furnitur e of Rs. 30,000 purchased in cash.

Solution
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
(i) Cash A/c Dr. 6,00,000
To Capital A/c 6,00,000
(Business started with cash)
(ii) Bank A/c Dr. 4,50,000
To Cash A/c 4,50,000
(Cash deposited into the bank)
Total c/f 10,50,000 10,50,000

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Total c/f 10,50,000 10,50,000

(iii) Plant and Machinery A/c Dr. 2.30,000
To Cash A/c 30,000
To Creditors A/c 2,00,000
(Purchase of plant and machinery by
paying Rs. 30,000 cash and balance
on a later date)
(iv) Purchases A/c Dr. 85,000
To Cash A/c 40,000
To Creditors A/c 45,000
(Bought goods for cash as well as on
credit)
(v) Creditor’s A/c Dr. 2,00,000
To Bank A/c 2,00,000
(Payment made to the supplier of plant
and machinery)
(vi) Cash A/c Dr. 70,000
To Sales A/c 70,000
(Sold goods on pr ofit)
(vii) Drawings A/c Dr. 35,000
To Cash A/c 35,000
(W ithdrew cash for personal use)
(viii) Insurance A/c Dr. 2,500
To Bank A/c 2,500
(Paid insurance by cheque)
(ix) Salary A/c Dr. 5,500
To Outstanding salary A/c 5,500
(Salary outstanding )
(x) Furniture A/c Dr. 30,000
To Cash A/c 30,000
(Fur niture purchased for cash)

Total 17,08,000 17,08,000

Test Your Understanding - II

State the title of the accounts affected, type of account and the account to be debited
and account to be credited :
Rs
1. Bhanu commenced business with cash 1,00,000
2. Purchased goods on credit from Ramesh 40,000
3. Sold goods for cash 30,000
4. Paid salaries 3,000
5. Furniture purchased for cash 10,000

2015-16
 Recording of Transactions - I
Statement showing the effect of various transaction on accounting equation
(Figures in rupees)
No. Cash Bank Stock Fur- Plant and Total = Non-trade T rade Capital T otal
niture Machinery Cr editors Creditors

1 6,00,000 6,00,000 = 6,00,000 6,00,000

6,00,000 - - - - 6,00,000 = - - 6,00,000 6,00,000
2 (4,50,000) 4,50,000
1,50,000 4,50,000 -- -- - 6,00,000 = - - 6,00,000 6,00,000
3 (30,000) - - - 2,30,000 2,00,000 2,00,000 - - 2,00,000
1,20,000 4,50,000 - - 2,30,000 8,00,000 = 2,00,000 - 600,000 8,00,000
4 (40,000) - 85,000 - - 45,000 - 45,000 - 45,000
80,000 4,50,000 85,000 - 2,30,000 8,45,000 = 2,00,000 45,000 600,000 8,45,000
5 - (2,00,000) - - - (2,00,000) (2,00,000) - - (2,00,000)
80,000 2,50,000 85,000 - 2,30,000 6,45,000 = - 45,000 6,00,000 20,000
6 70,000 - (50,000) - - 20,000 - - 20,000 20,000
1,50,000 2,50,000 35,000 - 2,30,000 6,65,000 = - 45,000 6,20,000 6,65,000
7 (35,000) - - (35,000) (35,000) (35,000)
1,15,000 2,50,000 35,000 - 2,30,000 6,30,000 = - 45,000 5,85,000 6,30,000
8 (2,500) (2,500) (2,500) (2,500)
1,15,000 2,47,500 35,000 - 2,30,000 6,27,500 = - 45,000 5,82,500 6,27,500
9 5,500 - (5,500)
1,15,000 2,47,500 35,000 - 2,30,000 6,27,500 = 5,500 45,000 5,77,000 6,27,500
10 (30,000) - - 30,000 - - - - -

85,000 2,47,500 35,000 30,000 2,30,000 6,27,500 = 5,500 45,000 5,77,000 6,27,500

63
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64 Accountancy

6. Borrowed from bank 50,000

7. Sold goods to Sarita 10,000
8. Cash paid to Ramesh on account 20,000
9. Rent paid 1,500
Transaction Name of Accounts Type of Accounts Affected Accounts
No. Affected (Assets, Liabilities Capital, Increase/Decrease
Revenues and Expenses)
1 2 1 2 1 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

3.5 The Ledger

The ledger is the principal book of accounting system. It contains different accounts
where transactions relating to that account are recorded. A ledger is the collection of
all the accounts, debited or credited, in the journal proper and various special
journal (about which you will learn in chapter 4). A ledger may be in the form of
bound register, or cards, or separate sheets may be maintained in a loose leaf binder.
In the ledger, each account is opened preferably on separate page or card.
Utility
A ledger is very useful and is of utmost importance in the organisation. The
net result of all transactions in respect of a particular account on a given date
can be ascertained only from the ledger. For example, the management on a
particular date wants to know the amount due from a certain customer or the
amount the firm has to pay to a particular supplier, such information can be
found only in the ledger. Such information is very difficult to ascertain from
the journal because the transactions are recorded in the chronological order
and defies classification. For easy posting and location, accounts are opened
in the ledger in some definite order. For example, they may be opened in the
same order as they appear in the profit and loss account and in balance
sheet. In the beginning, an index is also provided. For easy identification, in
big organisations, each account is also allotted a code number.
Format of the account is shown in figure 3.6.

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Recording of Transactions - I 65

Name of the Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

Fig. 3.6 : Showing format of a ledger

According to this format the columns will contain the information as given below:
An account is debited or credited according to the rules of debit and credit
already explained in respect of each category of account.
Title of the account : The Name of the item is written at the top of the format as
the title of the account. The title of the account ends with suffix ‘Account’.
Dr./Cr. : Dr. means Debit side of the account that is left side and Cr. means
Credit side of the account, i.e. right side.
Date : Year, Month and Date of transactions are posted in chronological order
in this column.
Particulars : Name of the item with reference to the original book of entry is
written on debit/credit side of the account.
Journal Folio : It records the page number of the original book of entry on
which relevant transaction is recorded. This column is filled up at the time of
posting.
Amount : This column records the amount in numerical figure, corresponding
to what has been entered in the amount column of the original book of entry.

Test Your Understanding - III

Choose the Correct Answer :
1. The ledger folio column of jour nal is used to:
(a) Record the date on which amount posted to a ledger account.
(b) Record the number of ledger account to which infor mation is posted.
(c) Record the number of amounts posted to the ledger account.
(d) Record the page number of the ledger account.
2. The journal entry to r ecord the sale of services on credit should include:
(a) Debit to debtors and credit to capital.
(b) Debit to cash and Credit to debtors.
(c) Debit to fees income and Credit to debtors.
(d) Debit to debtors and Credit to fees income.
3. The journal entry to r ecord purchase of equipment for Rs. 2,00,000 cash and a
balance of Rs. 8,00,000 due in 30 days include:
(a) Debit equipment for Rs. 2,00,000 and Credit cash 2,00,000.

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66 Accountancy

(b) Debit equipment for Rs. 10,00,000 and Credit cash Rs. 2,00,000 and creditors Rs.
8,00,000.
(c) Debit equipment Rs. 2,00,000 and Credit debtors Rs. 8,00,000.
(d) Debit equipment Rs. 10,00,000 and Credit cash Rs. 10,00,000.
4. When a entry is made in jour nal:
(a) Assets are listed first.
(b) Accounts to be debited listed first.
(c) Accounts to be credited listed first.
(d) Accounts may be listed in any order.
5. If a transaction is pr operly analysed and recorded:
(a) Only two accounts will be used to record the transaction.
(b) One account will be used to record transaction.
(c) One account balance will increase and another will decrease.
(d) Total amount debited will equals total amount credited.
6. The journal entry to r ecord payment of monthly bill will include:
(a) Debit monthly bill and Credit capital.
(b) Debit capital and Credit cash.
(c) Debit monthly bill and Credit cash.
(d) Debit monthly bill and Credit creditors.
7. Journal entry to r ecord salaries will include:
(a) Debit salaries Credit cash.
(b) Debit capital Credit cash.
(c) Debit cash Credit salary.
(d) Debit salary Credit creditors.

Distinction between Journal and Ledger

The Journal and the Ledger are the most important books of the double entry
mechanism of accounting and are indispensable for an accounting system.
Following points of comparison are worth noting :
1. The Journal is the book of first entry (original entry); the ledger is the
book of second entry.
2. The Journal is the book for chronological record; the ledger is the book
for analytical record.
3. The Journal, as a book of source entry, gets greater importance as
legal evidence than the ledger.
4. Transaction is the basis of classification of data within the Journal;
Account is the basis of classification of data within the ledger.
5. Process of recording in the Journal is called Journalising; the process
of recording in the ledger is known as Posting.

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Recording of Transactions - I 67

3.5.1 Classification of Ledger Accounts

We have seen earlier that all ledger accounts are put into five categories namely,
assets, liabilities, capital, revenues/gains and expense losses. All these
accounts may further be put into two groups, i.e. permanent accounts and
temporary accounts. All permanent accounts are balanced and carried forward
to the next accounting period. The temporary accounts are closed at the end
of the accounting period by transferring them to the trading and profit and
loss account. All permanent accounts appears in the balance sheet. Thus, all
assets, liabilities and capital accounts are permanent accounts and all revenue
and expense accounts are temporary accounts. This classification is also
relevant for preparing the financial statements.
3.6 Posting from Journal
Posting is the process of transferring the entries from the books of original
entry (journal) to the ledger. In other words, posting means grouping of all the
transactions in respect to a particular account at one place for meaningful
conclusion and to further the accounting process. Posting from the journal is
done periodically, may be, weekly or fortnightly or monthly as per the
requirements and convenience of the business.
The complete process of posting from journal to ledger has been discussed below:
Step 1 : Locate in the ledger, the account to be debited as entered in the journal.
Step 2 : Enter the date of transaction in the date column on the debit side.
Step 3 : In the ‘Particulars’ column write the name of the account through
which it has been debited in the journal. For example, furniture sold for cash
Rs. 34,000. Now, in cash account on the debit side in the particulars column
‘Furniture’ will be entered signifying that cash is received from the sale of
furniture. In Furniture account, in the ledger on the credit side is the
particulars column, the word, cash will be recorded. The same procedure is
followed in respect of all the entries recorded in the journal.
Step 4 : Enter the page number of the journal in the folio column and in the
journal write the page number of the ledger on which a particular account appears.
Step 5 : Enter the relevant amount in the amount column on the debit side.
It may be noted that the same procedure is followed for making the entry on
the credit side of that account to be credited. An account is opened only once
in the ledger and all entries relating to a particular account is posted on the
debit or credit side, as the case may be.
We will now see how the transactions listed in example on page 46-47 are
posted to different accounts from the journal.

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68 Accountancy

Cash Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Capital 5,00,000 Bank 4,80,000
Plant and 10,000
Machinery

Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Cash 5,00,000

Bank Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Cash 4,80,000 Furniture 60,000

Furniture Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
R s. Rs.
Bank 60,000

Plant and Machinery Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Cash 10,000
Ramjee lal 1,15,000

Ramjee Lal’s Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Plant and 1,15,000
Machinery

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Recording of Transactions - I 69

Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Sumit 55,000
Traders

Sumit Traders Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Purchases 55,000

Rajani Enterprises Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Sales 35,000

Sales Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Rajani Enter 35,000
prises

Test Your Understanding - IV

Fill in the blanks:

1. Issued a cheque for Rs.8,000 to pay rent. The account to be debited is ............
2. Collected Rs. 35,000 from debtors. The account to be credited is ............
3. Purchased of fice stationary for Rs. 18,000. The account to be credited is ...........
4. Purchased new machine for Rs. 1,70,000 and issued cheque for the same.
The account to be debited is ............
5. Issued cheque for Rs. 70,000 to pay off on of the creditors. The account to
be debited is ............
6. Returned damaged of fice stationary and received Rs. 50,000. The account
to be credited is ............
7. Provided services for Rs. 65,000 on credit. The account to be debited is ...........

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Illustration 4
Journalise the following transactions of M/s Mallika Fashion House and post the entries
to the Ledger:
Date Details Amount
2014 Rs.
June 05 Business started with cash 2,00,000
June 08 Opened a bank account with Syndicate Bank 80,000
June 12 Goods purchased on credit from M/s Gulmohar Fashion House 30,000
June 12 Purchase office machines, paid by cheque 20,000
June 18 Rent paid by cheque 5,000
June 20 Sale of goods on credit to M/s Mohit Bros 10,000
June 22 Cash sales 15,000
June 25 Cash paid to M/s Gulmohar Fashion House 30,000
June 28 Received a cheque from M/s Mohit Bros 10,000
June 30 Salary paid in cash 6,000

Solution
(i) Recording the transactions
Books of Mallika Fashion House
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
June 05 Cash A/c Dr. 2,00,000
To Capital A/c 2,00,000
(Business started with cash)
June 08 Bank A/c Dr. 80,000
To Cash A/c 80,000
(Opened a current account with
syndicate bank)
June 12 Purchases A/c Dr. 30,000
To Gulmohar Fashion House A/c 30,000
(Goods purchased on credit)
June 12 Of fice Machines A/c Dr. 20,000
To Bank A/c 20,000
(Of fice machine purchased)
June 18 Rent A/c Dr. 5,000
To Bank A/c 5,000
(Rent paid)
June 20 Mohit Bros A/c Dr. 10,000
To Sales A/c 10,000
(Goods sold on cr edit)
Total c/f 3,45,000 3,45,000

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Total b/f 3,45,000 3,45,000

June 22 Cash A/c Dr. 15,000
To Sales A/c 15,000
(Goods sold for cash)
June 25 Gulmohar Fashion House A/c Dr. 30,000
To Cash A/c 30,000
(Cash paid to Gulmohar
Fashion House)
June 28 Bank A/c Dr. 10,000
To Mohit Bros A/c 10,000
(Payment received in full and
final settlement)
June 30 Salary A/c Dr. 6,000
To Cash A/c 6,000
(Monthly salary paid)
Total 4,06,000 4,06,000

(ii) Posting in the Ledger Book

Cash Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
June 5 Capital 2,00,000 June 8 Bank 80,000
June 22 Sales 15,000 June 25 Gulmohar 30,000
Fashion House
June 30 Salary 6,000

Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
June 5 Cash 2,00,000

Bank Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
June 08 Cash 80,000 June 12 Office Machines 30,000
June 28 Mohit Bros. 10,000 June 18 Rent 5,000

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Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
June 12 Gulmohar 30,000
Fashion House

Gulmohar Fashion House Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
June 25 Cash 30,000 June 12 Purchases 30,000

Office Machines Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
June 12 Bank 20,000

Rent Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
June 18 Bank 5,000

Mohit Bros. Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
June 20 Sales 10,000 June 28 Cash 10,000

Sales Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
June 20 June 20 Mohit Bros. 10,000
June 22 Cash 15,000

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Salary Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
June 30 Cash 6,000

Illustrtion 5
Journalise the following transactions of M/s Time Zone and post them to the ledger accounts :
Date Details Amount
2014 Rs.
Dec. 01 Business started with cash 1,20,000
Dec. 02 Opened a bank account with ICICI 4,00,00
Dec. 04 Goods purchased for cash 12,000
Dec. 10 Paid cartage 500
Dec. 12 Goods sold on credit to M/s Lara India 25,000
Dec. 14 Cash received from M/s Lara India 10,000
Dec. 16 Goods returned from Lara India 3,000
Dec. 18 Paid trade expenses 700
Dec. 19 Goods purchased on credit from Taranum 32,000
Dec. 20 Cheque received from M/s Lara India for final settlement 11,500
and deposited sameday into bank
Dec. 22 Goods r eturned to T aranum 1,500
Dec. 24 Paid for stationery 1,200
Dec. 26 Cheque given to Taranum on account 20,000
Dec. 28 Paid rent by cheque 4,000
Dec. 29 Dr ew cash for personal use 10,000
Dec. 30 Cash sales 12,000
Dec. 31 Goods sold to M/s Rupak T raders 11,000
Solution
Books of Time Zone
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 01 Cash A/c Dr. 1,20,000
To Capital A/c 1,20,000
( Business started with cash)
02 Bank A/c Dr. 40,000
To Cash A/c 40,000
(Opened a current account with
ICICI bank)
04 Purchases A/c Dr. 12,000
To Cash A/c 12,000
(Goods purchased for cash)
Total c/f 1,72,000 1,72,000

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Total b/f 1,72,000 1,72,000

10 Cartage A/c Dr. 500
To Cash A/c 500
(Cartage paid)
12 Lara India A/c Dr. 25,000
To Sales A/c 25,000
(Goods sold on credit)
14 Cash A/c Dr. 10,000
To Lara India A/c 10,000
(Cash received fr om Lara India)
16 Sales Return A/c Dr. 3,000
To Lara India A/c 3,000
(Goods returned from Lara India)
18 Trade Expenses A/c Dr. 700
To Cash A/c 700
(Trade expenses paid)
19 Purchases A/c Dr. 32,000
To T ranum’s A/c 32,000
(Goods purchased on credit)
20 Bank A/c Dr. 11,500
Discount A/c Dr. 500
To Lara India A/c 12,000
(Cheque received for final settlement)
22 Taranum’s A/c Dr. 1,500
To Pur chase Return’s A/c 1,500
(Goods returned to T ranum)
24 Stationery A/c Dr. 1,200
To Cash A/c 1,200
(Cash paid for stationery)
26 Taranum’s A/c Dr. 20,000
To Bank A/c 20,000
(Cheque given to Tranum)
28 Rent A/c Dr. 4,000
To Bank A/c 4,000
(Rent paid by cheque)
29 Drawings A/c Dr. 10,000
To Cash A/c 10,000
(Cash withdrawn for personal use)
30 Cash A/c Dr. 12,000
To Sales A/c 12,000
(Goods sold for cash)
31 Rupak Trader A/c Dr. 11,000
To Sales A/c 11,000
(Goods sold on credit)
Total 3,14,900 3,14, 900

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Posting in the Ledger Book :

Cash Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Dec. 01 Capital 1,20,000 Dec. 02 Bank 40,000
Dec. 14 Lara India 10,000 Dec. 04 Purchase 12,000
Dec. 30 Sales 12,000 Dec. 10 Cartage 500
Dec. 18 Trade 700
Expenses
Dec. 24. Stationery 1,200
Dec. 29 Drawings 1,000

Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.01 Cash 1,20,000

Bank Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Dec.02 Cash 40,000 Dec.26 Taranum’s 20,000
Dec.20 Lara India 11,500 Dec.28 Rent 4,000

Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.04 Cash 12,000
Dec.19 Taranum 32,000

Cartage Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.10 Cash 500

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Lara India Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Dec.12 Sales 25,000 Dec. 14 Cash 10,000
Dec. 16 Sales retur n 3,000
Dec. 20 Bank 11,500
Discount 500

Sales Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.12 Lara India 25,000
Dec.30 Cash 12,000
Dec.31 Rupak Traders 11,000

Sales Return Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.16 Lara India 3,000

Trade Expenses Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.18 Cash 700

Taranum Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Dec.22 Purchase 1,500 Dec.19 Purchase 32,000
Return
Dec.26 Bank 20,000

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Discount Paid Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.20 Lara India 500

Purchases Return Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.22 Taranum 1,500

Stationery Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. Cash 1,200

Rent Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 28 Bank 4,000

Drawings Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 29 Cash 10,000

Rupak Traders Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 31 Sales 11,000

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Test Your Understanding - V

Select Right Answer:
1. Voucher is prepared for:
(i) Cash received and paid
(ii ) Cash/Credit sales
(iii ) Cash/Credit purchase
(iv) All of the above
2. Voucher is prepared from:
(i) Documentary evidence
(ii ) Journal entry
(iii ) Ledger account
(iv ) All of the above
3. How many sides does an account have?
(i) Two
(ii ) Three
(iii ) one
(iv ) None of These
4. A purchase of machine for cash should be debited to:
(i) Cash account
(ii ) Machine account
(iii ) Purchase account
(iv ) None of these
5. Which of the following is corr ect?
(i) Liabilities = Assets + Capital
(ii ) Assets = Liabilities – Capital
(iii ) Capital = Assets – Liabilities
(iv ) Capital = Assets + Liabilities.
6. Cash withdrawn by the Pr oprietor should be credited to:
(i) Drawings account
(ii ) Capital account
(iii ) Profit and loss account
(iv ) Cash account
7. Find the correct statement:
(i) Credit a decrease in assets
(ii ) Credit the increase in expenses
(iii ) Debit the increase in revenue
(iv ) Credit the increase in capital
8. The book in which all accounts are maintained is known as:
(i) Cash Book
(ii ) Journal
(iii ) Purchases Book
(iv ) Ledger
9. Recor ding of transaction in the Journal is called:
(i) Casting
(ii ) Posting
(iii ) Journalising
(iv ) Recording

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Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Source Documents • Credit

• Accounting Equation • Debit
• Books of Original Entry • Account
• Journalising and Posting • Ledger
• Double Entry Book Keeping· • Journal

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Meaning of source documents : Various business documents such as invoice,

bills, cash memos, vouchers, which form the basis and evidence of a business
transaction recorded in the books of account, are called sour ce documents.
2. Meaning of accounting equation : A statement of equality between debits and
credits signifying that the assets of a business are always equal to the total
liabilities and capital.
3. Rules of debit and credit : An account is divided into two sides. The left side of
an account is known as debit and the cr edit. The rules of debit and credit
depend on the nature of an account. Debit and Credit both represent either
increase or decrease, depending on the nature of an account. These rules are
summarised as follows :
Name of an account Debit Credit
Assets Increase Decrease
Liabilities Decrease Increase
Capital Decrease Increase
Revenues Decrease Increase
Expenses increase Decrease
4. Books of Original entry : The transactions are first recorded in these books in
a chronological or der. Journal is one of the books of original entry. The process
of recording entries in the journal is called journalising.
5. Ledger : A book containing all accounts to which entries are transferred from
the books of original entry. Posting is process of transferring entries from
books of original entry to the ledger.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers
1. State the three fundamental steps in the accounting process.
2. Why is the evidence provided by source documents important to accounting?
3. Should a transaction be first recorded in a journal or ledger? Why?
4. Are debits or credits listed first in journal entries? Are debits or credits indented?
5. Why are some accounting systems called double accounting systems?
6. Give a specimen of an account.

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80 Accountancy

7. Why are the rules of debit and credit same for both liability and capital?
8. What is the purpose of posting J.F numbers that are entered in the journal at
the time entries are posted to the accounts.
9. What entry (debit or credit) would you make to: (a) increase revenue (b) decr ease
in expense, (c) r ecord drawings (d) record the fresh capital introduced by the
owner.
10. If a transaction has the effect of decreasing an asset, is the decrease recorded
as a debit or as a credit? If the transaction has the effect of decreasing a
liability, is the decrease recorded as a debit or as a credit?

Long Answers
1. Describe the events recorded in accounting systems and the importance of
source documents in those systems?
2. Describe how debits and credits are used to analyse transactions.
3. Describe how accounts are used to record infor mation about the effects of
transactions?
4. What is a journal? Give a specimen of journal showing at least five entries.
5. Differentiate between source documents and vouchers.
6. Accounting equation remains intact under all cir cumstances. Justify the
statement with the help of an example.
7. Explain the double entry mechanism with an illustrative example.

Numerical Questions

Analysis of T ransactions
1. Prepare accounting equation on the basis of the following :
(a) Harsha started business with cash
Rs.2,00,000
(b) Purchased goods fr om Naman for cash
Rs. 40,000
(c) Sold goods to Bhanu costing Rs.10,000/-
Rs. 12,000
(d) Bought furniture on credit
Rs. 7,000
(Ans: Asset = cash Rs. 1,60,000 + Goods Rs. 30,000 + Debtors Rs. 12,000
+ Furnitur e Rs. 7,000 = Rs. 2,09,000; Liabilities = Creditors Rs. 7,000 +
Capital Rs. 2,02,000 = Rs. 2,09,000)
2. Prepare accounting equation from the following:
(a) Kunal started business with cash
Rs.2,50000
(b) He purchased furnitur e for cash
Rs. 35,000

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Recording of Transactions - I 81

(c) He paid commission Rs. 2,000

(d) He purchases goods on credit Rs. 40,000
(e) He sold goods (Costing Rs.20,000) for cash Rs. 26,000
(Ans: Asset = Cash Rs. 2,39,000 + Furniture Rs. 35,000 + Goods Rs. 20,000
= Rs. 2,94,000; Liabilities = Creditors Rs. 40,000 + Capital Rs. 2,54,000=
Rs. 2,94,000)
3. Mohit has the following transactions, prepare accounting equation:
(a) Business started with cash Rs. 1,75,000
(b) Purchased goods fr om Rohit Rs. 50,000
(c) Sales goods on credit to Manish (Costing Rs. 17,500) Rs. 20,000
(d) Purchased fur nitur e for office use Rs. 10,000
(e) Cash paid to Rohit in full settlement Rs. 48,500
(f) Cash received from Manish Rs. 20,000
(g) Rent paid Rs. 1,000
(h) Cash withdrew for personal use Rs. 3,000
(Ans: Cash Rs. 1,33,000 + Goods Rs. 32,500 + Furniture Rs. 10,000
= Rs. 1,75,500; Liabilition = Capital Rs. 1,77,500)
4. Rohit has the following transactions :
(a) Commenced business with cash Rs.1,50,000
(b) Purchased machinery on cr edit Rs. 40,000
(c) Purchased goods for cash Rs. 20,000
(d) Purchased car for personal use Rs. 80,000
(e) Paid to creditors in full settlement Rs. 38,000
(f) Sold goods for cash costing Rs. 5,000 Rs. 4,500
(g) Paid rent Rs. 1,000
(h) Commission received in advance Rs. 2,000
Prepar e the Accounting Equation to show the ef fect of the above
transactions on the assets, liabilities and capital.
(Ans: Assets = Cash Rs. 17,500 + Machine Rs. 40,000 + Goods Rs. 15,000
= Rs. 72,500; Liabilities = Commission Rs. 2,000 + Capital Rs. 70,500
= Rs. 72,500)
5. Use accounting equation to show the ef fect of the following transactions of
M/s Royal T raders:
(a) Started business with cash Rs.1,20,000
(b) Purchased goods for cash Rs. 10,000
(c) Rent received Rs. 5,000
(d) Salary outstanding Rs. 2,000
(e) Prepaid Insurance Rs. 1,000

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82 Accountancy

(f) Received interest Rs. 700

(g) Sold goods for cash (Costing Rs. 5,000) Rs. 7,000
(h) Goods destroyed by fire Rs. 500
(Ans: Assets = Cash Rs. 1,22,700 + Goods Rs. 4,500 + Prepaid insurance
Rs. 1,000; Liabilities = Outstanding salary Rs. 2,000 + Capital Rs. 1,26,200)
6. Show the accounting equation on the basis of the following transaction:
(a) Udit started business with:
(i) Cash Rs. 5,00,000
(ii) Goods Rs. 1,00,000
(b) Purchased building for cash Rs. 2, 00,000
(c) Purchased goods from Himani Rs. 50,000
(d) Sold goods to Ashu (Cost Rs. 25,000) Rs. 36, 000
(e) Paid insurance premium Rs. 3,000
(f) Rent outstanding Rs. 5,000
(g) Depreciation on building Rs. 8,000
(h) Cash withdrawn for personal use Rs. 20,000
(i) Rent received in advance Rs. 5,000
(j) Cash paid to himani on account Rs. 20,000
(k) Cash received from Ashu Rs. 30,000
(Ans : Assets = Cash Rs. 2,92,000 + Goods Rs. 1,25,000 + Building
Rs. 1,92,000 + Debitors Rs. 6,000 = 6,15,000: Laibilities = Cr editors
Rs. 30,000 + Outstanding Rent Rs. 5,000 + Rent Rs. 5,000 + Capital
Rs. 5,75,000 = Rs. 6,15,000)
7. Show the effect of the following transactions on Assets, Liabilities and
Capital through accounting equation:
(a) Started business with cash Rs. 1,20,000
(b) Rent received Rs. 10,000
(c) Invested in shares Rs. 50,000
(d) Received dividend Rs. 5,000
(e) Purchase goods on credit from Ragani Rs. 35,000
(f) Paid cash for house hold Expenses Rs. 7,000
(g) Sold goods for cash (costing Rs.10,000) Rs. 14,000
(h) Cash paid to Ragani Rs. 35,000
(i) Deposited into bank Rs. 20,000
(Ans: Assets = Cash Rs. 37,000 + Shares Rs. 50,000 + Goods Rs. 25,000 +
Bank Rs. 20,000 = Rs. 1,32,000; Liabilities = Capital Rs. 1,32,000)
8. Show the effect of following transaction on the accounting equation:
(a) Manoj started business with
(i) Cash Rs. 2,30,000

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Recording of Transactions - I 83

(ii) Goods Rs. 1,00,000

(iii) Building Rs. 2,00,000
(b) He purchased goods for cash Rs. 50,000
(c) He sold goods(costing Rs.20,000) Rs. 35,000
(d) He purchased goods from Rahul Rs. 55,000
(e) He sold goods to Varun (Costing Rs. 52,000) Rs. 60,000
(f) He paid cash to Rahul in full settlement Rs. 53,000
(g) Salary paid by him Rs. 20,000
(h) Received cash from Varun in full settlement Rs. 59,000
(i) Rent outstanding Rs. 3,000
(j) Prepaid Insurance Rs. 2,000
(k) Commission received by him Rs. 13, 000
(l) Amount withdrawn by him for personal use Rs. 20,000
(m) Depreciation charge on building Rs. 10,000
(n) Fresh capital invested Rs. 50,000
(o) Purchased goods from Rakhi Rs. 6,000
(Ans: Assets = Cash Rs. 2,42,000 + Goods Rs. 1,43,000 +Building Rs.1,90,000
+ Prepaid Insurouce Rs. 2,000 = Rs. 5,77,000; Liabilities = Outstanding Rent
Rs. 3,000 + Creditor Rs. 10,000 + Capital Rs. 5,64,000 = Rs. 5,77,000)

9. Transactions of M/s Vipin Traders are given below.

Show the effects on Assets, Liabilities and Capital with the help of accounting
Equation.
(a) Business started with cash Rs. 1,25,000
(b) Purchased goods for cash Rs. 50,000
(c) Purchase fur niture from R.K. Furnitur e Rs. 10,000
(d) Sold goods to Parul Traders (Costing Rs. 7,000 vide Rs.9,000
bill no. 5674)
(e) Paid cartage Rs. 100
(f) Cash Paid to R.K. furniture in full settlement Rs. 9,700
(g) Cash sales (costing Rs.10,000) Rs. 12,000
(h) Rent received Rs. 4,000
(i) Cash withdrew for personal use Rs. 3,000
(Ans: Asset = cash Rs. 78,200 + Goods Rs. 33,000 + Fur niture Rs. 10,000
Debtors Rs. 9,000= Rs. 1,30,200; Liabilities = Capital Rs. 1,30,200)
10. Bobby opened a consulting firm and completed these transactions during
November, 2014:

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84 Accountancy

(a) Invested Rs. 4,00,000 cash and office equipment with Rs. 1,50,000 in a
business called Bobbie Consulting.
(b) Purchased land and a small office building. The land was worth
Rs. 1,50,000 and the building worth Rs. 3, 50,000. The purchase price
was price was paid with Rs. 2,00,000 cash and a long ter m note payable
for Rs. 8,00,000.
(c) Purchased of fice supplies on credit for Rs. 12,000.
(d) Bobbie transferred title of motor car to the business. The motor car
was worth Rs. 90,000.
(e) Purchased for Rs. 30,000 additional of fice equipment on credit.
(f) Paid Rs. 75,00 salary to the office manager.
(g) Provided services to a client and collected Rs. 30,000
(h) Paid Rs. 4,000 for the month’s utilities.
(i) Paid supplier created in transaction c.
(j) Purchase new of fice equipment by paying Rs. 93,000 cash and trading
in old equipment with a r ecorded cost of Rs. 7,000.
(k) Completed services of a client for Rs. 26,000. This amount is to be
paid within 30 days.
(l) Received Rs. 19,000 payment from the client created in transaction k.
(m) Bobby withdrew Rs. 20,000 from the business.
Analyse the above stated transactions and open the following T-accounts:
Cash, client, office supplies, motor car, building, land, long ter m payables,
capital, withdrawals, salary, expense and utilities expense.

Journalising
11. Journalise the following transactions in the books of Himanshu:
2014 Rs.
Dec.01 Business started with cash 75,000
Dec.07 Purchased goods for cash 10,000
Dec.09 Sold goods to Swati 5,000
Dec.12 Purchased furniture 3,000
Dec.18 Cash received from Swati In full settlement 4,000
Dec.25 Paid rent 1,000
Dec.30 Paid salary 1,500
12. Enter the following Transactions in the Journal of Mudit :
2015 Rs.
Jan.01 Commenced business with cash 1,75,000
Jan.01 Building 1,00,000
Jan.02 Goods purchased for cash 75,000

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Recording of Transactions - I 85

Jan.03 Sold goods to Ramesh 30,000

Jan.04 Paid wages 500
Jan.06 Sold goods for cash 10,000
Jan.10 Paid for trade expenses 700
Jan.12 Cash received from Ramesh 29,500
Discount allowed 500
Jan.14 Goods purchased for Sudhir 27,000
Jan.18 Cartage paid 1,000
Jan.20 Drew cash for personal use 5,000
Jan.22 Goods use for house hold 2,000
Jan.25 Cash paid to Sudhir 26,700
Discount allowed 300
13. Journalise the following transactions:
2014 Rs.
Dec. 01 Hema started business with cash 1,00,000
Dec. 02 Open a bank account with SBI 30,000
Dec. 04 Purchased goods from Ashu 20,000
Dec.06 Sold goods to Rahul for cash 15,000
Dec.10 Bought goods from Tara for cash 40,000
Dec.13 Sold goods to Suman 20,000
Dec.16 Received cheque from Suman 19,500
Discount allowed 500
Dec.20 Cheque given to Ashu on account 10,000
Dec.22 Rent paid by cheque 2,000
Dec.23 Deposited into bank 16,000
Dec.25 Machine purchased from Parigya 10,000
Dec.26 Trade expenses 2,000
Dec.28 Cheque issued to Parigya 10,000
Dec.29 Paid telephone expenses by cheque 1,200
Dec.31 Paid salary 4,500
14. Jouranlise the following transactions in the books of Harpreet Bros.:
(a) Rs.1,000 due from Rohit are now bad debts.
(b) Goods worth Rs.2,000 were used by the proprietor.
(c) Charge depreciation @ 10% p.a for two month on machine costing
Rs.30,000.
(d) Provide inter est on capital of Rs. 1,50,000 at 6% p.a. for 9 months.

2015-16
86 Accountancy

(e) Rahul become insolvent, who owed is Rs. 2,000 a final dividend of
60 paise in a rupee is received from his estate.
15. Prepare Journal from the transactions given below :
(a) Cash paid for installation of machine Rs. 500
(b) Goods given as charity Rs. 2,000
(c) Interest charge on capital @7% p.a. when total Rs. 70,000
capital were
(d) Received Rs.1,200 of a bad debts written-off last year.
(e) Goods destroyed by fire Rs. 2,000
(f) Rent outstanding Rs. 1,000
(g) Interest on drawings Rs. 900
(h) Sudhir Kumar who owed me Rs. 3,000 has failed to pay the amount.
He pays me a compensation of 45 paise in a rupee.
(i) Commission received in advance Rs. 7,000

Posting
16. Journalise the following transactions, post to the ledger:
2014 Rs.
Nov. 01 Business started with (i) Cash 1,50,000
(ii) Goods 50,000
Nov. 03 Purchased goods from Harish 30,000
Nov. 05 Sold goods for cash 12,000
Nov. 08 Purchase furniture for cash 5,000
Nov. 10 Cash paid to Harish on account 15,000
Nov. 13 Paid sundry expenses 200
Nov. 15 Cash sales 15,000
Nov. 18 Deposited into bank 5,000
Nov. 20 Drew cash for personal use 1,000
Nov. 22 Cash paid to Harish in full settlement of account 14,700
Nov. 25 Good sold to Nitesh 7,000
Nov. 26 Cartage paid 200
Nov. 27 Rent paid 1,500
Nov. 29 Received cash from Nitesh 6,800
Discount allowed 200
Nov. 30 Salary paid 3,000
17. Journalise the following transactions is the journal of M/s Goel
Brothers and post them to the ledger.
2015 Rs.
Jan. 01 Started business with cash 1,65,000

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - I 87

Jan. 02 Opened bank account in PNB 80,000

Jan. 04 Goods purchased from Tara 22,000
Jan. 05 Goods purchased for cash 30,000
Jan. 08 Goods sold to Naman 12,000
Jan. 10 Cash paid to tara 22,000
Jan. 15 Cash received from Naman 11,700
Discount allowed 300
Jan. 16 Paid wages 200
Jan. 18 Furniture purchased for office use 5,000
Jan. 20 withdrawn from bank for personal use 4,000
Jan. 22 Issued cheque for rent 3,000
Jan. 23 goods issued for house hold purpose 2,000
Jan. 24 drawn cash from bank for office use 6,000
Jan. 26 Commission received 1,000
Jan. 27 Bank charges 200
Jan. 28 Cheque given for insurance premium 3,000
Jan. 29 Paid salary 7,000
Jan. 30 Cash sales 10,000
18 Give journal entries of M/s Mohit traders, Post them to the Ledger
from the following transactions :
August 2014 Rs.
1. Commenced business with cash 1,10,000
2. Opened bank account with H.D.F.C. 50,000
3. Purchased furniture 20,000
7. Bought goods for cash from M/s Rupa Traders 30,000
8. Purchased good from M/s Hema Traders 42,000
10. Sold goods for cash 30,000
14. Sold goods on credit to M/s. Gupta Traders 12,000
16. Rent paid 4,000
18. Paid trade expenses 1,000
20. Received cash from Gupta Traders 12,000
22. Goods return to Hema Traders 2,000
23. Cash paid to Hema Traders 40,000
25. Bought postage stamps 100
30. Paid salary to Rishabh 4,000
19. Journalise the following transaction in the Books of the M/s Bhanu
Traders and Post them into the Ledger.
December, 2014 Rs.
1. Started business with cash 92,000
2. Deposited into bank 60,000

2015-16
88 Accountancy

4. Bought goods on credit from Himani 40,000

6. Purchased goods from cash 20,000
8. Returned goods to Himani 4,000
10. Sold goods for cash 20,000
14. Cheque given to Himani 36,000
17. Goods sold to M/s Goyal Traders. 3,50,000
19. Drew cash from bank for personal use 2,000
21. Goyal traders returned goods 3,500
22. Cash deposited into bank 20,000
26. Cheque received from Goyal Traders 31,500
28. Goods given as charity 2,000
29. Rent paid 3,000
30. Salary paid 7,000
31. Office machine purchased for cash 3,000
20. Journalise the following transaction in the Book of M/s Beauti
traders. Also post them in the ledger.
Dec. 2014 Rs.
1. Started business with cash 2,00,000
2. Bought office furniture 30,000
3. Paid into bank to open an current account 1,00,000
5. Purchased a computer and paid by cheque 2,50,000
6. Bought goods on credit from Ritika 60,000
8. Cash sales 30,000
9. Sold goods to Karishna on credit 25,000
12. Cash paid to Mansi on account 30,000
14. Goods returned to Ritika 2,000
15. Stationery purchased for cash 3,000
16. Paid wages 1,000
18. Goods returned by Karishna 2,000
20. Cheque given to Ritika 28,000
22. Cash received from Karishna on account 15,000
24. Insurance premium paid by cheque 4,000
26. Cheque received from Karishna 8,000
28. Rent paid by cheque 3,000
29. Purchased goods on credit from Meena Traders 20,000
30. Cash sales 14,000
21. Journalise the following transaction in the books of Sanjana and
post them into the ledger :

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - I 89

January, 2015 Rs.

1. Cash in hand 6,000
Cash at bank 55,000
Stock of goods 40,000
Due to Rohan 6,000
Due from Tarun 10,000
3. Sold goods to Karuna 15,000
4. Cash sales 10,000
6. Goods sold to Heena 5,000
8. Purchased goods from Rupali 30,000
10. Goods returned from Karuna 2,000
14. Cash received from Karuna 13,000
15. Cheque given to Rohan 6,000
16. Cash received from Heena 3,000
20. Cheque received from Tarun 10.000
22. Cheque received from to Heena 2,000
25. Cash given to Rupali 18,000
26. Paid cartage 1,000
27. Paid salary 8,000
28. Cash sale 7,000
29. Cheque given to Rupali 12,000
30. Sanjana took goods for Personal use 4,000
31. Paid General expense 500

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding - I
1. (iii), 2 (Capital increases by net profit and fresh capital introduced, decreases
by drawings and net loss), 3 (No), 4 (ii)

Test Your Understanding - II

1. Cash account and capital account, Assets and Liabilities, Assest incr ease
and capital increase.
2. Purchase account and Remesh account, Expenses and Liabilities, Expenses
and Liabilities increases.
3. Cash account and sales account, Assets and Revenues, Assets and Revenues
increases.
4. Salaries account and cash account, Expense and Assets, Expenses increases
Assets decreases.
5. Furnitur e account and Cash account, Asset increases Asset decreases.
6. Loan account and Bank, Liability and Asset, Liabilities increases Asset
decreases.

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90 Accountancy

7. Sarita account and Sales account, Asset and Revenue, Assets decreases
Revenue decreases.
8. Ramesh account and Cash, liabilities and Assets, Liabilities decreases Assets
increases.
9. Rent account and Cash account, Expense and Assets, Expenses increases
Assets decreases.

Test Your Understanding - III

1(d), 2(d), 3(b), 4(b), 5(d), 6(c), 7(a)
Test your understanding - IV
1. Rent 2. Debtors 3. Cash
4. Machine 5. Creditors 6. Office stationary
7. Debtors

Test Your Understanding - V

1 (iv), 2 (i), 3 (i), 4 (ii), 5 (iii), 6 (iv), 7 (iv), 8 (iv), 9 (iii).

2015-16
Recording of Transactions-II 4

I n chapter 3, you learnt that all the

business transactions are first recorded in the
journal and then they are posted in the ledger
accounts. A small business may be able to record
all its transactions in one book only, i.e., the journal.
But as the business expands and the number of
transactions becomes large, it may become
cumbersome to jour-nalise each transaction. For
quick, efficient and accurate recording of business
transactions, Journal is sub-divided into special
journals. Many of the business transactions are
L EARNING OBJECTIVES repetitive in nature. They can be easily recorded in
special journals, each meant for recording all the
After studying this transactions of a similar nature. For example, all
chapter, you will be able
to :
cash transactions may be recorded in one book, all credit
sales transactions in another book and all credit
• state the need for
special purpose books;
purchases transactions in yet another book and so on.
These special journals are also called daybooks or
• record the transactions
in cash book and post
subsidiary books. Transactions that cannot be recorded
them in the ledger; in any special journal are recorded in journal called the
• prepar e the petty cash Journal Proper. Special journals prove economical and
book; make division of labour possible in accounting work. In
• record the transactions this chapter we will discuss the following special purpose
in the special purpose books:
books; • Cash Book
• post the entries in the • Purchases Book
special purpose book
and to the ledger; • Purchases Return (Return Outwards) Book
• balance the ledger
• Sales Book
accounts. • Sales Return (Return Inwards) Book
• Journal Proper

2015-16
92 Accountancy

4.1 Cash Book

Cash book is a book in which all transactions relating to cash receipts and cash
payments are recorded. It starts with the cash or bank balances at the beginning
of the period. Generally, it is made on monthly basis. This is a very popular
book and is maintained by all organisations, big or small, profit or not-for-
profit. It serves the purpose of both journal as well as the ledger (cash) account.
It is also called the book of original entry. When a cashbook is maintained,
transactions of cash are not recorded in the journal, and no separate account
for cash or bank is required in the ledger.

4.1.1 Single Column Cash Book

The single column cash book records all cash transactions of the business in a
chronological order, i.e., it is a complete record of cash receipts and cash
payments. When all receipts and payments are made in cash by a business
organisation only, the cash book contains only one amount column on each
(debit and credit) side. The format of single column cash book is shown in
figure 4.1.
Cash Book
Dr. Cr.
Date Receipts L.F. Amount Date Payments L.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

Fig. 4.1 : Format of single column cash book

Recording of entries in the single column cash book and its balancing is
illustrated by an example. Consider the following transactions of M/s Roopa
Traders observe how they are recorded in a single column cash book.

Date Details Amount

Rs.
2014
Nov. 01 Cash in hand 30,000
Nov. 04 Cash received from Gur meet 12,000
Nov. 08 Insurance paid (Annual Instalment) 6,000
Nov. 13 Purchased furniture 13,800
Nov. 16 Sold goods for cash 28,000
Nov. 17 Purchased goods from Mudit in cash 17,400
Nov. 20 Purchase stationery 1,100
Nov. 24 Cash paid to Rukmani in full settlement of account 12,500

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - II 93

Nov. 27 Sold goods to Kamal for cash 18,200

Nov. 30 Paid monthly rent 2,500
Nov. 30 Paid salary 3,500
Nov. 30 Deposited in bank 8,000

Roopa Traders
Cash Book
Dr. Cr.
Date Receipts L.F. Amount Date Payments L.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Nov. 01 Balance b/d 30,000 Nov. 08 Insurance 6,000
Nov. 04 Gurmeet 12,000 Nov. 13 Furniture 13,800
Nov. 16 Sales 28,000 Nov. 17 Purchases 17,400
Nov. 27 Sales 18,200 Nov. 20 Stationery 1,100
Nov. 24 Rukmani 12,500
Nov. 30 Rent 2,500
Nov. 30 Salary 3,500
Nov. 30 Bank 8,000
Nov. 30 Balance c/d 23,400
88,200 88,200
Dec.01 Balance b/d 23,400

Posting of the Single Column Cash Book

As evident from figure 4.1, the left side of the cash book shows the receipts of
the cash whereas the right side of the cash book shows all the payments
made in cash. The accounts appearing on then debit side for the cash book
are credited in the respective ledger accounts because cash has been received
in respect of them. Thus, in our example, an entry ‘cash received from Gurmeet‘
appears on the debit side of the cash book conveys that the cash has been
received from Gurmeet. Therefore, in the ledger, Gurmeet’s account will be
credited by writing ‘Cash’ in the particulars column on the credit side. Similarly,
all the account names appearing on the credit side of the cash book are debited
as cash/cheque has been paid in respect of them. Now, notice, how the
transactions in our example are posted to the related ledger accounts:

2015-16
94 Accountancy

Books of Roopa Traders

Gurmeet’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Nov.04 Cash 12,000

Sales Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Nov. 16 Cash 28,000
Nov. 27 Cash 18,200

Insurance Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Nov. 08 Cash 6,000

Furniture Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Nov. 13 Cash 13,800

Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Nov. 17 Cash 17,400

Stationery Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Nov. 20 Cash 1,100

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - II 95

Rukmani’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Nov.24 Cash 12,500

Rent Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Nov.30 Cash 2,500

Salary Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Nov. 30 Cash 3,500

Bank’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Nov.30 Cash 8,000

4.1.2 Double Column Cash Book

In this type of cash book, there are two columns of amount on each side of the
cash book. In fact, now-a-days bank transactions are very large in number. In
many organisations, as far as possible, all receipts and payments are affected
through bank.
A businessman generally opens a current account with a bank. Bank, do
not allow any interest on the balance in current account but charge a small
amount, called incidental charges, for the services rendered.
For depositing cash/cheques in the bank account, a form has to be filled,
which is called a pay-in-slip. (refer figure 4.2) It contains a counterfoil also
which is returned to the customer (depositor) with the signature of the cashier,
as receipt.
The bank issues blank cheque forms, to the account holder for withdrawing
money. (refer figure 4.3) The depositor writes the name of the party to whom
payment is to be made after the words Pay printed on the cheque. Cheque

2015-16
96 Accountancy

Fig. 4.2 : A pay-in-slip

Fig. 4.3 : A cheque

forms have the printed word bearer, which means payment is to be made to the
person whose name has been written after the words “pay” or the bearer of the
cheques. When the world ‘bearer’ is struck off by drawing a line, the cheque
becomes an order cheque. It means payment is to be made to the person whose
name is written on the cheque or to his order after proper identification.
Cheques are generally crossed in practice. The payment of a crossed cheque
cannot be made direct to the party on the counter. It is to be paid only through
a bank. When two parallel lines are drawn across the cheque, it is said to be
crossed. The various types of crossing providing different degrees of safety to
the payment are shown in figure 4.4.

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - II 97

In case of an A/c payee only crossing, the amount of the cheque can be
deposited only in the account of the person whose name appears on the cheque.
When the name of the bank is written between two parallel lines, it becomes a
special crossing and the payment can be made only to the bank whose name
has been written between the two lines.
Though this is rarely done, a cheque can be transferred by the payee (the
person in whose favour the cheque has been drawn) to another person, if it is
not crossed A/c payee only. A bearer cheque can be passed on by mere delivery.
An order cheque can be transferred by endorsement and delivery. Endorsement
means the writing of instructions to pay the cheque to a particular person
and then singing it on the back of the cheque.

lhi
De
w
Ne
ly
le

On
ab

ia,
oti
.

ee

Ind
Co

eg

ay
&

of
tN

cP

nk
No

A/

Ba
ate
St

Fig. 4.4 : Types of crossing

When the number of bank transactions is large; it is convenient to have a

separate amount column for bank transactions in the cash book itself instead of
recording them in the journal. This helps in getting information about the position
of the bank account from time to time. Just like cash transactions, all payments
into the bank are recorded on the left side and all withdrawals/payments through
the bank are recorded on the right side. When cash is deposited in the bank or
cash is withdrawn from the bank, both the entries are recorded in the cash
book. This is so because both aspects of the transaction appear in the cash
book itself. When cash is paid into the bank, the amount deposited is written on
the left side in the bank column and at the same time the same amount is entered
on the right side in the cash column. The reverse entries are recorded when cash
is withdrawn from the bank for use in the office. Against such entries the word
C, which stands for contra is written in the L.F. column indicating that these
entries are not to be posted to the ledger account.

2015-16
98 Accountancy

The bank column is balanced in the same way as the cash column. However,
in the bank column, there can be credit balance also because of overdraft taken
from the bank. Overdraft is a situation when cash withdrawn from the bank
exceeds the amount of deposit. Entries in respect of cheques received should be
made in the bank column of the cash book. When a cheque is received, it may be
deposited into the bank on the same day or it may be deposited on another day.
In case, it is deposited on the same day the amount is recorded in the bank
column of the cash book on the receipts side. If the cheque is deposited on
another day, in that case, on the date of receipt it is treated as cash received and
hence recorded in the cash column on the receipts side. On the day of deposit to
the bank, it is shown in the Bank Column on receipt (Dr.) side and in the Cash
Column on the payment (Cr.) side. This is a contra entry.
If a cheque received from a customer is dishonoured, the bank will return
the dishonoured cheque and debit the firm’s account. On receipt of such
cheque or intimation from the bank, the firm will make an entry on the credit
side of the cash book by entering the amount of the dishonoured cheque in
the bank column and the name of the customer in the particulars column.
This entry will restore the position prevailing before the receipt of the cheque
form the customer and its deposit in the bank. Dishonour of a cheque means
return of the cheque unpaid, generally due to insufficient funds in the
customer’s account with the bank.
If the bank debits the firm on account of interest, commission or other
charges for bank services, the entry will be made on the credit side in bank
column. If the bank credits the firm’s account, the entry will be made on the
debit side of the cash book in the appropriate column. The format of double
column cash book is shown in figure 4.5.

Cash Book
Dr Cr
Date Receipts L.F. Cash Bank Date Payments L.F. Cash Bank
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

Fig. 4.5 : For mat of a double column cashbook

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - II 99

We will now learn how the transactions are recorded in the double column
cash book.
Consider the following example:
The following transactions related to M/s Tools India :

Date Details Amount

Rs.

2014
Sept. 01 Bank balance 42,000
Sept. 01 Cash balance 15,000
Sept. 04 Purchased goods by cheque 12,000
Sept. 08 Sales of goods for cash 6,000
Sept. 13 Purchased machinery by cheque 5,500
Sept. 16 Sold goods and received cheque (deposited same day) 4,500
Sept. 17 Purchase goods from Mriaula in cash 17,400
Sept. 20 Purchase stationery by cheque 1,100
Sept. 24 Cheque given to Rohit 1,500
Sept. 27 Cash withdrawn from bank 10,000
Sept. 30 Rent paid by cheque 2,500
Sept. 30 Paid salary 3,500

The double column cash book based upon above business transactions will
prepared as follows :

Cash Book

Dr. Cr.
Date Receipts L.F. Cash Bank Date Payments L.F. Cash Bank
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

2014 2014
Sept. Sept.
01 Balance b/d 15,000 42,000 04 Purchases 12,000
08 Sales 6,000 13 Machine 5,500
16 Sales 4,500 17 Purchase 17,400
27 Bank C 10,000 20 Stationery 1,100
24 Rohit 1,500
27 Cash C 10,000
30 Rent 2,500
30 Salary 3,500
30 Balance c/d 10,100 13,900
31,000 46,500 31,000 46,500
Oct.
01 Balance b/d 10,100 13,900

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100 Accountancy

When the bank column is maintained in the cash book, the bank account also
is not opened in the ledger. The bank column serves the purpose of the bank
account. Entries marked C (being contra entries as explained earlier) are ignored
while posting from the cash book to the ledger. These entries represent debit or
credit of cash account against the bank account or vice-versa. We will now see
how the transactions recorded in double column cash book are posted to the
individual accounts.

Purchases Account
Receipts Payments
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept.04 Bank 12,000
Sept. 17 Cash 17,400

Sales Account
Receipts Payments
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept. 08 Cash 6,000
Sept. 16 Bank 4,500

Machinery Account
Receipts Payments
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept. 13 Bank 5,500

Stationery Account
Receipts Payments
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept.20 Bank 1,100

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - II 101

Rohit’s Account
Receipts Payments
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept.24 Bank 1,500

Rent Account
Receipts Payments
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept.30 Bank 2,500

Salary Account
Receipts Payments
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept.30 Cash 3,500

4.1.3 Petty Cash Book

In every organisation, a large number of small payments such as conveyance,
cartage, postage, telegrams and other expenses (collectively recorded under
miscellaneous expenses) are made. These are generally repetitive in nature. If
all these payments are handled by the cashier and are recorded in the main
cash book, the procedure is found to be very cumbersome. The cashier may
be overburdened and the cash book may become very bulky. To avoid this,
large organisations normally appoint one more cashier (petty cashier) and
maintain a separate cash book to record these transactions. Such a cash
book maintained by petty cashier is called petty cash book.
The petty cashier works on the Imprest system. Under this system, a definite
sum, say Rs. 2,000 is given to the petty cashier at the beginning of a certain
period. This amount is called imprest amount. The petty cashier goes on making
all small payments out of this imprest amount and when he has spent the
substantial portion of the imprest amount say Rs.1,780, he gets reimbursement
of the amount spent from the head cashier. Thus, he again has the full imprest
amount in the beginning of the next period. The reimbursement may be made
on a weekly, fortnightly or monthly basis, depending on the frequency of small
payments. (In certain cases, the petty cash system is operated through the

2015-16
102 Accountancy

main cash book itself. In such instances, the petty cash book is not maintained
independently.)
The petty cash book generally has a number of columns for the amount on
the payment side (credit) besides the first other amount column. Each of the
amount columns is allotted for items of specific payments, which are most
common. The last amount column is designated as ‘Miscellaneous’ followed by
a ‘Remarks’ column. In the miscellaneous column those payments are recorded
for which a separate column does not exist. In the ‘Remarks’ the nature of
payment is recorded. At the end of the period, all amount columns are totaled.
The total amount column l shows the total amount spent and to be reimbursed.
On the receipt (debit) side, there is only one amount column. Columns for the
date, voucher number and particulars are common for both receipts and
payments.

Box 1
Advantages of Maintaining Petty Cash Book
1. Saving of T ime and efforts of chief cashier: The chief cashier is not r equired to
deal with petty disbursements. He can concentrate on cash transactions involving
large amount of cash. It saves time and labour and helps chief cashier to discharge
his duties more effectively
2. Ef fective control over cash disbursements: Cash control becomes easy because of
division of work. The head cashier can control big payments directly and petty
payments by keeping a proper check on the petty cashier. This way the chances
of making frauds and embezzlements become very difficult.
3. Convenient r ecording: Recording of petty disbursements in the main cash book
makes it bulky and unmanageable. Further, the materiality principle requir es
that insignificant details need not be given in the main cashbook. This way the
cash book reveals only material and useful infor mation.
Recor ding of such small payments becomes easy as the totals of different types
of expenses ar e posted to ledger. It also saves time and ef fort of posting individual
items in the ledger. In nutshell it can be stated that preparation of petty cash
book is a cost reduction contr ol measure.

For example, Mr. Mohit, the petty cahier of M/s Samaira Traders received
Rupees 2,000 on May 01, 2014 from the Head Cashier. For the month, details
of petty expenses are listed here under:

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Recording of Transactions - II 103

Date Details Amount

Rs.

2014
May
02 Auto fare 55
03 Courier services 40
04 Postal stamps 105
05 Erasers/Sharpeners/Pencils/Pads 225
06 Speed post charges 98
08 Taxi fare (Rs.105 + Rs.90) 195
08 Refreshments 85
10 Auto fare 60
12 Registered postal charges 42
13 Telegram 34
14 Cartage 25
16 Computer stationery 165
19 Bus fare 24
19 STD call charges 87
20 Office sanitation including disinfectant (Rs. 36 + Rs. 24) 60
22 Refreshment 45
23 Photo stating charges 47
28 Courier services 40
29 Unloading charges 40
30 Bus fare 15

Posting from the Petty Cash Book

The petty cash book is balanced periodically. The difference between the total
receipts and total payments is the balance with the petty cashier. The balance is
carried to the next period and the petty cashier is paid the amount actually spent.
A petty cash account is opened in the ledger. It is debited with the amount given
to petty cashier. Each expense account is individually debited with the periodic
total as per the respective column by writing “petty cash account” and the petty
cash account is credited with the total expenditure incurred during the period by
writing sundries as per petty cash book. The petty cash account is balanced. It
reflect the actual cash with the petty cashier.

2015-16
 104
The petty cash book for the month will be prepared as follows :
Book of Samaira Traders
Petty Cash Book
Amount Date Particulars Voucher Amount Analysis of Payments
Received No. paid
Rs. 2014 Rs. Postage Telephone Conveyance Stationery Misc.
May & Telegram
2,000 01 Cash r eceived
02 Auto far e 55 55
03 Courier services 40 40
04 Postal stamps 105 105
05 Erasers/Sharpeners 225 225
/Pencils
06 Speed post char ges 98 98
08 Taxi fare (105 + 90) 195 195
08 Refr eshments 85 85
10 Auto far e 60 60
12 Registered postal 42 42
charges
13 Telegram 34 34
14 Cartage 25 25
16 Computer stationery 165 165
19 Bus far e 24 24
19 STD call char ges 87 87
20 Office sanitation 60 60
including disinfectant
(36+24)
22 Refr eshment 45 45
23 Photo stating charges 47 47
28 Courier services 40 40
29 Unloading charges 40 40
30 Bus far e 15 15
1,487 325 121 349 390 302

Accountancy
31 Balance c/d 513
2,000 2,000
Jun.
513 01 Balance b/d
1,487 01 Cash r eceived

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Recording of Transactions - II 105

Books of Samaira Traders

Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
May 01 Petty cash A/c Dr. 2,000
To Cash A/c 2,000
(Cash paid to petty cashier)
May 31 Postage A/c Dr. 325
Telephone & Telegram A/c Dr. 121
Conveyance A/c Dr. 349
Stationary A/c Dr. 390
Miscellaneous expenses A/c Dr. 302
To Petty cash A/c 1,487
(Petty expenses posted to petty
cash account)
Petty cash A/c Dr. 1,487
To Cash A/c 1,487
(Cash paid to petty cashier)

Petty Cash Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
May 01 Cash 2,000 May 31 Sundries as 1,487
per petty cash
book
May 31 Balance c/d 513
2,000 2,000
Jun. 01 Balance b/d 513
Jun. 01 Cash 1,487

Books of Samaria Traders

Postage Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
May 31 Petty cash 325

Telephone and Telegram Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
May 31 Petty cash 121

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106 Accountancy

Conveyance Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
May 31 Petty cash 349

Stationery Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
May 31 Petty cash 390

Miscellaneous Expenses Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
May 31 Petty cash 302

4.1.4 Balancing of Cash Book

On the left side, all cash transactions relating to cash receipts (debits) and on
the right side all transactions relating to cash payments (credits) are entered
date-wise. When a cash book is maintained, a separate cash book in the
ledger is not opened. The cash book is balanced in the same way as an account
in the ledger. But it may be noted that in the case of the cash book, there will
always be debit balance because cash payments can never exceed cash receipts
and cash in hand at the beginning of the period.
The source document for cash receipts is generally the duplicate copy of
the receipt issued by the cashier. For payment, any document, invoice, bill,
receipt, etc. on the basis of which payment has been made, will serve as a
source document for recording transactions in the cash book. When payment
has been made, all these documents, popularly known as vouchers, are given
a serial number and filed in a separate file for future reference and verification.
Illustration 1
From the following transactions made by M/s Kuntia Traders, prepare the single column
cashbook.

2015-16
Recording of Transactions - II 107

Date Details Amount

Rs.
2014
Sept. 01 Cash in hand 40,000
Sept. 02 Deposited in bank 16,000
Sept. 04 Received from Puneet in full settlement of claim 11,700
of Rs. 12,000.
Sept. 05 Cash paid to Rukmani in full settlement of claim of 6,850
Rs.7,000
Sept. 06 Sold goods to Sudhir for cash 14,800
Sept. 06 Paid quarterly insurance premium on policy for 2,740
proprietor’s wife
Sept. 07 Purchased office furniture 8,000
Sept. 07 Purchased stationery 1,700
Sept. 07 Paid cartage 120
Sept. 10 Paid Kamal, discount allowed by him Rs. 200 6,800
Sept. 11 Received from Gurmeet, discount allowed to him Rs.500 14,500
Sept. 12 Amount withdrawn for house hold use 5,000
Sept. 14 Electricity bill paid 1,160
Sept. 17 Goods sold for cash 23,000
Sept. 21 Bought goods from Kamal on cash basis 17,000
Sept. 24 Paid telephone charges 2,300
Sept. 26 Paid postal charges 520
Sept. 28 Paid monthly rent 4,200
Sept. 29 Paid monthly wages and salary 8,250
Sept. 29 Bought goods for cash 11,000
Sept. 30 Sold goods for cash 15,600

Solution
Books of Kuntia Traders
Cash Book
Dr Cr
Date Receipts L.F. Amount Date Payments L.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Sept. 01 Balance b/d 40,000 Sept. 02 Bank 16,000
Sept. 04 Puneet 11,700 Sept. 05 Rukmani 6,850
Sept. 06 Sales 14,800 Sept. 06 Drawings 2,740
Sept. 11 Gurmeet 14,500 Sept. 07 Of fice furniture 8,000
Sept. 17 Sales 23,000 Sept. 07 Stationery 1,700
Sept. 30 Sales 15,600 Sept. 07 Cartage 120
Sept. 10 Kamal 6,800
Sept. 12 Drawings 5000
Sept. 14 Electric char ges 1,160
Sept. 21 Pur chases 17,000

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108 Accountancy

Sept. 24 Telephone 2,300

charges
Sept. 28 Postal charges 520
Sept. 29 Rent 4,200
Sept. 29 Wages & Salary 8,250
Sept. 30 Purchases 11,000
Sept. 30 Balance c/d 27,960
1,19,600 1,19,600
Oct. 01 Balance b/d 27,960

Illustration 2
Record the following transactions in double column cash book and balance it.

Date Details Amount

Rs.
2014
Aug. 01 Cash balance 15,000
Bank balance 10,000
Aug. 03 Paid insurance premium by cheque 4,200
Aug. 08 Cash sales 22,000
Cash discount 750
Aug. 09 Payment for cash purchases 21,000
Cash discount 700
Aug. 09 Cash deposited in bank 15,000
Aug. 10 Telephone bill paid by cheque 2,300
Aug. 14 Withdrawn from bank for personal use 6,000
Aug. 16 Withdrawn from bank office use 14,500
Aug. 20 Received cheque from John in full and final settlement 10,700
and deposited the same in the bank
Aug. 23 Received cash from Michael 6,850
Discount allowed 150
Aug. 24 Stationery purchased for cash 1,800
Aug. 25 Cartage paid in cash 350
Aug. 25 Cheque received from Kumar 4,500
Aug. 28 Cheque received from Kumar deposited in Bank 4,500
Aug. 31 Cheque deposited on Aug. 28 dishonoured and returned
by the bank
Aug. 31 Rent paid by cheque 4,000
Aug. 31 Paid wages to the watchman in cash 3,000
Aug. 31 Paid cash for postage 220

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Solution
Cash Book
Dr. Cr.
Date Receipts L.F. Cash Bank Date Payments L.F. Cash Bank
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

2014 2014
Aug. Aug.
01 Balance b/d 15,000 10,000 03 Insurance 4,200
08 Sales 22,000 09 Pur chases 21,000
09 Cash C 15,000 09 Bank C 15,000
16 Bank C 14,500 10 Telephone 2,300
expenses
20 John 10,700 14 Drawings 6,000
23 Michael 6,850 16 Cash C 14,500
25 Kumar 4,500 24 Printing and 1,800
stationery
28 Cash C 4,500 25 Cartage 350
31 Balance c/d 6,000 28 Bank C 4,500
31 Kumar 4,500
31 Rent 4,000
31 Wages 3,000
31 Postage 220
31 Balance c/d 16,980 4,700
62,850 40,200 62,850 40,200
Sept.
01 Balance b/d 16,980 4,700

Illustration 3
Prepare bank column cash book from the following tansactions of M/s Laser Zone for the
month of January 2014 and post them to the related ledger accounts :

Date Details Amount

Rs.
2014
Jan. 01 Cash in hand 4,000
Bank overdraft 3,200
Jan. 04 Wage paid 400
Jan. 05 Cash sales 7,000
Jan. 07 Purchased goods by cheque 2,000
Jan. 09 Purchased furniture for cash 2,200
Jan. 11 Cash paid to Rohit 2,000
Jan. 13 Cash sales 4,500
Jan. 14 Deposited into bank 7,000
Jan. 16 Bank charged interest on overdraft 200

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110 Accountancy

Jan. 20 Paid telephone bill by cheque 600

Jan. 25 Sale of goods and received cheque 3,000
(deposited same day)
Jan. 27 Paid rent 800
Jan. 29 Drew cash for personal use 500
Jan. 30 Paid salary 1,000
Jan. 31 Interest collected by bank 1,700

Solution
Books of Laser Zone
Cash Book
Dr. Cr.
Date Receipts L.F. Cash Bank Date Payments L.F. Cash Bank
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Jan. Jan.
01 Balance b/d 4,000 01 Balance b/d 3,200
05 Sales 7,000 04 Wages 400
13 Sales 4,500 07 Purchase 2,000
14 Cash C 7,000 09 Furniture 2,200
25 Sales 3,000 11 Rohit 2,000
31 Interest 1,700 14 Bank C 7,000
16 Overdraft 200
inter est
20 Telephone 600
27 Rent 800
29 Drawings 500
30 Salary 1,000
01 Balance c/d 1,600 5,700
15,500 11,700 15,500 11,700
Oct.
01 Balance b/d 1,600 5,700

Wages Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan.04 Cash 400

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Recording of Transactions - II 111

Sales Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan. 05 Cash 7,000
Jan.13 Cash 4,500
Jan.25 Bank 3,000

Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan.07 Bank 2,000

Furniture Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan. 09 Cash 2,200

Rohit Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan. 11 Cash 2,000

Ovedraft Interest (Paid) Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan.16 Bank 200

Telephone Expenses Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan.20 Bank 600

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112 Accountancy

Rent Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan.27 Cash 800

Drawings Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan.29 Cash 500

Salary Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan.30 Cash 1,000

Interest (Received) Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Jan.31 Bank 1,700

Illustration 4
Prepare double column cash book of M/s Advance Technology Pvt. Ltd for the month of
December 2014 from the following transactions :

Date Details Amount

Rs.
2014
Dec. 01 Cash in hand 3,065
Cash at bank 6,780
Dec. 02 Cash paid to petty cashier 1,000
Dec. 03 Received cheque from Priya 3,000
Dec. 04 Cash sales 2,000
Dec. 05 Deposited into bank 1,200
Dec. 06 Priya’s cheque deposited into bank 3,000
Dec. 08 Purchased furniture by cheque 6,500
Dec. 10 Paid trade expenses 400
Dec. 12 Cash sales 9,000

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Recording of Transactions - II 113

Dec. 13 Bank charges 300

Dec. 15 Dividend collected by bank 1,200
Dec. 16 Paid electric bill by cheque 600
Dec. 17 Cash purchases 2,000
Dec. 19 Paid for advertising 1,000
Dec. 21 Goods sold and received a cheque 6,000
(deposited same day)
Dec. 22 Paid legal charges 500
Dec. 23 Drew from bank for personal use 2,000
Dec. 24 Paid establishment expenses 340
Dec. 25 Paid for printing of bill book 850
Dec. 26 Paid insurance premium by cheque 2,150
Dec. 27 Cash sales 7,200
Dec. 28 Paid salary by cheque 4,000
Dec. 29 Rent paid 3,000
Dec. 30 Commission received by cheque 2,500
(deposited same day)
Dec. 31 Paid for charity by cheque 800

Solution
Books of Advance Technology
Cash Book
Dr. Cr.
Date Receipts L.F. Cash Bank Date Payments L.F. Cash Bank
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

2014 2014
Dec. Dec.
01 Balance b/d 3,065 6,780 02 Petty Cashier 1,000
03 Priya 3,000 05 Bank C 1,200
04 Sales 2,000 06 Bank C 3,000
05 Cash C 1,200 08 Furnitur e 6,500
06 Cash C 3,000 10 Trade expenses 400
12 Sales 9,000 13 Bank charges 300
15 Dividend 1,200 16 Electric charges 600
21 Sales 6,000 17 Purchases 2,000
27 Sales 7,200 19 Advertisement 1,000
30 Commission 2,500 22 Legal charges 500
23 Drawings 2,000
24 Establishment 340
expenses
25 Printing 850
26 Insurance 2,150
premium
28 Salary 4,000
29 Rent 3,000

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114 Accountancy

31 Charity 800
31 Balance c/d 10,975 4,330
24,265 20,680 24,265 20,680

2015
Jan.
01 Balance b/d 10,975 4,330

(ii) Ledger Posting

Petty Cashier’s Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.02 Cash 1,000

Priya’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 03 Cash 3,000

Sales Account
Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.04 Cash 2,000
Dec.12 Cash 9,000
Dec.21 Bank 6,000
Dec.27 Cash 7,200

Furniture Account
Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.08 Bank 6,500

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Recording of Transactions - II 115

Trade Expenses Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
2015
Dec.10 Cash 400

Bank Charges Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.13 Bank 300

Dividend Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.15 Bank 1,200

Electric Charges Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.16 Bank 600

Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 17 Cash 2,000

Advertisement Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 19 Cash 1,000

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116 Accountancy

Legal Charges Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 22 Cash 500

Drawings Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 23 Bank 2,000

Establishment Expenses Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 24 Cash 340

Printing Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 25 Cash 850

Insurance Premium Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 26 Bank 2,150

Salary Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 28 Bank 4,000

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Recording of Transactions - II 117

Rent Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 29 Cash 3,000

Commission Received Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 30 Bank 2,500

Charity Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 31 Bank 800

4.2 Purchases (Journal) Book

All credit purchases of goods are recorded in the purchases journal whereas
cash purchases are recorded in the cash book. Other purchases such as
purchases of office equipment, furniture, building, are recoded in the journal
proper if purchased on credit or in the cash book if purchased for cash. The
source documents for recording entries in the book are invoices or bills received
by the firm from the supplies of the goods. Entries are made with the net
amount of the invoice. Trade discount and other details of the invoice need
not be recorded in this book. The format of the purchases journal is shown in
figure 4.6.
Purchases (Journal) Book
Date Invoice Name of Supplier L.F. Amount
No. (Account to be credited) Rs.

Fig. 4.6 : For mat of purchases (jour nal) book

The monthly total of the purchases book is posted to the debit of purchases
account in the ledger. Individual suppliers accounts may be posted daily.
Consider the following details obtained from M/s Kanika Traders and observe
how the entries are recorded in the purchase journal.

2015-16
118 Accountancy

Date Details
2014
Aug. 04 Purchased fr om M/s Neema Electronics (invoice no. 3250): 20 Mini-size T.V.
@ Rs.2,000 per piece, 15 Tape recor ders @ Rs. 12,500 per piece. Trade discount
on all items @ 20%.
Aug. 10 Bought fr om M/s Pawan Electronics (invoice no. 8260): 10 Video cassettes @
Rs. 150 per piece, 20 Tape recorders @ Rs. 1,650 per piece. Trade discout
@ 10% on pur chases.
Aug. 18 Purchased fr om M/s. Northern Electronics (invoice no. 4256): 15 Norther n
stereos @ Rs. 4,000 per piece, 20 Norther n colour T.V. @ Rs. 14,500 per piece.
Trade discount @ 12.5%.
Aug. 26 Purchased from M/s Neema Electronics (Invoice No. 3294): 10 Mini-size T.V. @
Rs. 1,0 00 per piece, 5 Colour T.V. @ Rs. 12,500 per piece. Trade discount
@ 20%.
Aug. 29 Bought from M/s Pawan Electronics: (Invoice No. 8281) 20 Video cassettes @
150 per piece 25 Tape recorders @ Rs. 1,600 per piece. Trade discount @ 10%
on purchases.

Books of Kanika Traders

Purchases (Journal) Book
Date Invoice Name of Supplier L.F. Amount
No. (Account to be credited) Rs.
2014
Aug.04 3250 Neema Electronics 1,82,000
Aug.10 8260 Pawan Electr onics 31,050
Aug.18 4256 Northern Electr onics 3,06,250
Aug.26 3294 Neema Electronics 54,000
Aug.29 8281 Pawan Electr onics 38,700
Aug.31 6,12,000

Posting from the purchases journal is done daily to their respective accounts
with the relevant amounts on the credit side. The total of the purchases journal
is periodically posted to the debit of the purchases account normally on the
monthly basis. However, if the number of transactions is very large, this total
may be done and posted at some other convenient time interval such as daily,
weekly or fortnightly. The posting from the purchases journal to the ledger
from is illustrated as follows:
Books of Kanika Electronics
Neema Electronics
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Aug.04 Purchases 1,82,000
Aug. 26 Purchases 54,000

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Recording of Transactions - II 119

Pawan Electronics
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Aug. 10 Purchases 31,050
Aug. 29 Purchases 38,700

Northern Electronics
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Aug.18 Purchases 3,06,250

Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Aug. 31 Sundries as 6,12,000
per Purchases
Journal

4.3 Purchases Return (Journal) Book

In this book, purchases return of goods are recorded. Sometimes goods
purchased are returned to the supplier for various reasons such as the goods
are not of the required quality, or are defective, etc. For every return, a debit
note (in duplicate) is prepared and the original one is sent to the supplier for
making necessary entries in his book. The supplier may also prepare a note,
which is called the credit note. The source document for recording entries in
the purchases return journal is generally a debit note. A debit note will contain
the name of the party (to whom the goods have been returned) details of the
goods returned and the reason for returning the goods. Each debit note is
serially numbered and dated. The format of the purchases return journal is
shown in figure 4.7(a).
Purchases Return (Journal) Book
Date Debit Name of the Supplier L.F. Amount
Note No. (Account to be debited) Rs.

Fig 4.7(a) : For mat of Purchases r etur n (journal)book

2015-16
120 Accountancy

Box 2

Debit and Credit Notes

A Debit note is a document evidencing a debit to be raised against a party for reasons
other than sale on credit. On finding that goods supplied ar e not as per the terms of
the order placed, the defective goods are r eturned to the supplier of the goods and a
note is prepared to debit the supplier; or when an additional sum is recoverable
from a customer such a note is prepared to debit the customer with the additional
dues. In these two situations the note is called a debit note (r efer figure 4.7(b)).
A Credit note is prepared, when a party is to be given a credit for reasons other
than credit pur chase. It is a common practice to make it in red ink. When goods are
received back from a customer, a credit note should be sent to him. The suggested
proforma of credit note is shown in figure 4.7(c).

Name of the Firm Issuing the Note

Addr ess of the Firm

No. Date of Issue .........
DEBIT NOTE
Against : Supplier’s Name
Goods retur ned as per delivery Amount (Rs)
Challan No.
(Details of goods retur ned)
(Rupees ...........only)
Signature of the Manager with date

Fig. 4.7(b) : Showing a specimen of debit note

Name of the Firm Issuing the Note

Addr ess of the Firm

No. Date of Issue .........
CREDIT NOTE
Against : Customer’s Name
Goods retur ned by the customer Amount (Rs)
Challan No.
(Details of goods retur ned)
(Rupees ...........only)
Signature of the Manager with date
Fig. 4.7(c) : Showing a specimen credit note

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Recording of Transactions - II 121

Refer to the purchases (journal) book of Kanika Traders you will notice that
20 mini size T.V.’s and 15 tape- recorders were bought from Neema Electronics
for Rs. 1,82,000 However, on delivery 2 mini T.V.’s and tape recorders were
found defective and were returned back vide debit note no. 03/2014. In this case,
the purchases return books will be prepared as follows :

Purchases Return (Journal) Book

Date Debit Name of the Supplier L.F. Amount
Note (Account to be debited) Rs.
No.
03/2014 Neema Electronics 13,200
13,200

Posting from the purchases returns journal requires that the supplier’s
individual accounts are debited with the amount of returns and the purchases
returns account is credited with the periodical total.

Neema Electronics Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Purchases 13,200
Return

Purchases Return Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Sundries as 13,200
per purchase
retur ns book

4.4 Sales (Journal) Book

All credit sales of merchandise are recorded in the sales journal. Cash sales are
recorded in the cash book. The format of the sales journal is similar to that of
the purchases journal explained earlier. The source document for recording
entries in the sales journal are sales invoice or bill issued by the firm to the
customers. The date of sale, invoice number, name of the customer and amount
of the invoice are recorded in the sales journal. Other details about the sales
transaction including terms of payment are available in the invoice. In fact, two
or more than two copies of a sales invoice are prepared for each sale. The book

2015-16
122 Accountancy

keeper makes entries in the sales journal from one copy of the sales invoice. The
format of the sales joournal is shown in figure 4.8. In the sales journal, one
additional column may be added to record sales tax recovered from the customer
and to be paid to the government within the stipulated time. Periodically, at the
end of each month the amount column is total led and posted to the credit of
sales account in the ledger. Posting to the debit side of individual customer’s
accounts may be made daily.

Sales (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Customer L.F. Amount
No. (Account to be debited) Rs.

Fig. 4.8 : Format of sales (journal) cash book

For example M/s Koina Supplies sold on credit:

(i) Two water purifiers @ Rs. 2,100 each and five buckets @ Rs 130 each to
M/s Raman Traders (Invoice no. 178 dated April 06, 2014).
(ii) Five road side containers @ Rs 4,200 each to M/s Nutan enterprises
(Invoice no 180 dated April 09, 2014) .
(iii) 100 big buckets @ Rs 850 each to M/s Raman traders (Invoice no. 209,
dated April 28, 2014).
The above stated transactions will be entered in a sales journal as follows:

Books of Koina Suppliers

Sales (Journal) Book
Date Invoice Name of the customer L.F. Amount
No. (Account to be debited) Rs.
2014
April 06 178 Raman Traders 4,850
April 09 180 Nutan Enterprises 21,000
April 28 209 Raman Traders 85,000
April 30 1,10,850

Posting from the sales journal are done to the debit of customer’s accounts
kept in the ledger. Like the purchases journal, individual customer’s accounts
are generally posted daily, with the amount involved. The sales journal is also
totaled periodically (generally monthly), and this total is credited to sales
account in the ledger. The sales (journal) book illustrated above will be posted
in the related ledger account in the following manner:

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Recording of Transactions - II 123

Raman Traders Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 06 Sales 4,850
Apr. 28 Sales 85,000

Nutan Enterprises Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr.01 Sales 21,000

Sales Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 30 Sundries as 1,10,850
per sales book

4.5 Sales Return (Journal) Book

This journal is used to record return of goods by customers to them on credit.
On receipt of goods from the customer, a credit note is prepared, like the debit
note referred to earlier. The difference between the credit not and the debit
note is that the former is prepared by the seller and the latter is prepared by
the buyer. Like the debit note, the credit note is also prepared in duplicate
and contains detail relating to the name of the customer, details of the
merchandise received back and the amount. Each credit note is serially
numbered and dated. The source document for recording entries in the sales
return book is generally the credit note. The format of the sales return book is
shown in figure 4.9

Sales Return (Journal) Book

Date Credit Name of the customer L.F. Amount
No. (Account to be credited) Rs.

Fig. 4.9 : For mat of sales return (jour nal) book

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124 Accountancy

Refer to the sales (journal) book of Koina Supplier of you will find that two
water purifiers were sold to Raman Traders for Rs 2,100 each, out of which
one purifier was returned back due to the manufacturing defect (credit note
no. 10/2014). In this case, the sales return (Journal) book will be prepared
as follows :

Sales Return (Journal) Book

Date Credit Name of the customer L.F. Amount
No. (Account to be credited) Rs.
10/2014 Raman Traders 2,100
2,100

Posting to the sales return journal requires that the customer’s account be
credited with the amount of returns and the sales return account be debited
with the periodical total in the same way as is done in case of posting from the
purchases journal.

Raman Traders Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Sales Return 2,100

Sales Return Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Sundries 2,100
as per sales
retur n book

Illustration 5
Enter the following transactions of M/s Hi-Life Fashions in purchases and purchases
return book and post them to the ledger accounts for the month of September 2014:
Date Details
2014 Purchase of following goods on credit from M/s Ratna Traders,
Sept. 01 as per Invoice No.714:
25 Shirts @ Rs.300 per shirt
20 Pants @ Rs.700 per pant
Less 10% trade discount
Sept. 08 Purchase of following goods on credit from M/s Bombay Fashion House,
as per Invoice No.327 ;

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10 Fancy Trousers @ Rs.500 per trouser

20 Fancy Hat @ Rs. 100 per hat
Less 5% trade discount
Sept. 10 Goods retur ned to M/s Ratana Traders,as per debit note No.102 :
3 shirts @ Rs.300 per shirt
1 Pant @ Rs.700 per pant
Less 10% trade discount
Sept. 15 Pur chase of following goods on credit fr om M/s Zolta Fashions,
as per Invoice No.6781 :
10 Jackets @ Rs.1000 per jacket
5 Plain shirts Rs.200 per shirts
Less 15% trade discount.
Sept. 20 Pur chase of following goods on cr edit from M/s Bride Palace,
as per Invoice No.1076 :
10 Fancy Lengha @ Rs.2,000 per lengha
Less 5% trade discount.
Sept. 24 Goods retur ned to M/s Bombay Fashion House as per debit note No.103 :
2 Fancy Trousers @ Rs.500 per trouser
4 Fancy Hat @ Rs.100 per hat
Less 5% trade discount.
Sept. 28 Goods retur ned to M/s Bride Palace as per debit note No.105 :
1 Fancy Lengha @ Rs.2,000 per lengha
Less 5% trade discount.

Solution
Books of Hi-life Fashions
Purchases (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Supplier L.F. Amount

No. (Account to be credited) Rs.
2014
Sept.01 714 Ratana T raders 19,350
Sept.08 327 Bombay Fashion House 6,650
Sept.15 6781 Zolta Fashions 9,350
Sept.20 1076 Bride Palace 19,000
Sept.30 54,350

Purchases Return (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Supplier L.F. Amount
No. (Account to be debited) Rs.
2014
Sept. 10 102 Ratana T raders 1,440
Sept. 24 103 Bombay Fashion House 1,330
Sept. 28 106 Bride Palace 1,900
Sept. 30 4,670

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126 Accountancy

(ii) Ledger Posting

Books of M/s Hi-Life Fashions
Ratana Traders Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Sept. 10 Purchases 1,440 Sept.01 Purchases 19,350
retur n

Bombay Fashion House Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Sept. 24 Purchases 1,330 Sept. 08 Purchases 6,650
retur n

Zolta Fashions Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept. 15 Purchases 9,350

Bride Palace Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept. 28 Purchases 1,900 Sept. 20 Purchases 19,000
retur n

Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept. 30 Sundries as 54,350
per purchases
jour nal

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Purchases Return Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Sept. 30 Sundries as 4,670
per pur chases
retur n book

Illustration 6
Enter the following transactions in the Sales and Sales Retur n book of M/s Vineet Stores:

Date Details
2014 Sold goods on credit to M/s Rohit Stores as per invoice no.325 :
Dec.01. 30 Kids Books @ Rs. 60 each.
20 Animal Books @ Rs. 50 each
Dec. 05 Sold goods on credit to M/s Mera Stor es as per invoice no.328 :
100 Greeting Cards @ Rs.12 each.
50 Musical Cards @ Rs. 50 each
Less 5% trade discount.
Dec. 10 Sold Goods on credit to M/s Mega Stationers as per invoice no.329 :
50 Writing Pads @ Rs. 20 each.
50 Colour Books @ Rs. 30 each
20 Ink Pads @ 16 each
Dec. 15 Goods Returned fr om M/s Rohit Stores as per credit note no.201:
2 Kids Books @ Rs. 60 each
1 Animal Book @ Rs. 50 each
Dec. 19 Sold goods on credit to M/s Abha T raders as per invoice no.355 :
100 Cards Books @ Rs. 10 each.
50 Note Books @ Rs. 35 each
Less 5% trade discount.
Dec. 22 Goods retur ned from M/s Mega Stationers as per cr edit note no.204:
2 Colour Books @ Rs. 30 each
Dec. 26 Sold goods on credit to M/s Bharti Stor es as per invoice no.325 :
100 Greeting Cards @ Rs. 20 each.
100 Fancy Envelopes @ Rs. 5 each
Dec. 30 Goods retur ned from M/s Abha T raders as per credit note no.207 :
20 Cards Books @ Rs. 10 each
5 Note Book@ Rs. 35 each
Less 5% trade discount

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128 Accountancy

Solution
Books of Veneet Stores
Sales (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Customer J.F. Amount

No. (Account to be debited) Rs.
2014
Dec.01 325 Rohit Stores 2,800
Dec.05 328 Mera Stor es 3,515
Dec.10 329 Mega Stationers 2,820
Dec.19 335 Abha T raders 2,375
Dec.26 340 Bharti Stor es 2,500
Dec. 31 14,010

Sales Return (Journal) Book

Date Credit Name of the Customer L.F. Amount
Note No. (Account to be credited) Rs.
2014
Dec. 15 201 Rohit Stores 170
Dec. 22 204 Mega Stationers 150
Dec. 30 206 Abha T raders 333
Dec. 31 653

(ii) Ledger Posting

Rohit Stores Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Dec. 01 Sales 2800 Dec.15 Sales return 170

Mera Stores Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 05 Sales 3,515

Mega Stationers Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Dec.10 Sales 2,820 Dec.22 Sales return 150

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Recording of Transactions - II 129

Abha Traders Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.19 Sales 2,375 Dec.30 Sales retur n 333

Bharti Stores Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec.26 Sales 2,500

Sales Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Dec. 31 Sundries as 14,010
per sales book

Sales Return Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 Sundries as 653
Dec.31 per sales
retur n book

4.6 Journal Proper

A book maintained to record transactions, which do not find place in special
journals, is known as Journal Proper or Journal Residual.
Following transactions are recorded in this journal:
1. Opening Entry: In order to open new set of books in the beginning of new
accounting year and record therein opening balances of assets, liabilities
and capital, the opening entry is made in the journal.
2. Adjustment Entries: In order to update ledger account on accrual basis,
such entries are made at the end of the accounting period. Such as
Rent outstanding, Prepaid insurance, Depreciation and Commission
received in advance.

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130 Accountancy

3. Rectification entries: To rectify errors in recording transactions in the books

of original entry and their posting to ledger accounts this journal is used.
4. Transfer entries: Drawing account is transferred to capital account at the
end of the accounting year. Expenses accounts and revenue accounts
which are not balanced at the time of balancing are opened to record specific
transactions. Accounts relating to operation of business such as Sales,
Purchases, Opening Stock, Income, Gains and Expenses, etc. and drawing
are closed at the end of the year and their Total/balances are transferred
to Trading and Profit and Loss account by recording the journal entries.
These are also called closing entries.
5. Other entries: In addition to the above mentioned entries in the points
number 1 to 4, recording of the following transaction is done in the
journal proper :
(i) At the time of a dishonour of a cheque the entry for cancellation for
discount received or discount allowed earlier.
(ii) Purchase/sale of items on credit other than goods.
(iii) Goods withdrawn by the owner for personal use.
(iv) Goods distributed as samples for sales promotion.
(v) Endorsement and dishonour of bills of exchange.
(vi) Transaction in respect of consignment and joint venture, etc.
(vii) Loss of goods by fire/theft/spoilage.

Test Your Understanding - I

Select the Correct Answer

(a) When a firm maintains a cash book, it need not maintain ;
(i) Journal Proper
(ii) Purchases (journal) book
(iii) Sales (journal) book
(iv) Bank and cash account in the ledger
(b) Double column cash book records:
(i) All transactions
(ii) Cash and bank transactions
(iii) Only cash transactions
(iv) Only credit transactions
(c) Goods purchased on cash are recorded in the :
(i) Purchases (jour nal) book
(ii) Sales (journal) book
(iii) Cash book
(iv) Purchases return (jour nal)book

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(d) Cash book does not record transaction of :

(i) Cash nature
(ii) Credit nature
(iii) Cash and credit nature
(iv) None of these
(e) Total of these transactions is posted in purchase account :
(i) Purchase of furnitur e
(ii) Cash and credit purchase
(iii) Purchases return
(iv) Purchase of stationery
(f) The periodic total of sales retur n jour nal is posted to :
(i) Sales account
(ii) Goods account
(iii) Purchases return account
(iv) Sales retur n account
(g) Credit balance of bank account in cash book shows :
(i) Overdraft
(ii) Cash deposited in our bank
(iii) Cash withdrawn from bank
(iv) None of these
(h) The periodic total of purchases retur n jour nal is posted to :
(i) Purchase account
(ii) Profit and loss account
(iii) Purchase retur ns account
(iv) Furnitur e account
(i) Balancing of account means :
(i) Total of debit side
(ii) Total of credit side
(iii) Difference in total of debit & credit
(iv) None of these

4.7 Balancing the Accounts

Accounts in the ledger are periodically balanced, generally at the end of the
accounting period, with the object of ascertaining the net position of each amount.
Balancing of an account means that the two sides are totaled and the difference
between them is shown on the side, which is shorter in order to make their
totals equal. The words ‘balance c/d’ are written against the amount of the
difference between the two sides. The amount of balance is brought (b/d) down
in the next accounting period indicating that it is a continuing account, till
finally settled or closed.
In case the debit side exceeds the credit side, the difference is written on the
credit side, if the credit side exceeds the debit side, the difference between the

2015-16
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two appears on the debit side and is called debit and credit balance respectively.
The accounts of expenses losses and gains/revenues are not balanced but are
closed by transferring to trading and profit and loss account. The balancing of
the an account is illustrated below with the help of an example explaining the
complete process of recording the transactions, posting to ledger and balancing
there of.

Date Details

2014
Apr. 01 Commenced business with cash Rs. 1,00,000.
Apr.02 Deposited in bank Rs. 40,000.
Apr. 02 Purchased for cash furniture Rs. 6,000;
Land Rs. 42,000.
Apr.l 03 Paid cheque to M/s Malika & Brothers for purchase of electric wir es and
plugs Rs. 17,000.
Apr. 04 Bought of M/s Handa Co. vide invoice no. 544:
(i) 28 Immersion Heaters 1,000 Watt of Smg. Ltd. @ Rs. 50, and
(ii) 40 Tube lights @ Rs.35. trade discount @ 12.5%.
Apr.l 04 Purchased stationery for cash Rs. 2,300.
Apr. 05 Loan from M/s Dayal T raders. @ 6% Rs. 25,000 and deposited money in
the bank on the next day.
Apr. 05 Paid cartage Rs. 80 and other charges Rs. 20.
Apr. 06 Bought of M/s Burari. Ltd. on account vide Invoice No. 125:
(i) 50 Table lamps (Universal) @ Rs. 80 :
(ii) 20 Electric kettles (General) @ Rs. 125.
(iii) 5 Electric iron@ Rs. 300. trade discount 20%.
Apr. 07 Sales to M/s Ramneek on account vide invoice no. 871:
(i) 10 Immersion heaters1000 watt @ Rs. 60.
(ii) 5 T able lamps @ Rs. 100:
(iii) 2 Electric irons @ 320.
Apr. 08 Sales to M/s Kapadia on credit vide invoice no. 880
(i) 15 Immersion heaters @ 60:
(ii) 15 Tube lights @ Rs. 38.
Apr. 10 Return inwards from Ramneek :
(i) 2 Immersion heaters,
(ii) 1 Electric iron.
Apr. 11 Paid rent by cheque Rs. 4,000.
Apr. 11 Purchased from M/s Rungta. for cash:
(i) 5 Immersion heaters 1000 watt @ Rs. 45.
Apr. 12 Returned goods to Burari Ltd. :
(i) 3 Table lamps (Universal)
(ii) 2 Electric kettles
(iii) 1 Electric iron.

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Apr. 15 Purchased on account furniture from quality Furniture Ltd. Rs. 8,000.
Apr. 16 Paid for advertisement Rs. 1,200.
Apr. 18 Sales to M/s Daman on account vide invoice no. 902:
(i) 10 Electric kettles (General) @ Rs. 130.
Apr. 19 Purchased from M/s Kochhar Co. on credit vide invoice no.205:
(i) 25 Electric Mixers @ Rs. 600.
(ii) 40 Electric irons (Special) @ Rs. 540. trade discount 20%.
Apr. 20 Sales to M/s Ramneek on account vide bill no.925: 4 Electric Mixers
@ Rs. 600.
Apr. 21 Received cheque of Rs.3,700 from M/s Ramneek for full and final settlement
of claim. The cheque deposited in bank after two days.
Apr. 21 Purchased from M/s Burari Ltd. on cr edit vide invoice no.157:
(i) 10 Electric kettles @ Rs. 125
(ii) 20 Electric lamps @ Rs. 80 trade discount @ 20%.
Apr. 23 Sales to M/s Nutan on account vide invoice no.958:
(i) 2 Electric Mixers @ Rs. 600.
Apr. 23 Cash sales of Electric wires and plugs Rs. 14,500, cash discount allowed
Rs. 200.
Apr. 24 Cash purchases from M/s Hitesh:
(i) 5 Electric fans @ Rs. 740.
Apr. 25 Paid electricity bill Rs. 1,320.
Apr. 25 Made full and final payment to M/s Burari Ltd. by cheque discount allowed
by them Rs. 320.
Apr. 26 Purchased stationery on account from M/s Mohit Mart Rs. 3,200.
Apr. 27 Sales to M/s Daman on account vide Invoice No. 981:
(i) 15 Table lamps @ Rs. 100
(ii) 10 Immersion heaters 1000 watt @ Rs. 80.
Apr. 28 Deposited in bank Rs. 5,000.
Apr. 30 Withdrew Rs. 8,000 for personal use.
Apr. 30 Paid telephone bill Rs. 2700 by cheque.
Apr. 30 Paid insurance Rs. 1,600 by cheque.
Apr. 30 Paid to M/s Handa Co. Rs.2,450 by cheque; and Rs. 28,000 to M/s Kochhar
and co. by cheque who allowed Rs. 1,280 as discount.

Purchases (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Supplier L.F. Amount
No. (Account to be credited) Rs.

2014
Apr. 04 544 Handa Co. 2,450
Apr. 06 125 Burari Ltd. 6,400
Apr. 19 205 Kochhar Co. 29,280
Apr. 21 157 Burari Ltd. 2,280
Apr. 30 40,410

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134 Accountancy

Sales (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Customer L.F. Amount

No. (Account to be debited) Rs.
2014
Apr. 07 871 Ramneek 1,740
Apr. 08 880 Kapadia 1,470
Apr. 18 902 Daman 1,300
Apr. 20 925 Ramneek 2,400
Apr. 23 958 Nutan 1,200
Apr. 27 981 Daman 2,300
Apr. 30 10,410

Purchases Return (Journal) Book

Date Debit Name of the Supplier L.F. Amount
(Account to be debited)

2014
Apr. 12 Burari Ltd. 632
Apr. 30 632

Sales Return (Journal) Book

Date Credit Name of the customer L.F. Amount
(Account to be credited) Rs.
2014
Apr. 10 Ramneek 440
Apr. 30 440

Journal Proper
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 15 Fur niture A/c Dr. 8,000
To Quality Fur niture A/c 8,000
(Purchase of fur niture on credit)
Apr. 25 Burari Ltd A/c Dr. 320
To Discount A/c 320
(Discount r eceived)
Apr. 26 Stationery A/c Dr. 3,200
To Mohit Mart A/c 3,200
(Purchase of Stationery items on credit)
Apr. 30 Kochhar A/c 1,280
To Discount A/c 1,280
(Discount r eceived)
Total 12,800 12,800

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Recording of Transactions - II 135

Cash Book

Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. April
01 Capital 1,00,000 02 Bank C 40,000
02 Cash C 40,000 02 Furniture 6,000
05 6% Loan 25,000 02 Land 42,000
06 Cash C 25,000 03 Pur chases 17,000
21 Ramneek 3,700 04 Stationery 2,300
23 Cash C 3,700 05 Miscellaneous 100
expenses
23 Sales 14,500 06 Bank C 25,000
28 Cash C 5,000 11 Rent 4,000
11 Pur chases 225
16 Advertisement 1,200
23 Bank C 3,700
24 Pur chases 3,700
25 Electric 1,320
charges
25 Burari Ltd. 7,728
28 Bank C 5,000
30 Drawings 8,000
30 Telephone 2,700
charges
30 Insurance 1,600
30 Handa Co. 2,450
30 Kochhar & Co. 28,000
30 Balance c/d 4,655 10,222
1,43,200 73,700 1,43,200 73,700
May
01 Balance b/d 4,655 10,222

The recorded transactions will be posted in the ledger.

Capital Account
Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr.30 Balance c/d 1,00,000 Apr.01 Cash 1,00,000
1,00,000 1,00,000

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136 Accountancy

6% Loan Account
Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 30 Balance c/d 25,000 April 05 Cash 25,000
25,000 25,000

Ramneek’s Account
Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 07 Sales 1,740 April10 Sales return 440
Apr. 20 Sales 2,400 April21 Cash 3,700
4,140 4,140

Sales Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2014
Apr. 23 Cash 14,500
Apr. 30 Sundries 10,410
24,910

Furniture Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2014 2014
Apr. 02 Cash 6,000 Apr. 30 Balance c/d 14,000
Apr. 15 Quality 8,000
Furniture
14,000 14,000

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Recording of Transactions - II 137

Land Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2014 2014
Apr. 02 Cash 42,000 Apr.30 Balance c/d 42,000
42,000 42,000

Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2014
Apr. 03 Bank 17,000
Apr. 11 Bank 225
Apr. 24 Cash 3,700
Apr. 30 Sundries 40,410
61,335

Stationery Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 04 Cash 2,300
Apr. 26 Mohit mart 3,200
5,500

Miscellaneous Expenses Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 05 Cash 100
100

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138 Accountancy

Rent Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 04 Bank 4,000
4,000

Advertisement Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr.16 Cash 1,200
1,200

Electric Charges Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 25 Cash 1,320
1,320

Drawings Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 30 Cash 8,000
8,000

Telephone Charges Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 30 Bank 2,700
2,700

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Insurance Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 30 Bank 1,600
1,600

Quality Furniture Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 30 Balance c/d 8,000 Apr. 15 Furniture 8,000
8,000 8,000

Mohit Mart Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 30 Balance c/d 3,200 Apr. 26 Stationery 3,200
3,200 3,200

Purchases Return Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 30 Sundries 632
632

Handa Company Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 30 Bank 2,450 Apr. 04 Purchases 2,450
2,450 2,450

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140 Accountancy

Burari Ltd. Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 12 Purchases 632 Apr. 06 Purchases 6,400
return
Apr. 25 Bank 7,728 Apr. 21 Purchases 2,280
Discount 320
8,680 8,680

Kochhar Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 30 Bank 28,000 Apr. 19 Purchases 29,280
Discount 1,280
29,280 29,280

Sales Return Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 30 Sundries 440 Apr. 30
. 440

Kapadia Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 08 Sales 1,470 Apr. 30 Balance c/d 1,470
1,470 1,470

Daman Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 18 Sales 1,300 Apr. 30 Balance c/d 3,600
Apr. 27 Sales 2,300
3,600 3,600

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Nutan Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 23 Sales 1,200 Apr. 30 Balance c/d 1,200
1,200 1,200

Discount Received Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 25 Burari Ltd 320
Apr. 30 Kochhar 1,280
1,600

Test Your Understanding - II

1. Fill in the Corr ect Words :
(a) Cash book is a ......... jour nal.
(b) In Journal proper, only.........discount is recorded.
(c) Return of goods pur chased on credit to the suppliers will be entered in ......
Journal.
(d) Assets sold on credit ar e entered in .........
(e) Double column cash book records transaction relating to .........and .........
(f) Total of the debit side of cash book is .........than the credit side.
(g) Cash book does not record the .........transactions.
(h) In double column cash book .........transactions are also recorded.
(i) Credit balance shown by a bank column in cash book is .........
(j) The amount paid to the petty cashier at the beginning of a period is known as
.........amount.
(k) In purchase book goods purchased on .........are recorded.
2. State whether the following statements are True or False :
(a) Journal is a book of secondary entry.
(b) One debit account and mor e than one credit account in a entry is called
compound entry.
(c) Assets sold on credit ar e entered in sales journal.
(d) Cash and credit purchases are entered in purchasejJour nal.
(e) Cash sales are entered in sales journal.
(f) Cash book records transactions relating to receipts and payments.
(g) Ledger is a subsidiary book.
(h) Petty cash book is a book having record of big payments.

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(i) Cash received is entered on the debit side of cash book.

(j) Transaction recorded both on debit and credit side of cash book is known as
contra entry.
(k) Balancing of account means total of debit and cr edit side.
(l) Credit purchase of machine is entered in purchase journal.

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Posting • Sales (Journal) Book
• Day books • Balancing of Accounts
• Cash book • Purchase (Jour nal) book
• Petty Cash book • Purchases retur n (Journal) Book
• Sales retur n (Journal) Book

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Journal : Basic book of original entry.
2. Cash book : A book used to record all cash r eceipts and payments.
3. Petty cash book : A book used to record small cash payments.
4. Purchase journal : A special journal in which only credit purchases are recorded
5. Sales journal : A special journal in which only cr edit sales are recorded
6. Purchases Return Book : A book in which retur n of merchandise purchased is
recorded.
7. Sales Return Book : A special book in which returns of merchandise sold on
credit are recorded.

Questions For Practice

Short Answers
1. Briefly state how the cash book is both journal and a ledger.
2. What is the purpose of contra entry?
3. What are special purpose books?
4. What is petty cash book? How it is prepared?
5. Explain the meaning of posting of jour nal entries?
6. Define the purpose of maintaining subsidiary jour nal.
7. Write the difference between retur n Inwards and return ouwards.
8. What do you understand by ledger folio?
9. What is difference between trade discount and cash discount?
10. Write the process of preparing ledger from a journal.
11. What do you understand by Imprest amount in petty cash book?
Long Answers
1. Explain the need for drawing up the special purpose books.
2. What is cash book? Explain the types of cash book.
3. What is contra entry? How can you deal this entry while preparing double
column cash book?

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4. What is petty cash book? Write the advantages of petty cash book?
5. Describe the advantages of sub-dividing the Journal.
6. What do you understand by balancing of account?

Numerical Questions
Simple Cash Book
1. Enter the following transactions in a simple cash book for December 2014:
Rs.
01 Cash in hand 12,000
05 Cash received from Bhanu 4,000
07 Rent Paid 2,000
10 Purchased goods Murari for cash 6,000
15 Sold goods for cash 9,000
18 Purchase stationery 300
22 Cash paid to Rahul on account 2,000
28 Paid salary 1,000
30 Paid rent 500
(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 13,200)
2. Record the following transaction in simple cash book for November 2014:
Rs
01 Cash in hand 12,500
04 Cash paid to Hari 600
07 Purchased goods 800
12 Cash received fr om Amit 1,960
16 Sold goods for cash 800
20 Paid to Manish 590
25 Paid cartage 100
31 Paid salary 1,000
(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 12,170)
3. Enter the following transaction in Simple cash book for December 2014:
Rs.
01 Cash in hand 7,750
06 Paid to Sonu 45
08 Purchased goods 600
15 Received cash from Parkash 960
20 Cash sales 500
25 Paid to S.Kumar 1,200
30 Paid rent 600
(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 6,765)
Bank Column Cash Book
4. Record the following transactions in a bank column cash book for December
2014:
Rs.
01 Started business with cash 80,000
04 Deposited in bank 50,000

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10 Received cash from Rahul 1,000

15 Bought goods for cash 8,000
22 Bought goods by cheque 10,000
25 Paid to Shyam by cash 20,000
30 Drew from Bank for office use 2,000
31 Rent paid by cheque 1,000
(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 5,000: cash at bank Rs. 37,000)
5. Prepare a double column cash book with the help of following information
for December 2014:
Rs.
01 Started business with cash 1,20,000
03 Cash paid into bank 50,000
05 Purchased goods fr om Sushmita 20,000
06 Sold goods to Dinker and received a cheque 20,000
10 Paid to Sushmita cash 20,000
14 Cheque received on December 06, 2010 deposited into bank
18 Sold goods to Rani 12,000
20 Cartage paid in cash 500
22 Received cash fr om Rani 12,000
27 Commission r eceived 5,000
30 Dr ew cash for personal use 2,000
(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 64,500 : Cash at bank Rs. 70,000)
6. Enter the following transactions in double column cash book of M/s Ambica
Traders for November 2014:
Rs.
01 Commenced business with cash 50,000
03 Opened bank account with ICICI 30,000
05 Purchased goods for cash 10,000
10 Purchased office machine for cash 5,000
15 Sales goods on credit from Rohan and received chaeque 7,000
18 Cash sales 8,000
20 Rohan’s cheque deposited into bank
22 Paid cartage by cheque 500
25 Cash withdrawn for personal use 2,000
30 Paid rent by cheque 1,000
(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 11,000, Cash at bank Rs. 35,500)
7. Pr epare double column cash book from the following information for
September 2014:
Rs.
01 Cash In hand 7,500
Bank overdraft 3,500
03 Paid wages 200
05 Cash sales 7,000
10 Cash deposited into bank 4,000
15 Goods purchased and paid by cheque 2,000
20 Paid rent 500

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25 Drew from bank for personal use 400

30 Salary paid 1,000
(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 8,800, Bank overdraft Rs. 1,900)
8. Enter the following transaction in a double column cash book of M/s.Mohit
Traders for January 2014:
Rs.
01 Cash in hand 3,500
Bank overdraft 2,300
03 Goods purchased for cash 1,200
05 Paid wages 200
10 Cash sales 8,000
15 Deposited into bank 6,000
22 Sold goods for cheque which was deposited into 2,000
bank same day
25 Paid rent by cheque 1,200
28 Dr ew from bank for personal use 1,000
31 Bought goods by cheque 1,000
(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 4,100 Cash at bank Rs. 2,500)
9. Prepare double column cash book from the following transactions for the
year December 2014:
Rs.
01 Cash in hand 17,500
Cash at bank 5,000
03 Purchased goods for cash 3,000
05 Received cheque from Jasmeet 10,000
08 Sold goods for cash 7,000
10 Jasmeet’s cheque deposited into bank
12 Purchased goods and paid by cheque 20,000
15 Paid establishment expenses through bank 1,000
18 Cash sales 7,000
20 Deposited into bank 10,000
24 Paid trade expenses 500
27 Received commission by cheque 6,000
29 Paid Rent 2,000
30 Withdrew cash for personal use 1,200
31 Salary paid 6,000
(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 8,800 cash at bank Rs. 10,000)
10. M/s Ruchi trader started their cash book with the following balances on
Dec. 01 2010 : cash in hand Rs.1,354 and balance in bank current account
Rs.7,560. He had the following transaction in the month of December, 2014:
Rs.
03 Cash sales 2,300
05 Purchased goods, paid by cheque 6,000
08 Cash sales 10,000
12 Paid trade expenses 700
15 Sales goods, received cheque(deposited same day) 20,000
18 Purchased motor car paid by cheque 15,000

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20 Cheque received from Manisha(deposited same day) 10,000

22 Cash Sales 7,000
25 Manisha’s cheque returned dishonoured
28 Paid Rent 2,000
29 Paid telephone expenses by cheque 500
31 Cash withdrawn for personal use 2,000
Prepare bank column cash book
(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 15,954 cash at bank Rs. 6,060)
Petty Cash Book
11. Prepare petty cash book from the following transactions. The imprest amount
is Rs.2,000.
2014 Rs.
January
01 Paid cartage 50
02 STD charges 40
02 Bus fare 20
03 Postage 30
04 Refr eshment for employees 80
06 Courier charges 30
08 Refr eshment of customer 50
10 Cartage 35
15 Taxi fare to manager 70
18 Stationery 65
20 Bus fare 10
22 Fax charges 30
25 Telegrams charges 35
27 Postage stamps 200
29 Repair on furnitur e 105
30 Laundry expenses 115
31 Miscellaneous expenses 100
(Ans. Cash balance Rs. 925)
12. Record the following transactions during the week ending Dec.30, 2014
with a weekly imprest Rs. 500.
2014 Rs.
December
24 Stationery 100
25 Bus fare 12
25 Cartage 40
26 Taxi fare 80
27 Wages to casual labour 90
29 Postage 80
(Ans. Cash balance Rs. 98)
Other Subsidiary Books
13. Enter the following transactions in the Purchase Journal (Book) of
M/s Gupta Traders of July 2014:

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01 Bought from Rahul Traders as per invoice no.20041

40 Registers @ Rs.60 each
80 Gel Pens @ Rs.15 each
50 note books @ Rs.20 each
Trade discount 10%.
15 Bought from Global Stationers as per invoice no.1132
40 Ink Pads @ Rs.8 each
50 Files @ Rs.10 each
20 Color Books @ Rs. 20 each
Trade Discount 5%
23 Purchased fr om Lamba Furnitur e as per invoice no.3201
2 Chairs @ 600 per chair
1 T able @ 1000 per table
25 Bought from Mumbai T raders as per invoice no.1111
10 Paper Rim @ Rs.100 per rim
400 drawing Sheets @ Rs.3 each
20 Packet water colour @ Rs.40 per packet
(Ans: Total of purchases book Rs. 8,299)
14. Enter the following transactions in sales (journal) book of M/s.Bansal
electronics:
2014
September
01 Sold to Amit T raders as per bill no.4321
20 Pocket Radio @ 70 per Radio
2, T.V. set, B&W.(6”) @ 800 Per T.V.
10. Sold to Arun Electronics as per bill no.4351
5 T.V. sets (20”) B&W @ Rs.3,000 per T.V.
2 T.V. sets (21”) Colour @ Rs. 4,800 per T .V.
22 Sold to Handa Electronics as per bill no.4,399
10 T ape recorders @ Rs. 600 each
5 Walkman @ Rs. 300 each
28 Sold to Harish T rader as per bill no.4430
10 Mixer Juicer Grinder @ Rs. 800 each.
(Ans. Total of sales book Rs. 43,100)
15. Prepare a purchases retur n (journal) book from the following transactions
for January 2014.
2014 Rs.
January
05 Returned goods to M/s Kartik Traders 1,200
10 Goods returned to Sahil Pvt. Ltd. 2,500
17 Goods returned to M/s Kohinoor Traders.
for list price Rs.2,000 less 10% trade discount.
28 Return outwards to M/s Handa Traders 550
(Ans. Total of purchases return book Rs. 6,050)

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16. Prepare Return Inward Journal(Book) from the following transactions of

M/s Bansal Electronics for November 2014:
2014 Rs.
November
04 M/s Gupta Traders returned the goods 1,500
10 Goods returned from M/s Harish Traders 800
18 M/s Rahul Traders returned the goods not as per 1,200
specifications
28 Goods returned from Sushil Traders 1,000
(Ans : Total of sales return Rs. 4,500)
Recording, Posting and Balancing
17. Prepare proper subsidiary books and post them to the ledger from the
following transactions for the month of February 2014:
2014 Rs.
February
01 Goods sold to Sachin 5,000
04 Purchase from Kushal Traders 2,480
06 Sold goods to Manish Traders 2,100
07 Sachin returned goods 600
08 Returns to Kushal Traders 280
10 Sold to Mukesh 3,300
14 Purchased from Kunal Traders 5,200
15 Furniture purchased from Tarun 3,200
17 Bought of Naresh 4,060
20 Return to Kunal Traders 200
22 Return inwards from Mukesh 250
24 Purchased goods from Kirit & Co. for list price of 5,700
less 10% trade discount
25 Sold to Shri Chand goods 6600
less 5% trade discount
26 Sold to Ramesh Brothers 4,000
28 Return outwards to Kirit and Co. 1,000
less 10% trade discount
28 Ramesh Brothers returned goods Rs. 500.
Ans : (Total of sales book Rs.20,670, purchases book Rs.16,870,
Purchases retur n book Rs.1,380, sales retur n book Rs.1,350).
18. The following balances of ledger of M/s Marble Traders on April 01, 2014
2014 Rs.
April
Cash in hand 6,000
Cash at bank 12,000
Bills receivable 7,000
Ramesh (Cr.) 3,000
Stock (Goods) 5,400
Bills payable 2,000
Rahul (Dr.) 9,700
Himanshu (Dr.) 10,000

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Transactions during the month were:

April Rs.
01 Goods sold to Manish 3,000
02 Purchased goods from Ramesh 8,000
03 Received cash from Rahul in full settlement 9,200
05 Cash received from Himanshu on account 4,000
06 paid to Remesh by cheque 6,000.
08 Rent paid by cheque 1,200
10 Cash received from manish 3,000
12 Cash sales 6,000
14 Goods returned to Ramesh 1,000
15 Cash paid to Ramesh in full settlement 3,700
Discount received 300
18 Goods sold to Kushal 10,000
20 Paid trade expenses 200
21 Drew for personal use 1,000
22 Goods return from Kushal 1,200
24 Cash received from Kushal 6,000
26 Paid for stationery 100
27 Postage charges 60
28 Salary Paid 2,500
29 Goods purchased from Sheetal Traders 7,000
30 Sold goods to Kirit 6000
Goods purchased from Handa Traders 5,000
Journlise the above transactions and post them to the ledger.

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding - I
a. (iv) b. (ii) c. (iii) d. (ii) e. (ii) f. (iv) g .(ii) h. (iii) i. (iii)

Test Your Understanding - II

1. (a) subsidiary (b) cash (c) purchases return (d) journal proper
(e) cash, bank (f) more (g) credit (h) bank
(i) over draft (j) imprest (k) credit
2. (a) False (b) True (c) False (d) False
(e) False (f) True (g) T rue (h) False
(i) T rue (j) True (k) False (l) False

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Bank Reconciliation Statement 5

I n chapter 4, you have learnt that

the business organisations keep a record of their
cash and bank transactions in a cash book. The
cash book also serves the purpose of both the cash
account and the bank account and shows the
balance of both at the end of the period.
Once the cash book has been balanced, it is
usual to check its details with the records of the
firm’s bank transactions as recorded by the bank.
To enable this check, the cashier needs to ensure
that the cash book is completely up to date and a
recent bank statement (or a bank passbook) has
been obtained from the bank. A bank statement
or a bank passbook is a copy of a bank account as
LEARNING OBJECTIVES shown by the bank records. This enable the bank
After studying this customers to check their funds in the bank
chapter, you will be able regularly and update their own records of
to : transactions that have occurred. An illustrative
• state the meaning and bank passbook of a current account is shown in
need for the preparation figure 5.1.
of bank reconciliation
statement; The amount of balance shown in the passbook
• identify causes of or the bank statement must tally with the balance
d i f fer ence between as shown in the cash book. But in practice, these
bank balance as per are usually found to be different. Hence, we have
cash book and pass to ascertain the causes for such difference. It will
book;
be observed that a bank statement/passbook
• pr epare the bank
reconciliation statement; shows all deposits in the credit column and
• ascertain the correct withdrawals in the debit column. Thus, if deposits
bank balance as per exceed withdrawals it shows a credit balance and
cash book; if withdrawals exceed deposits it will show a debit
balance (overdraft).

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Bank Reconciliation Statement 151

5.1 Need for Reconciliation

It is generally experienced that when a comparison is made between the bank
balance as shown in the firm’s cash book, the two balances do not tally.
Hence, we have to first ascertain the causes of difference thereof and then
reflect them in a statement called Bank Reconciliation Statement to reconcile
(tally) the two balances.
In order to prepare a bank reconciliation statement we need to have a
bank balance as per the cash book and a bank statement as on a particular
day along with details of both the books. If the two balances differ, the entries
in both the books are compared and the items on account of which the
difference has arisen are ascertained with the respective amounts involved so
that the bank reconciliation statement may be prepared. Its format shown in
figure 5.5.

Particulars Amount
Rs.

Balance as per cash book .......

Add: Cheques issued but not presented .......
Interest cr edited by the bank .......
.......
Less: Cheques deposited but not credited by the bank .......
Bank charges not recorded in the cash book .......
Balance as per the passbook xxxx

Fig. 5.2 : Proforma of bank r econciliation statement

It can also be prepared with two amount columns one showing additions
(+ column) and another showing deductions (-column). For convenience, we
usually adopt this treatment.

Particulars Amount Amount

Rs. Rs.
(+) (–)
Balance as per cash book ......
Cheques issued but not presented ` ......
Interest cr edited by the bank ......
Cheque deposited but not credited by the bank ......
Bank charges not recorded in the cash book ......
Balance as per the passbook. xxxx

Fig. 5.3 : Profor ma of bank reconcitiation statement (table form)

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 152
DHERENDRA NATIONAL BANK MULTI-MODULE PACKAGE DATE : 30/09/2014
CONNAUGHT PLACE STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT OP.ID : GK
FROM 01/08/2014 TO 30/09/2014 PAGE NO. : 1
ACCOUNT NO. 03355
NAME : DEV PANDIT
KHADWAI, RUNAKUT A, DELHI-34

DATE PARTICULARS CHEQUE DEBIT CREDIT BALANCE + REMARKS

No. Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. P.

Opening 50,782.30 +
Balance :
04/08/2014 DELHI PLA 356376 35,000.00 15,782.30 +
07/08/2014 TO SELF 356377 10,000.00 5,782.30 +
13/08/2014 BY CLG 10,673,00 16,455,30 +
13/08/2014 BY CLG 9,143.00 25,598.30 +
17/08/2014 TO SELF 356378 20,000.00 5,598.30 +
21/08/2014 BY CLG 25,808.00 31,406.30 +
26/08/2014 BY CLG 32,949.00 64,355,30 +
02/09/2014 To SELF 356381 30,000.00 34,355.30 +
04/09/2014 DELHI PLASTIC 356382 10,000.00 24,355.30 +
08/09/2014 ICICI 657755 6,074.00 18,281.30 +
09/09/2014 BY CLG 3,146.00 21,427.30 +
13/09/2014 TO SELF 356380 9,500,00 11,927.30 +
15/09/2014 BY CLG 5,320.00 17,247.30 +
15/09/2014 BY CLG 18,564.00 35,811.30 +
16/09/2014 TO SERVICE CHARGES 120.00 35,691.30 +
21/09/2014 TO SELF 356383 20,000.00 15,691.30 +
25/09/2014 TO SELF 356385 10,000.00 5,691.30 +
27/09/2014 BY CLG 16,198.00 21,889.30 +

FOR DHERENDRA NATIONAL BANK

ACCOUNTANT/MANAGER

Accountancy
Fig. 5.1 : Specimen of bank statement (current account)

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Bank Reconciliation Statement 153

Reconciliation of the cash book and the bank passbook balances amounts
to an explanation of differences between them. The differences between the
cash book and the bank passbook is caused by:
• timing differences on recording of the transactions.
• errors made by the business or by the bank.

5.1.1 Timing Differences

When a business compares the balance of its cash book with the balance
shown by the bank passbook, there is often a difference, which is caused
by the time gap in recording the transactions relating either to payments
or receipts. The factors affecting time gap includes :

5.1.1(a) Cheques issued by the bank but not yet presented for payment
When cheques are issued by the firm to suppliers or creditors of the firm,
these are immediately entered on the credit side of the cash book. However,
the receiving party may not present the cheque to the bank for payment
immediately. The bank will debit the firm’s account only when these cheques
are actually paid by the bank. Hence, there is a time lag between the issue of
a cheque and its presentation to the bank which may cause the difference
between the two balances.

5.1.1(b) Cheques paid into the bank but not yet collected
When firm receives cheques from its customers (debtors), they are
immediately recorded in the debit side of the cash book. This increases
the bank balance as per the cash book. However, the bank credits the
customer account only when the amount of cheques are actually realised.
The clearing of cheques generally takes few days especially in case of
outstation cheques or when the cheques are paid-in at a bank branch
other than the one at which the account of the firm is maintained. This
leads to a cause of difference between the bank balance shown by the
cash book and the balance shown by the bank passbook.

5.1.1(c) Direct debits made by the bank on behalf of the customer

Sometimes, the bank deducts amount for various services from the account
without the firm’s knowledge. The firm comes to know about it only when
the bank statement arrives. Examples of such deductions include: cheque
collection charges, incidental charges, interest on overdraft, unpaid cheques
deducted by the bank – i.e. stopped or bounced, etc. As a result, the balance
as per passbook will be less than the balance as per cash book.

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5.1.1(d) Amounts directly deposited in the bank account

There are instances when debtors(customers) directly deposits money into firm’s
bank account. But, the firm does not receive the intimation from any source till
it receives the bank statement. In this case, the bank records the receipts in the
firm’s account at the bank but the same is not recorded in the firm’s cash book.
As a result, the balance shown in the bank passbook will be more than the
balance shown in the firm’s cash book.

5.1.1(e) Interest and dividends collected by the bank

When the bank collects interest and dividend on behalf of the customer, then these
are immediately credited to the customers account. But the firm will know about
these transactions and record the same in the cash book only when it receives a
bank statement. Till then the balances as per the cash book and passbook will
differ.

5.1.1(f) Direct payments made by the bank on behalf of the customers

Sometimes the customers give standing instructions to the bank to make some
payment regularly on stated days to the third parties. For example, telephone
bills, insurance premium, rent, taxes, etc. are directly paid by the bank on behalf
of the customer and debited to the account. As a result, the balance as per the
bank passbook would be less than the one shown in the cash book.

5.1.1(g) Cheques deposited/bills discounted dishonoured

If a cheque deposited by the firm is dishonoured or a bill of exchange drawn by
the business firm is discounted with the bank is dishonoured on the date of
maturity, the same is debited to customer’s account by the bank. As this
information is not available to the firm immediately, there will be no entry in
the firm’s cash book regarding the above items. This will be known to the firm
when it receives a statement from the bank. As a result, the balance as per
the passbook would be less than the cash book balance.

5.1.2 Differences Caused by Errors

Sometimes the difference between the two balances may be accounted for by
an error on the part of the bank or an error in the cash book of the business.
This causes difference between the bank balance shown by the cash book
and the balance shown by the bank statement.

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Bank Reconciliation Statement 155

5.1.2(a) Errors committed in recording transaction by the firm

Omission or wrong recording of transactions relating to cheques issued, cheques
deposited and wrong totalling, etc. committed by the firm while recording entries
in the cash book cause difference between cash book and passbook balance.

5.1.2(b) Errors committed in recording transactions by the bank

Omission or wrong recording of transactions relating to cheques deposited
and wrong totalling, etc. committed by the bank while posting entries in the
passbook also cause differences between passbook and cash book balance.

Test Your Understanding - I

I. Read the following transactions and identify the cause of difference on the basis of
time gap or errors made by business firm/bank. Put a sign (ü ) for the corr ect
cause.

S.No. Transactions Time Gap Errors

made by
business/
bank
1. Cheques issued to customers but not
presented for payment.
2. Cheque amounting to Rs. 5,000 issued
to M/s. XYZ but recorded as Rs. 500
in the cash book.
3. Interest cr edited by the bank but yet
not recorded in the cash book.
4. Cheque deposited into the bank but
not yet collected by the bank.
5. Bank charges debited to firm’s current
account by the bank.

II. Fill in the blanks :

(i) Passbook is a copy of.............as it appears in the ledger of the bank.

(ii) When money is with drawn from the bank, the bank ............. the account of
the customer.
(iii) Nor mally, the cash book shows a debit balance, passbook shows
.............balance.
(iv) Favourable balance as per the cash book means .............balance in the bank
column of the cash book.

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(v) If the cash book balance is taken as starting point the items which make the
cash book balance smaller than the passbook must be .............for the purpose
of reconciliation.
(vi) If the passbook shows a favourable balance and if it is taken as the starting
point for the purpose of bank reconciliation statement then cheques issued
but not presented for payment should be .............to find out cash balance.
(vii) When the cheques are not presented for payment, favourable balance as per
the cash book is .............than that of the passbook.
(viii) When a banker collects the bills and credits the account passbook overdraft
shows .............balance.
(ix) If the overdraft as per the passbook is taken as the starting point, the cheques
issued but not presented are to be .............in the bank r econciliation
statement.
(x) When the passbook balance is taken as the starting point items which makes
the passbook balance .............than the balance in the cash book must be
deducted for the purpose of reconciliation.

5.2 Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statement

After identifying the causes of difference, the reconciliation may be done in
the following two ways:
(a) Preparation of bank reconciliation statement without adjusting cash book
balance.
(b) Preparation of bank reconciliation statement after adjusting cash book
balance.
It may be noted that in practice, the bank reconciliation statement is
prepared after adjusting the cash book balance, about which you will study
later in the chapter.

5.2.1 Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statement without adjusting Cash

Book Balance
To prepare bank reconciliation statement, under this approach, the balance
as per cash book or as per passbook is the starting item. The debit balance as
per the cash book means the balance of deposits held at the bank. Such a
balance will be a credit balance as per the passbook. Such a balance exists
when the deposits made by the firm are more than its withdrawals. It indicates
the favourable balance as per cash book or favourable balance as per the
passbook. On the other hand, the credit balance as per the cash book indicates
bank overdraft. In other words, the excess amount withdrawn over the amount
deposited in the bank. It is also known as unfavourable balance as per cash
book or unfavourable balance as per passbook.

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We may have four different situations while preparing the bank reconciliation
statement. These are :
1. When debit balance (favourable balance) as per cash book is given and
the balance as per passbook is to be ascertained.
2. When credit balance (favourable balance) as per passbook is given and
the balance as per cash book is to be ascertained.
3. When credit balance as per cash book (unfavourable balance/overdraft
balance) is given and the balance as per passbook is to ascertained.
4. When debit balance as per passbook (unfavourable balance/overdraft
balance) is given and the cash book balance as per is to ascertained.

5.2.1(a) Dealing with favourable balances

The following steps may be initiated to prepare the bank reconciliation
statement:
(i) The date on which the statement is prepared is written at the top, as
part of the heading.
(ii) The first item in the statement is generally the balance as shown by the
cash book. Alternatively, the starting point can also be the balance as
per passbook.
(iii) The cheques deposited but not yet collected are deducted.
(iv) All the cheques issued but not yet presented for payment, amounts
directly deposited in the bank account are added.
(v) All the items of charges such as interest on overdraft, payment by bank
on standing instructions and debited by the bank in the passbook but
not entered in cash book, bills and cheques dishonoured etc. are
deducted.
(vi) All the credits given by the bank such as interest on dividends collected,
etc. and direct deposits in the bank are added.
(vii) Adjustment for errors are made according to the principles of rectification
of errors. (The rectification of errors has been discussed in detail in
chapter 6.)
(viii) Now the net balance shown by the statement should be same as shown
by the passbook.
It may be noted that treatment of all items shall be the reverse of the above
if we adjust passbook balance as the starting point.(see illustration 3)
The following solved illustrations will help you understand dealing with
favourable balance as per cash book and passbook.

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Illustration 1
From the following particulars of Mr. Vinod, prepare bank reconciliation statement as on
March 31, 2014.
1. Bank balance as per cash book Rs. 50,000.
2. Cheques issued but not presented for payment Rs. 6,000.
3. The bank had directly collected dividend of Rs. 8,000 and credited to bank account
but was not enter ed in the cash book.
4. Bank charges of Rs. 400 were not entered in the cash book.
5. A cheques for Rs. 6,000 was deposited but not collected by the bank .

Solution
Bank Reconciliation Statement of Mr. Vinod as on March 31, 2014
Particulars + –
Rs. Rs.

1. Balance as per cash book 50,000

2. Cheques issued but not presented for payment 6,000
3. Dividends collected by the bank 8,000
4. Cheque deposited but not credited by the bank 6,000
5. Bank charges debited by the bank 400
6. Balance as per passbook. 57,600

64,000 64,000

Illustration 2
From the following particulars of Anil & Co. prepare a bank reconciliation statement as
on August 31, 2014.
1. Balance as per the cash book Rs. 54,000.
2. Rs. 100 bank incidental charges debited to Anil & Co. account, which is not recorded
in cash book.
3. Cheques for Rs. 5,400 is deposited in the bank but not yet collected by the bank.
4. A cheque for Rs. 20,000 is issued by Anil & Co. not presented for payment.

Solution
Bank Reconciliation Statement of Anil & Co. as on August 31, 2014
Particulars (+) (–)
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
1. Balance as per cash book 54,000 -
2. Cheqeus issued but not presented for payment 20,000 -
3. Cheques deposited but not credited by the bank - 5,400
4. Bank incidental charges debited by the bank - 100
5. Balance as per passbook - 68,500
74,000 74,000

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Illustration 3
The bank passbook of M/s. Boss & Co. showed a balance of Rs. 45,000 on May 31, 2014.
1. Cheques issued before May 31, 2014, amounting to Rs. 25,940 had not been presented
for encashment.
2. Two cheques of Rs. 3,900 and Rs. 2,350 were deposited into the bank on May 31 but
the bank gave credit for the same in June, 2014.
3. There was also a debit in the passbook of Rs. 2,500 in respect of a cheque dishonoured
on 31.5.2014. Prepare a bank reconciliation statement as on
May 31, 2014.

Solution
Bank Reconciliation Statement of Bose & Co as on May 31, 2014
Particulars (+) (–)
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
1. Balance as per passbook 45,000
2. Cheques deposited but not collected by the bank 6,250
(Rs. 3,900+ Rs. 2,350)
3. Cheque dishonoured recorded only in passbook 2,500
4. Cheques issued but not presented for payment 25,940
5. Balance as per cash book 27,810
53,750 53,750

5.2.1(b) Dealing with overdrafts

So far we have dealt with bank reconciliation statement where bank balances
has been positive – i.e., there has been money in the bank account. However,
businesses sometimes have overdrafts at the bank. Overdrafts are where the
bank account becomes negative and the businesses in effect have borrowed
from the bank. This is shown in the cash book as a credit balance. In the
bank statement, where the balance is followed by Dr. (or sometimes OD) means
that there is an overdraft and called debit balance as per passbook.
An overdraft is treated as negative figure on a bank reconciliation statement.
The following solved illustration will help you understand the preparation of
bank reconciliation statement when there is an overdraft.

Illustration 4
On March 31, 2014, Rakesh had on overdraft of Rs. 8,000 as shown by his cash book.
Cheques amounting to Rs. 2,000 had been paid in by him but were not collected by the
bank. He issued cheques of Rs. 800 which were not presented to the bank for payment.
Ther e was a debit in his passbook of Rs. 60 for interest and Rs. 100 for bank charges.
Prepare bank reconciliation statement.

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160 Accountancy

Solution

Bank Reconciliation Statement of Rakesh as on April 01, 2014

Particulars (+) (–)

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

1. Overdraft as per cash book 8,000

2. Cheques deposited but not yet collectedcharged by the bank 2,000
3. Bank charges 60
4. Cheques issued but not presented for payment 800 100
5. Balance as per bank passbook (overdraft) 9,360
10,160 10,160

Illustration 5
On March 31, 2014 the bank column of the cash book of Agrawal Traders showed a credit
balance of Rs. 1,18,100 (Overdraft). On examining of the cash book and the bank statement,
it was found that :
1. Cheques received and recorded in the cash book but not sent to the bank of collection
Rs. 12,400.
2. Payment r eceived from a customer directly by the bank Rs. 27,300 but no entry
was made in the cash book.
3. Cheques issued for Rs. 1,75,200 not presented for payment.
Inter est of Rs. 8,800 charged by the bank was not entered in the cash book. Prepare
bank r econciliation statement.

Solution
Bank Reconciliation Statement of Agarwal Traders as on March 31, 2014
Particulars (+) (–)
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
1. Overdraft as per cash book 1,18,100
2. Cheques received and recorded in the cash book but not 12,400
sent to the bank for collection
3. Interest on bank overdraft debited by the bank but not 8,800
entered in the cash book
4. Payment received from the customer directly 27,300
5. Credited in the bank a/c but not entered in the cash book 1,75,200
6. Cheques issued but not presented for payment
7. Balance as per the passbook (favourable balance) 63,200
2,02,500 2,02,500

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Illustration 6
From the following particulars of Asha & Co. prepare a bank reconciliation statement on
December 31, 2014.
Rs.
Overdraft as per passbook 20,000
Interest on overdraft 2,000
Insurance Premium paid by the bank 200
Cheque issued but not presented for payment 6,500
Cheque deposited but not yet cleared 6,000
Wrongly debited by the bank 500

Solution
Bank Reconciliation Statement of Asha & Co as on December 31, 2014
Particulars (+) (–)
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

1. Overdraft as per passbook 20,000

2. Interest on overdraft 2,000
3. Insurance premium paid by the bank 200
4. Cheque issued but not presented for payment 6,500
5. Cheques deposited but not yet cleared 6,000
6. Wrongly debited by the bank 500
7. Balance as per the cash book (overdraft) 17,800
26,500 26,500

Illustration 7
From the following particulars, prepare a bank reconciliation statement as on
March 31, 2014.
(a) Debit balance as per cash book is Rs. 10,000.
(b) A cheque for Rs. 1,000 deposited but not r ecorded in the cash book.
(c) A cash deposit of Rs. 200 was recorded in the cash book as if there is not bank,
column therein.
(d) A cheque issued for Rs. 250 was recorded as Rs. 205 in the cash column.
(e) The debit balance of Rs. 1,500 as on the previous day was brought forward as a
credit balance.
(f) The payment side of the cash book was under cast by Rs. 100.
(g) A cash discount allowed of Rs. 112 was recorded as Rs. 121 in the bank column.
(h) A cheque of Rs. 500 received fr om a debtor was recorded in the cash book but not
deposited in the bank for collection.
(i) One outgoing cheque of Rs. 300 was recorded twice in the cash book.

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Solution
Bank Reconciliation statement as on September 30, 2014
Particulars (+) (–)
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
1. Debit balance as per cash book 10,000
2. Error in carrying forward 3,000
3. Cheque recorded twice in cash book 300
4. Cheque deposit not record in bank column 200
5. Cheque deposit but not recorded 1,000
6, Under casting of payment side 100
7. Cheque issued but not entered 250
8. A cash discount wrongly recorded in bank column 121
9. Cheque recorded but not deposited 500
10. Credit balance as per passbook 13,529
14,500 14,500

Illustration 8
From the following particulars, prepare the bank reconciliation statement of Shri Krishan
as on March 31, 2014.
(a) Balance as per passbook is Rs. 10,000.
(b) Bank collected a cheque of Rs. 500 on behalf of Shri Krishan but wrongly cr edited
it to Shri Krishan’s account.
(c) Bank recorded a cash book deposit of Rs. 1,589 as Rs. 1,598.
(d) Withdrawal column of the passbook under cast by Rs. 100.
(e) The cr edit balance of Rs. 1,500 as on the pass-book was recorded in the debit
balance.
(f) The payment of a cheque of Rs. 350 was recorded twice in the passbook.
(g) The pass-book showed a credit balance for a cheque of Rs. 1,000 deposited by Shri
Kishan.
Solution
Bank Reconciliation Statement as on March 31, 2014
Particulars (+) (–)
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

1. Credit balance as per passbook 10,000

2. Cheque wrongly credited to another customer account 500
3. Error in carrying forward 3,000
4. Cheque recorded twice 350
5. Excess credit for cash deposit 9
6. Under casting of withdrawal column 100
7. Wrong cr edit 1,000
8. Debit balance as per cash book 12,741
13,850 13,850

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Test Your Understanding - II

Select the Correct Answer:
1. A bank reconciliation statement is prepared by :
(a) Creditors (b) Bank
(c) Account holder in a bank (d) Debtors
2. A bank reconciliation statement is prepared with the balance :
(a) Passbook (b) Cash book
(c) Both passbook and cash book (d) None of these
3. Passbook is a copy of :
(a) Copy of customer Account (b) Bank column of cash book
(c) Cash column of cash book (d) Copy of receipts and payments
4. Unfavourable bank balance means :
(a) Credit balance in passbook (b) Credit balance in cash book
(c) Debit balance in cash book (d) None of these
5. Favourable bank balance means :
(a) Credit balance in the cash book (b) Credit balance in passbook
(c) Debit balance in the cash book (d) Both b and c
6. A bank reconciliation statement is mainly prepared for :
(a) Reconcile the cash balance of the cash book.
(b) Reconcile the difference between the bank balance shown
by the cash book and bank passbook
(c) Both a and b
(d) None of these

5.2.2 Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statement with

Adjusted Cash Book
When we look at the various items that normally cause the difference between
the passbook balance and the cash book balance, we find a number of items,
which appear only in the passbook. Why not first record such items in the
cash book to work out the adjusted balance (also known as amended balance)
of the cash book and then prepare the bank reconciliation statement. This
shall reduce the number of items responsible for the difference and have the
correct figure of balance at bank in the balance sheet. In fact, this is exactly
what is done in practice whereby only those items which cause the difference
on account of the time gap in recording appear in bank reconciliation statement.
These are as (i) cheques issued but not yet presented, (ii) cheques deposited
but not yet collected, and (iii) due to an error in the passbook. The step wise
preparation of bank reconciliation statement is shown in figure 5.4.

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Illustration 9
The following is the summary of a cash book for December, 2014.
Cash Book (Bank Column)
Rs. Rs.
Receipts 13,221 Balance b/d 6,849
Balance c/d 4,986 Payments 11,358

18,207 18,207

All receipts are banked and payments are made by cheques. On investigation the
following are observed:
1. Bank char ges of Rs. 1,224 entered in the bank statement have not been entered in
cash book.
2. Cheques drawn amounting to Rs. 2,403 have not been presented to the bank for
payment.
3. Cheques received totalling Rs. 6,858 have been entered in the cash book and deposited
in the bank, but have not been credited by the bank until January, 2015.
4. A cheque for Rs. 198 has been enter ed as a receipt in the cash book instead of as
payment.
5. A cheque for Rs. 225 has been debited by the bank in error.
6. A cheque r eceived for Rs. 720 has been retur ned by the bank and marked “No
funds available”, no adjustment had been made in the cash book.
7. All dividends r eceivable are credited dir ectly to the bank account. During December,
an amount of Rs. 558 was credited by the bank and no entry is made in the cash book.
8. A cheque drawn for Rs. 54 has been incorr ectly entered in the cash book as Rs.594.
9. The balance brought forwar d should have been Rs. 639.
10. The bank statement as on December, 31, 2014 showed an overdraft of Rs. 10,458.
(a) You are required to prepare an amended cash book and
(b) Prepare a bank reconciliation statement as on Dec. 31, 2014.

Solution
Amended Cash Book
(Bank column)
Dr. Cr.
Date Receipts L.F. Amount Date Payments L.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

Dividends received 558 Balance b/d 4,986

Bank charges 1,224
Adj. for cheque drawn for 540 Adj. regarding cheque 396
Rs.54 entered as Rs.594 entered as receipt
Adj. of balance brought 450 Adj. regarding cheque 720
forward retur ned
Balance c/d 5,778
7,326 7,326
Balance b/d 5,778

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Bank Reconciliation Statement 165

Bank Reconciliation Statement as on Dec. 31, 2014

Rs. Rs.
Overdraft as per bank statement 10,458
Add: Cheque issued but not yet presented for payment 2,403
12,861
Less: Cheques deposited but not yet credited 6,858
Cheque debited in error 225 7,083
Balance as per cash book 5,778

Illustration 10
The bank overdraft of Smith Ltd., on December 31, 2014 as per cash book is Rs.18,000
From the following information, asscertain the adjusted cash balance and pr epare bank
reconciliation statement Rs.
(i) Unpresented cheques 6,000
(ii) Uncleared cheques 3,400
(iii) Bank interest debited in the passbook only 1,000
(iv) Bills collected and credited in the passbook only 1,600
(v) Cheque of Arun traders dishonoured 1,000
(vi) Cheque issued to Kapoor & Co. not yet entered in the 600
of cash book.
Amended Cash Book (Bank Column)
Dr. Cr.
Date Receipts L.F. Amount Date Payments L.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Bills collected as per 1,600 Balance b/d 18,000
passbook
Balance c/d 19,000 Interest 1,000
Cheque dishonoured
(Arun Traders) 1,000
Kapoor and Co. 600
(cheque)
20,600 20,600
Balance b/d 19,000

Bank Reconciliation Statement as on December 31, 2014

Bank overdraft as per cash book 19,000

Add Uncleared cheques 3,400
22,400
Less Unpresented cheques 6,000
Bank overdraft as per passbook 16,400

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Rahuvansh Wholesale Limited

Bank Reconciliation Statement as at October 31, 2014
(As in practice) Rs.
Start with the cash book balance
Balance at bank as per
updated from the bank statement
Cash book

Add : Unpresented cheques Add cheques that have been issued, but
by Oct. 31, 2005 which are not the bank statement
(i) Samprada Trading Company
(ii) Kanishk Partnership
(iii) Parcha Limited Deduct any amounts paid in but which
Less : Cheques deposited but not are not on the bank statement
cleared by Oct. 31, 2005

Balance at bank as per This should agree with the final balance
bank statement on the bank statement

Fig. 5.4 : Showing the step wise preparation of bank reconcilation statement

A Small Project — An Activity of Preparation of Bank Reconcilation Statement

Kamlesh works as a cashier for Aqua Products Co. His responsibilities include
maintainance of the firm’s. The firm’s cash book for July 2014 which Kamlesh
has just finished entering and balancing for the month is shown in exhibit 1.
Help Kamlesh to prepare the bank reconciliation statement.
Note : the cash column is omitted). A copy of firm’s bank statement dated July 31, 2014 is
also illustrated in exhibiy 2. The numerical difference between the two is Rs. 261.30.
(Bank statement Rs. 903.00 – Cash book Rs. 641.70).

Aqua Products – Cash Book

Dr. Cr.
Date Receipts Bank Date Payments Bank
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
July 01 Balance b/d 756.20ü July 02 Aditya 004450 50.00ü
July 03 Kanishk Enterprises 220.00ü July 02 Verma & Co. 004451 130.00
July 15 Rampaul and Sons 330.00ü July 02 Gytri & Co. 004452 10.00ü
July 31 Sarin Bros 63.00 July 08 Mehta Ltd. 004453 27.50
July 14 Subash & Co. 89.00ü
July 14 Kaushik 004454 49.00ü
July 15 Kriosk Ltd. 004455 250.00ü
July 26 Insurance premium 122.00ü
(SO)
July 31 Balance c/d 641.70
1,369.20 1,369.20
July 31 Balance b/d 641.70
Exhibit-1

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Bank Reconciliation Statement 167

Bank Statement

Account Aqual Products Co.

Account Number 79014456
Ledger No. 17
Date July 31, 2014

Date Details Debit Credit Balance

Rs. Rs. Rs.
2014
July 01 Balance 756.20 Cr.ü
July 04 Cheques 220.00 ü 976.20 Cr.
July 09 004450 50.00ü 926.20 Cr.
July 14 004452 10.00ü 916.20 Cr.
July 16 Subash & Co. (DD) 89.00ü 827.20 Cr.
July 19 Cheques 330.00 ü 1,157.20 Cr.
July 24 004455 250.00ü 907.20 Cr.
July 26 Insurance Premium 122.00ü 785.20 Cr.
July 30 004454 49.00ü 736.20 Cr.
July 31 Bank charges 12.95 723.25 Cr.
July 31 Ruchita Limited 179.75 903.00 Cr.
Exhibit 2

Solution
Step 1 : Tick off the items in both cash book and bank statement (as shown in Exhibit 2).
Step 2 : Updating the cash book from the bank statement.
The unticked items on the bank statement indicate items that have not yet been entered
in Aqua Products Co.’s cash book. These are :
(i) Receipt on July 31 by Ruchita Limited amounting to Rs. 179.75
(ii) Bank charges debited by bank on July 31 amounting to Rs. 12.95
These items needs to be entered in the cash book to up date it (r efer exhibit 3 – The
new entries are shown in darker type).
Aqua Products Cash Book (Extract)
Dr. Cr.
Date Receipts Bank Date Payments Bank
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
July 31 Balance b/d 641.70 July 31 Bank charges 12.95
July 31 Ruchita Limited 179.75 Jul. 31 Balance c/d 808.50
821.45 821.45
Aug. 01 Balance b/d 808.50
Exhibit 3

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Step 3 : Balance the cash book bank columns to produce an updated balance.
As shown in exhibit 3, the balance of the bank column stands at Rs. 808.50. But then
a difference is Rs. 94.50 (i.e. Rs. 903.00 – 808.50) still exists.
Step 4 : Identify the remaining unticked items from the cash book.
These ar e Rs.
1. Receipts on July 31 from Sarin Bros 63.00
2. Payments made on July 02 to Verma & Co. 130.00
(Cheque No. 004457)
3. Payments made on July 08 to Mehta Ltd. 27.50
(Cheque No. 004453)
These above three items will appear in next month’s bank statement as these are due to
time gap. These are the items which will appear in the bank reconciliation statement.

Aqua Products Co.

Bank Reconciliation Statement as on July 31, 2014

Rs.
Balance at bank as per cash book 808.50
Add Unpresented cheques
Ver ma and Co. 130.00
Mehta and Co. 27.50 157.50
966.00
Less Outstanding lodgement 63.00
Balance at bank as per bank statement 903.00

Do it Yourself
You are a trainee accountant for Kamraj Limited, a small printing company. One of
your tasks is to enter transactions in the company’s cash book, check the entries on
receipt of the bank statement, update the cash book and make any amendments as
necessary. You are then asked to pr epare a bank r econciliation statement at the end
of the month.
The company’s cash book (showing the bank money columns only) and the bank
statement are given on page no. 169 (refer exhibit 1).
You ar e required to :
• compare the cash book with the bank statement as on August 31, 2014
(refer exhibit 2 on page no. 169).
• Make the entries necessary to update the cash book.
• Calculate the adjusted bank balance as per cash book.

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Bank Reconciliation Statement 169

Kamraj Ltd. – Cash Book

Date Particulars Bank Date Particulars Bank
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Aug. 01 Balance b/d 1,946 Aug. 02 XYZ Insurance 75
Aug. 01 Kapoor & Co. 249 Aug. 02 Nanda & Co. 200100 206
Aug. 05 V. S. Rao 188 Aug. 04 Daily Ltd. 200101 315
Aug. 08 S. K. Alok 150 Aug. 07 Garage Charges 200102 211
Aug. 10 E. Norries Ltd. 440 Aug. 09 M.D. Finance 120
Aug. 18 Samaira Ltd. 65 Aug. 13 Hill Bros 200103 22
Aug. 27 Harsh Vardan 520 Aug. 20 Akshey Ltd. 200104 137
Aug. 30 IBP Partners 82 Aug. 27 Kalakriti Ltd. 270
Aug. 31 Balance c/d 2,284
3,640 3,640
Sep. 01 Balance b/d 2,284

Exhibit 1

ABC STATEMENT
12, Mall Road, Gurgaon.
Account Kamraj Limited Account No. 78300582
Date August 31, 2014

Date Particulars Debit Credit Balance

Rs.
2014
Aug. 01 Balance 1,946 CR
Aug. 02 Cheques 249 2,195 CR
Aug. 04 XYZ Insurance (DD) 75 2,120 CR
Aug. 04 200101 315 1,805 CR
Aug. 05 V. S. Rao 188 1,993 CR
Aug. 08 Cheques 150 2,143 CR
Aug. 09 200102 211 1,932 CR
Aug. 12 Cheques 440 2,372 CR
Aug. 12 N. P. Finance (SO) 120 2,252 CR
Aug. 20 Cheques 65 2,317 CR
Aug. 27 Kalakriti Ltd. 270 2,047 CR
Aug. 30 Tony Bros 92 2,139 CR
Aug. 31 Bank charges 55 2,084 CR
Aug. 31 Surya Finance (SO) 1,000 1,084 CR

Exhibit 2

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170 Accountancy

Name of business..........

Bank Reconciliation Statement as at ..........

Balance at bank as per cash book ..........

Add : unpresented cheque(s) ..........

Less : outstanding lodgement(s) not yet entered on bank statement

Balance at bank as per bank statement ..........

Note : show the working clearly and step-wise

Test your Understanding - III

State whether each of the following statements is True or False
1. Passbook is the statement of account of the customer maintained by the bank.
2. A business firm periodically prepares a bank reconciliation statement to reconcile
the bank balance as per the cash book with the passbook as these two show
dif ferent balances for various reasons.
3. Cheques issued but not presented for payment will reduce the balance as per
the passbook.
4. Cheques deposited but not collected will result in increasing the balance of the
cash book when compar ed to passbook.
5. Overdraft as per the passbook is less than the overdraft as per cash book when
ther e are cheques deposited but not collected by the banker.
6. The debit balance of the bank account as per the cash book should be equal to
the credit balance of the account of the business in the books of the bank.
7. Favourable bank balance as per the cash book will be less than the bank passbook
balance when there ar e unpresented cheques for payment.
8. Direct collections r eceived by the bank on behalf of the customers would increase
the balance as per the bank passbook when compared to the balance as per the
cash book.
9. When payments made by the bank as per the standing instructions of the
customer, the balance in the passbook will be mor e when compared to the cash
book.

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

1. Bank Reconciliation Statement
2. Cash book and Passbook

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Bank Reconciliation Statement 171

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Bank Reconciliation Statement : A statement prepared to reconcile the bank
balance as per cash book with the balance as per passbook or bank statement,
by showing the items of dif ference between the two accounts.
2. Causes of dif ference :
– timing of recoding the transaction.
– error made by business or by the bank.
3. Correct cash balance: It may happens that some of the r eceipts or payments
are missing from either of the books and err ors, if any, need to be rectified.
This arise the need to look at the entries/errors recorded in both statements
and other information available and compute the correct cash balance before
reconciling the statements.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers
1. State the need for the preparation of bank reconciliation statement?
2. What is a bank over draft?
3. Briefly explain the statement ‘wr ongly debited by the bank’ with the help of
an example.
4. State the causes of difference occurr ed due to time lag.
5. Briefly explain the ter m ‘favourable balance as per cash book’
6. Enumerate the steps to ascertain the corr ect cash book balance.
Long Answers
1. What is a bank reconciliation statement. Why is it prepared?
2. Explain the r easons where the balance shown by the bank passbook does
not agr ee with the balance as shown by the bank column of the cash book.
3. Explain the process of pr eparing bank reconciliation statement with
amended cash balance.

Numerical Questions
Favourable balance of cash book and passbook –
1. From the following particulars, prepare a, bank reconciliation statement
as at March 31, 2014.
(i) Balance as per cash book Rs. 3,200
(ii) Cheque issued but not presented for payment Rs. 1,800
(iii) Cheque deposited but not collected upto March 31, 2014 Rs. 2000
(iv) Bank charges debited by bank Rs. 150
(Ans: Balance as per passbook Rs. 2,800)
2. On March 31 2014 the cash book showed a balance of Rs. 3,700 as cash at
bank, but the bank passbook made up to same date showed that cheques
for Rs. 700, Rs. 300 and Rs. 180 r espectively had not presented for payment,

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172 Accountancy

Also, cheque amounting to Rs. 1,200 deposited into the account had not
been credited. Prepare a bank reconciliation statement.
(Ans : Balance as per passbook Rs. 3,680).
3. The cash book shows a bank balance of Rs. 7,800. On comparing the cash
book with passbook the following discrepancies were noted :
(a) Cheque deposited in bank but not credited Rs. 3,000
(b) Cheque issued but not yet present for payment Rs. 1,500
(c) Insurance premium paid by the bank Rs. 2,000
(d) Bank interest credit by the bank Rs. 400
(e) Bank charges Rs. 100
(d) Directly deposited by a customer Rs. 4,000
(Ans: Balance as per passbook Rs. 8,600).
4. Bank balance of Rs. 40,000 showed by the cash book of Atul on December
31, 2013. It was found that three cheques of Rs. 2,000, Rs. 5,000 and
Rs. 8,000 deposited during the month of December were not credited in
the passbook till January 02, 2014. Two cheques of Rs. 7,000 and Rs. 8,000
issued on December 28, were not presented for payment till January 03,
2014. In addition to it bank had credited Atul for Rs. 325 as interest and
had debited him with Rs. 50 as bank charges for which there were no
corresponding entries in the cash book.
Prepare a bank reconciliation statement as on December 31, 2013.
(Ans: Balance as per passbook Rs. 40,245).
5. On comparing the cash book with passbook of Naman it is found that on
March 31, 2014, bank balance of Rs. 40,960 showed by the cash book differs
from the bank balance with regard to the following :
(a) Bank charges Rs 100 on March 31, 2014, are not entered in the cash book.
(b) On March 21, 2014, a debtor paid Rs. 2,000 into the company’s bank in
settlement of his account, but no entry was made in the cash book of
the company in respect of this.
(c) Cheques totaling Rs. 12,980 were issued by the company and duly
recorded in the cash book before March 31, 2014, but had not been
presented at the bank for payment until after that date.
(d) A bill for Rs. 6,900 discounted with the bank is entered in the cash
book with r ecording the discount charge of Rs. 800.
(e) Rs. 3,520 is entered in the cash book as paid into bank on March 31st,
2014, but not credited by the bank until the following day.
(f) No entry has been made in the cash book to record the dishon or on
March 15, 2014 of a cheque for Rs. 650 received from Bhanu.
Prepare a reconciliation statement as on March 31, 2014.
(Ans: Balance as per passbook Rs. 50,870).
6. Prepare bank reconciliation statement as on December 31, 2014. On this
day the passbook of Mr. Himanshu showed a balance of Rs. 7,000.
(a) Cheques of Rs. 1,000 dir ectly deposited by a customer.

2015-16
Bank Reconciliation Statement 173

(b) The bank has cr edited Mr. Himanshu for Rs. 700 as interest.
(c) Cheques for Rs. 3000 were issued during the month of December but of
these cheques for Rs. 1,000 were not presented during the month of
December.
(Ans: Balance as per cash book Rs. 3,300).
7. From the following particulars prepare a bank reconciliation statement
showing the balance as per cash book on December 31, 2014.
(a) Two cheques of Rs. 2,000 and Rs. 5,000 were paid into bank in October,
2014 but wer e not credited by the bank in the month of December.
(b) A cheque of Rs. 800 which was received from a customer was entered in
the bank column of the cash book in December 2014 but was omitted
to be banked in December, 2014.
(c) Cheques for Rs. 10,000 were issued into bank in November 2014 but
not credited by the bank on December 31, 2014.
(d) Interest on investment Rs. 1,000 collected by bank appeared in the
passbook.
Balance as per Passbook was Rs. 50,000
(Ans: Balance as per cash book Rs. 47,800)
8. Balance as per passbook of Mr. Kumar is 3,000.
(a) Cheque paid into bank but not yet clear ed
Ram Kumar Rs. 1,000
Kishor e Kumar Rs. 500
(b) Bank Charges Rs. 300
(c) Cheque issued but not presented
Hameed Rs. 2,000
Kapoor Rs. 500
(d) Interest entered in the passbook but not entered in the cash book Rs. 100
Prepare a bank reconciliation statement.
(Ans: Balance as per cash book Rs. 2,200).
9. The passbook of Mr. Mohit curr ent account showed a credit Balance of
Rs. 20,000 on dated December 31, 2014. Prepare a Bank Reconciliation
Statement with the following information.
(i) A cheque of Rs. 400 drawn on his saving account has been shown on
current account.
(ii) He issued two cheques of Rs. 300 and Rs. 500 on of December 25, but
only the I st cheque was presented for payment.
(iii) One cheque issued by Mr. Mohit of Rs. 500 on December 25, but it was
not presented for payment whereas it was r ecorded twice in the cash
book.
(Ans: Balance as per cash book Rs. 18,900).

2015-16
174 Accountancy

Unfavourable balance of cash book

10. On Ist January 2014, Rakesh had an overdraft of Rs. 8,000 as showed by
his cash book. Cheques amounting to Rs. 2,000 had been paid in by him
but were not collected by the bank by January 01, 2014. He issued cheques
of Rs. 800 which wer e not presented to the bank for payment up to that
day. There was a debit in his passbook of Rs. 60 for interest and Rs. 100
for bank charges. Prepare bank r econciliation statement for comparing
both the balance.
(Ans : Overdraft as per passbook Rs. 9,360)
11. Prepare bank reconciliation statement.
(i) Overdraft shown as per cash book on December 31, 2014 Rs. 10,000.
(ii) Bank charges for the above period also debited in the passbook
Rs. 100.
(iii) Interest on overdraft for six months ending December 31, 2014
Rs. 380 debited in the passbook.
(iv) Cheques issued but not incashed prior to December 31, 2014
amounted to Rs. 2,150.
(v) Interest on Investment collected by the bank and credited in the
passbook Rs. 600 .
(vi) Cheques paid into bank but not cleared before December, 31 2014
wer e Rs. 1,100.
(Ans: over draft as per passbook Rs. 8,830).
12. Kumar find that the bank balance shown by his cash book on December
31 , 2014 is Rs. 90,600 (Credit) but the passbook shows a difference due
to the following reason :
A cheque (post dated) for Rs. 1,000 has been debited in the bank column
of the cash book but not pr esented for payment. Also, a cheque for
Rs. 8,000 drawn in favour of Manohar has not yet been presented for
payment. Cheques totaling Rs. 1,500 deposited in the bank have not yet
been collected and cheque for Rs. 5,000 has been dishonour ed.
(Ans: over draft as per passbook Rs. 1,03,600).
13. On December 31, 201 4, the cash book of Mittal Bros. Showed an overdraft
of Rs. 6,920 . From the following particulars prepare a Bank Reconciliation
Statement and ascertain the balance as per passbook.
(1) Debited by bank for Rs. 200 on account of Interest on over draft and
Rs. 50 on account of char ges for collecting bills.
(2) Cheques drawn but not encashed befor e December, 31,2014 for
Rs. 4,000.
(3) The bank has collected inter est and has credited Rs. 600 in passbook.
(4) A bill receivable for Rs. 700 pr eviously discounted with the bank
had been dishonour ed and debited in the passbook.
(5) Cheques paid into bank but not collected and cr edited before
December 31, 2014 amounted Rs. 6,000.
(Ans : Overdraft as per passbook Rs. 9,270).

2015-16
Bank Reconciliation Statement 175

Unfavourable balance of the passbook

14. Prepare bank reconciliation statement of Shri Bhandari as on December
31, 201 4
( i ) The Payment of a cheque for Rs. 550 was recorded twice in the
passbook.
(ii) Withdrawal column of the passbook under cast by Rs. 200
(iii) A Cheque of Rs. 200 has been debited in the bank column of the
Cash Book but it was not sent to bank at all.
(iv) A Cheque of Rs. 300 debited to Bank column of the passbook was
not sent to the bank.
(v) Rs. 500 in respect of dishonour ed cheque were entered in the
passbook but not in the cash book.
Over draft as per passbook is Rs. 20,000.
(Ans: Over draft as per cash book Rs. 20,350).
15. Over draft shown by the passbook of Mr. Murli is Rs. 20,000. Prepare
bank reconciliation statement on dated December 31, 2014.
( i ) Bank charges debited as per passbook Rs. 500.
(ii) Cheques recorded in the cash book but not sent to the bank for
collection Rs. 2,500 .
(iii) Received a payment dir ectly from customer Rs. 4,600 .
(iv) Cheque issued but not pr esented for payment Rs. 6,980.
(v) Inter est credited by the bank Rs. 100.
(vi) LIC paid by bank Rs. 2,500 .
(vii) Cheques deposited with the bank but not collected Rs. 3,500 .
(Ans: Over draft as per cash book Rs. 22,680).
16. Raghav & Co. have two bank accounts. Account No. I and Account No. II.
From the following particulars relating to Account No. I, find out the balance
on that account of December 31, 2014 according to the cash book of
the fir m.
( i ) Cheques paid into bank prior to December 31, 2014, but not credited
for Rs. 10,000 .
(ii) Transfer of funds fr om account No. II to account no. I recorded by
the bank on December 31, 201 4 but entered in the cash book after
that date for Rs. 8,000 .
(iii) Cheques issued prior to December 31 , 2014 but not presented until
after that date for Rs. 7,429.
(iv) Bank char ges debited by bank not entered in the cash book for
Rs. 200 .
(v) Inter est Debited by the bank not entered in the cash book Rs. 580.
(vi) Over draft as per Passbook Rs. 18,990.
(Ans: Overdraft as per cash book Rs. 23,639).

2015-16
176 Accountancy

17. Prepare a bank reconciliation statement from the following particulars

and show the balance as per cash book.
( i ) Balance as per passbook on December 31 , 201 4 overdrawn
Rs. 20,000 .
(ii) Inter est on bank overdraft not entered in the cash book Rs. 2,000.
(iii) Rs. 200 insurance premium paid by bank has not been enter ed in
the cash book.
(iv) Cheques drawn in the last week of December, 2014, but not cleared
till date for Rs. 3,000 and Rs. 3,500 .
(v) Cheques deposited into bank on November , 2014, but yet to be
credited on dated December 31, 2014 Rs. 6,000.
(vii) Wrongly debited by bank Rs. 500 .
(Ans: Overdraft as per cash book Rs. 17,800).
18. The passbook of Mr. Randhir showed an overdraft of Rs. 40,950 on March
31, 2013.
Prepare bank reconciliation statement on March 31, 2013.
( i ) Out of cheques amounting to Rs. 8,000 drawn by Mr. Randhir on
March 27 a cheque for Rs. 3,000 was encashed on April 2014.
(ii) Credited by bank with Rs. 3,800 for interest collected by them, but
the amount is not entered in the cash book.
(iii) Rs. 10,900 paid in by Mr. Randhir in cash and by cheques on March,
31 cheques amounting to Rs. 3,800 wer e collected on April, 07.
(iv) A Cheque of Rs. 780 credited in the passbook on March 28 being
dishonoured is debited again in the passbook on April 01, 2014. There
was no entry in the cash book about the dishonour of the cheque until
April 15.
(Ans: Overdraft as per cash book Rs. 36,350)

2015-16
Bank Reconciliation Statement 177

Project

1. You ar e employed by Silk and Carpets as their cashier. Your main

responsibility is to maintain the company’s cash book and prepare a bank
reconciliation statement at the end of each month.
The cash book (showing the bank money columns only) is set out below
together with a copy of the bank statement for February 2014.

You ar e required to :
• Reconcile the cash book with the bank statement.
• Make the entries necessary to update the cash book..
• Start with the balance as per the cash book, list any unpresented cheques and
sub-total on the reconciliation statement.
• Enter details of bank lodgements.
• Calculate the balance as per the bank statement and check your total against
the bank statement for accuracy.

Silk & Carpets Ltd. Cash Book

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Bank Date Particulars Bank
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Feb. 01 Balance b/d 1,425 Feb. 01 Bhargav Bros 98
Feb. 01 Brown & Co. 157 Feb. 01 Maruti Ltd. (400460) 50
Feb. 04 Brindas 243 Feb. 03 Jackson Ltd. (400461) 540
Feb. 08 Robinson Ltd. 91 Feb. 09 Spencer Partners (400462) 42
Feb. 13 Morris 75 Feb. 09 Ivory Computer (400463) 490
Feb. 20 Kinki and Co. 420 Feb. 10 Surya Insurance 300
Feb. 28 Howell Ltd. 94 Feb. 16 Shankar Garage (400464) 110
Feb. 23 Petty cash (400465) 50
Feb. 27 Swaroop & Co. (400466) 120
Feb. 28 Balance c/d 705
2,505 2,505

Feb. 08 Balance b/d 705

2015-16
178 Accountancy

ROHTAGI BANK STATEMENT

10, Shastri Road, New Delhi.

AccountBrooklyn Limited Account No. 29842943

Date February 28, 2014

Date Particulars Debit Credit Balance

2014
Feb. 01 Balance 1,425 Cr.
Feb. 02 Cheques 157 1,582 Cr.
Feb. 04 Maruti Ltd. 50 1,532 Cr.
Feb. 02 400460 98 1,434 Cr.
Feb. 06 Brindas 243 1,677 Cr.
Feb. 10 Cheques 91 1,768 Cr.
Feb. 12 Surya Insurance (DD) 300 1,468 Cr.
Feb. 14 Morris 75 1,543 Cr.
Feb. 14 400463 490 1,053 Cr.
Feb. 23 Cheques 420 1,473 Cr.
Feb. 26 Rajeshwar 103 1,370 Cr.
Feb. 26 400465 50 1,320 Cr.
Feb. 27 Soumya 220 1,540 Cr.
Feb. 28 Bank charges 38 1,502 Cr.

2. As accounts assistant for Chinnar Limited your main task is to enter

transactions into the company’s cash book, check the entries against the
bank statement and prepare a monthly bank reconciliation statement.
The cash book (showing the bank money columns only) and bank statement
for October 2014 are set out below.

You ar e required to :
• Reconcile the cash book with the bank statement.
• Make the entries necessary to update the cash book.
• Balance the bank columns of the cash book and calculate the revised bank
balance.
• Start with the balance as per the cash book, list any unpr esented cheques
and sub-total on the reconciliation statement.
• Enter details of bank lodgements.
• Calculate the balance as per the bank statement and check your total against
the bank statement for accuracy.

2015-16
Bank Reconciliation Statement 179

Chinnar Limited – Cash Book

Date Particulars Bank Date Particulars Bank.

Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Oct. 01 Balance b/d 2,521 Oct. 01 Sharp & Co Rent 400
Oct. 04 Allen Rogers 620 Oct. 04 I. Oswal 210526 367
Oct. 08 Moore & Kale 27 Oct. 05 Health & Sports 210527 1,108
Oct. 11 Howard Limited 48 Oct. 08 Evon & Son 210528 320
Oct. 11 Barrett & Bryson 106 Oct. 13 Khare Garage 210529 32
Oct. 12 D Patel 301 Oct. 14 J. Choudrey 210530 28
Oct. 20 Cohen & Co. 58 Oct. 22 Astha Insurance (DD) 139
Oct. 25 J McGilvery 209 Oct. 25 Soma Computers 210531 1,800
Oct. 31 Balance c/d 604 Oct. 30 Rastogi 300

4,494 4,494
Nov. 01 Balance b/d 604

OM BANK STATEMENT
99, Jawahar Marg
AccountChinnar Limited Account No. 06618432
Date October 31, 2014

Date Particulars Debit Credit Balance

Rs.
2014
Oct. 01 Balance 2,521 Cr.
Oct. 01 Sharp & Co 400 2,121 Cr.
Oct. 04 Allen Rogers 620 2,741 Cr.
Oct. 07 210526 367 2,374 Cr.
Oct. 11 Cheques 154 2,528 Cr.
Oct. 13 D Patel (BGC) 301 2,829 Cr.
Oct. 15 Cheques 27 2,856 Cr.
Oct. 18 210528 320 2,536 Cr.
Oct. 18 210527 1,108 1,428 Cr.
Oct. 22 Astha Insurance (DD) 139 1,289 Cr.
Oct. 27 210531 1,800 511 Dr.
Oct. 28 Bharadwaj’s 114 397 Dr.
Oct. 29 Rastogi 300 697 Dr.
Oct. 29 Bank Interest 53 750 Dr.
Oct. 29 Bank Charges 45 795 Dr.

2015-16
180 Accountancy

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding - I

(I) 1. Time gap 2. Error 3. Time gap
4. Time gap 5. Time gap
(II) (i) Customer account (ii) Debit (iii) Credit
(iv) Debit (v) Added (vi) Deducted
(vii) loss (viii) Loss (ix) Added
(x) Higher

Test Your Understanding - II

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6.(b)

Test Your Understanding - III

1. (T) 2. (T) 3. (F) 4. (T) 5. (F) 6.(T), 7.(T) 8.(T) 9.(F)

2015-16
 d
Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 6

he
I n the earlier chapters, you have learnt about the

is
basic principles of accounting that for every debit
there will be an equal credit. It implies that if the
sum of all debits equals the sum of all credits, it is

bl
L EARNING OBJECTIVES presumed that the posting to the ledger in terms
After studying this chapter, of debit and credit amounts is accurate. The trial
you will be able to : balance is a tool for verifying the correctness of
pu
• state the meaning of debit and credit amounts. It is an arithmetical
trial balance; check under the double entry system which verifies
be T

• enumerate the objectives that both aspects of every transaction have been
of preparing trial
recorded accurately. This chapter explains the
re
balance ;
meaning and process of preparation of trial balance
o R

• prepare trial balance;

and the types of errors and their rectification.
• explain the types of
errors;
6.1 Meaning of Trial Balance
tt E

• state various process

of locating errors ; A trial balance is a statement showing the
balances, or total of debits and credits, of all the
C

• identify the errors which

affect the agreement of accounts in the ledger with a view to verify the
trial balance and those
which do not affect the
arithmatical accuracy of posting into the ledger
no N

agreement of trial accounts. Trial balance is an important statement

balance; in the accounting process as it shows the final
• rectify the errors position of all accounts and helps in preparing the
without preparing final statements. The task of preparing the
©

suspense account; statements is simplified because the accountant

and
can take the balances of all accounts from the trial
• rectify the errors with balance instead of going through the whole ledger.
suspense account.
It may be noted that the trial balance is usually
prepared with the balances of accounts.
 182 Accountancy

Trial Balance of ......as on March 31, 2009

Account Title L.F Debit Credit

Balance Balance
Rs. Rs.

d
he
is
Total

Fig. 6.1 : Showing format of a trial balance

bl
It is normally prepared at the end of an accounting year. However, an
organisation may prepare a trial balance at the end of any chosen period,
pu
which may be monthly, quarterly, half yearly or annually depending upon its
requirements.
In order to prepare a trial balance following steps are taken:
be T

• Ascertain the balances of each account in the ledger.

re
• List each account and place its balance in the debit or credit column, as
o R

the case may be. (If an account has a zero balance, it may be included in
the trial balance with zero in the column for its normal balance).
• Compute the total of debit balances column.
tt E

• Compute the total of the credit balances column.

• Verify that the sum of the debit balances equal the sum of credit balances.
C

If they do not tally, it indicate that there are some errors. So one must check
the correctness of the balances of all accounts. It may be noted that all
assets expenses and receivables account shall have debit balances whereas
no N

all liabilities, revenues and payables accounts shall have credit balances
(refer figure 6.2).

6.2 Objectives of Preparing the Trial Balance

©

The trial balance is prepared to fulfill the following objectives :

1. To ascertain the arithmetical accuracy of the ledger accounts.
2. To help in locating errors.
3. To help in the preparation of the financial statements. (Profit & Loss account
and Balance Sheet).
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 183

Account Title L.F. Debit Credit

Balance Balance
Rs. Rs.

• Capital 9

d
• Land and Buildings 9
• Plant and Machinery 9
• Equipment 9

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• Furniture and Fixtures 9
• Cash in Hand 9
• Cash at Bank 9
• Debtors 9

is
• Bills Receivable 9
• Stock of Raw Materials 9

bl
• Stock of Finished Goods 9
• Purchases 9
• Carriage Inwards 9
pu
• Carriage Outwards 9
• Sales 9
• Sales Return 9
be T

• Purchases Return 9
• Interest Paid 9
re
o R

• Commission/Discount Received 9
• Salaries 9
• Long Term Loan 9
tt E

• Bills Payable 9
• Creditors 9
C

• Advances from Customers 9

• Drawings 9
Total xxx xxx
no N

Fig. 6.2 : Illustrative trial balance

6.2.1 To Ascertain the Arithmetical Accuracy of Ledger Accounts

©

As stated earlier, the purpose of preparing a trial balance is to asceitain whether

all debits and credit are properly recorded in the ledger or not and that all
accounts have been correctly balanced. As a summary of the ledger, it is a list
of the accounts and their balances. When the totals of all the debit balances
 184 Accountancy

and credit balances in the trial balance are equal, it is assumed that the posting
and balancing of accounts is arithmetically correct. However, the tallying of the
trial balance is not a conclusive proof of the accuracy of the accounts. It only
ensures that all debits and the corresponding credits have been properly recorded
in the ledger.

d
6.2.2 To Help in Locating Errors

he
When a trial balance does not tally (that is, the totals of debit and credit columns
are not equal), we know that at least one error has occured. The error (or errors)
may have occured at one of those stages in the accounting process: (1) totalling
of subsidiary books, (2) posting of journal entries in the ledger, (3) calculating

is
account balances, (4) carrying account balances to the trial balance, and (5)
totalling the trial balance columns.
It may be noted that the accounting accuracy is not ensured even if the

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totals of debit and credit balances are equal because some errors do not affect
equality of debits and credits. For example, the book-keeper may debit a correct
amount in the wrong account while making the journal entry or in posting a
pu
journal entry to the ledger. This error would cause two accounts to have
incorrect balances but the trial balance would tally. Another error is to record
be T

an equal debit and credit of an incorrect amount. This error would give the
two accounts incorrect balances but would not create unequal debits and
re

credits. As a result, the fact that the trial balance has tallied does not imply
o R

that all entries in the books of original record (journal, cash book, etc.) have
been recorded and posted correctly. However, equal totals do suggest that
tt E

several types of errors probably have not occured.

6.2.3 To Help in the Preparation of the Financial Statements

C

Trial balance is considered as the connecting link between accounting records

and the preparation of financial statements. For preparing a financial
no N

statement, one need not refer to the ledger. In fact, the availability of a tallied
trial balance is the first step in the preparation of financial statements. All
revenue and expense accounts appearing in the trial balance are transferred
to the trading and profit and loss account and all liabilities, capital and assets
©

accounts are transferred to the balance sheet.

(Preparation of the financial statements is explained in chapters, 9 and 10).
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 185

6.3 Preparation of Trial Balance

Theoritically spreading, a trial balance can be prepared in the following three
ways :
(i) Totals Method
(ii) Balances Method

d
(iii) Totals-cum-balances Method

6.3.1 Totals method

he
Under this method, total of each side in the ledger (debit and credit) is ascertained
separately and shown in the trial balance in the respective columns. The total of
debit column of trial balance should agree with the total of credit column in the

is
trial balance because the accounts are based on double entry system. However,
this method is not widely used in practice, as it does not help in assuming accuracy
of balances of various accounts and and preparation of the fianancial statements.

bl
6.3.2 Balances Method
This is the most widely used method in practice. Under this method trial balance
pu
is prepared by showing the balances of all ledger accounts and then totalling up
the debit and credit columns of the trial balance to assure their correctness. The
account balances are used because the balance summarises the net effect of all
be T

transactions relating to an account and helps in preparing the financial

statements. It may be noted that in trial balance, normally in place of balances
re
o R

in individual accounts of the debtors, a figure of sundry debtors is shown, and

in place of individual accounts of creditors, a figure of sundry creditors is shown.
tt E

6.3.3 Totals-cum-balances Method

This method is a combination of totals method and balances method. Under
this method four columns for amount are prepared. Two columns for writing
C

the debit and credit totals of various accounts and two columns for writing
the debit and credit balances of these accounts. However, this method is also
no N

not used in practice because it is time consuming and hardly serves any
additional or special purpose.
Let us now learn how will the trial balance be prepared using each of
these methods with the help of the following example :
©

Mr. Rawat’s ledger shows the following accounts for his business. Help him
in preparing the trial balance using : (i) Totals method,
(ii) Balances method, (iii) Totals-cum-Balances method.
 186 Accountancy

Rawat’s Capital Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2009 2009
Dec. 31 Balance c/d 60,000 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 40,000

d
Cash 20,000
60,000 2010 60,000

he
Jan. 01 Balance b/d 60,000

Rohan’s Account
Dr. Cr.

is
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2009 2009

bl
Cash 40,000 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 10,000
Dec. 31 Balance c/d 20,000 Purchases 50,000

60,000 2010 60,000

pu
Jan. 1 Balance b/d 20,000
be T

Machinery Account
Dr. Cr.
re

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

o R

Rs. Rs.
2009 2009
Dec. 31 Balance b/d 20,000 Depreciation 3,000
tt E

Dec. 31 Balance c/d 17,000

20,000 20,000
C

2010
Jan. 01 Balance b/d 17,000
no N

Rahul’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
©

2009 2009
Jan. 01 Balance b/d 15,000 Cash 55,000
Sales 60,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 20,000
2010 75,000 75,000
Jan. 01 Balance b/d 20,000
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 187

Sales Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2009

d
Rahul 60,000
Cash 10,000

he
70,000

Cash Account
Dr. Cr.

is
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

bl
2009 2009
Jan. 01 Balanc e b/d 15,000 Rohan 40,000
Capital 20,000 Wages 5,000
Rahul 55,000 Purchases 12,000
pu
Sales 10,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 43,000
1,00,000 1,00,000
be T

2010
Jan. 01 Balance b/d 43,000
re
o R

Wages Account
Dr. Cr.
tt E

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
2009
C

Cash 5,000
5,000
no N

Depreciation Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
©

Rs. Rs.
2009
Machinery 3,000

3,000
 188 Accountancy

Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2009
Rohan 50,000

d
Cash 12,000
62,000

he
The trial balance under the three methods is illustrated below:

(i) Trial Balance as at March 31, 2009

(Using Totals Method)

is
Account L.F. Debit Credit
Title Total Total

bl
Rs. Rs.
Rawat 60,000
Rohan 40,000 60,000
Machinery 20,000 3,000
pu
Rahul 75,000 55,000
Sales 70,000
Cash 1,00,000 57,000
be T

Wages 5,000
Depreciation 3,000
re
Purchases 62,000
o R

3,05,000 3,05,000
tt E

(ii) Trial Balance as at March 31, 2009

(Using Balances Method)

Account Title L.F. Debit Credit

C

Balance Balance
Rs. Rs.
Rawat’s Capital 60,000
no N

Rohan’s Capital 20,000

Machinery 17,000
Rahul 20,000
Sales 70,000
©

Cash 43,000
Wages 5,000
Depreciation 3,000
Purchases 62,000
Total 1,50,000 1,50,000
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 189

(iii) Trial Balance as at March 31, 2009

(Using Totals-cum-Balances Method)

Account Title L.F. Debit Credit Debit Credit

Total Total Balance Balance
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

d
Rawat’s Capital 60,000 60,000
Rohan 40,000 60,000 20,000
Machinery 20,000 3,000 17,000

he
Rahul 75,000 55,000 20,000
Sales 70,000 70,000
Cash 1,00,000 57,000 43,000
Wages 5,000 5,000
Depreciation 3,000 3,000

is
Purchases 62,000 62,000
Total 3,05,000 3,05,000 1,50,000 1,50,000

bl
Test Your Understanding - I
Indicate against each amount wheather it is a debit or a credit balance, and prepare
pu
a trial balance as at March 31, 2009 based on the following balances:
Accounts Title Amount
Rs.
be T

Capital 1,00,000
re
Drawings 16,000
o R

Machinery 20,000
Sales 2,00,000
Purchases 2,10,000
tt E

Sales return 20,000

Purchases return 30,000
Wages 40,000
C

Goodwill 60,000
Interest received 15,000
Discount allowed 6,000
Bank overdraft 22,000
no N

Bank loan 90,000

Debtors :
Nathu 55,000
Roopa 20,000
©

Creditors :
Reena 35,000
Ganesh 25,000
Cash 54,000
Stock on April 01, 2008 16,000
 190 Accountancy

6.4. Significance of Agreement of Trial Balance

It is important for an accountant that the trial balance should tally. Normally a tallied
trial balance means that both the debit and the credit entries have been made correctly
for each transaction. However, as stated earlier, the agreement of trial balance is not
an absolute proof of accuracy of accounting records. A tallied trial balance only proves,

d
to a certain extent, that the posting to the ledger is arithmetically correct. But it does
not guarantee that the entry itself is correct. There can be errors, which affect the
equality of debits and credits, and there can be errors, which do not affect the equality

he
of debits and credits. Some common errors include the following:
• Error in totalling of the debit and credit balances in the trial balance.
• Error in totalling of subsidiary books.
• Error in posting of the total of subsidiary books.

is
• Error in showing account balances in wrong column of the tiral balance, or
in the wrong amount.

bl
• Omission in showing an account balance in the trial balance.
• Error in the calculation of a ledger account balance.
• Error while posting a journal entry: a journal entry may not have been posted
pu
properly to the ledger, i.e., posting made either with wrong amount or on the
wrong side of the account or in the wrong account.
• Error in recording a transaction in the journal: making a reverse entry, i.e.,
be T

account to be debited is credited and amount to be credited is debited, or an

entry with wrong amount.
re
o R

• Error in recording a transaction in subsidiary book with wrong name or wrong

amount.
tt E

6.4.1 Classification of Errors

Keeping in view the nature of errors, all the errors can be classified into the
C

following four categories:

• Errors of Commission
• Errors of Omission
no N

• Errors of Principle
• Compensating Errors

6.4.2 Errors of Commission

©

These are the errors which are committed due to wrong posting of transactions,
wrong totalling or wrong balancing of the accounts, wrong casting of the
subsidiary books, or wrong recording of amount in the books of original entry,
etc. For example: Raj Hans Traders paid Rs. 25,000 to Preetpal Traders (a
supplier of goods). This transaction was correctly recorded in the cashbook.
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 191

But while posting to the ledger, Preetpal’s account was debited with Rs. 2,500
only. This constitutes an error of commission. Such an error by definition is of
clerical nature and most of the errors of commission affect in the trial balance.

6.4.3 Errors of Omission

d
The errors of omission may be committed at the time of recording the transaction
in the books of original entry or while posting to the ledger. These can be of two
types:

he
(i) error of complete omission
(ii) error of partial omission
When a transaction is completely omitted from recording in the books of
original record, it is an error of complete omission. For example, credit sales

is
to Mohan Rs. 10,000, not entered in the sales book. When the recording of
transaction is partly omitted from the books, it is an error of partial omission.
If in the above example, credit sales had been duly recorded in the sales book

bl
but the posting from sales book to Mohan’s account has not been made, it
would be an error of partial omission.
pu
6.4.4 Errors of Principle
Accounting entries are recorded as per the generally accepted accounting
be T

principles. If any of these principles are violated or ignored, errors resulting

from such violation are known as errors of principle. An error of principle may
re

occur due to incorrect classification of expenditure or receipt between capital

o R

and revenue. This is very important because it will have an impact on financial
statements. It may lead to under/over stating of income or assets or liabilities,
etc. For example, amount spent on additions to the buildings should be treated
tt E

as capital expenditure and must be debited to the asset account. Instead, if

this amount is debited to maintenance and repairs account, it has been treated
C

as a revenue expense. This is an error of principle. Similarly, if a credit purchase

of machinery is recorded in purchases book instead of journal proper or rent
paid to the landlord is recorded in the cash book as payment to landlord,
no N

these errors of principle. These errors do not affect the trial balance.

6.4.5 Compensating Errors

When two or more errors are committed in such a way that the net effect of these
©

errors on the debits and credits of accounts is nil, such errors are called
compensating errors. Such errors do not affect the tallying of the trial balance.
For example, if purchases book has been overcast by Rs. 10,000 resulting in
excess debit of Rs. 10,000 in purchases account and sales returns book is
undercast by Rs. 10,000 resulting in short debit to sales returns account is a
 192 Accountancy

case of two errors compensating each other’s effect. One plus is set off by the
other minus, the net effect of these two errors is nil and so they do not affect the
agreement of trial balance.

6.5 Searching of Errors

d
If the trial balance does not tally, it is a clear indication that at least one error
has occured. The error (or errors) needs to be located and corrected before

he
preparing the financial statements.
If the trial balance does not tally, the accountant should take the following
steps to detect and locate the errors :
• Recast the totals of debit and credit columns of the trial balance.
• Compare the account head/title and amount appearing in the trial balance,

is
with that of the ledger to detect any difference in amount or omission of an
account.
• Compare the trial balance of current year with that of the previous year to

bl
check additions and deletions of any accounts and also verify whether
there is a large difference in amount, which is neither expected nor
explained.
pu
• Re-do and check the correctness of balances of individual accounts in
the ledger.
be T

• Re-check the correctness of the posting in accounts from the books of

original entry.
re

• If the difference between the debit and credit columns is divisible by 2,

o R

there is a possibility that an amount equal to one-half of the difference

may have been posted to the wrong side of another ledger account. For
example, if the total of the debit column of the trial balance exceeds by Rs.
tt E

1,500, it is quite possible that a credit item of Rs.750 may have been
wrongly posted in the ledger as a debit item. To locate such errors, the
C

accountant should scan all the debit entries of an amount of Rs. 750.
• The difference may also indicate a complete omission of a posting. For
example, the difference of Rs. 1,500 given above may be due to omissions
no N

of a posting of that amount on the credit side. Thus, the accountant should
verify all the credit items with an amount of Rs. 1,500.
• If the difference is a multiple of 9 or divisible by 9, the mistake could be due
to transposition of figures. For example, if a debit amount of Rs. 459 is posted
©

as Rs. 954, the debit total in the trial balance will exceed the credit side by
Rs. 495 (i.e. 954 – 459 = 495). This difference is divisible by 9. A mistake
due to wrong placement of the decimal point may also be checked by this
method. Thus, a difference in trial balance divisible by 9 helps in checking
the errors for a transposed mistake.
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 193

6.6 Rectification of Errors

From the point of view of rectification, the errors may be classified into the
following two categories :
(a) errors which do not affect the trial balance.
(b) errors which affect the trial balance.

d
This distinction is relevant because the errors which do not affect the trial
balance usually take place in two accounts in such a manner that it can be

he
easily rectified through a journal entry whereas the errors which affect the
trial balance usually affect one account and a journal entry is not possible for
rectification unless a suspense account has been opened. Such errors are rectified
by passing a nullifying entry in the respective account as explained before under
6.6.2.

is
6.6.1 Rectification of Errors which do not Affect the Trial Balance

bl
These errors are committed in two or more accounts. Such errors are also known
as two sided errors. They can be rectified by recording a journal entry giving the
correct debit and credit to the concerned accounts.
pu
Examples of such errors are – complete omission to record an entry in the
books of original entry; wrong recording of transactions in the book of accounts;
complete omission of posting to the wrong account on the correct side, and
be T

errors of principle.
The rectification process essentially involves:
re
o R

• Cancelling the effect of wrong debit or credit by reversing it; and

• Restoring the effect of correct debit or credit.
For this purpose, we need to analyse the error in terms of its effect on the
tt E

accounts involved which may be:

(i) Short debit or credit in an account ; and/or
(ii) Excess debit or credit in an account.
C

Therefore, rectification entry can be done by :

(i) debiting the account with short debit or with excess credit,
no N

(ii) crediting the account with excess debit or with short credit.
The procedure for rectification for such errors is explained with the help of
following examples :
(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were not recorded in the sales book. This is an
©

error of complete omission. Its affect is that Mohan’s account has not been debited
and Sales account has not been credited. Accordingly, recording usual entry for
credit sales will rectify the error.
 194 Accountancy

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

(b) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were recorded as Rs. 1,000 in the sales book.
This is an error of commission. The effect of wrong recording is shown below:

d
Mohan’s A/c Dr. 1,000

he
To Sales A/c 1,000

Correct effect should have been:

is
Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

bl
Now that Mohan’s account has to be given an additional debit of Rs. 9,000
and sales account has to be credited with additional amount of Rs. 9,000,
rectification entry will be :
pu
Mohan’s A/c Dr. 9,000
be T

To Sales A/c 9,000

re

(c) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were recorded as Rs. 12,000. This is an error of
o R

commission. The effect of wrong entry made has been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 12,000

tt E

To Sales A/c 12,000

C

Correct effect should have been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

no N

To Sales A/c 10,000

You can see that there is an excess debit of Rs. 2,000 in Mohan’s account
©

and excess credit of Rs. 2,000 in sales account.

The, rectification entry will be recorded as follows:

Sales A/c Dr. 2,000

To Mohan‘s A/c 2,000

 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 195

(d) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 was correctly recorded in the sales book but was
posted to Ram’s account. This is an error of commission. The effect of wrong posting
has been :

Ram’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

d
Correct effect should have been :

he
Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

is
Notice that there is no error in sales account. But Ram’s account has been
debited with Rs. 10,000 instead of Mohan’s account.
Hence rectification entry will be :

bl
Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Ram’s A/c 10,000

pu
(e) Rent paid Rs. 2,000 was wrongly shown as payment to landlord in the
cash book:
be T

The effect of wrong posting has been :

re
o R

Landlord’s A/c Dr. 2,000

To Cash A/c 2,000

tt E

Correct effect should have been :

C

Rent A/c Dr. 2,000

To Cash A/c 2,000

no N

Landlord’s account has been wrongly debited instead of Rent account.

Hence, rectification entry will be :

Rent A/c Dr. 2,000

©

To Landlord’s A/c 2,000

 196 Accountancy

Test Your Understanding - II

Record the rectification entry for the following transactions:

1. Credit sales to Rajni Rs. 5,000 recorded in Purchases book:
This is an error of ..........................................
State the wrong entry recorded in the book of accounts

d
he
Correct effect should have been:

is
The rectification entry will be:

bl
pu
2. Furniture purchased from M/s Rao Furnishigs for Rs. 8,000 was entered into
the purchases book .
be T

This is the error of ........................................

State the wrong entry recorded in the book of accounts
re
o R
tt E

Correct effect should have been:

C

The rectification entry will be:

no N

3. Cash sales to Radhika Rs. 15,000 was shown as receipt of commission in the
cash book.
©

This is the error of ..............................................

State the wrong entry recorded in the book of accounts
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 197

Correct effect should have been :

d
The rectificatin entry will be:

he
4. Cash received from Karim Rs. 6,000 posted to Nadeem.
This is the error of ........................................

is
State the wrong entry recorded in the book of accounts:

Correct effect should have been:

bl
pu
be T

The rectification entry will be:

re
o R
tt E

6.6.2 Rectification of Errors Affecting Trial Balance

C

The errors which affect only one account can be rectified by giving an exaplanatory
note in the account affected or by recording a journal entry with the help of the
Suspense Account. Suspense Account is explained later in this chapter. Examples
no N

of such errors are error of casting; error of carrying forward; error of balancing;
error of posting to correct account but with wrong amount; error of posting to the
correct account but on the wrong side; posting to the wrong side with the wrong
amount; omitting to show an account in the trial balance.
©

An error in the books of original entry, if discovered before it is posted to the

ledger, may be corrected by crossing out the wrong amount by a single line and
writing the correct amount above the crossed amount and initialling it. An error
in an amount posted to the correct ledger account may also be corrected in a
 198 Accountancy

similar way, or by making an additional posting for the difference in amount

and giving an explanatory note in the particulars column. But errors should
never be corrected by erasing or overwriting reduces the authenticity of
accounting records and give an impression that something is being concealed.
A better way therefore is by noting the correction on the appropriate side for
neutralising the effect of the error. Take for example a case where Shyam’s

d
account was credited short by Rs. 190. This will be rectified by an additional
entry for Rs. 190 on the credit side of his account as follows.

he
Shyam’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

is
Rs. Rs.
Difference in 190
amount posted

bl
short on.....
pu
Take another example, purchases book was undercast by Rs. 1,000. The effect
of this entry is on purchases account (debit side) where the total of purchases
book is posted
be T

Purchases Account
re

Dr. Cr.
o R

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
tt E

Undercasting 1,000
purchases
book for the
C

month of....

Suspese Account
no N

Even if the trial balance does not tally due to the existence of one sided errors,
accountant has to carry forward his accounting process prepare financial
statements. The accountant tallies his trial balance by putting the difference
on shorter side as ‘suspense account’.
©

The process of opening of suspense account can be understood with the help
of the following example :
Consider the sales book of an organisation.
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 199

Sales Book (Journal)

Date Invoice Name of customers L.F. Amount
No. (Accounts to be debited) Rs.

Ashok traders 20,000

Bimal service centre 10,000

d
Chopra enterprises 5,000
Diwakar and sons 15,000

he
50,000

If sales to Diwakar and sons were not posted to his account, ledger will show

is
the following position :
Ashok Traders Account
Dr. Cr.

bl
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
pu
Sales 20,000 Balance c/d 20,000
20,000 20,000
be T

Bimal Service Centre’s Account

Dr. Cr.
re
o R

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
Sales 10,000 Balance c/d 10,000
tt E

10,000 10,000

Chopra Enterprises Account

C

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
no N

Rs. Rs.
Sales 5,000 Balance c/d 5,000
5,000 5,000
©

Sales Account
Cr. Dr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Sundries 50,000
 200 Accountancy

The trial balance when prepared on the basis of above balances will not
tally. Its credit column total will amount to Rs. 50,000 and debit column total
to Rs. 35,000. The trial balance would differ with Rs. 15,000. This difference
will be temporarily put to suspense account and trial balance will be made to
agree in the ledger.
In the above case, difference in trial balance has arisen due to one sided

d
error (omission of posting to Diwakar and sons’s account). In a real situation,
there can be many other such one-sided errors which cause a difference in

he
trial balance and thus result in opening of the suspense account. Till the all
errors affecting agreement of trial balance are not located it is not possible to
rectify them and tally the trial balance in such a situation, is shown in the
Suspense account, make the total of debit and credit columns and proceed

is
further with the accounting process.
When the errors are located and the specific accounts and amounts involved
are identified, the amounts are transferred from suspense account to the

bl
relevant accounts thereby closing the suspense account. Thus, suspense
account is not placed in any particular category of accounts and is just a
temporary phenomenon.
pu
While rectifying one-sided errors using suspense account, the following steps
are taken:
(i) Identify the account affected due to error.
be T

(ii) Ascertain the amount of excess debit/credit or short debit/credit in the

re
affected account.
o R

(iii) If the error has resulted in excess debit or short credit in the affected
account, credit the account with the amount of excess debit or short
credit.
tt E

(iv) If the error has resulted in excess credit or short debit in the affected
account, debit the account with the amount of excess credit or short
C

debit.
(v) Complete the journal entry by debiting or crediting the suspense account
as another account affected otherwise.
no N

We will now discuss the process of rectification using suspense account:

(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were not posted to his account. This is
an error of partial omission comitted while posting entries of the sales
book.
©

Wrong effect has been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. Nil

To Sales A/c 10,000
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 201

Correct effect should have been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

The rectification entry will be :

d
Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Suspense A/c 10,000

he
(b) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were posted to his account as Rs. 7000. This is
an error of commission. Mohan’s account has been debited with Rs. 7,000 instead
of Rs. 10,000 resulting in short debit of Rs. 3,000.

is
The wrong effect has been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 7,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

bl
Correct effect should have been :
pu
Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Sales A/c 10,000

Hence, rectification entry will be:

be T

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 3,000

re
o R

To Suspens A/c 3,000

(c) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were posted to his account as Rs. 12,000.
This is an error of commission. The wrong effect has been :
tt E

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 12,000

To Sales A/c 10,000
C

Correct effect should have been

no N

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

The rectification entry will be :

©

Suspense A/c Dr. 2,000

To Mohan’s A/c 2,000

( d ) Purchases book overcast by Rs. 1,000. Errors in casting of subsidiary books

affect only those accounts where totals of the subsidiary books involved are
 202 Accountancy

posted. The accounts of individual parties are not affected. Consider the
following example.

Purchases (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of suppliers L.F. Amount
No. (Accounts to be credited) Rs.

d
Dheru 8,000
Chandraprakash 7,000

he
Sachin 6,000
21,000
Wrong total 22,000
due to overcasting.

is
Dheru’s Account
Dr. Cr.

bl
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
pu
Purchases 8,000

Chandraprakash’s Account
be T

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
re

Rs. Rs.
o R

Purchases 7,000
tt E

Sachin’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
C

Rs. Rs.
Purchases 6,000
no N

Purchases Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
©

Sundries 22,000

As you can notice that there is no error in accounts of Dheeru, Chanderprakash and
Sachin. Only purchases account has been debited with Rs. 1,000 extra. Hence, rectification
entry will be :
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 203

Suspense A/c Dr. 1,000

To Purchases A/c 1,000

6.6.3 Rectification of Errors in the Next Accounting Year

d
If some errors committed during an accounting year are not located and
rectified before the finalisation of financial statements, suspense account

he
cannot be closed and its balance will be carried forward to the next accounting
period. When the errors committed in one accounting year are located and
rectified in the next accounting year, profit and loss adjustment account is
debited or credited in place of accounts of expenses/losses and incomes/
gains in order to avoid impact on the income statement of next accounting

is
period. You will learn about this aspect at an advanced stage of your studies
in accounting.

bl
Box 1
Guiding Principles of Rectification of Errors
pu
1. If error is committed in books of original entry then assume all postings are
done accordingly.
be T

2. If error is at the posting stage then assume that recording in the subsidiary
re
books has been correctly done.
o R

3. If error is in posting to a wrong account (without mentioning side and amount of

posting) then assume that posting has been done on the right side and with the
right amount.
tt E

4. If posting is done to a correct account but with wrong amount (without mentioning
side of posting) then assume that posting has been done on the correct side.
5. If error is posting to a wrong account on the wrong side (without mentioning
C

amount of posting) then assume that posting has been done with the amount as
per the original recording of the transaction.
6. If error is of posting to a wrong account with wrong amount (without mentioning
no N

the side of posting) then assume that posting has been done on the right side.
7. If posting is done to a correct account on the wrong side (without mentioning
amount of posting) then assume that posting has been done with correct amount
as per original recording.
©

8. Any error in posting of individual transactions in subsidiaries books relates to

individual account only, the sales account, purchase account, sales return
account or purchases return account are not involved.
 204 Accountancy

9. If a transaction is recorded in cash book, then the error in posting relates to the
other affected account, not to cash account/bank account
10. If a transaction is recorded through journal proper, then the phrase ‘transaction
was not posted’ indicates error in both the accounts involved, unless stated
otherwise.

d
11. Error in casting of subsidiary books will affect only that account where total of
the particular book is posted leaving the individual personal accounts unaffected.

he
Test Your Understanding - III
Show the effect through Journal entries :
1. Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were posted to his account as Rs. 12,000
This is an error of ..................................

is
The wrong effect has been :

The correct effect should have been :

bl
pu
be T

The rectification entry will be.

re
o R
tt E

2. Cash paid to Neha Rs. 2,000 was not posted to her account. This is an error of
..................................
The wrong effect has been :
C
no N

The correct effect should have been :

©

The rectification entry will be :

 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 205

3. Sales returns from Megha Rs. 1,600 were posted to her account as Rs. 1,000.
This is an error of ..................................
The wrong effect has been :

d
The correct effect should have been :

he
The rectification entry will be :

is
bl
4. Depreciation written off on furniture Rs. 1,500 was not posted to depreciation
account. This is an error of ................
The wrong effect has been :
pu
be T

The correct effect should have been :

re
o R

The rectification entry :

tt E
C

Illustration 1

Rectify the following errors :

no N

Credit purchases from Raghu Rs. 20,000

(i) were not recorded.
(ii) were recorded as Rs. 10,000.
(iii) were recorded as Rs. 25,000.
©

(iv) were not posted to his account.

(v) were posted to his account as Rs. 2,000.
(vi) were posted to Reghav’s account.
(vii) were posted to the debit of Raghu’s account.
(viii) were posted to the debit of Raghav.
(ix) were recorded through sales book.
 206 Accountancy

Solution

(i)

Purchases A/c Dr. 20,000

To Raghu’s A/c 20,000
(Credit purchases from Raghu omitted to be recorded, now corrected)

d
(ii)

he
Purchases A/c Dr. 10,000
To Raghu’s A/c 10,000
(Credit purchases from Raghu recorded as Rs. 10,000 instead of Rs 20,000,
now corrected)

is
(iii)

bl
Raghu’s A/c Dr. 5,000
To Purchases A/c 5,000
(Credit purchases from Raghu recorded as Rs. 25,000 instead of
Rs. 20,000).
pu
(iv)
be T

Suspense A/c Dr. 20,000

To Raghu’s A/c 20,000
re
(Credit purchases from Raghu not posted to his account now corrected).
o R

(v)
tt E

Suspense A/c Dr. 18,000

To Raghu’s A/c 18,000
(Credit purchases from Raghu Rs. 20,000 posted to his account as
C

Rs. 2,000

(vi)
no N

Raghav’s A/c Dr. 20,000

To Raghu’s A/c 20,000
(Credit purchases from Raghu wrongly credited to Raghav, now corrected)
©

(vii)

Suspense A/c Dr. 40,000

To Raghu’s A/c 40,000
(Credit purchases from Raghu Rs. 20,000 wrongly posted to the debit of
his account, now corrected).
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 207

(viii)

Suspense A/c Dr. 40,000

To Raghav’s A/c 20,000
To Raghu’s A/c 20,000
(Credited purchases from Raghu Rs. 20,000 wrongly debited to Raghav,

d
now corrected).

he
(ix)

Sales A/c Dr. 20,000

Purchases A/c Dr. 20,000
To Raghu’s A/c 40,000

is
(Credit purchases from Raghu wrongly recorded through sales book, now
corrected).

bl
Illustration 2
Rectify the following errors :
pu
Cash sales Rs. 16,000
(i) were not posted to sales account.
(ii) were posted as Rs. 6,000 in sales account.
be T

(iii) were posted to commission account.

re
Solution
o R

(i)

Suspense A/c Dr. 16,000

tt E

To Sales A/c 16,000

(Cash sales not posted to sales account now rectified)
C

(ii)

Suspense A/c Dr. 10,000

no N

To Sales A/c 10,000

(Cash sales Rs. 16,000 were posted to sales account as Rs. 6,000, now
rectified)
©

(iii)

Commission A/c Dr. 16,000

To Sales A/c 16,000
(Cash sales posted to commission account instead of sales account,
now corrected)
 208 Accountancy

Illustration 3
Depreciation written-off as the machinery Rs. 2,000
(i) was not posted at all
(ii) was not posted to machinery account
(iii) was not posted to depreciation account
Solution

d
(i) It was recorded through journal proper. From journal proper posting to all the
accounts are made individually. Hence, no posting was made to depreciation account

he
and machinery account. Therefore, rectification entry will be :

Depreciation A/c Dr. 2,000

To Machinery A/c 2,000
(Depreciation on machinery not posted, now corrected)

is
(ii) In this case posting was not made to machinery account. It is to be assumed that
depreciation account should have been correctly debited. Therefore, rectification
entry shall be :

bl
Suspense A/c Dr. 2,000
To Machinery A/c 2,000
(Depreciation on machinery not posted to Machinery account, now
pu
corrected).

(iii) In this case depreciation account was not been debited. However, machinery account
be T

must have been correctly credited. Therefore, rectification entry shall be :

re

Depreciation A/c Dr. 2,000

o R

To Suspense A/c 2,000

(Depreciation on machinery not posted to Depreciation account, now
corrected).
tt E

Illustration 4
C

Trial balance of Anurag did not agree. It showed an excess credit Rs. 10,000. Anurag put
the difference to suspense account. He located the following errors :
(i) Sales return book over cast by Rs. 1,000.
no N

(ii) Purchases book was undercast by Rs. 600.

(iii) In the sales book total of page no. 4 was carried forward to page 5 as Rs. 1,000
instead of Rs. 1,200 and total of page 8 was carried forward to page 9 as
Rs. 5,600 instead of Rs. 5,000.
(iv) Goods returned to Ram Rs. 1,000 were recorded through sales book.
©

(v) Credit purchases from M & Co. Rs. 8,000 were recorded through sales book.
(vi) Credit purchases from S & Co. Rs. 5,000 were recorded through sales book.
However, S & Co. were correctly credited.
(vii) Salary paid Rs. 2,000 was debited to employee’s personal account.
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 209

Solution
(i)

Suspense A/c Dr. 1,000

To Sales Return A/c 1,000
(Sales returns book overcast by Rs. 1,000, now corrected).

d
(ii)

he
Purchases A/c Dr. 600
To Suspense A/c 600
(Purchases book undercast by Rs. 600, now corrected)

is
(iii)

Sales A/c Dr. 400

bl
To Suspense A/c 400
(Error in carry forward of sales book, now corrected).
pu
Note : Errors in carry forward the total of one page to another during
a period finally affects the total of that book resulting in error of under/overcastting.
In this case, carry forward from page 4 to 5 resulted in undercasting of Rs. 200 and
be T

carry forward from page 8 to page 9 resulted in overcasting of Rs. 600. Overall
overcastting being Rs. 600–200 = Rs. 400.
re
o R

(iv)

Sales A/c Dr. 1,000

To Return Outwards A/c 1,000
tt E

(Return Outwards wrongly recorded through sales book, now rectified).

C

(v)

Purchases A/c Dr. 8,000

Sales A/c Dr. 8,000
no N

To M & Co.’s A/c 16,000

(Credit purchases wrongly recorded through sales book, now rectified).

(vi)
©

Purchases A/c Dr. 5,000

Sales A/c Dr. 5,000
To Suspense A/c 10,000
(Credit purchases wrongly recorded through sales book, however suppliers
account correctly credited, now rectified).
 210 Accountancy

(vii)

Salary A/c Dr. 2,000

To Employee’s personal A/c 2,000
(Salary paid wrongly debited to employee’s personal account, now
corrected)

d
Suspense Account

he
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Difference as per 10,000
trial balance Purchases 600

is
Sales return 1,000 Sales 400
Purchases 5,000
Sales 5,000

bl
11,000 11,000

Illustration 5
pu
Trial balance of Rahul did not agree. Rahul put the difference to suspense account.
Subsequently, he located the following errors :
be T

(i) Wages paid for installation of Machinery Rs. 600 was posted to wages account.
(ii) Repairs to Machinery Rs. 400 debited to Machinery account.
re
(iii) Repairs paid for the overhauling of second hand machinery purchased Rs. 1,000
o R

was debited to Repairs account.

(iv) Own business material Rs. 8,000 and wages Rs. 2,000 were used for construction
of building. No adjustment was made in the books.
tt E

(v) Furniture purchased for Rs. 5,000 was posted to purchase account as Rs. 500.
(vi) Old machinery sold to Karim at its book value of Rs. 2,000 was recorded through
sales book.
C

(vii) Total of sales returns book Rs. 3,000 was not posted to the ledger.
Rectify the above errors and prepare suspense account to ascertain the original
difference in trial balance.
no N

(i)

Machinery A/c Dr. 600

To Wages A/c 600
(Wages paid for installation of machinery wrongly debited to wages account,
now rectified)
©

(ii)

Repairs A/c Dr. 400

To Machinery A/c 400
(Repairs paid wrongly debited to machinery account now rectified)
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 211

(iii)

Machinery A/c Dr. 1,000

To Repairs A/c 1,000
(Repairs for overhauling of second hand machinery purchased, wrongly
debited to repairs account, now rectified).

d
(iv)

he
Building A/c Dr. 10,000
To Purchases A/c 8,000
To Wages A/c 2,000
(Material and wages used for construction of Building, not debited to
building account).

is
(v)

Furniture A/c Dr. 5,000

bl
To Purchases A/c 500
To Suspense A/c 4,500
(Furniture purchased for Rs. 5,000 wrongly debited to purchases account
as Rs. 500, now rectified).
pu
(vi)
be T

Sales A/c Dr. 2,000

To Machinery 2,000
re

(Sale of machinery wrongly recorded in sales book, now rectified).

o R

(vii)
tt E

Sales Return A/c Dr. 3,000

To Suspense A/c 3,000
C

(Total of sales returns book not posted to ledger, now rectified).

Suspense Account
no N

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

Difference as per 7,500 Furniture 4,500

©

trial balance Sales return 3.000

7,500 7,500

Hence, original difference in Trial Balance was Rs. 7,500 excess on the Credit side.
 212 Accountancy

Illustration 6
Trial balance of Anant Ram did not agree. It showed an excess credit of Rs. 16,000. He put
the difference to suspense account. Subsequently the following errors were located:
(i) Cash received from Mohit Rs. 4,000 was posted to Mahesh as Rs. 1,000.
(ii) Cheque for Rs. 5,800 received from Arnav in full settlement of his account of Rs.

d
6,000, was dishonoured. No entry was passed in the books on dishonour of the
cheque.
(iii) Rs. 800 received from Khanna, whose account had previously been written off as

he
bad, was credited to his account.
(iv) Credit sales to Manav for Rs. 5,000 was recorded through the purchases book as
Rs. 2,000.
(v) Purchases book undercast by Rs. 1,000.

is
(vi) Repairs on machinery Rs. 1,600 wrongly debited to Machinery account as Rs. 1,000.
(vii) Goods returned by Nathu Rs. 3,000 were taken into stock. No entry was recorded
in the books.

bl
Solution

(i)
pu
Mahesh’s A/c Dr. 1,000
Suspense A/c Dr. 3,000
be T

To Mohit’s A/c 4,000

re
(Cash received from Mohit Rs. 4,000 wrongly posted to Mahesh as
o R

Rs.1,000, now rectified)

(ii)
tt E

Arnav’s A/c Dr. 6,000

To Bank A/c 5,800
C

To Discount Allowed A/c 200

(Cheque received from Arnav for Rs. 5,800 in full settlement of his account
of Rs. 6,000, dishonoured but no entry made in books, now rectified)
no N

(iii)

Khanna’s A/c Dr. 800

©

To Bad debts recovered A/c 800

(Bad debts recovered wrongly credited to Khanna’s account, now rectified)
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 213

(iv)

Manav’s A/c Dr. 7,000

To Purchases A/c 2,000
To Sales A/c 5,000
(Credit sales to Manav Rs. 5,000 wrongly recorded through purchases

d
book as Rs. 2,000, now rectified)

(v)

he
Purchases A/c Dr. 1,000
To Suspense A/c 1,000
(Purchases book undercast by Rs. 1,000)

is
(vi)

bl
Repairs A/c Dr. 1,600
To Machinery A/c 1,000
To Suspense A/c 600
(Repairs on machinery Rs. 1,600 wrongly debited to machinery account
pu
as Rs. 1,000, now rectified)

(vii)
be T

Sales Return A/c Dr. 3,000

re

To Nathu’s A/c 3,000

o R

(Sales return from Nathu not recorded)

tt E

Suspense Account
Dr. Cr.
C

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.
no N

Difference as per Purchases 1,000

trial balance 16,000 Repairs 600
Mohit 3,000 Balance c/d 17,400
19,000 19,000
©

Note : Even after rectification of errors suspense account is showing a debit balance of
Rs. 17,400. This is due to non-detection of errors affecting trial balance. Balance
of suspense account will be carried forward to the next year and will be eliminated
as and when all the remaining errors affecting trial balance are located.
 214 Accountancy

Illustration 7
Trial balance of Kailash did not agree. He put the difference to suspense account. The
following errors were discovered :
(i) Goods withdrawn by Kailash for personal use Rs. 500 were not recorded in the
books.
(ii) Discount allowed to Ramesh Rs.60 on receiving Rs. 2,040 from him was not recorded

d
in the books.
(iii) Discount received from Rohan Rs. 50 on paying Rs. 3,250 to him was not posted at all.

he
(iv) Rs. 700 received from Khalil, a debtor, whose account had earlier been written-off
as bad, were credited to his personal account.
(v) Cash received from Govil, a debtor, Rs. 5,000 was posted to his account as Rs. 500.
(vi) Goods returned to Mahesh Rs. 700 were posted to his account as Rs. 70.
(vii) Bill receivable from Narayan Rs. 1,000 was dishonoured and wrongly debited to

is
allowances account as Rs. 10,000.
Give journal entries to rectify the above errors and prepare suspense account to ascertain
the amount of difference in trial balance.

bl
Solution.
(i)
pu
Drawings A/c Dr. 500
To Purchases A/c 500
(Goods withdrawn by proprietor for personal use not recorded, now
be T

rectified).
re
o R

(ii)

Discount allowed A/c Dr. 60

To Ramesh’s A/c 60
tt E

(Discount allowed to Ramesh not recorded, now rectified)

C

(iii)

Rohan’s A/c Dr. 50

To Discount received A/c 50
no N

(Discount received from Rohan not posted , now corrected)

(iv)
©

Khalil’s A/c Dr. 700

To Bad debts recovered A/c 700
(Bad debts recovered wrongly credited to debtor’s personal account, now
corrected)
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 215

(v)

Suspense A/c Dr. 4,500

To Govil’s A/c 4,500
(Cash received from Govil Rs. 5,000 wrongly posted to his account as
Rs. 500)

d
(vi)

he
Mahesh’s A/c Dr. 630
To Suspense A/c 630
(Goods returned to Mahesh Rs. 700 wrongly posted to his account as
Rs. 70, now corrected)

is
(vii)

Narayan’s A/c Dr. 1,000

bl
Suspense A/c Dr. 9,000
To Allowances A/c 10,000
(Bill receivables from Narayan Rs. 1,000 wrongly debited to allowances
account as Rs. 10,000).
pu
Suspense Account
be T

Dr. Cr.
re

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

o R

Rs. Rs.
Govil 4,500 Mahesh 630
Allowances 9,000 Difference as per 12,870
tt E

trial balance
13,500 13,500
C

Test Your Understanding - IV

Tick the Correct Answer

no N

(1) Agreement of trial balance is affected by:

(a) One sided errors only.
(b) Two sided errors only.
(c) Both a and b.
©

(d) None of the above.

(2) Which of the following is not an error of principle:
(a) Purchase of furniture debited to purchases account.
(b) Repairs on the overhauling of second hand machinery purchased debited to
repairs account.
 216 Accountancy

(c) Cash received from Manoj posted to Saroj.

(d) Sale of old car credited to sales account.
(3) Which of the following is not an error of commission:
(a) Overcasting of sales book.
(b) Credit sales to Ramesh Rs. 5,000 credited to his account.
(c) Wrong balancing of machinery account.

d
(d) Cash sales not recorded in cash book.
(4) Which of following errors will be rectified through suspense account:

he
(a) Sales return book undercast by Rs. 1,000.
(b) Sales return by Madhu Rs. 1,000 not recorded.
(c) Sales return by Madhu Rs 1,000. recorded as Rs,100.
(d) Sales return by Madhu Rs. 1,000 recorded through purchases returns book
(5) If the trial balance agrees, it implies that:

is
(a) There is no error in the books.
(b) There may be two sided errors in the book.
(c) There may be one sided error in the books.

bl
(d) There may be both two sided and one sided errors in the books.
(6) If suspense account does not balance off even after rectification of errors it implies
that:
(a) There are some one sided errors only in the books yet to be located.
pu
(b) There are no more errors yet to be located.
(c) There are some two sided errors only yet to be located.
(d) There may be both one sided errors and two sided errors yet to be located.
be T

(7) If wages paid for installation of new machinery is debited to wages Account, it is:
(a) An error of commission.
re
(b) An error of principle.
o R

(c) A compensating error.

(d) An error of omission.
(8) Trial balance is:
tt E

(a) An account.
(b) A statement.
(c) A subsidiary book.
C

(d) A principal book.

(9) A Trial balance is prepared:
(a) After preparation financial statement.
(b) After recording transactions in subsidiary books.
no N

(c) After posting to ledger is complete.

(d) After posting to ledger is complete and accounts have been balanced,

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

©

• Trial Balance • Compensating Error

• Error of Commission • Error of Principle
• Error Omission • Suspense Account
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 217

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Meaning of trial balance : A statement showing the abstract of the balance

(debit/credit) of various accounts in the ledger.
2. Objectives of trial balance : The main objectives of preparing the trial balance
are : (i) to ascertain the arithmetical accuracy of the ledger accounts; (ii) to

d
help in locating errors; and (iii) to help in the preparatioon of the final accounts.
3. Preparation of trial balance by the balance method : In this method, the trial
balance has three columns. The first column is for the head of the account,

he
the second column for writing the debit balance and the third for the credit
balance of each account in the ledger.
4. Various types of errors :
(i) Errors of commission : Errors caused due to wrong recording of a
transaction, wrong totalling, wrong casting, wrong balancing, etc.

is
(ii) Errors of Omission : Errors caused due to omission of recording a
transaction entirely or party in the books of account.
(iii) Errors of Principle : Errors arising due to wrong classificatrion of receipts

bl
and payments between revenue and capital receipts and revenue and
capital expenditure.
(iv) Compensating errors : Two or more errors committed in such a way that
they nullify the effect of each other on the debits and credits.
pu
5. Rectification of errors : Errors affecting only one account can be rectified by
giving an explanatory note or by passing a journal entry. Errors which affect
two or more accounts are rectified by passing a journal entry.
be T

6. Meaning and utility of suspense account : An account in which the difference

in the trial balance is put till such time that errors are located and rectified.
re
It facilitates the preparation of financial statements even when the trial balance
o R

does not tally.

7. Disposal of suspense account : When all the errors are located and rectified
the suspense account stands disposed off.
tt E

Questions for Practice

Short Answers
C

1. State the meaning of a trial balance?

2. Give two examples of errors of principle?
3. Give two examples of errors of commission?
no N

4. What are the methods of preparing trial balance?

5. What are the steps taken by an accountant to locate the errors in the trial
balance?
6. What is a suspense account? Is it necessary that is suspense account will
©

balance off after rectification of the errors detected by the accountant? If

not, then what happens to the balance still remaining in suspense account?
7. What kinds of errors would cause difference in the trial balance. Also list
examples that would not be revealed by a trial balance?
8. State the limitations of trial balance?
 218 Accountancy

Long Answers
1. Describe the purpose for the preparation of trial balance.
2. Explain errors of principle and give two examples with measures to rectify
them.
3. Explain the errors of commission and give two examples with measures to
rectify them.

d
4. What are the different types of errors that are usually committed in recording
business transaction.
5. As an accountant of a company, you are disappointed to learn that the

he
totals in your new trial balance are not equal. After going through a careful
analysis, you have discovered only one error. Specifically, the balance of
the Office Equipment account has a debit balance of Rs. 15,600 on the
trial balance. However, you have figured out that a correctly recorded credit
purchase of pendrive for Rs 3,500 was posted from the journal to the ledger

is
with a Rs. 3,500 debit to Office Equipment and another Rs. 3,500 debit to
creditors accounts. Answer each of the following questions and present the
amount of any misstatement :

bl
(a) Is the balance of the office equipment account overstated, understated,
or correctly stated in the trial balance?
(b) Is the balance of the creditors account overstated, understated, or
correctly stated in the trial balance?
pu
(c) Is the debit column total of the trial balance overstated, understated,
or correclty stated?
(d) Is the credit column total of the trial balance overstated, understated,
be T

or correctly stated?
(e) If the debit column total of the trial balance is Rs. 2,40,000 before
re
correcting the error, what is the total of credit column.
o R

Numerical Questions
tt E

1. Rectify the following errors :

(i) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were not recorded.
(ii) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were not recorded.
C

(iii) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were not recorded.

(iv) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were not recorded.
2. Rectify the following errors :
no N

(i) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were recorded as Rs.700.

(ii) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were recorded. as Rs.900.
(iii) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were recorded as Rs 400.
(iv) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were recorded as Rs.100.
©

3. Rectify the following errors :

(i) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were recorded as Rs.7,200.
(ii) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were recorded as Rs. 9,900.
(iii) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were recorded as Rs 4,040.
(iv) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were recorded as Rs.1,600.
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 219

4. Rectify the following errors :

(a) Salary paid Rs. 5,000 was debited to employee’s personal account.
(b) Rent Paid Rs. 4,000 was posted to landlord’s personal account.
(c) Goods withdrawn by proprietor for personal use Rs. 1,000 were debited
to sundry expenses account.
(d) Cash received from Kohli Rs. 2,000 was posted to Kapur’s account.

d
(e) Cash paid to Babu Rs. 1,500 was posted to Sabu’s account.
5. Rectify the following errors :

he
(a) Credit Sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were recorded in purchases book.
(b) Credit Purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,00 were recorded in sales book.
(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were recorded in the sales return
book.
(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were recorded in purchases

is
return book.
(e) Goods returned from Nahesh Rs. 2,000 were recorded in purchases book.
6. Rectify the following errors :

bl
(a) Sales book overcast by Rs. 700.
(b) Purchases book overcast by Rs. 500.
(c) Sales return book overcast by Rs. 300.
pu
(d) Purchase return book overcast by Rs. 200.
7. Rectify the following errors :
(a) Sales book undercast by Rs.300.
be T

(b) Purchases book undercast by Rs.400.

re
(c) Return Inwards book undercast by Rs.200.
o R

(d) Return outwards book undercast by Rs.100.

8. Rectify the following errors and ascertain the amount of difference in trial
balance by preparing suspense account :
tt E

(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were not posted.

(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were not posted.
(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were not posted.
C

(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were not posted.
(e) Cash paid to Ganesh Rs. 3,000 was not posted.
(f) Cash sales Rs. 2,000 were not posted.
no N

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 2,000 excess credit).

9. Rectify the following errors and ascertain the amount of difference in trial
balance by preparing suspense account :
(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were posted as Rs. 9,000.
©

(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were posted as Rs. 6,000.
(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were posted as Rs. 5,000.
(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were posted as Rs. 3,000.
(e) Cash sales Rs. 2,000 were posted as Rs. 200.
(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 5,800 excess debit.)
 220 Accountancy

10. Rectify the following errors :

(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were posted to Karan.
(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were posted to Gobind.
(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were posted to Naresh.
(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were posted to Manish.
(e) Cash sales Rs. 2,000 were posted to commission account.

d
11. Rectify the following errors assuming that a suspense account was opened.
Ascertain the difference in trial balance.

he
(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were posted to the credit of his account.
(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were posted to the debit of his
account as Rs. 6,000.
(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were posted to the credit of his
account.

is
(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were posted to the debit of his
account as Rs. 2,000.
(e) Cash sales Rs. 2,000 were posted to the debit of sales account as Rs. 5,000.

bl
(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 3,000 excess debit).
12. Rectify the following errors assuming that a suspense account was opened.
Ascertain the difference in trial balance.
pu
(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were posted to Karan as Rs. 5,000.
(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were posted to the debit of
Gobind as Rs 10,000.
be T

(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were posted to the credit of Naresh
as Rs 3,000.
re
o R

(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were posted to the debit of
Manish as Rs. 2,000.
(e) Cash sales Rs. 2,000 were posted to commission account as Rs. 200.
tt E

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 14, 800 excess debit).

13. Rectify the following errors assuming that suspense account was opened.
Ascertain the difference in trial balance.
C

(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were recorded in Purchase Book.
However, Mohan’s account was correctly debited.
(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were recorded in sales book.
no N

However, Rohan’s account was correctly credited.

(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were recorded in sales return
book. However, Rakesh’s account was correctly debited.
(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were recorded through
purchases return book. However, Mahesh’s account was correctly
©

credited.
(e) Goods returned to Naresh Rs. 2,000 were recorded through purchases
book. However, Naresh’s account was correctly debited.
(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 6,000 excess debit).
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 221

14. Rectify the following errors :

(a) Furniture purchased for Rs. 10,000 wrongly debited to purchases
account.
(b) Machinery purchased on credit from Raman for Rs. 20,000 was
recorded through purchases book.
(c) Repairs on machinery Rs. 1,400 debited to machinery account.

d
(d) Repairs on overhauling of secondhand machinery purchased Rs. 2,000
was debited to Repairs account.

he
(e) Sale of old machinery at book value of Rs. 3,000 was credited to sales account.
15. Rectify the following errors assuming that suspension account was opened.
Ascertain the difference in trial balance.
(a) Furniture purchased for Rs. 10,000 wrongly debited to purchase
account as Rs. 4,000.

is
(b) Machinery purchased on credit from Raman for Rs. 20,000 recorded
through Purchases Book as Rs. 6,000.
(c) Repairs on machinery Rs. 1,400 debited to Machinery account as

bl
Rs. 2,400.
(d) Repairs on overhauling of second hand machinery purchased Rs. 2,000
was debited to Repairs account as Rs. 200.
pu
(e) Sale of old machinery at book value Rs. 3,000 was credited to sales
account as Rs. 5,000.
(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 8,800 excess credit).
be T

16. Rectify the following errors :

(a) Depreciation provided on machinery Rs. 4,000 was not posted.
re
(b) Bad debts written off Rs. 5,000 were not posted.
o R

(c) Discount allowed to a debtor Rs. 100 on receiving cash from him was not
posted.
(d) Discount allowed to a debtor Rs. 100 on receiving cash from him was
tt E

not posted to discount account.

(e) Bill receivable for Rs. 2,000 received from a debtor was not posted.
17. Rectify the following errors :
C

(a) Depreciation provided on machinery Rs. 4,000 was posted as Rs. 400.
(b) Bad debts written off Rs. 5,000 were posted as Rs. 6,000.
no N

(c) Discount allowed to a debtor Rs. 100 on receiving cash from him was
posted as Rs. 60.
(d) Goods withdrawn by proprietor for personal use Rs. 800 were posted
as Rs. 300.
(e) Bill receivable for Rs. 2,000 received from a debtor was posted as
©

Rs. 3,000.
18. Rectify the following errors assuming that suspense account was opened.
Ascertain the difference in trial balance.
(a) Depreciation provided on machinery Rs. 4,000 was not posted to
Depreciation account.
 222 Accountancy

(b) Bad debts written-off Rs. 5,000 were not posted to Debtors account.
(c) Discount allowed to a debtor Rs. 100 on receiving cash from him was
not posted to discount allowed account.
(d) Goods withdrawn by proprietor for personal use Rs. 800 were not posted
to Drawings account.
(e) Bill receivable for Rs. 2,000 received from a debtor was not posted to

d
Bills receivable account.
(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 1,900 excess credit).

he
19. Trial balance of Anuj did not agree. It showed an excess credit of Rs. 6,000.
He put the difference to suspense account. He discovered the following
errors.
(a) Cash received from Ravish Rs. 8,000 posted to his account as
Rs. 6,000.

is
(b) Returns inwards book overcast by Rs. 1,000.
(c) Total of sales book Rs. 10,000 was not posted to Sales account.
(d) Credit purchases from Nanak Rs. 7,000 were recorded in sales Book.

bl
However, Nanak’s account was correctly credited.
(e) Machinery purchased for Rs. 10,000 was posted to purchases account
as Rs. 5,000. Rectify the errors and prepare suspense account.
pu
(Ans : Total of suspense account Rs. 19,000).
20. Trial balance of Raju showed an excess debit of Rs. 10,000. He put the
difference to suspense account and discovered the following errors :
be T

(a) Depreciation written-off the furniture Rs. 6,000 was not posted to
Furniture account.
re
(b) Credit sales to Rupam Rs. 10,000 were recorded as Rs. 7,000.
o R

(c) Purchases book undercast by Rs. 2,000.

(d) Cash sales to Rana Rs. 5,000 were not posted.
(e) Old Machinery sold for Rs. 7,000 was credited to sales account.
tt E

(f) Discount received Rs. 800 from kanan on playing cash to him was not
posted. Rectify the errors and prepare suspense account.
C

(Ans : Balance carried forward in suspense account Rs. 1,000 (cr.)).

21. Trial balance of Madan did not agree and he put the difference to
suspense account. He discovered the following errors:
no N

(a) Sales return book overcast by Rs. 800.

(b) Purchases return to Sahu Rs. 2,000 were not posted.
(c) Goods purchased on credit from Narula Rs. 4,000 though taken into
stock, but no entry was passed in the books.
(d) Installation charges on new machinery purchased Rs. 500 were debited
©

to sundry expenses account as Rs. 50.

(e) Rent paid for residential accommodation of madam (the proprietor)
Rs. 1,400 was debited to Rent account as Rs. 1,000.
Rectify the errors and prepare suspense account to ascertain the
difference in trial balance.
(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 2,050 excess credit).
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 223

22. Trial balance of Kohli did not agree and showed an excess debit of Rs.
16,300. He put the difference to a suspense account and discovered the
following errors:
(a) Cash received from Rajat Rs. 5,000 was posted to the debit of Kamal
as Rs. 6,000.
(b) Salaries paid to an employee Rs. 2,000 were debited to his personal

d
account as Rs. 1200.
(c) Goods withdrawn by proprietor for personal use Rs. 1,000 were credited
to sales account as Rs. 1,600.

he
(d) Depreciation provided on machinery Rs. 3,000 was posted to Machinery
account as Rs. 300.
(e) Sale of old car for Rs. 10,000 was credited to sales account as
Rs. 6,000. Rectify the errors and prepare suspense account.
(Ans : total of suspense account : Rs. 17,700).

is
23. Give journal entries to rectify the following errors assuming that suspense
account had been opened.
(a) Goods distributed as free sample Rs. 5,000 were not recorded in the

bl
books.
(b) Goods withdrawn for personal use by the proprietor Rs. 2,000 were
not recorded in the books.
(c) Bill receivable received from a debtor Rs. 6,000 was not posted to his
pu
account.
(d) Total of Returns inwards book Rs. 1,200 was posted to Returns
outwards account.
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(e) Discount allowed to Reema Rs. 700 on receiving cash from her was
recorded in the books as Rs. 70.
re

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 3,600 excess debit).

o R

24. Trial balance of Khatau did not agree. He put the difference to suspense account
and discovered the following errors :
(a) Credit sales to Manas Rs. 16,000 were recorded in the purchases book
tt E

as Rs. 10,000 and posted to the debit of Manas as Rs. 1,000.

(b) Furniture purchased from Noor Rs. 6,000 was recorded through
purchases book as Rs. 5,000 and posted to the debit of Noor Rs. 2,000.
C

(c) Goods returned to Rai Rs. 3,000 recorded through the Sales book as
Rs. 1,000.
(d) Old machinery sold for Rs. 2,000 to Maneesh recorded through sales
no N

book as Rs. 1,800 and posted to the credit of Manish as Rs. 1,200.
(e) Total of Returns inwards book Rs. 2,800 posted to Purchase account.
Rectify the above errors and prepare suspense account to ascertain
the difference in trial balance.
(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 15,000 excess debit).
©

25. Trial balance of John did not agree. He put the difference to suspense
account and discovered the following errors :
(a) In the sales book for the month of January total of page 2 was carried
forward to page 3 as Rs. 1,000 instead of Rs. 1200 and total of page 6
was carried forward to page 7 as Rs. 5,600 instead of Rs. 5,000.
 224 Accountancy

(b) Wages paid for installation of machinery Rs. 500 was posted to wages
account as Rs. 50.
(c) Machinery purchased from R & Co. for Rs. 10,000 on credit was entered
in Purchase Book as Rs. 6,000 and posted there from to R & Co. as
Rs. 1,000.
(d) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 5,000 were recorded in Purchases Book.
(e) Goods returned to Ram Rs. 1,000 were recorded in Sales Book.

d
(f) Credit purchases from S & Co. for Rs. 6,000 were recorded in sales
book. However, S & Co. was correctly credited.

he
(g) Credit purchases from M & Co. Rs. 6,000 were recorded in Sales Book
as Rs. 2,000 and posted there from to the credit of M & Co. as
Rs. 1,000.
(h) Credit sales to Raman Rs. 4,000 posted to the credit of Raghvan as
Rs. 1,000.

is
(i) Bill receivable for Rs. 1,600 from Noor was dishonoured and posted to
debit of Allowances account.
(j) Cash paid to Mani Rs. 5,000 against our acceptance was debited to
Manu.

bl
(k) Old furniture sold for Rs. 3,000 was posted to Sales account as
Rs. 1,000.
(l) Depreciation provided on furniture Rs. 800 was not posted.
pu
(m) Material Rs. 10,000 and wages Rs. 3,000 were used for construction
of building. No adjustment was made in the books.
Rectify the errors and prepare suspense to ascertain the difference in
be T

trial balance.
(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 13,850 excess credit).
re
o R

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test your understanding - I
tt E

Trial Balance Total Rs. 5,17,000

Test your understanding - II
C

1. Purchases A/c Dr. 5,000

To Rajni’s A/c 5,000
no N

Rajni’s A/c Dr. 5,000

To Sales A/c 5,000
©

Rajni’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 5,000
To Purchases A/c 5,000

2. Purchases A/c Dr. 8,000

To Rao’s A/c 8,000
 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 225

Furniture A/c Dr. 8,000

To Purchases A/c 8,000

3. Cash A/c Dr. 15,000

To Commission A/c 15,000

d
Cash A/c Dr. 15,000

he
To Sales A/c 15,000

Commission A/c Dr. 15,000

To Sales A/c 15,000

is
4. Cash A/c Dr. 6, 000
To Nadeem’s A/c 6,000

Cash A/c
To Karim’s A/c
Dr.

bl
6,000
6,000
pu
Test Your Understanding - III
be T

1. Error of Commission
re
Mohan’s A/c Dr. 12, 000
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To Sales A/c 12,000

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Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000
C

Suspense A/c Dr. 2,000

To Mohan’s A/c 2,000
no N

2. Error of Partial omission

xxx A/c Dr. 2,000

To Cash A/c 2,000
©

Neha’s A/c Dr. 2,000

To Suspense A/c 2,000

Neha’s A/c Dr. 2,000

To Suspense A/c 2,000
 226 Accountancy

3. Error of Commission

Sales Return A/c Dr. 1,600

To Megha’s A/c 1,600

Sales Returns A/c Dr. 1,600

d
To Megha’s A/c 1,600

he
Suspense A/c Dr. 600
To Megha’s A/c 600

4. Error of Commission

is
xxx Dr. 1,500
To Furniture A/c 1,500

bl
Depreciation A/c Dr. 1,500
To Furniture A/c 1,500
pu
Depreciation A/c Dr. 1,500
To Suspense A/c 1,500
be T
re
o R

Test Your Understanding - IV

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (d)

tt E
C
no N
©
Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves 7

M atching principle requires that the revenue of

a given period is matched against the expenses
for the same period. This ensures ascertainment of
the correct amount of profit or loss. If some cost is
LEARNING OBJECTIVES incurred whose benefit extend to more than one
accounting period, it is not justified to charge the
After studying this chapter, entire cost as expense in the year in which it is
you will be able to :
incurred. In fact, such a cost must be spread over
• explain the meaning of the periods in which it provides benefits.
depr eciation and
distinguish it fr om Depreciation, on fixed assets, which is the main
amortisation and subject matter of the present chapter, deals with such
depletion; a situation. Further, it may not always be possible
• state the need for to ascertain with certainty the amount of some
charging depr eciation particular expense. Recall the principle of
and identify its causes; conservatism (prudence) which requires that instead
• compute depreciation of ignoring such items of costs, adequate provision
using straight line and must be made and charged against profits of the
written down value current period. Moreover, a part of profit may be
methods;
retained in the business in the form of reserves to
• recor d transactions
provide for growth, expansion or meeting certain
relating to depreciation
and disposition of
specific needs of the business in future. This chapter
assets; deals with two distinct topics and hence is being
• explain the meaning
presented in two different sections. First section deals
and purpose of creating with depreciation and second section deals with
provisions and reserves; provisions and reserves.
• distinguish between
reserves and provisions;
SECTION – I
• explain the nature of
various types of 7.1 Depreciation
provisions and reserves
including secret reserve. Now you are aware that fixed assets are the assets
which are used in business for more than one

2015-16
228 Accountancy

accounting year. Fixed assets (technically referred to as “depreciable assets”)

tend to reduce their value once they are put to use. In general, the term
“Depreciation” means decline in the value of a fixed assets due to use, passage
of time or obsolescence. In other words, if a business enterprise procures a
machine and uses it in production process then the value of machine declines
with its usage. Even if the machine is not used in production process, we can
not expect it to realise the same sales price due to the passage of time or
arrival of a new model (obsolescence). It implies that fixed assets are subject
to decline in value and this decline is technically referred to as depreciation.
As an accounting term, depreciation is that part of the cost of a fixed asset
which has expired on account of its usage and/or lapse of time. Hence,
depreciation is an expired cost or expense, charged against the revenue of a
given accounting period. For example, a machine is purchased for Rs.1,00,000
on April 01, 2014. The useful life of the machine is estimated to be 10 years. It
implies that the machine can be used in the production process for next 10
years till March 31, 2015. You know that by its very nature, Rs. 1,00,000 is a
capital expenditure during the year 2014-15. However, when income statement
(Statement of Profit and Loss) is prepared, the entire amount of Rs.1,00,000 can
not be charged against the revenue for the year 2014-15, because of the reason
that the capital expenditure amounting to Rs.1,00,000 is expected to derive
benefits (or revenue) for 10 years and not one year. Therefore, it is logical to
charge only a part of the total cost say Rs.10,000 (one tenth of Rs. 1,00,000)
against the revenue for the year 2014-15. This part represents the expired cost
or loss in the value of machine on account of its use or passage of time and is
referred to as ‘Depreciation’. The amount of depreciation, being a charge against
profit, is debited to Income Statement (Statement of Profit and Loss).

7.1.1 Meaning of Depreciation

Depreciation may be described as a permanent, continuing and gradual
shrinkage in the book value of fixed assets. It is based on the cost of assets
consumed in a business and not on its market value.
According to Institute of Cost and Management Accounting, London (ICMA)
terminology “ The depreciation is the diminution in intrinsic value of the asset
due to use and/or lapse of time.”
Accounting Standard-6 issued by The Institute of Chartered Accountants
of India (ICAI) defines depreciation as “a measure of the wearing out, consumption
or other loss of value of depreciable asset arising from use, effluxion of time or
obsolescence through technology and market-change. Depreciation is allocated
so as to charge fair proportion of depreciable amount in each accounting period
during the expected useful life of the asset. Depreciation includes amortisation
of assets whose useful life is pre-determined”.

2015-16
Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 229

Box 1
AS-6 (Revised): Depreciation

• Depreciation is “a measure of the wearing out, consumption or other loss of

value of depreciable asset arising from use, effluxion of time or obsolescence
thr ough technology and market-change. Depreciation is allocated so as to charge
fair proportion of depreciable amount in each accounting period during the
expected useful life of the asset. Depreciation includes amortisation of assets
whose useful life is pre-determined”.
• Depreciation has a significant effect in deter mining and presenting the financial
position and r esults of operations of an enterprise. Depreciation is charged in
each accounting period by r eference to the extent of the depr eciable amount.
• The subject matter of depreciation, or its base, are ‘depreciable’ assets which.
• “are expected to be used during more than one accounting period.
• have a limited useful life; and
• are held by an enterprise for use in production or supply of goods and services,
for rental to others, or for administrative purposes and not for the purpose of
sale in the ordinary course of business.”
• The amount of depreciation basically depends upon three factors, i.e. Cost, Useful
life and Net realisable value.
• Cost of a fixed asset is “the total cost spent in connection with its acquisition,
installation and commissioning as well as for add item or improvement of the
depreciable asset”.
• Useful life of an asset is the “period over which it is expected to be used by the
enterprise”.
• Ther e are two main methods of calculating depreciation amount.
• straight line method
• written down value method
• Selection of appropriate method depends upon the following factors:
• type of the asset
• nature of the use of such asset
• circumstances prevailing in the business.
• The selected depreciation method should be applied consistently from period to
period. Change in depreciation method may be allowed only under specific
circumstances.

Depreciation has a significant effect in determining and presenting the

financial position and results of operations of an enterprise. Depreciation is
charged in each accounting period by reference to the extent of the depreciable
amount. It should be noted that the subject matter of depreciation, or its
base, are ‘depreciable’ assets which:
• “are expected to be used during more than one accounting period;
• have a limited useful life; and
• are held by an enterprise for use in production or supply of goods and
services, for rental to others, or for administrative purposes and not for
the purpose of sale in the ordinary course of business.”

2015-16
230 Accountancy

Examples of depreciable assets are machines, plants, furnitures, buildings,

computers, trucks, vans, equipments, etc. Moreover, depreciation is the
allocation of ‘depreciable amount’, which is the “historical cost”, or other
amount substituted for historical cost less estimated salvage value.
Another point in the allocation of depreciable amount is the ‘expected useful
life’ of an asset. It has been described as “either (i) the period over which a
depreciable asset is expected to the used by the enterprise, or (ii) the number
of production of similar units expected to be obtained from the use of the
asset by the enterprise.”

7.1.2 Features of Depreciation

Above mentioned discussion on depreciation highlights the following features
of depreciation:
1. It is decline in the book value of fixed assets.
2. It includes loss of value due to effluxion of time, usage or obsolescence.
For example, a business firm buys a machine for Rs. 1,00,000 on April
01, 2012. In the year 2014, a new version of the machine arrives in the
market. As a result, the machine bought by the business firm becomes
outdated. The resultant decline in the value of old machine is caused by
obsolescence.
3. It is a continuing process.
4. It is an expired cost and hence must be deducted before calculating taxable
profits. For example, if profit before depreciation and tax is Rs. 50,000,
and depreciation is Rs. 10,000; profit before tax will be:
(Rs.)
Profit before depr eciation & tax 50,000
(-) Depreciation (10,000)
Profit before tax 40,000
5. It is a non-cash expense. It does not involve any cash outflow. It is the
process of writing-off the capital expenditure already incurred.

Do it Yourself

Look at your surroundings and identify at least five depreciable assets in your home,
school, hospital, printing pr ess and in a bakery.

2015-16
Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 231

7.2 Depreciation and other Similar Terms

There are some terms like ‘depletion’ and ‘amortisation’, which are also used in
connection with depreciation. This has been due to the similar treatment given
to them in accounting on the basis of similarity of their outcome, as they represent
the expiry of the usefulness of different assets.

7.2.1 Depletion
The term depletion is used in the context of extraction of natural resources like
mines, quarries, etc. that reduces the availability of the quantity of the material
or asset. For example, if a business enterprise is into mining business and
purchases a coal mine for Rs. 10,00,000. Then the value of coal mine declines
with the extraction of coal out of the mine. This decline in the value of mine is
termed as depletion. The main difference between depletion and depreciation is
that the former is concerned with the exhaution of economic resources, but the
latter relates to the usage of an asset. In spite of this, the result is erosion in the
volume of natural resources and expiry of the service potential. Therefore,
depletion and depreciation are given similar accounting treatment.

7.2.2 Amortisation
Amortisation refers to writing-off the cost of intangible assets like patents,
copyright, trade marks, franchises, goodwill which have utility for a specified
period of time. The procedure for amortisation or periodic write-off of a portion
of the cost of intangible assets is the same as that for the depreciation of fixed
assets. For example, if a business firm buys a patent for Rs. 10,00,000 and
estimates that its useful life will be 10 years then the business firm must write-
off Rs. 10,00,000 over 10 years. The amount so written- off is technically referred
to as amortisation.

7.3 Causes of Depreciation

These have been very clearly spelt out as part of the definition of depreciation in
the Accounting Standard 6 and are being elaborated here.

7.3.1 Wear and Tear due to Use or Passage of Time

Wear and tear means deterioration, and the consequent diminution in an assets
value, arising from its use in business operations for earning revenue. It reduces
the asset’s technical capacities to serve the purpose for, which it has been meant.
Another aspect of wear and tear is the physical deterioration. An asset
deteriorates simply with the passage of time, even though they are not being put
to any use. This happens especially when the assets are exposed to the rigours
of nature like weather, winds, rains, etc.

2015-16
232 Accountancy

7.3.2 Expiration of Legal Rights

Certain categories of assets lose their value after the agreement governing their
use in business comes to an end after the expiry of pre-determined period.
Examples of such assets are patents, copyrights, leases, etc. whose utility to
business is extinguished immediately upon the removal of legal backing to them.

7.3.3 Obsolescence
Obsolescence is another factor leading to depreciation of fixed assets. In ordinary
language, obsolescence means the fact of being “out-of-date”. Obsolescence
implies to an existing asset becoming out-of-date on account of the availability
of better type of asset. It arises from such factors as:
• Technological changes;
• Improvements in production methods;
• Change in market demand for the product or service output of the asset;
• Legal or other description.

7.3.4 Abnormal Factors

Decline in the usefulness of the asset may be caused by abnormal factors
such as accidents due to fire, earthquake, floods, etc. Accidental loss is
permanent but not continuing or gradual. For example, a car which has been
repaired after an accident will not fetch the same price in the market even if it
has not been used.

Test Your Understanding - I

1. You are looking at the profit and loss account of three business enterprises. You
find the ter m depletion in first case and amortisation in thir d case. State the type
of business of two enterprises ar e into.
2. A pharmaceutical manufacturer has just developed and registered a patent for a
rare medicine. Which term will appear in its profit and loss account regarding the
cost of patent written-off.

7.4 Need for Depreciation

The need for providing depreciation in accounting records arises from conceptual,
legal, and practical business consideration. These considerations provide
depreciation a particular significance as a business expense.

7.4.1 Matching of Costs and Revenue

The rationale of the acquisition of fixed assets in business operations is that
these are used in the earning of revenue. Every asset is bound to undergo

2015-16
Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 233

some wear and tear, and hence lose value, once it is put to use in business.
Therefore, depreciation is as much the cost as any other expense incurred in the
normal course of business like salary, carriage, postage and stationary, etc. It is
a charge against the revenue of the corresponding period and must be deducted
before arriving at net profit according to ‘Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles’.

7.4.2 Consideration of Tax

Depreciation is a deductible cost for tax purposes. However, tax rules for the
calculation of depreciation amount need not necessarily be similar to current
business practices,

7.4.3 True and Fair Financial Position

If depreciation on assets is not provided for, then the assets will be over valued
and the balance sheet will not depict the correct financial position of the
business. Also, this is not permitted either by established accounting practices
or by specific provisions of law.

7.4.4 Compliance with Law

Apart from tax regulations, there are certain specific legislations that indirectly
compel some business organisations like corporate enterprises to provide
depreciation on fixed assets.

Test Your Understanding - II

State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. Depreciation is a non-cash expense.
2. Depreciation is also charged on current assets.
3. Depreciation is decline in the market value of tangible fixed assets.
4. The main cause of depreciation is wear and tear caused by its usage.
5. Depreciation must be charged so as to ascertain true profit or loss of the
business.
6. Depletion term is used in case of intangible assets.
7. Depreciation provides fund for replacement.
8. When market value of an asset is higher than book value, depreciation is not
charged.
9. Depreciation is charged to r educe the value of asset to its market value.
10. If adequate maintenance expenditure is incurred, depreciation need not be
charged.

2015-16
234 Accountancy

7.5 Factors Affecting the Amount of Depreciation

The determination of depreciation depends on three parameters, viz. cost,
estimated useful life and probable salvage value.

7.5.1 Cost of Asset

Cost (also known as original cost or historical cost) of an asset includes invoice
price and other costs, which are necessary to put the asset in use or working
condition. Besides the purchase price, it includes freight and transportation
cost, transit insurance, installation cost, registration cost, commission paid
on purchase of asset add items such as software, etc. In case of purchase of a
second hand asset it includes initial repair cost to put the asset in workable
condition. According to Accounting Standand-6 of ICAI, cost of a fixed asset is
“the total cost spent in connection with its acquisition, installation and
commissioning as well as for addition or improvement of the depreciable asset”.
For example, a photocopy machine is purchased for Rs. 50,000 and Rs. 5,000
is spent on its transportation and installation. In this case the original cost of
the machine is Rs. 55,000 (i.e. Rs. 50,000 + Rs.5,000 ) which will be written-
off as depreciation over the useful life of the machine.

7.5.2 Estimated Net Residual Value

Net Residual value (also known as scrap value or salvage value for accounting
purpose) is the estimated net realisable value (or sale value) of the asset at the
end of its useful life. The net residual value is calculated after deducting the
expenses necessary for the disposal of the asset. For example, a machine is
purchased for Rs. 50,000 and is expected to have a useful life of 10 years. At
the end of 10th year it is expected to have a sale value of Rs. 6,000 but
expenses related to its disposal are estimated at Rs. 1,000. Then its net residual
value shall be Rs. 5,000 (i.e. Rs. 6,000 – Rs. 1,000).

7.5.3 Depreciable Cost

Depreciable cost of an asset is equal to its cost (as calculated in point 7.5.1
above) less net residual value (as calculated in point 7.5.2,) Hence, in the
above example, the depreciable cost of machine is Rs. 45,000 (i.e., Rs. 50,000
– Rs. 5,000.) It is the depreciable cost, which is distributed and charged as
depreciation expense over the estimated useful life of the asset. In the above
example, Rs. 45,000 shall be charged as depreciation over a period of 10
years. It is important to mention here that total amount of depreciation charged
over the useful life of the asset must be equal to the depreciable cost. If total
amount of depreciation charged is less than the depreciable cost then the

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 235

capital expenditure is under recovered. It violates the principle of proper matching

of revenue and expense.

7.5.4 Estimated Useful Life

Useful life of an asset is the estimated economic or commercial life of the asset.
Physical life is not important for this purpose because an asset may still exist
physically but may not be capable of commercially viable production. For
example, a machine is purchased and it is estimated that it can be used in
production process for 5 years. After 5 years the machine may still be in good
physical condition but can’t be used for production profitably, i.e., if it is still
used the cost of production may be very high. Therefore, the useful life of the
machine is considered as 5 years irrespective of its physical life. Estimation of
useful life of an asset is difficult as it depends upon several factors such as
usage level of asset, maintenance of the asset, technological changes, market
changes, etc. As per Accounting Standard – 6 useful life of an asset is normally
the “period over which it is expected to be used by the enterprise”. Normally,
useful life is shorter than the physical life. The useful life of an asset is expressed
in number of years but it can also be expressed in other units, e.g., number of
units of output (as in case of mines) or number of working hours. Useful life
depends upon the following factors :
• Pre-determined by legal or contractual limits, e.g. in case of leasehold
asset, the useful life is the period of lease.
• The number of shifts for which asset is to be used.
• Repair and maintenance policy of the business organisation.
• Technological obsolescence.
• Innovation/improvement in production method.
• Legal or other restrictions.

7.6 Methods of Calculating Depreciation Amount

The depreciation amount to be charged for during an accounting year depends
upon depreciable amount and the method of allocation. For this, two methods
are mandated by law and enforced by professional accounting practice in
India. These methods are straight line method and written down value method.
Besides these two main methods there are other methods such as – annuity
method, depreciation fund method, insurance policy method, sum of years
digit method, double declining method, etc. which may be used for determining
the amount of depreciation. The selection of an appropriate method depends
upon the following :

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236 Accountancy

• Type of the asset;

• Nature of the use of such asset;
• Circumstances prevailing in the business;
As per Accounting Standard-6, the selected depreciation method should be
applied consistently from period to period. Change in depreciation method may
be allowed only under specific circumstances.

7.6.1 Straight Line Method

This is the earliest and one of the widely used methods of providing depreciation.
This method is based on the assumption of equal usage of the asset over its
entire useful life. It is called straight line for a reason that if the amount of
depreciation and corresponding time period is plotted on a graph, it will result
in a straight line (figure 7.1).
It is also called fixed installment method because the amount of depreciation
remains constant from year to year over the useful life of the asset. According
to this method, a fixed and an equal amount is charged as depreciation in
every accounting period during the lifetime of an asset. The amount annually
charged as depreciation is such that it reduces the original cost of the asset to
its scrap value, at the end of its useful life. This method is also known as fixed
percentage on original cost method because same percentage of the original
cost (infact depreciable cost) is written off as depreciation from year to year.
The depreciation amount to be provided under this method is computed
by using the following formula:

Cost of asset − Estimated net residential value

Depreciation =
Estimated useful life of the asset

Rate of depreciation under straight line method is the percentage of the

total cost of the asset to be charged as deprecation during the useful lifetime
of the asset. Rate of depreciation is calculated as follows:

Annual depreciation amount

Rate of Depreciation = ×100
Acquisition cost

Consider the following example, the original cost of the asset is Rs. 2,50,000.
The useful life of the asset is 10 years and net residual value is estimated to
be Rs. 50,000. Now, the amount of depreciation to be charged every year will
be computed as given below:

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 237

Annual Depreciation Amount

Acqusition cost of asset − Estimated net residential value
=
Estimated life of asset
Rs. 2,50,000 − Rs. 50,000
i.e. = = Rs. 20,000
10

25,000 20,000 20,000 20,000

20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
2001 2002 2003
Year

Fig. 7.1 : Depreciation amount under straight line method

The rate of depreciation will be calculated as :

Annualdepreciation amount
(i) Rate of Depreciation = ×100
Acquisition cost
From point (i), the annual depreciation amounts to Rs. 20,000.
Rs. 20,000
Thus, the rate of depreciation will be = × 100 = 8%
Rs. 2,50,000

7.6.1.1 Advantages of Straight Line Method

Straight Line method has certain advantages which are stated below:
• It is very simple, easy to understand and apply. Simplicity makes it a
popular method in practice;
• Asset can be depreciated upto the net scrap value or zero value. Therefore,
this method makes it possible to distribute full depreciable cost over useful
life of the asset;
• Every year, same amount is charged as depreciation in profit and loss
account. This makes comparison of profits for different years easy;
• This method is suitable for those assets whose useful life can be estimated
accurately and where the use of the asset is consistent from year to year
such as leasehold buildings.

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238 Accountancy

7.6.1.2 Limitations of Straight Line Method

Although straight line method is simple and easy to apply it suffers from
certain limitations which are given below.
• This method is based on the faulty assumption of same amount of the utility
of an asset in different accounting years;
• With the passage of time, work efficiency of the asset decreases and repair
and maintenance expense increases. Hence, under this method, the total
amount charged against profit on account of depreciation and repair taken
together, will not be uniform throughout the life of the asset, rather it will
keep on increasing from year to year.

7.6.2 Written Down Value Method

Under this method, depreciation is charged on the book value of the asset. Since
book value keeps on reducing by the annual charge of depreciation, it is also
known as ‘reducing balance method’. This method involves the application of a
pre-determined proportion/percentage of the book value of the asset at the
beginning of every accounting period, so as to calculate the amount of
depreciation. The amount of depreciation reduces year after year.
For example, the original cost of the asset is Rs. 2,00,000 and depreciation
is charged @ 10% p.a. at written down value, then the amount of depreciation
will be computed as follows:
10
(i) Depreciation (I year) = Rs. 20,00,000×= Rs. 20,000
100
(ii) Written down value = Rs. 2,00,000 – 20,000 = Rs.1,80,000
(at the end of the I year)
10
(iii) Depreciation (II year) = Rs.1,80,000× = Rs.18,000
100
(iv) Written down value = Rs. 1,80,000 – Rs.18,000 = 1,62,000
(at the end of the II year)
10
(v) Depreciation (III year) = Rs. 1,62,000 × = Rs. 16,200
100
(vi) Written down value = Rs. 1,62,000 – Rs. 16,200 = Rs. 1,45,800
(at the end of III year)
As evident from the example, the amount of depreciation goes on reducing
year after year. For this reason, it is also known ‘reducing installment’ or
‘diminishing value’ method. This method is based upon the assumption that
the benefit accruing to business from assets keeps on diminishing as the
asset becomes old (refer figure 7.2). This is due to the reason that a pre-
determined percentage is applied to a gradually shrinking balance on the

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 239

asset account every year. Thus, large amount is recovered depreciation charge
in the earlier years than in later years.

Fig. 7.2 : Depreciation amount using written down value method

Under written down value method, the rate of depreciation is computed by using
the following formula:
 s
R = 1 − n  ×100
 c 

Wher e, r = Rate of depr eciation

n = Expected useful life
s = Scrap value
c = Cost of an asset
For example, the original cost of a truck is Rs. 9,00,000 and its net salvage
value after 16 years of useful life is Rs. 50,000 then the appropriate rate of
depreciation will be computed as under:
 50,000 
R = 1 − 16  ×100 = (1 − 0.834)× 100 = 16.6%
 9,00,000 

7.6.2.1 Advantages of Written Down Value Method

Written down value method has the following advantages:
• This method is based on a more realistic assumption that the benefits from
asset go on diminishing (reducing) with the passage of time. Hence, it calls
for proper allocation of cost because higher depreciation is charged in earlier
years when asset’s utility is higher as compared to later years when it becomes
less effective.
• It results into almost equal burden of depreciation and repair expenses taken
together every year on profit and loss account;

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240 Accountancy

• Income Tax Act accept this method for tax purposes;

• As a large portion of cost is written-off in earlier years, loss due to obsolescence
gets reduced;
• This method is suitable for fixed assets which last for long and which require
increased repair and maintenance expenses with passage of time. It can also
be used where obsolescence rate is high.
7.6.2.2 Limitations of Written Down Value Method
Although this method is based upon a more realistic assumption it suffers from
the following limitations.
• As depreciation is calculated at fixed percentage of written down value,
depreciable cost of the asset cannot be fully written-off. The value of the
asset can never be zero;
• It is difficult to ascertain a suitable rate of depreciation.

7.7 Straight Line Method and Written Down Method: A Comparative Analysis
Straight line and written down value methods are generally used for calculating
depreciation amount in practice. Following are the points of differences between
these two methods.

7.7.1 Basis of Charging Depreciation

In straight line method, depreciation is charged on the basis of original cost or
(historical cost). Whereas in written down value method, the basis of charging
depreciation is net book value (i.e., original cost less depreciation till date) of
the asset, in the beginning of the year.

7.7.2 Annual Charge of Depreciation

The annual amount of depreciation charged every year remains fixed or
constant under straight line method. Whereas in written down value method
the annual amount of depreciation is highest in the first year and subsequently
declines in later years. The reason for this difference, is the difference in the
basis of charging depreciation under both methods. Under straight line method
depreciation is calculated on original cost while under written down value
method it is calculated on written down value.

7.7.3 Total Charge Against Profit and Loss Account on Account of

Depreciation and Repair Expenses
It is a well-accepted phenomenon that repair and maintenance expenses
increase in later years of the useful life of the asset. Hence, total charge against

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 241

profit and loss account in respect of depreciation and repair expenses increases
in later years under straight line method. This happens because annual
depreciation charge remains fixed while repair expenses increase. On the other
hand, under written down value method, depreciation charge declines in later
years, therefore total of depreciation and repair charge remains similar or
equal year after year.

7.7.4 Recognition by Income Tax Law

Straight line method is not recognised by Income Tax Law while written down
value method is recognised by the Income Tax Law.

7.7.5 Suitability
Straight line method is suitable for assets in which repair charges are low the
possibility of obsolescence is low and scrap value depends upon the time period
involved, such as freehold land and buildings, patents, trade marks, etc. Written
down value method is suitable for assets which are affected by technological
changes and require more repair expenses with passage of time such as plant
and machinery, vehicles, etc.

Basis of Dif ference Straight Line Method Written Down Value

Method

1. Basis of charging depre- Original cost Book Value (i.e. original

ciation cost less depreciation
char ged till date)
2. Annual depreciation charge Fixed (Constant) year Declines year after year

3. Total charge against Unequal year after year. Almost equal every year.
profit and loss account in It increases in later years.
respect of depreciation
and repairs
4. Recognition by income Not recognised Recognised
tax law
5. Suitablity It is suitable for assets in It is suitable for assets,
which repair charges ar e which ar e af fected by
less, the possibility of technological changes
and obsolescence is low and require more repair
scrap value depends upon expenses with passage of
the time period involved. time.

Fig. 7.3 : Comparison of straight line and written down value method

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242 Accountancy

Test Your Understanding - III

There are two dentists Dr. Aggarwal and Dr. Mehta in your locality who are
competitors. Both of them have recently bought an equipment for treatment of
patients. Dr. Aggarwal has decided to write-of f an equal amount of depreciation
every year while Dr. Mehta wants to write-off a lar ger amount in earlier years. They
do not know anything about the methods of depreciation. Who is wise in your opinion?
Give reasons in support of your answer.

7.8 Methods of Recording Depreciation

In the books of account, there are two types of arrangements for recording
depreciation on fixed assets:
• Charging depreciation to asset account or
• Creating Provision for depreciation/Accumulated depreciation account.

7.8.1 Charging Depreciation to Asset account

According to this arrangement, depreciation is deducted from the depreciable
cost of the asset ( credited to the asset account) and charged (or debited) to
profit and loss account. Journal entries under this recording method are as
follows:
1. For recording pur chase of asset (only in the year of purchase)
Asset A/c Dr. (with the cost of asset including
installation, freight, etc.)

To Bank/Vendor A/c
2. Following two entries ar e recorded at the end of every year
(a) For deducting depreciation amount from the cost of the asset.
Depreciation A/c Dr. (with the amount of depreciation)
To Asset A/c
(b) For charging depreciation to profit and loss account.
Profit & Loss A/c Dr. (with the amount of depreciation)
To Depreciation A/c
3. Balance Sheet T reatment
When this method is used, the fixed asset appears at its net book value (i.e. cost
less depreciation charged till date) on the asset side of the balance sheet and not at
its original cost (also known as historical cost).

7.8.2 Creating Provision for Depreciation Account/Accumulated

Depreciation Account
This method is designed to accumulate the depreciation provided on an asset in
a separate account generally called ‘Provision for Depreciation’ or ‘Accumulated

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 243

Depreciation’ account. By such accumulation of depreciation the asset account

need not be disturbed in any way and it continues to be shown at its original
cost over the successive years of its useful life. There are some basic characteristic
of this method of recording depreciation. These are given below:
• Asset account continues to appear at its original cost year after year over its
entire life;
• Depreciation is accumulated on a separate account instead of being adjusted
in the asset account at the end of each accounting period.
The following journal entries are recorded under this method:
1. For recording purchase of asset (only in the year of purchase)
Asset A/c Dr. (with the cost of asset including
installation, expenses etc.)
To Bank/Vendor A/c (cash/credit purchase)
2. Following two journal entries ar e recorded at the end of each year:
(a) For crediting depreciation amount to provision for depreciation account
Depreciation A/c Dr. (with the amount of depreciation)
To Provision for depreciation A/c
(b) For charging depreciation to profit and loss account
Profit & Loss A/c Dr. (with the amount of depreciation)
To Depreciation A/c
3. Balance sheet treatment
In the balance sheet, the fixed asset continues to appear at its original cost on the
asset side. The depreciation char ged till that date appears in the provision for depreciation
account, which is shown either on the “liabilities side” of the balance sheet or by way of
deduction from the original cost of the asset concerned on the asset side of the balance
sheet.

Illustration 1
M/s Singhania and Bros. purchased a plant for Rs. 5,00,000 on April, 01 2014, and spent
Rs. 50,000 for its installation. The salvage value of the plant after its useful life of 10 years
is estimated to be Rs. 10,000. Record journal entries for the year 2014-15 and draw up
Plant Account and Depreciation Account for first three years given that the depreciation is
charged using straight line method if :
(i) The books of account close on March 31 every year; and
(ii) The fir m charges depreciation to the asset account.

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244 Accountancy

Solution
Books of Singhania and Bros.
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Apr. 01 Plant A/c Dr. 5,00,000
To Bank A/c 5,00,000
(Purchased plant for Rs. 5,00,000)
Apr. 01 Plant A/c Dr. 50,000
To Bank A/c 50,000
(Expenses incurred on installation)
2015
Mar. 31 Depreciation A/c Dr. 54,000
To Plant A/c 54,000
(Depreciation charged on asset)
Mar. 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 54,000
To Depreciation A/c 54,000
(Depreciation debited to profit and
loss account)

Plant Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2015
Apr. 01 Bank 5,00,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 54,000
Balance c/d 4,96,000
Bank 50,000
(Installation
expenses)
5,50,000 5,50,000

2015 2016
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 4,96,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 54,000
Balance c/d 4,42,000
4,96,000 4,96,000

2016 2017
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 4,42,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 54,000
Balance c/d 3,88,000
4,42,000 4,42,000
2017
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 3,88,000

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 245

Depreciation Account
Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amounts

Rs. Rs.

2015 2015
Mar. 31 Plant 54,000 Mar. 31 Profit and Loss 54,000
2016 2016
Mar. 31 Plant 54,000 Mar. 31 Profit and Loss 54,000
2017 2017

Mar. 31 Plant 54,000 Mar. 31 Profit & Loss 54,000

Workings Notes
(1) Calculation of original cost
(Rs.)
Purchase cost 5,00,000
Add: Installation cost 50,000
Original cost 5,50,000
Salvage value 10,000
Useful life 10 years
Rs. 5,50,000 − Rs. 10,000
(2) Depreciation amount = = Rs. 54,000 p.a.
10

Illustration 2
M/s Mehra and Sons acquired a machine for Rs. 1,80,000 on October 01, 2014, and spent
Rs 20,000 for its installation. The firm writes-off depreciation at the rate of 10% on original
cost every year. Record necessary jour nal entries for the year 2014 and draw up Machine
Account and Depreciation Account for first three years given that:
(i) The book of accounts closes on March 31 every year; and
(ii) The fir m charges depreciation to asset account.

Solution
Books of Mehra and Sons
Journal
Debit Credit
Date Particulars L.F. Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Oct. 01 Machine A/c Dr. 1,80,000
To Bank A/c 1,80,000
(Purchased machine for Rs. 1,80,000)
Oct. 01 Machine A/c Dr. 20,000
To Bank A/c 20,000
(Expenses incurred on installation)

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246 Accountancy

2015
Mar. 31 Depreciation A/c Dr. 10,000
To Machine A/c 10,000
Depreciation char ged on machine)
Mar. 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 10,000
To Depreciation A/c 10,000
(Depreciation debited to profit and loss
account)
2016
Mar. 31 Depreciation A/c Dr. 20,000
To Machine A/c 20,000
(Depr eciation charged on machine)
Mar. 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 20,000
To Depreciation A/c 20,000
(Depr eciation debited to profit and loss
account)
2017
Mar. 31 Depreciation A/c Dr. 20,000
To Machine A/c 20,000
(Depr eciation charged on machine)
Mar. 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 20,000
To Depreciation A/c 20,000
(Depr eciation debited to profit and
loss account)

Books of M/s Mehra and Sons

Machine Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2015
Oct. 01 Bank 1,80,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 10,000
Oct. 01 Bank 20,000 (for 6 months)
(Installation Balance c/d 1,90,000
expenses) Mar. 31
2,00,000 2,00,000
2015 2016
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 1,90,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 20,000
1,70,000
Balance c/d
1,90,000 1,90,000
2016 2017
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 1,70,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 20,000
Balance c/d 1,50,000
1,70,000 1,70,000

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 247

Depreciation Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015 2015
Mar. 31 Machine 10,000 Mar. 31 Profit & Loss 10,000
10,000 10,000
2016 2016
Mar. 31 Machine 20,000 Mar. 31 Profit & Loss 20,000
20,000 20,000
2017 2017
Dec. 31 Machine 20,000 Dec. 31 Profit & Loss 20,000
20,000 20,000

Working Notes
(1) Calculation of original cost of the machine
Rs.
Purchase cost 1,80,000
Add Installation cost 20,000
Original cost 2,00,000
(2) Depreciation expense = 10% of Rs. 2,00,000 every year
= Rs. 20,000 p.a.
(3) During the year 2014, depreciation shall be charged only for 6 months, as
acquisition date is October 01, 2014, i.e. the asset is used only for 6 months
during the year 2014-15.
6
(4) Depreciation (2014-2015) = 20,000 x = Rs.10,000
12
Illustration 3
Based on data given in question number 2 record jour nal entries and prepare Machine
account, Depreciation account and Provision for Depreciation account for the first 3 years
if provision for depreciation account is maintained by the firm.
Solution
Books of Mehra and Sons
Machine Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amounts
Rs. Rs.
2014 2015
Oct. 1 Bank 1,80,000 Mar. 31 Balance c/d 2,00,000
Oct. 1 Bank
(Installation 20,000
expenses)
2,00,000 2,00,000

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248 Accountancy

2015 2016
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 2,00,000 Mar. 31 Balance c/d 2,00,000
2,00,000 2,00,000

Provision for Depreciation Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amounts
Rs. Rs.

2015 2015
Mar. 31 Balance c/d 10,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 10,000
10,000 10,000
2016 2015
Mar. 31 Balance c/d 30,000 Apr. 01 Balance b/d 10,000
Mar. 31 Depreciation 20,000
30,000 30,000
2017 2016
Mar. 31 Balance c/d 50,000 Apr. 1 Balance b/d 30,000
2017
Mar. 31 Depreciation 20,000
50,000 50,000

Depreciation Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Mar. 31 Provision for 10,000 Mar.31 Profit & Loss 10,000
Deprection
10,000 10,000
2016 2016
Mar. 31 Provision for 20,000 Mar.31 Profit & Loss 20,000
Depreciation
20,000 20,000
2017 2017
Mar. 31 Provision for 20,000 Mar.31 Profit & Loss 20,000
Depreciation
20,000 20,000

Illustration 4

M/s. Dalmia Textile Mills purchased machinery on April 01, 2014 for Rs. 2,00,000 on
credit from M/s Ahuja and sons and spent Rs. 10,000 for its installation. Depreciation is

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 249

provided @10% p.a. on written down value basis. Prepare Machinery Account for the first
thr ee years. Books are closed on March 31, every year.

Solution
Books of Dalmia Textiles mills
Machinery Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2015
Apr. 01 Bank 2,00,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 21,0001
Bank 10,000 Balance c/d 1,89,000
2,10,000 2,10,000
2015 2016
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 1,89,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 18,9002
Balance c/d 1,70,100
1,89,000 1,89,000
2016 2017
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 1,70,100 Mar. 31 Depreciation 17,0103
Balance c/d 1,53,090
1,70,100 1,70,100
2017 Balance b/d 1,53,090

Working Notes
1. Calculation of the amount of depreciation (Rs.)
Original cost on 01.04.2014 2,10,000 (i.e. 2,00,000 + 10,000)
Less: Depreciation for 2014-15 (21,000)
WDV on 01.04.2015 1,89,000
Less: Depreciation for 2015-16 (18,900)
WDV on 01.04.2016 1,70,100
Less: Depreciation for 2016-17 (17,010)
WDV on 01.04.2017 1,53,090

Illustration 5
M/s Sahani Enterprises acquired a printing machine for Rs. 40,000 on July 01, 2014 and
spent Rs. 5,000 on its transport and installation. Another machine for Rs. 35,000 was
purchased on January 01, 2016. Depreciation is charged at the rate of 20% on written
down value. Prepare Printing Machine account.

2015-16
250 Accountancy

Solution
Books of Sahani Enterprises
Printing Machine Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2015
Jul. 01 Bank 40,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 6,7501
Bank 5,000 Balance c/d 38,250
45,000 45,000
2015 2016

Apr. 01 Balance b/d 38,250 Mar. 31 Depreciation 9,4002

Jan. 01 Bank 35,000 Balance c/d 63,850
73,250 73,250
2016 2017
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 63,850 Mar.31 Depreciation 12,7703
Balance c/d 51,080
63,850 63,850
2017
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 51,080

Working Notes
(Rs.)
Orignal cost machine purchased on July 01, 2014 45,000
(–) Depreciation till Mar. 31, 2015 (for 9 months @ 20%) (6,750)1
38,250
+ Cost of new machine purchased on Jan. 01, 2016 35,000
73,250
(–) Depreciation for the year 2015-2016
(20% of 38,250 + 20% of Rs. 35,000 for 3 month) (9,400) 2
WDV on Mar. 31, 2016 63,850
(–) Depreciation for the year 2016 – 17 (20% of Rs. 63,850) (12,770)3
WDV on Mar. 31, 2017 51,080

Test Your Understanding - IV

Basaria Confectioner bought a cold storage plant on July 01, 2014 for Rs.1,00,000.
Compare the amount of depr eciation charged for first thr ee years using:
1. Rate of depreciation @ 10% on original cost basis;
2. Rate of depreciation @ on written down value basis;
3. Also, plot the computed amount of depreciation on a graph.

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 251

7.9 Disposal of Asset

Disposal of asset can take place either (a) at the end of its useful life or (b) during
its useful life (due to obsolescence or any other abnormal factor).
If it is sold at the end of its useful life, the amount realised on account of the sale
of asset as scrap should be credited to the asset account and the balance is
transferred to profit and loss account. In this regard the following journal entries
are recorded.
1. For sale of asset as scrap
Bank A/c Dr.
To Asset A/c
2. For transfer of balance in asset account
(a) In case of profit
Asset A/c Dr.
To Profit and Loss A/c
(b) In case of loss
Profit and Loss A/c Dr.
To Asset A/c
In case, however, the provision for depreciation account has been in use
for recording the depreciation, then before passing the above entries transfer
the balance of the provision for depreciation account to the asset account by
recording the following journal entry:
Provision for depreciation A/c Dr.
To Asset A/c
For example, R.S. Limited purchased a vehicle for Rs. 4, 00,000. After
4 years its salvage value is estimated at Rs. 40,000. To find out the amount of
depreciation to be charged every year based on straight line basis, and show
as to how the vehicle account would appear for four years assuming it is sold
for Rs. 50,000 at the end when
(a) depreciation is charged to asset account; and
(b) provision for depreciation account is maintained.
Consider the following entries in the book of account of R.S. Limited
(a) When depreciation is charged to assets account

Books of R.S. Limited

Vehicle Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
I Bank 4,00,000 End of Depreciation 90,000
year the year Balance c/d 3,10,000

4,00,000 4,00,000

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252 Accountancy

II Balance b/d 3,10,000 End of Depreciation 90,000

year the year Balance c/d 2,20.000
3,10,000 3,10,000
III Balance b/d 2,20,000 End of Depreciation 90,000
year the year Balance c/d 1,30,000
2,20,000 2,20,000
IV Balance b/d 1,30,000 Depreciaton 99,000
year Profit and 10,000 Bank 50,000
loss (Profit on
sale of vehicle)
1,40,000 1,40,000

(b) When Pr ovision for depreciation account is maintained.

Books of R.S. Limited
Vehicle Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

I Bank 4,00,000 End of Balance c/d 4,00,000

year the year

4,00,000 4,00,000

II Balance b/d 4,00,000 End of Balance c/d 4,00,000

year the year

4,00,000 4,00,000

III Balance b/d 4,00,000 End of Balance c/d 4,00,000

year the year
4,00,000 4,00,000
IV Balance b/d 4,00,000 Provison for 3,60,000
year Profit and loss 10,000 depreciation
(Profit on Sale Bank 50,000
of Vehicle)

4,10,000 4,10,000

Provision for Depreciation

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
Ist Balance b/d 90,000 End of Depreciation 90,000
year year
90,000 90,000

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 253

II Balance b/d 1,80,000 End of Balance c/d 90,000

year the year Depreciation 90,000
1,80,000 1,80,000
III Balance b/d 2,70,000 End of Balance c/d 1,80,000
year the year Depreciation 90,000
2,70,000 2,70,000
IV Machinery 3,60,000 End of Balance c/d 2,70,000
year the year Provison for 90,000
Depreciation
3,60,000 3,60,000

7.9.1 Use of Asset Disposal Account

Asset disposal account is designed to provide a complete and clear view of all
the transactions involved in the sale of an asset under one account head. The
concerned variables are the original cost of the asset, depreciation accumulated
on the asset upto date, sale price of the asset, value of the parts of the asset
retained for use, if any and the resultant profit or loss on disposal. The balance
of this amount is transferred to the profit and loss account.
This method is generally used when a part of the asset is sold and
provision for depreciation account exists.
Under this method, a new account titled Asset Disposal Account is opened.
The original cost of the asset being sold is debited to the asset disposal account
and accumulated depreciation amount appearing in provision for depreciation
account relating to that asset till the date of disposal is credited to the asset
disposal account. The net amount realised from the sale of the asset is also
credited to this account. The balance of asset disposal account shows profit
or loss which is transferred to profit and loss account. The advantage of this
method is that it gives a full picture of all the transactions related to asset
disposal at one place. The journal entries required for the preparation of asset
disposal account is as follows:
1. Asset Disposal A/c Dr. (with the original cost of asset,
To Asset A/c being sold)
2. Provision for Depreciation A/c Dr. (with the accumulated balance in
To Asset Disposal A/c provision for depreciation account)
3. Bank A/c Dr. (with the net sales proceeds)
To Asset Disposal A/c
Asset Disposal Account may ultimately show a debit or credit balance.
The debit balance on the account indicate loss on disposal and would be dealt
with as follows:

2015-16
254 Accountancy

Profit and Loss A/c Dr. (with the amount of loss on sale)
To Asset Disposal A/c
The credit balance of the account, profit on disposal and would be closed
by the following journal entry:
Asset Disposal A/c Dr. (with the amount of profit on sale)
To Profit and Loss A/c
For example, Karan Enterprises has the following balances in its books
as on March 31, 2014
Machinery (gross value): Rs. 6,00,000
Provision for depreciation: Rs. 2,50,000
A machine purchased for Rs. 1,00,000 on November 01, 2015, having
accumulated depreciation amounting to Rs. 60,000 was sold on April 1, 2015 for
Rs. 35,000. The Asset Disposal account will be prepared in the following manner:

Books of Karan Enterprises

Machinery Disposal Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars L.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Apr. 01 Machinery 1,00,000 Apr. 01 Provision for 60,000
depreciation
Apr. 01 Bank 35,000
2016
Mar. 31 Profit & Loss
(Loss on sale) 5,0001
1,00,000 1,00,000

Machinery Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Mar. 31 Balance b/d 6,00,000 Apr. 01 Machine
Disposal 1,00,000
2015
Mar. 31 Balance c/d 5,00,000
6,00,000 6,00,000

Working Notes
(1) Computation of loss on sale of machinery Rs.
Original cost of the asset being sold 1,00,000
Less: accumulated depreciation (60,000)
40,000

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 255

(2) Sales value realised (35,000)

Loss on sale (i.e. Rs. 40,000 – Rs. 35,000) 5,0001

Illustration 6
On January 01 2014, Khosla Transport Co. purchased five trucks for Rs. 20,000 each.
Depreciation has been provided at the rate of 10% p.a. using straight line method and
accumulated in provision for depreciation acount. On January 01, 2015, one truck was
sold for Rs. 15,000. On July 01, 2016, another truck (purchased for Rs. 20,000 on Jan 01,
2014) was sold for Rs. 18,000. A new truck costing Rs. 30,000 was purchased on October
01, 2016. You are required to prepare trucks account, Provision for depr eciation account
and Truck disposal account for the years ended on December 2014, 2015 and 2016 assuming
that the firm closes its accounts in December every year.

Solution
Book of Khosla Transport Co.
Trucks Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F Amount Date Particulars J.F Amount
Rs. Rs.

2014 2014

Jan. 01 Bank 1,00,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 1,00,000

(Purchase of
truck) 1,00,000 1,00,000
2015 2015
Jan. 01 Balance b/d 1,00,000 Jan. 01 Truck disposal 20,000
Dec 31 Balance c/d 80,000
1,00,000 1,00,000
2016 2016
Jan. 01 Balance b/d 80,000 Jul. 01 Truck disposal 20,000
Oct. 01 Bank 30,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 90,000
(Purchase of
new truck) 1,10,000 1,10,000

Truck Disposal Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F Amount Date Particulars J.F Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015 2015
Jan. 01 Machinery 20,000 Jan. 01 Provision for 2,000
Depreciation
Jan. 01 Bank (Sale) 15,000
Jan. 01 Profit & Loss 3,0004
(Loss on sale)
20,000 20,000

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256 Accountancy

2016 2016
Jul. 01 Machinery 20,000 Jul. 01 Provision for
Jul. 01 Profit & Loss 3,000 Depreciation
(Profit on sale) 5 (Rs. 2,000 +
2,000 +1,000) 5,000
Jul. 01 Bank (Sale) 18,000
23,000 23,000

Provision for Depreciation Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2014 2014
Dec. 31 Balance c/d 10,000 Dec. 31 Depreciation 10,0001
10,000 10,000
2015 2015
Jan. 01 Truck Disposal 2,000 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 10,000
Dec. 31 Balance c/d 16,000 Dec. 31 Depreciation 8,0002
18,000 18,000
2016 2016
Jan. 01 Truck Disposal 5,000 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 16,000
Dec. 31 Balance c/d 18,750 Dec. 31 Depreciation
(Rs. 6000+
1000+750) 7,7503
23,750 23,750

Working Notes
1. Calculation of amount of depreciation Rs.
Year - 2014
10% on Rs. 1,00,000 for one year 10,0001
Year - 2015
10% on Rs. 80,000 for one year 80002
Year – 2016
10% on Rs. 60,000 for 1 year 6,000
10% on Rs. 20,000 for six months 1,000
10% on Rs. 30,000 for thr ee months 7,50
7,7503
2. Loss on sale of first truck
Original cost on January 01, 2014 20,000
Less depreciation at 10% (2,000)
Book value on January 1, 2015 18,000
Sales price realised on 01.01.2015 (15,000)
Loss on sale of first machine 3,0004

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 257

3. Profit on sale of second truck Rs.

Original Cost of second truck 20,000
(Less) depreciation charged
2014 2,000
2015 2,000
2016 (upto June, 2016) 1,000 5,000
Book value of second truck 15,000
Sale price of second truck 18,000
Profit on sale 3,000

Illustration 7
On April 01, 2014, following balances appeared in the books of M/s Kanishka Traders:
Furnitur e account Rs. 50,000, Provision for depreciation on furnitur e Rs. 22,000. On
October 01, 2014 a part of furniture purchased for Rupees 20,000 in April 01, 2010 was
sold for Rs. 5,000. On the same date a new furnitur e costing Rs. 25,000 was purchased.
The depreciation was provided @ 10% p.a. on original cost of the asset and no depreciation
was charged on the asset in the year of sale. Prepare furnitur e account and provision for
depreciation account for the year ending March 31, 2015.

Solution
Books of Kanishka Traders
Furniture Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 50,000 Oct.01 Bank 5,000
Oct. 10 Bank 25,000 Apr. 01 Provision for 8,000
depreciation 7,0001
Profit and Loss
(Loss on sale)
Balance c/d 55,000
75,000 75,000

Provision for Depreciation on Furniture Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particular J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Oct. 01 Furnitur e 8,000 Apr. 01 Balance b/d 22,000
(Accumulated
depreciation on
furniture sold)
2015 2015
Mar. 31 Balance c/d 18,250 Mar. 31 Depreciation
(Rs. 3,000 + 4,250
26,250 1,250) 26,250

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258 Accountancy

Working Notes
1. Calculation of amount of depreciation
Calculation of loss on sale Rs.
Original cost of furniture on 01.10.2014 20,000
Less: Depreciation for 4 year from 01.04.2010 to
31.04.2014 (no depreciation for the year of sale
@10% p.a. on original cost 8,000
Value as on 01.10.2014 12,000
Sale price 5,000
2. Loss on sale 7,0001
Depreciation for the year 2014-15
10% of Rs. 30,000 (Rs. 50,000 – Rs. 20,000) for full year 3,000
10% of Rs. 25,000 for 6 month 1,250
4,250

Illustration 8
Solve illustration 07, if the firm maintains furnitur e disposal account prepared along
with furnitur e account and provision for depreciation on furnitur e account.

Books of Anil Traders

Furniture Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2014 2014
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 50,000 Apr. 01 Furniture 20,000
disposal
Oct.01 Bank 25,000 2015
Mar. 31 Balance c/d 55,000
75,000 75,000

Provision for Depreciation on Furniture Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particular J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Oct.01 Furniture 8,000 Apr.01 Balance b/d 22,000
disposal
2015 2015
Mar. 31 Balance c/d 18,250 Mar.31 Depreciation 4,250
26,250 26,250

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 259

Furniture Disposal Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particular J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014 2014
Oct.01 Furniture 20,000 Oct.01 Provision for
Depreciation 8,000
Bank 5,000
Profit & Loss
(Loss on sale) 7,000
20,000 20, 000

Illustration 9
On Jan 01, 2010 Jain & Sons purchased a second hand plant costing Rs. 2,00,000 and
spent Rs. 10,000 on its overhauling. It also spent Rs. 5,000 on transportation and
installation of the plant. It was decided to provide for depr eciation @ of 20% on written
down value. The plant was destroyed by fire on July 31, 2013 and an insurance claim of
Rs. 50,000 was admitted by the insurance company. Prepare plant account, accumulated
depreciation account and plant disposal account assuming that the company closes its
books on December 31, every year.

Solution

Books of Jain & Sons.

Plant Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2010 2010
Jan. 01 Bank 2,15,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 2,15,000

2,15,000 2,15,000
2011 2011
Jan. 01 Balance b/d 2,15,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 2,15,000
2,15,000 2,15,000
2012 2012
Jan. 01 Balance b/d 2,15,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 2,15,000
2,15,000 2,15,000

2013 2013
Jan. 01 Balance b/d 2,15,000 Jul. 31 Plant disposal 2,15,000

2,15,000 2,15,000

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260 Accountancy

Accumulated Depreciation Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2010 2010
Dec. 31 Balance c/d 43,000 Dec. 31 Depreciation 43,0001
43,000 43,000
2011 2011
Jan. 01 Balance c/d 77,400 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 43,000
Depreciation 34,4002
77,400 77,400
2012 2012
Dec. 31 Balance c/d 1,04,920 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 77,400
Dec. 31 Depreciation 27,5203
1,04,920 1,04,920
2013
2013 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 1,04,920
Jul. 31 Plant disposal 1,17,763 July 31 Depreciation 12,8434
1,17,763 1,17,763

Plant Disposal Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2013 2013
Jul. 31 Plant 2,15,000 Jul. 31 Accumulated 1,17,763
depreciation
Insurance Co. 50,000
Profit & Loss 47,2375
(Loss on sale)
2,15,000 2,15,000

Working Notes:
1. Calculation of Depreciation Amount (Rs.)
Original cost on 01.01.2010 2,15,000
(2,00,000 + 10,000+ 5,000)
Depreciation for the year 2010
(@20% of Rs. 2,15,000) (43,0001)
1,72,000

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 261

Depreciation for the year 2011

(@20% of Rs. 1,72,000) (34,4002)
1,37,600
Depreciation for the year 2012
(@20% of Rs. 1,37,600) 27,520 3
1,10,080
Depreciation till 31.07.14 (12,8434)
(@20% of Rs. 1,10,080) 97,237
Insurance claim (50,000)
Loss on disposal 47,2375

7.10 Effect of any Addition or Extension to the Existing Asset

An existing asset may require some additions or extensions for being suitable
for operations. Such additions/extensions may or may not become an integral
part of the asset. The amount incurred on such additions/extensions is
capitalised and written off as depreciation over the life of the asset. It is
important to mention here that the amount so incurred is in addition to usual
repair and maintenance expenses. AS-6 (Revised) mentions that
• Any addition or extension, which becomes an integral part of the existing
asset should be depreciated over the useful life of that asset;
• The depreciation on such addition or extension may also be provided
at the rate applied to the existing asset;
• Where an addition or extension retains a separate identity and is capable
of being used after the existing asset is disposed off, depreciation, should
be provided independently on the basis of its own useful life.

Illustration 10

M/s Digital Studio bought a machine for Rs. 8,00,000 on April 01, 2012. Depreciation
was provided on straight-line basis at the rate of 20% on original cost. On April 01,2014
a substantial modification was made in the machine to make it more efficient at a cost of
Rs. 80,000. This amount is to be depreciated @ 20% on straight line basis. Routine
maintenance expenses during the year 2013-14 were Rs. 2,000.
Draw up the Machine account, Provision for depr eciation account and charge to profit
and loss account in respect of the accounting year ended on March 31,2015.

2015-16
262 Accountancy

Solution
Books of Digital Studio
Machine Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2012 2013
Apr 01 Balance b/d 800,000 Mar 31 Balance c/d 8,80,000
Bank 80,000
8,80,000 8,80,000

Provision for Depreciation Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J.F Amount Date Particulars J.F Amount
Rs. Rs.
2013 2013
Mar 31 Balance c/d 4,96,000 April 01 Balance b/d 3,20,0001
2014
Mar 31 Depreciation 1,76,0002
4,96,000 4,96,000

Working Notes
1. Cost of modification is capitalised but routine repair expenses are treated as
revenue expenditure.
2. Calculation of balance of provision for depreciation account on 01.04.2014.
Original Cost on 01.04.2012 = Rs. 8,00,000
Depreciation for the years 2012-13 and 2013-14 = Rs 3,20,0001
(@ 20% of Rs. 8,00,000 )
3. Depreciation for the year 2014-15 is calculated as under:
20% of 8,00,000 = Rs. 1,60,000
20% of Rs. 80,000 = Rs. 16,000
Total Depreciation for 2014-15 = Rs. 1,76,0002
4. Amount to be charged to profit and loss account
Depreciation Rs. 1,76,000
Repair and maintenance Rs. 2,000

Illustration 11
M/s Nishit printing press bought a printing machine for Rs. 6, 80,000 on April 01, 2012.
Depreciation was provided on straight line basis at the rate of 20% on original cost. On
April 01, 2014 a modification was made in the machine to increase its technical reliability
for Rs 70,000. On the same date, an important component of the machine was replaced for

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 263

Rs. 20,000 due to excessive wear and tear. Routine maintenance expenses during the year
are Rs. 5,000
Prepare machinery account, provision for depreciation account. Show the working notes
accordingly for the year ending March 31, 2015.

Machinery Account

Date Particular J.F. Account Date Particular J.F. Account

Rs. Rs.

2014 2015
Apr. 01 Balance b/d 6,80,000 Mar. 31 Balance c/d 7,70,000
Bank 70,000
Bank 20,000

7,70,000 7,70,000

Provision for Depreciation Account

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015 2014
Mar.31 Balance c/d 4,38,000 Apr.01 Balance b/d 2,72,000
2015
Mar.31 Depreciation 1,66,000
4,38,000 4,38,000

Working Notes Rs.

1. Cost of Machine for the year 2010 = 6,80,000

Depreciation Charged for the

 20 × 6,80,000
2
Years 2012-13 and 2013-14 =  100 

= 2,72,000

2. Depreciation for the year 2014-15 = Rs. 6,80,000

20% of 6,80,000 = 1,36,000
1/3 of 90,000 = 30,000
(i.e., Rs. 70,000 + Rs. 20,000)
Depreciation for the year 2013-15 = 1, 66,000

2015-16
264 Accountancy

3. Cost of modification and component replacement is capitalised. Routine repair

expense of Rs. 5,000 is a revenue expenditure. Hence, amount charged to profit
and loss account is Rs. 1,66,000 + Rs. 5,000 = Rs. 1,71,000

SECTION – II
Provisions and Reserve
7.11 Provisions
There are certain expenses/losses which are related to the current accounting
period but amount of which is not known with certainty because they are not
yet incurred. It is necessary to make provision for such items for ascertaining
true net profit. For example, a trader who sells on credit basis knows that
some of the debtors of the current period would default and would not pay or
would pay only partially. It is necessary to take into account such an expected
loss while calculating true and fair profit/loss according to the principle of
Prudence or Conservatism. Therefore, the trader creates a Provision for Doubtful
Debts to take care of expected loss at the time of realisation from debtors. In
a similar way, Provision for repairs and renewals may also be created to provide
for expected repair and renewal of the fixed assets. Examples of provisions
are :
• Provision for depreciation;
• Provision for bad and doubtful debts;
• Provision for taxation;
• Provision for discount on debtors; and
• Provision for repairs and renewals.
It must be noted that the amount of provision for expense and loss is a
charge against the revenue of the current period. Creation of provision ensures
proper matching of revenue and expenses and hence the calculation of true
profits. Provisions are created by debiting the profit and loss account. In the
balance sheet, the amount of provision may be shown either:
• By way of deduction from the concerned asset on the assets side. For example,
provision for doubtful debts is shown as deduction from the amount of
sundry debtors and provision for depreciation as a deduction from the
concerned fixed assets;

2015-16
Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 265

• On the liabilities side of the balance sheet alongwith current liabilities, for
example provision for taxes and provision for repairs and renewals.

7.11.1 Accounting Treatment for Provisions

The accounting treatment of all types of provisions is almost similar. Therefore,
the accounting treatment is explained here taking up the case of provision for
doubtful debts.
As already stated that when business transaction takes place on credit
basis, debtors account is created and its balance is shown on the asset-side
of the balance sheet. These debtors may be of three types:
• Good Debtors are those from where collection of debt is certain.
• Bad Debts are those debtors from where collection of money is not
possible and the amount of credit given is a certain loss.
• Doubtful Debts are those debtors who may pay but business firm is not
sure about the collection of full amount from them. In fact, as a matter
of business experience, some percentage of such debtors are not likely
to pay, hence treated as doubtful debts. To consider this possible loss
on account of non-payment by some debtors, it is a common practice
(and necessary also) to make a suitable provision for doubtful debts at
the time of ascertaining true profit or loss. The provision for doubtful
debts is usually calculated as a certain percentage of the total amount
due from sundry debtors after deducting/writing-off all known bad
debts. Provision for doubtful debts is also called ‘Provision for bad and
doubtful debts’. It is created by debiting the amount of required provision
to the profit and loss account and crediting it to provision for doubtful
debts account.
For creating a provision for doubtful debts the following journal entry
is recorded:
Profit and Loss A/c Dr. (with the amount of provision)
To Provision for doubtful debts A/c
This is explained with the help of the following example
Observe an extract of the trial balance from the books of Trehan Traders
on March 31, 2014 is given below:

Date Account title L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
Sundry Debtors 68,000

2015-16
266 Accountancy

Additional Information
• Bad debts proved bad but not recorded amounted to Rs. 8,000
• Provision is to be maintained at 10% of debtors.
In order to create the provision for doubtful debts, the following journal
entries will be recorded:
Journal
Date Particulars L. F. Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2014
Mar. 31 Bad debts A/c Dr. 8,000
To Sundry debtors A/c 8,000
(Bad debts written of f)
Mar. 31 Profit & Loss A/c Dr. 8,000
To Bad debts A/c 8,000
(Bad debts debited to profit and
loss account)
Mar. 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 6,0001
To Provision for doubtful debts a/c 6,0001
(For creating provision for doubtful debts)

Working Notes
Provision for doubtful debts @10% of sundry debtors i.e.
Rs. 68,000 – 8000 = 60,000
10
6000 × = 600 01
100

7.12 Reserves
A part of the profit may be set aside and retained in the business to provide for
certain future needs like growth and expansion or to meet future contingencies
such as workmen compensation. Unlike provisions, reserves are the
appropriations of profit to strengthen the financial position of the business.
Reserve is not a charge against profit as it is not meant to cover any known
liability or expected loss in future. However, retention of profits in the form of
reserves reduces the amount of profits available for distribution among the
owners of the business. It is shown under the head Reserves and Surpluses on
the liabilities side of the balance sheet after capital.Examples of reserves are:
• General reserve;
• Workmen compensation fund;
• Investment fluctuation fund;
• Capital reserve;

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 267

• Dividend equalisation reserve;

• Reserve for redemption of debenture.

7.12.1 Difference between Reserve and Provision

The points of difference between reserve and provision are explained below:
1. Basic nature : A provision is a charge against profit whereas reserve is an
appropriation of profit. Hence, net profit cannot be calculated unless all
provisions have been debited to profit and loss account, while a reserve is
created after the calculation of net profit.
2. Purpose : Provision is made for a known liability or expense pertaining to
current accounting period, the amount of which is not certain. On the
other hand reserve is created for strengthening the financial position of
the business. Some reserves are also mandatory under the law.
3. Presentation in balance sheet: Provision is shown either (i) by way of
deduction from the item on the asset side for which it is created, or (ii) on
the liabilities side along with current liabilities. On the other hand, reserve
is shown on the liabilities side after capital.
4. Effect on taxable profits : Provision is deducted before calculating taxable
profits. Hence, it reduces taxable profits. A reserve is created from profit
after tax and therefore it has no effect on taxable profit.
5. Element of compulsion : Creation of provision is necessary to ascertain
true and fair profit or loss in compliance with ‘Prudence’ or ‘Conservatism’
concept. It has to be made even if there are no profits. Whereas creation of
a reserve is generally at the discretion of the management. However, in
certain cases law has stipulated for the creation of specific reserves such
as Debenture Redemption Reserve. Reserve cannot be created unless there
are profits.
6. Use for the payment of dividend : Provision cannot be used for distribution
as dividends while general reserve can be used for dividend distribution.

Basis of Dif ference Provision Reserve

1. Basic nature Charge against profit. Appropriation of profit.
2. Purpose It is created for a known It is made for strengthening
liability or expense pertaining the financial position of
to current accounting period, the business.Some reserves
the amount of which is not are also mandatory under law.
certain.
3. Ef fect on taxable It reduces taxable profits. It has no effect on taxable
profits. profit.

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268 Accountancy

4. Presentations in It is shown either (i) by way It is shown on the liabilities.

Balance sheet of deduction from the item on side after capital amount.
the asset side for which it is
created, or (ii) In the liabilities
side along with current
liabilities.
5. Element of Creation of provision is Generally, creation of a Reserve
compulsion necessary to ascertain true is at the discretion of the mana-
and fair profit or loss in gement. Reserve cannot be
compliance ‘Prudence’ or created unless there are profits.
‘Conservatism’ concept. However, in certain cases law
It must be made even has stipulated for the creation
if there are no profits. of specific r eserves such as
‘Debenture’ ‘Redemption ’
reserve.
6. Use for the payment It can not be used for It can be used for divided
of dividend dividend distribution. distribution.

Fig. 7.4 : Showing comparison between provisions and r eserves

7.12.2 Types of Reserves

A reserve is created by retention of profit of the business can be for either a
general or a specific purpose.
1. General reserve : When the purpose for which reserve is created is not
specified, it is called General Reserve . It is also termed as free reserve
because the management can freely utilise it for any purpose. General
reserve strengthens the financial position of the business.
2. Specific reserve : Specific reserve is the reserve, which is created for some
specific purpose and can be utilised only for that purpose. Examples of
specific reserves are given below :
(i) Dividend equalisation reserve: This reserve is created to stabilise or
maintain dividend rate. In the year of high profit, amount is transferred
to Dividend Equalisation reserve. In the year of low profit, this reserve
amount is used to maintain the rate of dividend.
(ii) Workmen compensation fund: It is created to provide for claims of the
workers due to accident, etc.
(iii) Investment fluctuation fund: It is created to make for decline in the
value of investment due to market fluctuations.
(iv) Debenture redemption reserve: It is created to provide funds for
redemption of debentures.
Reserves are also classified as revenue and capital reserves according to
the nature of the profit out of which they are created.

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 269

(a) Revenue reserves : Revenue reserves are created from revenue profits which
arise out of the normal operating activities of the business and are otherwise
freely available for distribution as dividend. Examples of revenue
reserves are:
• General reserve;
• Workmen compensation fund;
• Investment fluctuation fund;
• Dividend equalisation reserve;
• Debenture redemption reserve;
(b) Capital reserves: Capital reserves are created out of capital profits which
do not arise from the normal operating activities. Such reserves are not
available for distribution as dividend. These reserves can be used for
writing off capital losses or issue of bonus shares in case of a company.
Examples of capital profits, which are treated as capital reserves, whether
transferred as such or not, are :
• Premium on issue of shares or debenture.
• Profit on sale of fixed assets.
• Profit on redemption of debentures.
• Profit on revaluation of fixed asset & liabilities.
• Profits prior to incorporation.
• Profit on reissue of forfeited shares

7.12.3 Difference between Revenue and Capital Reserve

Revenue reserves and capital reserves are differentiated on the following grounds:
1. Source of creation : Revenue reserve is created out of revenue profits, which
arise out of the normal operating activities of the business and are
otherwise available for dividend distribution. On the other hand capital
reserve is created primarily out of capital profit, which do not arise from
the normal operating activities of the business and are not available for
distribution as dividend. But revenue profits may also be used for creation
of capital reserves.
2. Purpose : Revenue reserve is created to strengthen the financial position, to
meet unforeseen contingencies or for some specific purposes. Whereas capital
reserve is created for compliance of legal requirements or accounting practices.
3. Usage : A specific revenue reserve can be utilised only for the earmarked
purpose while a general reserve can be utilised for any purpose including
distribution of dividend. Whereas a capital reserve can be utilised for specific
purposes as provided in the law in force, e.g. to write off capital losses or
issue of bonus shares.

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270 Accountancy

Basis of Difference Revenue Reserve Capital Reserve

1. Source of creation It is created out of revenue It is created primarily out of
profits which arise out of capital profit which do not arise
normal operating activities out of the normal operating
of the business and are activities of the business and not
otherwise available for available for dividend distribution.
dividend distribution. But revenue profits may also be
used for this purpose.
2. Purpose It is cr eated to strengthen It is created for compliance of
the financial position, to legal requirements or accounting
meet unforeseen practices.
contingencies or for some
specific purposes.
3. Usage A specific revenue reserve It can be utilised for specific
can be utilised only for the purposes as provided in the law
ear marked purpose while a in force e.g. to write of f capital
general reserve can be losses or issue of bonus shares.
utilised for any purpose
including distribution of
dividend.

Fig. 7.5 : Difference between capital reserve and revenue reserve

7.12.4 Importance of Reserves

A business firm may consider it proper to set up some mechanism to protect
itself from the consequences of unknown expenses and losses, it may be
required to bear in future. It may also regard it as more appropriate in certain
cases to reduce the amount that can be drawn by the proprietors as profit in
order to conserve business resource to meet certain significant demands in
future. An example of such a demand is the much needed expansion in the
scale of business operations. This is presented as the justification for reserves
in business activities and in accounting. The amount so set aside may be
meant for the purpose of :
• Meeting a future contingency
• Strengthening the general financial position of the business;
• Redeeming a long-term liability like debentures, etc.

7.13 Secret Reserve

Secret reserve is a reserve which does not appear in the balance sheet. It may
also help to reduce the disclosed profits and also the tax liability . The secret
reserve can be merged with the profits during the lean periods to show improved

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 271

profits. Management may resort to creation of secret reserve by charging higher

depreciation than required. It is termed as ‘Secret Reserve’, as it is not known to
outside stakeholders. Secret reserve can also be created by way of :
• Undervaluation of inventories/stock
• Charging capital expenditure to profit and loss account
• Making excessive provision for doubtful debts
• Showing contingent liabilities as actual liabilities
Creation of secret reserves within reasonable limits is justifiable on grounds of
expediency, prudence and preventing competition from other firms.

Test Your Understanding - V

I State with reasons whether the following statements are True or False ;
(i) Making excessive provision for doubtful debits builds up the secret reserve in
the business.
(ii) Capital reserves are nor mally created out of fr ee or distributable profits.
(iii) Dividend equalisation reserve is an example of general reserve.
(iv) General reserve can be used only for some specific purposes.
(v) ‘Provision’ is a charge against profit.
(vi) Reserves are cr eated to meet future expenses or losses the amount of which is
not certain.
(vii) Creation of reserve reduces taxable profits of the business.
II Fill in the correct words :
(i) Depreciation is decline in the value of ...........
(ii) Installation, freight and transport expenses are a part of ...........
(iii) Provision is a ........... against profit.
(iv) Reserve created for maintaining a stable rate of dividend is termed as...........

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Depreciation, Depreciable cost, original cost, useful life;
• Depletion, Obsolescence, Amortisation;
• Salvage value/Residual value/Scrap value;
• Written down value/Reducing balance value/Diminishing value;
• Straight Line/Fixed Installment Method;
• Asset Disposal Account;
• Accumulated Depreciation/Provision for Depreciation Account, Reserve,
Provision, Capital Reserve, Revenue Reserve, General Reserve, Specific
Reserve, Secret Reserve, Pr ovision for Doubtful Debts.

Summary With Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Meaning of depreciation : Depreciation is decline in the value of a tangible

fixed asset. In accounting, depreciation is the process of allocating depreciable
cost over useful life of a fixed asset.

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272 Accountancy

2. Depreciation and similar terms : Depreciation term is used in the context of

tangible fixed assts. Depletion (in the context of extractive industries), and
amortisation (in the context of intangible assets) are other related ter ms.
Factors Affecting Depreciation :
• Wear and Tear due to use and/or passage of time
• Expiration of Legal Rights
• Obsolescence
3. Importance of depreciation :
• Depreciation must be charged to ascertain true and fair profit or loss.
• Depreciation is a non-cash operating expense.
4. Methods of charging depreciation : Depreciation amount can be calculated using :
• Straight line method, or
• Written down value method
5. Factors affecting the amount of depreciation :
Depreciation amount is determined by —
• Original cost
• Salvage value, and
• Useful life of the asset
6. Provisions and Reserves : A provision is a charge against profit. It is created
for a known current liability the amount of which is uncertain. Reserve on
the other hand, is an appropriation of profit. It is created to strengthen the
financial position of the business.
7. Types of Reserves : Reserves may be —
• General reserve and specific r eserve;
• Revenue reserve and capital reserve.
8. Secret Reserve : When total depreciation charged is higher than the total
depreciable cost, Secret r eserve’ is created. Secret reserve is not explicitly
shown in the balance sheet.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers
1. What is ‘Depreciation’?
2. State briefly the need for pr oviding depreciation.
3. What are the causes of depreciation?
4. Explain basic factors affecting the amount of depreciation.
5. Distinguish between straight line method and written down value method
of calculating depreciation.
6. “In case of a long ter m asset, repair and maintenance expenses are expected
to rise in later years than in earlier year”. Which method is suitable for
charging depr eciation if the management does not want to increase burden
on profits and loss account on account of depr eciation and repair.
7. What ar e the effects of depreciation on profit and loss account and balance
sheet?
8. Distinguish between ‘pr ovision’ and ‘reserve’ .
9. Give four examples each of ‘provision’ and ‘reserves’.
10. Distinguish between ‘revenue r eserve’ and ‘capital reserve’.

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 273

11. Give four examples each of ‘revenue reserve’ and ‘capital reserves’.
12. Distinguish between ‘general reserve’ and ‘specific reserve’.
13. Explain the concept of ‘secret reserve’.

Long Answers
1. Explain the concept of depreciation. What is the need for charging
depreciation and what are the causes of depreciation?
2. Discuss in detail the straight line method and written down value method
of depr eciation. Distinguish between the two and also give situations where
they are useful.
3. Describe in detail two methods of r ecording depreciation. Also give the
necessary jour nal entries.
4. Explain deter minants of the amount of depreciation.
5. Name and explain different types of reserves in details.
6. What are ‘provisions’. How are they created? Give accounting treatment in
case of provision for doubtful Debts.

Numerical Problems
1. On April 01, 2010, Bajrang Marbles purchased a Machine for Rs. 2,80,000
and spent Rs. 10,000 on its carriage and Rs. 10,000 on its installation. It is
estimated that its working life is 10 years and after 10 years its scrap value
will be Rs. 20,000.
(a) Prepare Machine account and Depreciation account for the first four
years by providing depreciation on straight line method. Accounts are
closed on March 31st every year.
(b) Prepar e Machine account, Depreciation account and Provision for
depreciation account (or accumulated depreciation account) for the first
four years by providing depreciation using straight line method accounts
are closed on March 31 every year.
(Ans: [a] Balance of Machine account on April 1, 2014 Rs.1,28,000.
[b] Balance of Provision for depreciation account as on 1.04.2014
Rs.72,000.)
2. On July 01, 2010, Ashok Ltd. Purchased a Machine for Rs. 1,08,000 and
spent Rs. 12,000 on its installation. At the time of purchase it was estimated
that the effective commercial life of the machine will be 12 years and after 12
years its salvage value will be Rs. 12,000.
Prepare machine account and depreciation Account in the books of Ashok
Ltd. For first three years, if depreciation is written of f according to straight
line method. The account are closed on December 31st, every year.
(Ans: Balance of Machine account as on 1.01.2013 Rs.97,500).
3. Reliance Ltd. Purchased a second hand machine for Rs. 56,000 on October
01, 2011 and spent Rs. 28,000 on its overhaul and installation before putting
it to operation. It is expected that the machine can be sold for Rs. 6,000 at
the end of its useful life of 15 years. Moreover an estimated cost of Rs. 1,000
is expected to be incurred to recover the salvage value of Rs. 6,000. Pr epare
machine account and Provision for depreciation account for the first thr ee

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274 Accountancy

years charging depreciation by fixed installment Method. Accounts are closed

on December 31, every year.
(Ans: Balance of provision for depreciation account as on 1.01.14 Rs.18,200).
4. Berlia Ltd. Purchased a second hand machine for Rs. 56,000 on July 01,
2011 and spent Rs. 24,000 on its repair and installation and Rs. 5,000 for its
carriage. On September 01, 2012, it purchased another machine for
Rs. 2,50,000 and spent Rs. 10,000 on its installation.
(a) Depreciation is provided on machinery @10% p.a on original cost method
annually on December 31. Prepare machinery account and depreciation
account from the year 2011 to 2014.
(b) Prepare machinery account and depreciation account from the year 2011
to 2014, if depreciation is provided on machinery @10% p.a. on written
down value method annually on December 31.
(Ans: [a] Balance of Machine account as on 1.01.15 Rs.2,54,583.
[b] Balance of Machine account as on 1.01.15 Rs.2,62,448).
5. Ganga Ltd. purchased a machinery on January 01, 2011 for Rs. 5,50,000 and
spent Rs. 50,000 on its installation. On September 01, 2011 it purchased
another machine for Rs. 3,70,000. On May 01, 2012 it purchased another
machine for Rs. 8,40,000 (including installation expenses).
Depreciation was provided on machinery @10% p.a. on original cost method
annually on December 31. Prepare:
(a) Machinery account and depreciation account for the years 2011, 2012,
2013 and 2014.
(b) If depreciation is accumulated in provision for Depreciation account
then prepare machine account and provision for depr eciation account
for the years 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.
(Ans: [a] Balance of machine account as on 01.01.15 Rs. 12,22,666.
[b] Balance of provision for dep. account as on 01.01.15 Rs. 5,87,334).
6. Azad Ltd. purchased furniture on October 01, 2012 for Rs. 4,50,000. On
March 01, 2013 it purchased another furniture for Rs. 3,00,000. On July 01,
2014 it sold off the first furniture purchased in 2012 for Rs. 2,25,000.
Depreciation is pr ovided at 15% p.a. on written down value method each
year. Accounts are closed each year on March 31. Pr epare fur niture account,
and accumulated depreciation account for the years ended on March 31,2013,
March 31,2014 and March 31,2015. Also give the above two accounts if
furniture disposal account is opened.
(Ans. Loss on sale of furniture Rs.1,14,915,
Balance of provision for depreciation account as on 31.03.15 Rs. 85,959.)
7. M/s Lokesh Fabrics purchased a Textile Machine on April 01, 2011 for
Rs. 1,00,000. On July 01, 2012 another machine costing Rs. 2,50,000 was
purchased . The machine purchased on April 01, 2011 was sold for Rs. 25,000
on October 01, 2015. The company charges depreciation @15% p.a. on straight
line method. Prepare machinery account and machinery disposal account for
the year ended March 31, 2016.
(Ans. Loss on sale of Machine account Rs.7,500.
Balance of machine account as on 1.04.15 Rs.1,09,375).

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 275

8. The following balances appear in the books of Crystal Ltd, on Jan 01, 2015
Rs.
Machinery account on 15,00,000
Provision for depreciation account 5,50,000
On April 01, 2015 a machinery which was purchased on January 01, 2012 for
Rs. 2,00,000 was sold for Rs. 75,000. A new machine was purchased on July
01, 2015 for Rs. 6,00,000. Depreciation is provided on machinery at 20% p.a.
on Straight line method and books are closed on December 31 every year.
Prepare the machinery account and provision for depreciation account for
the year ending December 31, 2015.
(Ans. Profit on sale of Machine Rs. 5,000.
Balance of machine account as on 31.03.15 Rs. 19,00,000.
Balance o f Provision for depreciation account as on 31.03.15 Rs. 4,80,000).

9. M/s. Excel Computers has a debit balance of Rs. 50,000 (original cost
Rs. 1,20,000) in computers account on April 01, 2010. On July 01, 2010 it
purchased another computer costing Rs. 2,50,000. One more computer was
purchased on January 01, 2011 for Rs. 30,000. On April 01, 2014 the computer
which has purchased on July 01, 2010 became obselete and was sold for
Rs. 20,000. A new version of the IBM computer was purchased on August 01,
2014 for Rs. 80,000. Show Computers account in the books of Excel Computers
for the years ended on March 31, 2011, 2012, 2013 ,2014 and 2015. The
computer is depreciated @10 p.a. on straight line method basis.
(Ans: Loss on sale of computer Rs. 1,36,250.
Balance of computers account as on 31.03.15 Rs. 80,583).
10. Carriage Transport Company purchased 5 trucks at the cost of Rs. 2,00,000
each on April 01, 2011. The company writes off depreciation @ 20% p.a. on
original cost and closes its books on December 31, every year. On October 01,
2013, one of the trucks is involved in an accident and is completely destroyed.
Insurance company has agreed to pay Rs. 70,000 in full settlement of the
claim. On the same date the company purchased a second hand truck for Rs.
1,00,000 and spent Rs. 20,000 on its overhauling. Prepar e truck account and
provision for depreciation account for the three years ended on December 31,
2013. Also give truck account if truck disposal account is prepared.
(Ans: Loss of settlement of T ruck Insurance Rs.30,000.
Balance of Provision for depreciation A/c as on 31.12.13 Rs.4,46,000.
Balance of Trucks account as on 31.12.13 Rs.9,20,000).
11. Saraswati Ltd. purchased a machinery costing Rs. 10,00,000 on January 01,
2011. A new machinery was purchased on 01 May, 2012 for Rs. 15,00,000 and
another on July 01, 2014 for Rs. 12,00,000. A part of the machinery which
originally cost Rs. 2,00,000 in 2011 was sold for Rs. 75,000 on October 31, 2014.
Show the machinery account, provision for depreciation account and machinery
disposal account from 2011 to 2015 if depreciation is provided at 10% p.a. on
original cost and account are closed on December 31, every year.
(Ans: Loss on sale of Machine Rs.58,333.
Balance of Provision for dep. A/c as on 31.12.15 Rs. 11,30,000.
Balance of Machine A/c as on 31.12.15 Rs. 35,00,000).

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276 Accountancy

12. On July 01, 2011 Ashwani purchased a machine for Rs. 2,00,000 on credit.
Installation expenses Rs. 25,000 ar e paid by cheque. The estimated life is 5
years and its scrap value after 5 years will be Rs. 20,000. Depreciation is to
be charged on straight line basis. Show the journal entry for the year 2011
and prepare necessary ledger accounts for first three years.
(Ans: Balance of Machine A/c as on 31.12.13 Rs.1,22,500).
13. On October 01, 2010, a Truck was purchased for Rs. 8,00,000 by Laxmi
Transport Ltd. Depreciation was provided at 15% p.a. on the diminishing
balance basis on this truck. On December 31, 2013 this Truck was sold for
Rs. 5,00,000. Accounts ar e closed on 31st March every year. Prepare a Truck
Account for the four years.
(Ans: Profit on Sale of T ruck Rs.55,548).

14. Kapil Ltd. purchased a machinery on July 01, 2011 for Rs. 3,50,000. It
purchased two additional machines, on April 01, 2012 costing Rs. 1,50,000
and on October 01, 2012 costing Rs. 1,00,000. Depreciation is provided @10%
p.a. on straight line basis. On January 01, 2013, first machinery become
useless due to technical changes. This machinery was sold for Rs. 1,00,000.
prepare machinery account for 4 years on the basis of calendar year.
(Ans: Loss on sale of machine Rs. 1,97,500.
Balance of Machine account as on 1.01.05 Rs. 1,86,250).
15. On January 01, 2011, Satkar Transport Ltd., purchased 3 buses for
Rs. 10,00,000 each. On July 01, 2013, one bus was involved in an accident
and was completely destr oyed and Rs. 7,00,000 were r eceived from the
Insurance Company in full settlement. Depreciation is writen off @15% p.a.
on diminishing balance method. Prepare bus account from 2011 to 2014.
Books are closed on December 31 every year.
(Ans: Profit on insurance claim Rs. 31,687.
Balance of Bus account as on 1.01.15 Rs. 10,44,013).
16. On October 01, 2011 Juneja Transport Company purchased 2 Trucks for
Rs. 10,00,000 each. On July 01, 2013, One Truck was involved in an accident
and was completely destr oyed and Rs. 6,00,000 were r eceived from the
insurance company in full settlement. On December 31, 2013 another truck
was involved in an accident and destroyed partially, which was not insur ed.
It was sold off for Rs. 1,50,000. On January 31, 2014 company purchased a
fresh truck for Rs. 12,00,000. Depreciation is to be provided at 10% p.a. on
the written down value every year. The books are closed every year on March
31. Give the truck account from 2011 to 2014.
(Ans: Loss on Ist T ruck Insurance claim Rs. 1,41,000.
Loss on IInd T ruck Rs. 5,53,000.
Balance of Truck account as on 31.03.14 Rs. 11,80,000).
17. A Noida based Construction Company owns 5 cranes and the value of this
asset in its books on April 01, 2011 is Rs. 40,00,000. On October 01, 2011 it
sold one of its cranes whose value was Rs. 5,00,000 on April 01, 2011 at a
10% profit. On the same day it purchased 2 cranes for Rs. 4,50,000 each.

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Depr eciation, Provisions and Reserves 277

Prepare cranes account. It closes the books on December 31 and provides for
depreciation on 10% written down value.
(Ans: Profit on sale of crane Rs. 47,500.
Balance of Cranes account as on 31.12.11 Rs. 41,15000).
18. Shri Krishan Manufacturing Company purchased 10 machines for Rs. 75,000
each on July 01, 2010. On October 01, 2012, one of the machines got destroyed
by fire and an insurance claim of Rs. 45,000 was admitted by the company.
On the same date another machine is purchased by the company for Rs.
1,25,000.
The company writes off 15% p.a. depreciation on written down value basis.
The company maintains the calendar year as its financial year. Prepare the
machinery account from 2010 to 2013.
(Ans: Loss on settle of insurance claim Rs. 7,735.
Balance of Machine account as on 31.12.13 Rs. 6,30,393).
19. On January 01, 2010, a Limited Company purchased machinery for
Rs. 20,00,000. Depreciation is provided @15% p.a. on diminishing balance
method. On March 01, 2012, one fourth of machinery was damaged by fire
and Rs. 40,000 were received from the insurance company in full settlement.
On September 01, 2012 another machinery was purchased by the company
for Rs. 15,00,000.
Write up the machinery account from 2012 to 2013. Books are closed on
December 31, every year.
(Ans: Loss on settle of insurance claim Rs. 12,219.
Balance of Machine account as on 01.01.14 Rs. 19,94,260).
20. A Plant was purchased on 1st July, 2010 at a cost of Rs. 3,00,000 and
Rs. 50,000 were spent on its installation. The depreciation is written off at
15% p.a. on the straight line method. The plant was sold for Rs. 1,50,000 on
October 01, 2012 and on the same date a new Plant was installed at the cost
of Rs. 4,00,000 including purchasing value. The accounts are closed on
December 31 every year.
Show the machinery account and provision for depreciation account for 3 years.
(Ans: Loss on sale of Plant Rs. 81,875.
Balance of Machine account as on 01.01.13 Rs. 15,000.
Balance of Provision for Depreciation account as on 01.01.03 Rs. 15,000.).
21. An extract of Trial balance from the books of Tahiliani and Sons Enterprises
on March 31, 2015 is given below:
Name of the Account Debit Amount Credit Amount
Rs. Rs.
Sundry debtors. 50,000
Bad debts 6,000
Provision for doubtful debts 4,000
Additional Infor mation:
• Bad Debts proved bad but not recorded amounted to Rs. 2,000.
• Provision is to be maintained at 8% of Debtors.

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278 Accountancy

Give necessary accounting entries for writing off the bad debts and creating
the pr ovision for doubtful debts account. Also show the necessary accounts.
(Ans: New provision for Bad debts Rs. 3,840, profit and loss account [Dr.]
Rs. 7,840.)
22. The following information are extract from the Trial Balance of M/s Nisha
traders on 31 March 2015.
Sundry Debtors 80,500
Bad debts 1,000
Provision for bad debts 5,000
Additional Infor mation
Bad Debts Rs. 500
Provision is to be maintained at 2% of Debtors.
Prepare bad debts accound, Pr ovision for bad debts account and profit and
loss account.
(Ans: New pr ovision Rs. 1,600 Profit and loss account [Cr.] Rs. 1,900).

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding - I
1. Fixed assets, exhaustion of natural resources, specific contracted business.
2. Amortisation
Test Your Understanding - II
1. T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T, 6. F, 7. T, 8. F, 9. F, 10. F,
Test Your Understanding - III
Written down value method is more appropriate because this method is suitable
for those assets which are affected by technological changes. Mor eover, this method
is recognised by income tax hand.
Test Your Understanding - V
1. (i) True (ii) False (iii) False (iv) False
(v) True (vi) False (vii) False

2. (i) Assets (ii) Acquisition cost

(iii) Charge (iv) Dividend equilisation fund.

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Bill of Exchange 8

G oods can be sold or bought for cash or on

credit. When goods are sold or bought for
cash, payment is received immediately. On the
other hand, when goods are sold/bought on credit
the payment is deferred to a future date. In such a
L EARNING OBJECTIVES situation, normally the firm relies on the party to
make payment on the due date. But in some cases,
After studying this chapter, to avoid any possibility of delay or default, an
you will be able to :
instrument of credit is used through which the
• state the meaning of buyer assures the seller that the payment shall be
bill of exchange and a
promissory note;
made according to the agreed conditions. In India,
instruments of credit have been in use since time
• distinguish between a
bill of exchange and a
immemorial and are popularly known as Hundies.
promissory note; The hundies are written in Indian languages and
• state the advantages have a large variety (refer box1).
of bill of exchange;
• explain the meaning of Box 1
different terms involved in
Hundies and its Types
the bill transaction,
• record bill of exchange Ther e are a variety of hundies used in our country.
transactions in journal; Let us discuss some of the most common ones.
Shahjog Hundi: This is drawn by one merchant on
• record transactions another, asking the latter to pay the amount to a
relating to dishonour, Shah. Shah is a respectable and responsible person,
retirement and renewal a man of worth and known in the bazaar. A shah-jog
of bill; hundi passes from one hand to another till it r eaches
• describe the uses of a shah, who, after reasonable enquiries, presents it
bill receivable and bill to the drawee for acceptance of the payment.
payable book; Darshani Hundi: This is hundi payable at sight. It
• state the meaning and must be presented for payment within a r easonable
use of accommodation time after its receipt by the holder. It is similar to a
bill. demand bill.

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Dev Prakash Sharma/VIII Proof/ 07/04/2015

280 Accountancy

Muddati Hundi: A muddati or miadi hundi is payable after a specified period of time.
This is similar to a time bill.
There are few other varieties of hundies like Nam-jog hundi, Dhani-jog hundi, Jawabee
hundi, Hokhami hundi, Fir man-jog hundi, and so on.

Now a days these instruments of credit are called bills of exchange or

promissory notes. The bill of exchange contains an unconditional order to pay
a certain amount on an agreed date while the promissory note contains an
unconditional promise to pay a certain sum of money on a certain date. In
India these instruments are governed by the Indian Negotiable Instruments
Act 1881.

8.1 Meaning of Bill of Exchange

According to the Negotiable Instruments Act 1881, a bill of exchange is defined
as an instrument in writing containing an unconditional order, signed by the
maker, directing a certain person to pay a certain sum of money only to, or to
the order of a certain person or to the bearer of the instrument. The following
features of a bill of exchange emerge out of this definition.
• A bill of exchange must be in writing.
• It is an order to make payment.
• The order to make payment is unconditional.
• The maker of the bill of exchange must sign it.
• The payment to be made must be certain.
• The date on which payment is made must also be certain.
• The bill of exchange must be payable to a certain person.
• The amount mentioned in the bill of exchange is payable either on
demand or on the expiry of a fixed period of time.
• It must be stamped as per the requirement of law.
A bill of exchange is generally drawn by the creditor upon his debtor. It has to
be accepted by the drawee (debtor) or someone on his behalf. It is just a draft
till its acceptance is made.
For example, Amit sold goods to Rohit on credit for Rs. 10,000 for three months.
To ensure payment on due date Amit draws a bill of exchange upon Rohit for
Rs. 10,000 payable after three months. Before it is accepted by Rohit it will be
called a draft. It will become a bill of exchange only when Rohit writes the word
“accepted” on it and append his signature thereto communicate his acceptance.

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Bill of Exchange 281

8.1.1 Parties to a Bill of Exchange

There are three parties to a bill of exchange:
(1) Drawer is the maker of the bill of exchange. A seller/creditor who is entitled
to receive money from the debtor can draw a bill of exchange upon the
buyer/debtor. The drawer after writing the bill of exchange has to sign it
as maker of the bill of exchange.
(2) Drawee is the person upon whom the bill of exchange is drawn. Drawee is
the purchaser or debtor of the goods upon whom the bill of exchange is
drawn.
(3) Payee is the person to whom the payment is to be made. The drawer of
the bill himself will be the payee if he keeps the bill with him till the date
of its payment. The payee may change in the following situations:
(a) In case the drawer has got the bill discounted, the person who has
discounted the bill will become the payee;
(b) In case the bill is endorsed in favour of a creditor of the drawer, the
creditor will become the payee.
Normally, the drawer and the payee is the same person. Similarly, the drawee
and the acceptor is normally the person. For example, Mamta sold goods worth
Rs.10,000 to Jyoti and drew a bill of exchange upon her for the same amount payable
after three months. Here, Mamta is the drawer of the bill and Jyoti is the drawee. If
the bill is retained by Mamta for three months and the amount of
Rs. 10,000 is received by her on the due date then Mamta will be the payee. If Mamta
gives away this bill to her creditor Ruchi, then Ruchi will be the payee. If Mamta gets
this bill discounted from the bank then the bankers will become the payee.
In the above mentioned bill of exchange, Mamta is the drawer and Jyoti is
the drawee. Since Jyoti has accepted the bill, she is the acceptor. Suppose in
place of Jyoti the bill is accepted by Ashok then Ashok will become the acceptor.
Mamta New Delhi
Rs.10,000 April 01, 2014
Three months after date pay to me or my order, the sum of Rupees Ten Thousand
only, for value received.

Stamp

Accepted
(signed) (Signed)
Jyoti Mamta
1.4.2014 196, Karol Bagh
73-B, Mahipalpur New Delhi
New Delhi 110 037
To
Jyoti
73-B, Mahipalpur
New Delhi 110 037

Figure 8.1 : Showing specimen of bills of exchange

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282 Accountancy

Test Your Understanding - I

Write ‘Ture’ or ‘False’ against each statement regarding a bill of exchange:
(i) A bill of exchange must be accepted by the payee.
(ii) A bill of exchange is drawn by the cr editor.
(iii) A bill of exchange is drawn for all cash transaction.
(iv) A bill payable on demand is called T ime bill;
(v) The person to whom payment is to be made in a bill or exchange is called
payee.
(vi) A negotiable instrument does not require the signature of its maker.
(vii) The hundi Payable at sight is called Darshani hundi.
(viii) A negotiable instrument is not fr eely transferable.
(ix) Stamping of promissory note is not mandatory.
(x) The time of payment of a negotiable instrument need not be certain.

8.2 Promissory Note

According to the Negotiable Instruments Act 1881, a promissory note is defined
as an instrument in writing (not being a bank note or a currency note),
containing an unconditional undertaking signed by the maker, to pay a certain
sum of money only to or to the order of a certain person, or to the bearer of the
instrument. However, according to the Reserve Bank of India Act, a promissory
note payable to bearer is illegal. Therefore, a promissory note cannot be made
payable to the bearer.
This definition suggests that when a person gives a promise in writing to
pay a certain sum of money unconditionally to a certain person or according
to his order the document is called is a promissory note.
Following features of a promissory note emerge out of the above definition:
• It must be in writing
• It must contain an unconditional promise to pay.
• The sum payable must be certain.
• It must be signed by the maker.
• The maker must sign it.
• It must be payable to a certain person.
• It should be properly stamped.
A promissory note does not require any acceptance because the maker of the
promissory note himself promises to make the payment.

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Bill of Exchange 283

Ashok Kumar New Delhi

Rs. 30,000 01 April, 2014
Three months after date I promise to pay Sh. Harish Chander or order
a sum of Rupees Thirty Thousand only for value received.

Stamp

To
Harish Chander Ashok Kumar
24, Ansari Road 2, Dariba Kalan
Darya Ganj Candani Chowk
New Delhi 110 002 Delhi 110 006

Fig. 8.2 : Showing specimen of promissory note

8.2.1 Parties to a Promissory Note

There are two parties to a promissory note.
• Maker or Drawer is the person who makes or draws the promissory
note to pay a certain amount as specified in the promissory note. He is
also called the promisor.
• Drawee or Payee is the person in whose favour the promissory note is
drawn. He is called the promisee.
Generally, the drawee is also the payee, unless, it is otherwise mentioned in
the promissory note. In the specimen of promissory note(refer figure 8.2),
Ashok Kumar is the drawer or maker who promises to pay Rs.30,000 and
Harish Chander is the drawee or payee to whom payment is to made. If Harish
Chander endorses this promissory note in favour of Rohit then Rohit will
become the payee. Similarly, if Harish Chander gets this promissory note
discounted from the bank then the bank will become the payee.

Box 2
Distinction between a Bill of Exchange and Promissory Note
Both a bill of exchange and a pr omissory note are instruments of credit and are similar
in many ways. However, there are certain basic dif ferences between the two.

S. No Basis Bill of Exchange Promissory Note

1 Drawer It is drawn by the creditor It is drawn by the debtor
2 Or der or Promise It contains an order to make It contains a promise to make
and Parties payment. There can be three payment. There are only two
parties to it, viz. the drawer, parties to it, viz. the drawer
the drawee and the payee. and the payee.

2015-16
284 Accountancy

3 Acceptance It requires acceptance by the It does not require any

drawee or someone else on his acceptance.
behalf.

4. Payee Drawer and payee can be the Drawer cannot be the payee
same party. of it.
5. Notice In case of its dishonour due No notice needs to be givenin
notice of dishonour is to be case of its dishonour.
given by the holder to the drawer

Fig. 8.3 Distinction between bills of exchange and promissory note

8.3 Advantages of Bill of Exchange

The bills of exchange as instruments of credit are used frequently in business
because of the following advantages:
• Framework for relationships: A bill of exchange represents a device, which
provides a framework for enabling the credit transaction between the seller/
creditor and buyer/debtor on an agreed basis.
• Certainty of terms and conditions: The creditor knows the time when he
would receive the money so also debtor is fully aware of the date by which
he has to pay the money. This is due to the fact that terms and conditions
of the relationships between debtor and creditor such as amount required
to be paid; date of payment; interest to be paid, if any, place of payment
are clearly mentioned in the bill of exchange.
• Convenient means of credit: A bill of exchange enables the buyer to buy the
goods on credit and pay after the period of credit. However, the seller of goods
even after extension of credit can get payment immediately either by
discounting the bill with the bank or by endorsing it in favour of a third party.
• Conclusive proof: The bill of exchange is a legal evidence of a credit
transaction implying thereby that during the course of trade buyer has
obtained credit from the seller of the goods, therefore, he is liable to pay to
the seller. In the event of refusal of making the payment, the law requires
the creditor to obtain a certificate from the Notary to make it a conclusive
evidence of the happening.
• Easy transferability: A debt can be settled by transferring a bill of
exchange through endorsement and delivery.

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Bill of Exchange 285

Test Your Understanding - II

Fill in the blanks with suitable word(s)
(i) The person to whom the amount mentioned in the promissory note is
payable is known as _____________.
(ii) Transfer of a negotiable instrument to another person by signing on it, is
known as _____________.
(iii) In a promissory note, the person who makes the pr omise to pay is called
as ____________.
(iv) A person who endorses the promissory note in favour of another is known
as____________.

8.4 Maturity of Bill

The term maturity refers the date on which a bill of exchange or a promissory
note becomes due for payment. In arriving at the maturity date three days,
known as days of grace, must be added to the date on which the period of
credit expires instrument is payable. Thus, if a bill dated March 05 is payable
30 days after date it, falls due on April 07, i.e. 33 days after March 05 If it
were payable one month after date, the due date would be April 08, i.e. one
month and 3 days after March 05. However, where the date of maturity is a
public holiday, the instrument will become due on the preceding business
day. In this case if April 08, falls on a public holiday then the April 07 will be
the maturity date. But when an emergent holiday is declared under the
Negotiable Instruments Act 1881, by the Government of India which may
happen to be the date of maturity of a bill of exchange, then the date of
maturity will be the next working day immediately after the holiday. For
example, the Government declared a holiday on April 08 which happened to
be the day on which a bill of exchange drawn by Gupta upon Verma for
Rs.20,000 became due for payment, Since April 08, has been declared a
holiday under the Negotiable Instruments Act, therefore, April 09, will be the
date of maturity for this bill.

8.5 Discounting of Bill

If the holder of the bill needs funds, he can approach the bank for encashment
of the bill before the due date. The bank shall makes the payment of the bill
after deducting some interest (called discount in this case). This process of
encashing the bill with the bank is called discounting the bill. The bank gets
the amount from the drawee on the due date.

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286 Accountancy

8.6 Endorsement of Bill

Any holder may transfer a bill unless its transfer is restricted, i.e. the bill has
been negotiated containing words prohibiting its transfer. The bill can be
initially endorsed by the drawer by putting his signatures at the back of the
bill along with the name of the party to whom it is being transferred. The act
of signing and transferring the bill is called endorsement.

8.7 Accounting Treatment

For the person who draws the bill of exchange and gets it back after its due
acceptance, it is a bill receivable. For the person who accepts the bill, it is a bills
payable. In case of a promissory note for the maker it is a bills payable and for
the person in whose favour the promissory note is drawn it is a bills receivable.
Bills receivables are assets and Bills payable are liabilities. Bills and Notes are
used interchangeably.

8.7.1 In the Books of Drawer/Promissor

A bill receivable can be treated in the following four ways by its receiver.
1. He can retain it till the date of maturity, and
(a) get it collected on date of maturity directly, or
(b) get it collected through the banker.
2. He can get the bill discounted from the bank.
3. He can endorse the bill in favour of his Creditor.
The accounting treatment in the books of receiver under all the four
alternatives is given below under the assumption that the bill is duly honoured
on maturity by the acceptor.
(1) When the bill of exchange is retained by the receiver with him till date of
its maturity:
On receiving the bill
Bills Receivable A/c Dr.
To Debtors A/c
On maturity of the bill
Cash/Bank A/c Dr.
To Bills Receivable A/c
However, when the bill of exchange is retained by the receiver with him
and sent to bank for collection a few days before maturity, the following
two entries are recorded:
On sending the bill for collection
Bills Sent for Collection A/c Dr.
To Bills Receivable A/c

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Bill of Exchange 287

On receiving the advice from the bank that the bill has been collected
Bank A/c Dr.
To Bills Sent for Collection A/c
(2) When the receiver gets the bill discounted from the bank:
On r eceiving the bill
Bills Receivable A/c Dr.
To Debtors A/c
On discounting the bill
Bank A/c Dr.
Discount A/c Dr.
To Bills Receivable A/c
On Maturity
No entry is recorded because the bill becomes the property of the bank,
therefore, the bank collects the amount of the bill from the acceptor and
no journal entry is recorded in the books of the drawer.
(3) When the bill is endorsed by the receiver in favour of his creditor:
On receiving the bill
Bills Receivable A/c Dr.
To Debtor’s A/c
On endorsing the bill
Creditor’s A/c Dr.
To Bills Receivable A/c
On Maturity
No entry is recorded because the bill has been transferred in favour of the
creditor, therefore the creditor becomes its owner and will receive the
payment on maturity. Hence, no entry is recorded in the books of drawer
or endorser.

8.7.2 In the Books of Acceptor/Promissor

The following journal entries are recorded in the books of the acceptor or
promisesor under all the four alternatives. It makes no difference whether the
bill is retained discounted, endorsed or pledged.
On accepting the bill
Creditor’s A/c Dr.
To Bills Payable A/c
On Maturity of the bill
Bills Payable A/c Dr.
To Bank A/c

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288 Accountancy

Box 3

1. When the drawer retains the bill with him till the date of its maturity and gets
the same collected directly
Transaction Books of Creditor/Drawer Books of Debtor/
Acceptor
Sale/Pur chase of goods Debtor’s A/c Dr. Purchases A/c Dr.
To Sales A/c To Creditor’s A/c
Receiving/Accepting the bill Bills Receivable A/c Dr. Creditor’s A/c Dr.
To Debtor’s A/c To Bills Payable A/c
Collection of the bill Cash/Bank A/c Dr. Bills Payable A/c Dr.
To Bills Receivable A/c To Cash/Bank A/c

2. When the bill is retained by the drawer with him and sent to bank for collection
a few days before maturity
Transaction Books of Creditor/Drawer Books of Debtor/
Acceptor
Sale/Pur chase of goods Debtor’s A/c Dr. Purchases A/c Dr.
To Sales A/c To Creditor’s A/c
Receiving /Accepting the bill Bills Receivable A/c Dr. Creditor’s A/c Dr.
To Debtor’s A/c To Bills Payable A/c
Sending the bill for collection Bills sent for
collection A/c Dr. No entry
To Bill Receivable A/c
On Receiving from the bank Bank A/c Dr. Bills Payable A/c Dr.
advice that the bill has been To Bill Sent for To Bank A/c
collected Collection A/c

3. When the drawer gets the bill discounted from the bank
Transaction Books of Creditor/Drawer Books of Debtor/
Acceptor
Sale/Pur chase of goods Debtor’s A/c Dr. Purchases A/c Dr.
To Sales A/c To Creditor’s A/c
Receiving /Accepting the bill Bills Receivable A/c Dr. Creditor’s A/c Dr.
To Debtor’s A/c To Bills payable A/c
Discounting the bill Bank A/c Dr. No entry
Discount A/c Dr.
To Bills Receivable A/c
On maturity of the bill No entry Bills payable A/c Dr.
To Bank A/c

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Bill of Exchange 289

4. When the bill is endorsed by the drawer in favour of his creditor

Transaction Books of Creditor/Drawer Books of Debtor/
Acceptor
Sale/Pur chase of goods Debtor’s A/c Dr. Purchase A/c Dr.
To Sales A/c To Creditor’s A/c
Receiving /Accepting the bill Bills Receivable A/c Dr. Creditor’s A/c Dr.
To Debtor’s A/c To Bills payable A/c
Endorsing the bill Creditor’s A/c Dr. No entry
To Bills Receivable A/c
On maturity of the bill No entry Bills payable A/c Dr.
To Bank A/c

The journal entries to be recoded in the books of the drawer and the acceptor
under all the four cases have been summarised below.

Illustration 1
Amit sold goods for Rs.20,000 to Sumit on credit on Jan 01, 2015. Amit drew a bill of
exchange upon Sumit for the same amount for thr ee months. Sumit accepted the bill and
retur ned it to Amit. Sumit met his acceptance on maturity. Record the necessary journal
entries under the following circumstances:
(i) Amit retained the bill till the date of its maturity and collected directly
(ii) Amit discounted the bill @ 12% p.a from his bank
(iii) Amit endorsed the bill to his creditor Ankit
(iv) Amit retained the bill and on March, 31 2015 Amit sent the bill for collection to
its bank. On April 05, 2015 bank advice was received.

Solution
Books of Amit
Journal
(i) When the bill was retained till its maturity.

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan 01 Sumit’s A/c Dr. 20,000
To Sales A/c 20,000
(Sold goods to Sumit’s on credit)
Jan 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 20,000
To Sumit’s A/c 20,000
(Received Sumit’s acceptance payable
after three months)

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290 Accountancy

Apr.05 Bank A/c Dr. 20,000

To Bills Receivable A/c 20,000
(Sumit met his acceptance on maturity)

(ii) When the bill was discounted from the book.

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan 01 Sumit’s A/c Dr. 20,000
To Sales A/c 20,000
(Sold goods to Sumit’s)
Jan 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 20,000
To Sumit’s A/c 20,000
(Received Sumit’s acceptance three months)
Jan 01 Bank A/c Dr. 19,400
Discount A/c Dr. 600
To Bills Receivable A/c 20,000
(Sumit’s acceptance discounted with the bank)

(iii) When Amit endorsed the bill in favour of his creditor Ankit.

Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan. 01 Sumit’s A/c Dr. 20,000
To Sales A/c 20,000
(Sold goods to Sumit’s on credit)
Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 20,000
To Sumit’s A/c 20,000
(Received Sumit’s acceptance for
thr ee months)
Jan. 01 Ankit’s A/c Dr. 20,000
To Bills Receivable A/c 20,000
(Sumit acceptance endorsed in favour of Ankit)

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Bill of Exchange 291

(iv) When the bill was sent for collection by Amit to the bank.

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan. 01 Sumit’s A/c Dr. 20,000
To Sales A/c 20,000
(Sold goods to Sumit’s on credit)
Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 20,000
To Sumit’s A/c 20,000
(Received Sumit’s acceptance payable
after three months)
Mar. 31 Bills Sent for Collection A/c Dr. 20,000
To Bills Receivable A/c 20,000
(Bills sent for collection)
Apr. 05 Bank A/c Dr. 20,000
To Bills sent for collection A/c 20,000
(Bills sent for collection collected by the bank)

The following jour nal entries will be made in the books of Sumit under all the four
circumstances:

In the books of Sumit

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Jan. 01 Purchases A/c Dr. 20,000
To Amit’s A/c 20,000
(Purchases goods from Amit on credit)
Jan. 01 Amit’s A/c Dr. 20,000
To Bill’s Payable A/c 20,000
(Accepted bill drawn by Amit payable after
thr ee months)
Apr. 04 Bills payable A/c Dr. 20,000
To Bank A/c 20,000
(Met acceptance maturity)

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Illustration 2
On March 15, 2015 Ramesh sold goods for Rs. 8,000 to Deepak on credit. Deepak accepted
a bill of exchange drawn upon him by Ramesh payable after three months. On April, 15
Ramesh endorsed the bill in favour of his creditor Poonam in full settlement of her debt of
Rs. 8,250. On May 15, Poonam discounted the bill with her bank @ 12% p.a. On the due
date Deepak met the bill. Recor d the necessary journal entries in the books of Ramesh,
Deepak, Poonam.

Books of Ramesh
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Mar.15 Deepak A/c Dr. 8,000
To Sales A/c 8,000
(Sold goods to Deepak on credit)
Mar.15 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 8,000
To Deepak A/c 8,000
(Received Deepak’s acceptance for three months)
Apr.15 Poonam’s A/c Dr. 8,250
To Bills Receivable A/c 8,000
To Discount Received A/c 250
(Bill endorsed in favour of Poonam in full
settlement of her debt of Rs. 8,250)

Book of Deepak
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Mar.05 Purchases A/c Dr. 8,000
To Ramesh A/c 8,000
(Sold goods to Deepak on credit)
Mar.05 Ramesh’s A/c Dr. 8,000
To Bills Payable A/c 8,000
(Accepted Ramesh’s draft payable
after three months)
Jun.18 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 8,000
To Bank A/c 8,000
(Met the acceptance in favour of Ramesh
on maturity)

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Bill of Exchange 293

Books of Poonam
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Mar.15 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 8,000
Discount Allowed A/c Dr. 250
To Ramesh’s A/c 8,250
(Ramesh endorsed Deepak’s acceptance in
our favour for discharge his dept of
Rs. 8,250 in full settlement)
Mar.15 Bank A/c Dr. 7,920
Discount Allowed A/c Dr. 80
To Bills Receivable A/c 8,000
(Biils receivable encashed on maturity)

8.8 Dishonour of a Bill

A bill is said to have been dishonoured when the drawee fails to make the
payment on the date of maturity. In this situation, liability of the acceptor is
restored. Therefore, the entries made on the receipt of the bill should be
reversed. For example, Anju received bill of exchange duly accepted by Manju,
which was dishonoured. The entries of dishonour will be as follows in the
books of Anju (receiver):
When the bill was kept by Anju with her till maturity
Manju’s A/c Dr.
To Bill Receivables A/c
When the bill had been endorsed by Anju in favour of Sandhya
Manju’s A/c Dr.
To Sandhaya’s A/c
When the bill was discounted by Anju with his bank
Manju’s A/c Dr.
To Bank A/c
When the bill was sent for collection by Anju
Manju’s A/c Dr.
To Bill Sent for Collection A/c

Illustration 3
On Jan 01, 2015 Shieba sold goods to Vishal for Rs. 10,000 and drew upon him a bill of
exchange for 2 months. Vishal accepted the bill and retur ned it to Shieba. On the date of
maturity the bill was dishonoured by Vishal. Record the necessary entries in all the cases
listed below in the books of Shieba and Vishal:

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294 Accountancy

(i) When the bill kept by Shieba till its maturity;

(ii) When the bill is discounted by Shieba for Rs. 200;
(iii) When the bill is endorsed to Lal Chand by Shieba.

Solution
(i) When the bill was kept by Shieba till its maturity.

Books of Shieba
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Jan.01 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Sales A/c 10,000
(Sold goods to Vishal)
Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000
To Vishal’s A/c 10,000
(Received Vishal’s acceptance)
Mar. 04 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Bills Receivable A/c 10,000
(Vishal dishonoured his acceptance)

(ii) When the bill was discounted by shieba

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Jan.01 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Sales A/c 10,000
(Sold goods to Vishal)
Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000
To Vishal’s A/c 10,000
(Received Vishal’s acceptance)
Jan. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 9,800
Discount A/c Dr. 200
To Bills Receivable A/c 10,000
(Vishal’s Bill dishonoured his acceptance)
Mar.04 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Bank A/c 10,000
(Discounted bill dishonoured by Vishal)

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Bill of Exchange 295

(iii) When the bill was endorsed by Shieba to Lal Chand

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Jan.01 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Sales A/c 10,000
(Sold goods to Vishal)
Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000
To Vishal’s A/c 10,000
(Received Vishal’s acceptance)
Jan. 01 Lal Chand A/c Dr. 10,000
To Bills Receivable A/c 10,000
(Vishal’s acceptance endorsed
in favour of Lal Chand)
Mar.04 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Lal Chand A/c 10,000
(Endorsed bill dishonoured by Vishal)

Wher eas, in the book of Vishal, the following entries will be recorded

Books of Vishal
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Jan.01 Purchases A/c Dr. 10,000
To Shieba’s A/c 10,000
(Purchased good from shieba)
Jan. 01 Shieba’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Bills Payable A/c 10,000
(Accepted Shieba’s draft)
Mar. 04 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 10,000
To Shieba’s A/c 10,000
(Acceptance in favour of shieba dishonoured)

8.8.1 Noting Charges

A bill of exchange should be duly presented for payment on the date of its
maturity. The drawee is absolved of his liability if the bill is not duly presented.

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Proper presentation of the bill means that it should be presented on the date of
maturity to the acceptor during business working hours. To establish beyond
doubt that the bill was dishonoured, despite its due presentation, it may
preferably to be got noted by Notary Public. Noting authenticates the fact of
dishonour. For providing this service, a fees is charged by the Notary Public
which is called Noting Charges.
The following facts are generally noted by the Notary:
• Date, fact and reasons of dishonour;
• If the bill is not expressly dishonoured, the reasons why he treats it
as dishonoured and;
• The amount of noting charges.
The entries recorded for noting charges in the drawers book are as follows:
When Drawer himself pays
Drawee’s A/c Dr.
To Cash A/c
Wher e endorsee pays
Drawee’s A/c Dr.
To Endorsee A/c
When the bank pays on discounted bill
Drawee’s A/c Dr.
To Bank A/c
When the bank pays in the event of sending the bill for collection to the bank
Drawee’s A/c Dr.
To Bank A/c
It may be noticed that whosoever pays the noting charges, ultimately these
have to be borne by the drawee. That is why the drawee is invariably debited in
the drawer’s books. This is because he is responsible for the dishonour of the
bill and, hence, he has to bear these expenses. For recording the noting charges
in his book the drawee opens Noting Charges Acccount. He debits the Noting
Charges Account and credits the Drawer’s Account. For example, Azad sold
goods for Rs. 15,000 to Bunty and immediately drew a bill upon him on Jan.
01, 2015 payable after 3 months. On maturity the bill was dishonoured and Rs.
50 were paid by the holder of the bill as noting charges. The journal entries will
be recorded in the books of Azad and Bunty as given below under the following
circumstances:
(a) When the bill was kept by Azad till maturity.
(b) When the bill was discounted by Azad with his bank immediately
@ 12% p.a.
(c) When the bill was endorsed by Azad in favour of his creditor Chitra.
In the books of Azad, entries will be recorded as:

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(i) When the bill was retained till its maturity

Books of Azad
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Jan.01 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,000
To Sales A/c 15,000
(Sold goods to Bunty)
Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000
To Bunty’s A/c 15,000
(Received Bunty’s acceptance)
Apr. 04 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,050
To Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000
To Cash A/c 50
(Bunty dishonoured his acceptance and
paid Rs. 50 as noting charges)

(ii) When the bill was discounted with the bank.

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Jan.01 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,000
To Sales A/c 15,000
(Sold goods to Bunty)
Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000
To Bunty’s A/c 15,000
(Received Bunty’s acceptance payable
after three months)
Jan. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 14,550
Discount A/c Dr. 450
To Bills Receivable A/c 15,000
(Bunty’s acceptance discounted)
Apr. 04 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,050
To Bank A/c 15,050
(Bunty dishonoured his acceptance on maturity
and bank paid noting char ges)

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(iii) When the bill was endorsed to Chitra

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan. 01 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,000
To Sales A/c 15,000
(Sold goods to Bunty)
Jan.01 Bill’s Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000
To Bunty’s A/c 15,000
(Received Bunty’s acceptance)
Jan. 01 Chitra’s A/c Dr. 15,000
To Bills Receivable A/c 15,000
(Bunty’s acceptance endorsed in favour
of Chitra)
Apr. 04 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,050
To Chitra’s A/c 15,050
(Bunty dishonoured his acceptance on
maturity and chitra paid Rs. 50 as
noting charges)

The following jour nal entries will be made in the books of Bunty in all the three cases.

Book of Bunty
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan.01 Purchases A/c Dr. 15,000
To Azad’s A/c 15,000
(Purchase goods from Azad)
Jan. 01 Azad’s A/c Dr. 15,000
To Bills Payable A/c 15,000
(Accepted Azad’s draft)
Apr. 04 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 15,000
Noting charges A/c Dr. 50
To Azad’s A/c 15,050
(Acceptance in favour of Azed dishonoured)

8.9 Renewal of the Bill

Sometimes, the acceptor of the bill foresees that it may be difficult to meet the
obligation of the bill on maturity and may, therefore, approach the drawer
with the request for extension of time for payment. If it is so, the old bill is

2015-16
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cancelled and the fresh bill with new terms of payment is drawn and duly accepted
and delivered. This is called renewal of the bill. Since the cancellation of bill is
mutually agreed upon noting of the bill is not required.
The dreawee may have to pay interest to the drawer for the extended period
of credit. The interest is paid in cash or may be included in the amount of the
new bill. Sometimes, a part of the amount due may be paid and the new bill may
be drawn only for the balance. For example, a bill of Rs. 10,000 is cancelled on
a cash payment of Rs. 3,000 and acceptance of a new bill for the balance of Rs.
7,000 plus interest as agreed between the parties. The journal entries in the
books of the drawer and the drawee will be the same as that of dishonour of bill.
As for the interest invalued, if it is not paid in cash, the drawer debits the drawee’s
account and credits the interest account, and the drawee debits the interest
and credits the drawer’s account in his books.
The journal entries recorded in case of renewal for the cancellation of the
old bill, for interest and for the acceptance of the new bill in the books of the
drawer and drawee are given below:
Transaction Books of Drawer Books of Drawee
Cancellation of old bill Drawee’s A/c Dr. Bills Payable A/c Dr.
To Bills Receivable A/c To Drawer’s A/c
Interest Drawee’s A/c Dr. Interest A/c Dr.
To Interest A/c To Drawer’s A/c
New bill Bill Receivable A/c Dr. Drawer’s A/c Dr.
To Drawee’s A/c To Bills Payable A/c

For example on February 01, 2015 Ravi sold goods to Mohan for Rs.18,000;
Rs. 3,000 were paid by Mohan immediately and for the balance he accepted
three months bill drawn upon him by Ravi. On the date of maturity of the bill
Mohan requested Ravi to cancel the old bill and a new bill upon him for a
period of 2 months. He further agreed to pay interest in cash to Ravi @ 12%
p.a. Ravi agreed to Mohan’s request and cancelled the old bill and drew a new
bill. The new bill was met on maturity by Mohan. In this case, the following
entries will be recorded in the books of Ravi and Mohan.
Books of Ravi
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Feb. 01 Mohan’s A/c Dr. 18,000
To Sales A/c 18,000
(Sold goods to Mohan)

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300 Accountancy

Feb. 01 Cash A/c Dr. 3,000

Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000
To Mohan’s A/c 18,000
(Received Rs. 3,000 in cash from Ravi and
an acceptance for the balance)
May 01 Mohan’s Account Dr. 15,300
To Bills Receivable A/c 15,000
To Interest A/c 300
(Cancelled old bill on renewal
Rs. 300 as interest)
May 04 Bill’s Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000
Cash A/c Dr. 300
To Mohan’s A/c 15,300
(Received new acceptance from Mohan)
Jul. 07 Bank A/c Dr. 15,000
To Bills Receivable A/c 15,000
(Mohan met his new acceptance)

Book of Mohan
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Feb. 01 Purchases A/c Dr. 18,000
To Ravi A/c 18,000
(Purchased goods from Ravi)
Feb.01 Ravi’s A/c Dr. 18,000
To Cash’s A/c 3,000
Bills Payable A/c 15,000
(Received cash from Ravi and his acceptance)
May 04 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 15,000
Interest A/c Dr. 300
To Ravi A/c 15,300
(Old bill cancelled on renewal,
Rs. 300 charged as interest)
May 04 Ravi’s A/c Dr. 15,300
To Bills Payable A/c 15,000
To Cash A/c 300
(Accepted new bill and paid cash for interest)
Jul. 07 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 15,000
Bank A/c 15,000
(Met acceptance of the new bill on maturity)

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Bill of Exchange 301

8.10 Retiring of the Bill

There are instances when a bill of exchange is arranged to be retired before the
due date by mutual understanding between the drawer and the drawee. This
happens when the drawee of the bill has funds at his disposal and makes a
request to the drawer or holder to accept the payment of the bill before its
maturity. If the holder agrees to do so, the bill is said to have been retired.
The retiring of a bill draws a curtain on the bill transactions before the
expiry of its normal term. To encourage the retirement of the bill, the holder
allows some discount called Rebate on bills for the period between date of
retirement and maturity. The rebate is calculated at a certain rate of interest.
The accounting treatment on the retirement of a bill is similar to the
accounting treatment when a bill is honoured by the acceptor on the due date
in the ordinary course. The only difference between the two relates to the
granting of rebate. The following journal entries are recorded:
In the books of the holder
On retiring the acceptance and r ebate allowed
Cash A/c Dr.
Rebate on bills A/c Dr.
To Bills Receivables A/c
In the books of the drawee
Bills Payable A/c Dr.
Cash A/c Dr.
To Rebate on Bills A/c
Amit sold goods Rs. 10,000 to Babli on Jan. 01, 2015 and immediately drew a
bill on Babli for three month for the same amount, Babli accepted the bill and
returned it to Amit. On March 04, 2015 Babli retired her acceptance under
rebate of 6% per annum.
In the books of Amit
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan. 01 Babli’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Sales A/c 10,000
(Sold goods to Babli)
Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000
To Babli’s A/c 10,000
(Received Babli’s acceptance for three months)
Mar. 04 Bank A/c Dr. 9,950
Rebate on bills A/c Dr. 50
To Bills Receivable A/c 10,000
(Babli retired her acceptance and rebate
allowed to him)

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302 Accountancy

The recorded entries will be posted to the following ledger acounts

Babli’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 01 Sales 10,000 Jan 06 Bills Receivable 10,000
10,000 10,000

Bill Receivable Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 01 Babli 10,000 Mar 04 Cash 9,950
Rebate on bill 50
10,000 10,000

Book of Babli
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan. 01 Purchases A/c Dr. 10,000
To Amit A/c 10,000
(Purchased goods from Amit)
Jan.01 Amit’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Bills Payable A/c 10,000
(Accepted Amit’s draft payable after
thr ee months)
Mar. 04 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 10,000
To Cash A/c 9,950
To Rebate on bills A/c 50
(Acceptance in favour of Amit retired
and rebate r eceived)

Amit’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 01 Bills Payable 10,000 Jan. 04 Purchases 10,000
10,000 10,000

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Bills Payable Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 01 Cash 9950 Jan. 01 Amit 10,000
Rebate on bills 50
10,000 10,000

8.11 Bills Receivable and Bills Payable Books

When large number of bills are drawn and accepted, their recording by means
of journal entry for every transaction relating to the bills become a very
cumbersome and time consuming exercise. It is then advisable to record them
separately in special subsidiary books, the bills receivables in the Bills
Receivable Book and the bills payable in the Bills Payable Book. The reason
for the use of subsidiary books for recording bill transactions is the same as
that in the case of other subsidiary books for cash, purchases, etc. An important
point in connection with bill receivables and bills payable books is that they
only record the transactions relating to drawing and acceptance of bills, all
other transactions do not record the entire range of transactions relating to
the bills, e.g. relating to bills discounted, endorsement, retirement, renewal
etc.; simply have a passing reference in these books and the entries relating
thereto are recorded as usual in the journal. It may be noted that the entry
relating to honouring of bills appear in cash book.

8.11.1 Bills Receivable Book

It has been designed as a summary of information regarding a duly accepted
bill received by a drawer. All the details of the bill-date, acceptor’s name,
amount, term, place of payment, etc. are entered in the bills receivable book
for presentation and further reference.
The performa of a bills receivable book is given in Figure 8.3:
BillsReceivable Book
No. Date Date From Drawer Acceptor Where Term Due Ledger Amount Cash Remarks
of Received of Whom payable Date Folio Book
Bill Bill received Folio

Fig. 8.3: Showing Format of Bills Receivable Book

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304 Accountancy

The bills receivable book, like any other subsidiary book, is totaled periodically.
This total is debited to the “Bills Receivable Account” whereas the account of
every individual debtor whom the bills received is credited in the ledger. The
Bills Receivable Account is the account of an asset and would always have a
debit balance. This balance on any date would represent the amount of bills
receivable unmatured and on hand.

8.11.2 Bills Payable Book

It is maintained like a bills receivable book. It is meant to record all the details,
relating to the bills accepted by a person or a party, which are retained for
being use in the future, in case of need.
The proforma of a bills payable book is given in Fig.8.4
Bills Payable Book
No. Date To Drawer Payee Where Term Due Ledger Amount Date Cash Remarks
of of Whom payable date Folio paid Book
Bill Bill given Folio

Fig. 8.4: Showing specimen Bills Payable Book

The posting from this books are made to the debit of the account of every
creditor to whom acceptance has been given and the periodical total of the
books is credited to the ‘Bills Payable Account’ in the ledger. The bills payable
account representing the liability of the acceptor in respect of bills accepted
by him, always has a credit balance, if any. The credit balance of this account
on any particular date must be the same as the total amount worth of bills
payable yet to be presented for payment as ascertained from the bills payable
book. For example, consider the following transactions and observe how these
are recorded in bill receivable and bills payable book along with postings in
the ledger accounts.
2015
(i) Jan. 07
Received fr om S. Mitra bill duly accepted for Rs. 1,32,500 dated
January 04, payable thr ee months after date.
(ii) Jan. 09
Accepted S. Warden’s draft for Rs. 9,70,000 at two months.
(iii) Jan. 13
Pradhan dr ew on his trader at three months date and the same was accepted for
Rs. 39,000.

2015-16
 Bill of Exchange
Bills Receivable Book

No. Date Date From Whom Drawer Acceptor Where Term Due Ledger Amount Cash Re-marks
of Received of Bill Whom payable Date Folio Rs. Book
Bill received Folio
2015 2015 2015
01 Jan.07 Jan.04 S.Mitra Self S.Mitra Bombay 3 month Apr.17 1,32,500
0 2 Jan.15 Jan.14 R.Rakesh Do R.Rakesh Amritsar 1 month Feb.17 25,500
0 3 Jan.21 Jan.21 G.Ghosh Do G.Ghosh Calcutta 2 month Mar.24 31,000
0 4 Jan.22 Jan.17 D.Dhiman D.Dhiman A.vakil Bombay 3 month Apr.20 20,000
0 5 Jan.23 Jan.23 D.Kanga Self K.Kanga Bangalore 1 month Feb.26 30,000
0 6 Jan.27 Jan.20 C.Shah M.Meyers P.Parson Madras 2 month Mar.23 35,000
Total Rs. 2,73,500

Bills Payable Book

No. Date To Whom Drawer Payee Where Term Due Ledger Amount Date Cash Remarks
of of Bill given payable Date Paid Book
Bill Folio
2015 2015
01 Jan.09 S.Warden S.Warden - 2 month Mar.31 97,000
02 Jan.13 Pradhan Pradhan - 3 month Apr.16 39,000
03 Jan.18 S.Parkar S.Parker - 2 month Mar.21 42,000
04 Jan.31 A.Roberts A.Robert - 1 month Mar.03 21,000
Total Rs. 1,99,500

305
2015-16
306 Accountancy

(iv) Jan. 14
Dr ew on R. Rakesh at one month for Rs.25,000 and he accepted the next day.
(v) Jan. 18
Gave acceptance at two months for Rs.42,000 to S. Parkar.
(vi) Jan. 21
Received fr om G.Ghosh his acceptance for Rs.31,000 at two months.
(vii) Jan. 22
Received fr om D.Dhiman, A.Vakil’s acceptance for Rs.20,000 at three months from
Jan. 17.
(viii) Jan. 23
K. Kanga accepted my draft at one month for Rs.30,000.
(ix) Jan. 27
Received fr om C.Shah bill for Rs. 35,000 dated January 20, accepted by
P. Parson and drawn by M.Meyers., payable two months after date.
(x) Jan. 31
Gave acceptance for Rs. 21,500 at one month to A. Roberts.
Posting of recorded entries are as follow:
S. Mitra’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 01 Sales 1,32,500 Jan. 07 Bills Receovable 1,32,500
1,32,500 1,32,500

R. Rakesh’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 14 Sales 25,000 Jan. 15 Bill Receivable 25,000
25,000 25,000

G. Ghosh’s Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 21 Sales 31,000 Jan. 21 Bills Receivable 31,000
31,000 31,000

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D. Dhiman’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 17 Sales 20,000 Jan. 22 Bills Receivable 20,000
20,000 20,000

K. Kanga’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 23 Sales 30,000 Jan. 23 Bills Receivable 30,000
30,000 30,000

C. Shah’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 20 Sales 35,000 Jan. 27 Bill Receivable 35,000
35,000 35,000

Bill Receivables Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 31 Sundries 2,73,500 Jan. 31 Balance c/d 2,73,500
2,73,500 2,73,500

S. Warden’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 09 Bills payable 97,000 Jan. 09 Purchases 97,000
97,000 97,000

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308 Accountancy

Pradhan’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 13 Bills payable 39,000 Jan. 13 Purchases 39,000
39,000 39,000

S. Parkar’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 18 Bills payable 42,000 Jan. 18 Purchases 42,000
42,000 42,000

A. Robert’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 31 Bills payable 21,500 Jan. 31 Purchases 21,500
21,500 21,500

Bill Payables Account

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Jan. 01 Balance c/d 1,99,500 Jan. 04 Sundries
Receivable 1,99,500
1,99,500 1,99,5000

Note: The drawing and acceptance of a bill always pre-supposes some background of sale
or purchase transaction. Therefore, in posting bill transactions fr om the two books to the
accounts of debtors and creditors, it is supposed that the necessary sales and purchases
entries have been duly recorded.

Illustration 4
On Jan. 15, 2015 Sachin sold goods Rs.30,000 to Narain and drew upon the later a bill for
the same amount payable after 3 months. The bill was accepted by Narain. The bill was
discounted by Sachin from his bank for Rs.29,250 on Jan. 31, 2015. on maturity the bill
was dishonoured. He further agreed to pay Rs.10,500 in cash including Rs. 500 interest
and accept a new bill for two months for the remaining Rs.20,000.

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Bill of Exchange 309

The new bill was endorsed by sachin in favour of his creditor Kapil for settling a debt of Rs.
20,800. The new bill was duly met by Narain on maturity.
Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Sachin and Narain.

Solution
Books of Sachin
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan. 15 Narain A/c Dr. 30,000
To Sales A/c 30,000
(Sold goods to Narain)
Jan.15 Bill’s Receivable A/c Dr. 30,000
To Narain’s A/c 30,000
(Received Bunty’s acceptance)
Jan. 31 Bank A/c Dr. 29,250
Discount A/c 750
To Bill receivable A/c 30,000
(Narains’ acceptance discounted with bank)
Apr. 19 Narain’s A/c Dr. 30,500
To Bank A/c 30,000
To Interest A/c 500
(Narain’s acceptance cancelled)
Apr.19 Bank A/c Dr. 10,500
Bills Receivavble A/c Dr. 20,000
To Narain A/c 30,500
(Received cash from Narain and a new
acceptance for the balace)
Apr.19 Kapil A/c Dr. 20,800
To Bill Receivable A/c 20,000
To Discount Received A/c 800
(Narain’s acceptance endorsed in favour of
kapil and he allowed discount)

Books of Narain
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan. 15 Purchases A/c Dr. 30,000
To Sachin A/c 30,000
(Purchased goods from sachin)

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310 Accountancy

Jan.15 Sachin A/c Dr. 30,000

To Bills Payable A/c 30,000
(Accepted Sachin’s draft)
Jan.19 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 30,000
Interest A/c 500
To Sachin A/c 30,500
(Cancelled old bill & Sachin charged interest)
Apr. 19 Sachin’s A/c Dr. 30,500
To Bank A/c 10,500
To Bill Payable A/c 20,000
(Paid Sachin and accepted a new draft
for the balance)
Apr.22 Bills Receivavble A/c Dr. 20,000
To Bank A/c 20,000
(Met new acceptance on Maturity)

Illustration 5.
Ashok sold goods Rs.14,000 to Bishan on October 30, 2015 and drew three bills for
Rs.2,000, Rs.4,000 & Rs.8,000 payable after two, three, and four months respectively.
The first bill was kept by Ashok with him till maturity. He endorsed the second bill in
favour of his creditor Chetan. The third bill was discounted on December 03, 2015 at 12%
p.a. The first and second bills were duly met on maturity but the third bill was dishonour ed
and the bank paid Rs.50 as noting charges. On March 03, 2016 Bishan paid Rs.4,000 and
noting charges in cash and accepted a new bill at two months after date for the balance
plus interest Rs.100. The new bill was met on maturity by Bishan.
You are r equired to give the journal entries in the books of both Ashok ans Bishan and
prepare Bishan’s account in Ashok’s books and Ashok’s account in Bishan’s books.

Solution

Books of Ashok
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Oct. 30 Bishan’s A/c Dr. 14,000
To Sales A/c 14,000
(Sold goods to Bishan on credit)
Oct. 30 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 14,000
To Bishan’s A/c 14,000
(Received thr ee acceptances from Bishan.
First for Rs. 2,000 payable after two months,
second for Rs. 4,000 payable after thr ee months
and the third for Rs. 8,000 payable after
four months)

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Bill of Exchange 311

Oct. 30 Chetan’s A/c Dr. 4,000

To Bills receivable A/c 4,000
(Endorsed second bills in favour of
creditor Chetan)
Dec. 03 Bank A/c Dr. 7,760
Discount A/c 240
To Bill receivable A/c 8,000
(Third bill discounted at 12% p.a.)
2016
Jan.02 Bank A/c Dr. 2,000
Bills receivable A/c 2,000
(Bishan met his first acceptance on due date)
Mar. 03 Bishan A/c Dr. 8,050
To Bank A/c 8,050
(Bishan dishonoured his third acceptance
and bank paid Rs.50 as noting charges)
Mar. 03 Cash A/c Dr. 4,050
To Bishan’s A/c 4,050
(Cash received from Bishan)
Mar. 03 Bishan’s A/c Dr. 100
To Interest A/c 100
(Interest charged from Bishan for the
extended period)
Mar. 03 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 4,100
To Bishan’s A/c 4,100
(Received new acceptance from Bishan for
two months)
May 06 Bank A/c Dr. 4,100
To bills Receivable A/c 4,100
(Bishan met his new acceptance on maturity)

Bishan’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Oct. 30 Sales 14,000 Oct. 30 Bills Receivable 14,000
2016 2016
Mar. 03 Bank 8,050 Mar. 03 Cash 4,050
Mar. 09 Interest 100 Mar. 03 Bills Receivable 4,100
22,150 22,150

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312 Accountancy

Books of Bishan
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.

2015
Oct. 30 Purchases A/c Dr. 14,000
To Ashok’s A/c 14,000
(Purchases goods on credit from Ashok)

Oct. 30 Ashok’s A/c Dr. 14,000

To Bills Payable A/c 14,000
(Accepted three drafts of Ashok, the first for
Rs. 2,000 payable after 2 months, second for
Rs. 4,000 Payable after 3 months and the third
for Rs. 8,000 Payable after 4 months)

2016
Jan. 02 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 2,000
To Bank A/c 2,000
(Met first acceptance for Rs. 2,000 in
favour of Ashok.)

Mar. 03 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 8,050

Noting charges A/c Dr. 50
To Ashok A/c 8,050
(Third acceptance in favour of Ashok
dishonoured and noting charges Rs. 50)

Mar. 03 Ashok’s A/c Dr. 4,050

To Cash A/c 4,050
(Paid to Ashok Rs. 4,000 plus noting charges)

Mar. 03 Interest A/c Dr. 100

To Ashok’s A/c 100
(Interest allowed to Ashok)

Mar. 03 Ashok’s A/c Dr. 4,100

To Bills Payable A/c 4,100
(New draft of Ashok for two months accepted)

May 03 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 4,100

To Bank A/c 4,100
(Met new acceptance for Rs. 4,100 in favour
of Ashok on maturity)

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Bill of Exchange 313

Ashok’s Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015 2015
Oct. 30 Bills payable 14,000 Oct. 30 Purchases 14,000
2016 2016
Mar. 03 Cash 4,050 Mar. 03 Bills Payable 8,000
Noting charges 50
Mar. 09 Bills Payable 4,100 Mar. 09 Interest 100
22,150 22,150

Illustration 6.
Aashirwad draws on Aakarshak a Bill of exchange for 3 months for Rs.10,000 which
Aakarshak accepts on January 01, 2015. Aashirwad endorses the bill in favour of Aakarti.
Before maturity Aakarshak appr oaches Aashirwad with the request that the bill be renewed
for a further period of 3 months at 18 per cent per annum interest. Aashirwad pays the
sum to Aakriti on the due date and agrees to the proposal of Aakarshak. Record journal
entries in the books of Aashirwad, assuming that the second bill is duly met.

Solution
Book of Ashirwad
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000
To Aakarshak’s A/c 10,000
(The Bill of exchange received from Aakarshak)
Jan.01 Aakarati’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Bills Receivable A/c 10,000
(The bill of exchange received from Aakarshak,
endorsed to Aakarati)
Apr. 04 Aakarshak’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Aakarati’s A/c 10,000
(Cancellation of the bill of exchange received
from Aakarshak now with Aakarati)
Apr. 04 Aakarati’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Bank A/c 10,000
(Payment of the amount due to Aakarati)
Apr. 04 Aakarshak’s A/c Dr. 450
To Interest A/c 450
(Interest due from Aakarshak on Rs.10,000
for 3 months at 18% p.a.)

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314 Accountancy

Apr. 04 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,450

To Aakarshak’s A/c 10,450
(The new bill received from Aakarshak for
the amountdue for him)
July 07 Bank A/c Dr. 10,450
To Bills Receivable A/c 10,450
(The amount received fr om Aakarshak in
respect of the renewed bill)

Illustration 7.
Ankit owes Nikita a sum of Rs.6,000. On April 01, 2015 Ankit gives a promissory note for
the amount for 3 months to Nikita who gets it discounted with her bankers for Rs.5,760.
on the due date the bill is dishonoured, the bank paid Rs.15 as noting charges. Ankit
then pays Rs.2,000 in cash and accepts a bill of exchange drawn on him for the balance
together with Rs.100 as interest. This bill of exchange is for 2 months and on the due date
the bill is again dishonoured, Nikita paid Rs.15 as noting charges.
Draft the journal entries to be recorded in Nikita’s books.

Solution
Books of Nikita
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2016
Apr. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 6,000
To Ankit’s A/c 6,000
(Ankit’s promissory note received in
settlement of his account)
Apr. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 5,760
Discount A/c Dr. 240
To Bills Receivable A/c 6,000
(Ankit’s Promissory note discounted for Rs.5,760)
July 04 Ankit A/c Dr. 6,015
To Bank A/c 6,015
(The promissory note dishonour ed by Ankit
the amount of the bill and the noting charges
recoverable from Ankit and payable to bank)
July 04 Cash A/c Dr. 2,000
To Ankit’s A/c 2,000
(The amount received fr om Ankit)
July 04 Ankit’s A/c Dr. 100
To Interest A/c 100
(Interest due from Ankit for the second bill)

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Bill of Exchange 315

July 04 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 4,115

To Ankit’s A/c 4,115
(Ankit’s acceptance for 2 monthsin
settlement of amount due)
Sept.07 Ankit’s A/c Dr. 4,115
To Bills Receivable A/c 4,115
(The dishonour by Ankit of his acceptance)
Sept.07 Ankit’s A/c Dr. 15
To Cash A/c 15
(Payment of noting charges, recoverable
from Ankit)

Illustraion 8.
On May 2015 Mohit sends his promissory note of Rs. 6000 for 3 months to Rohit. Rohit
gets it discounted with his bankers at 18 per cent per annum on May 04. On the due date
the bill is dishonoured, the bank paying Rs.10 as noting charges. Rohit agrees to accept
Rs.2,130 in cash (including Rs.130 for noting charges and interest) and another promissory
note for Rs.4,000 at 2 months. On the due date, Mohit approaches Rohit again and asks
for renewal of the bill for a further period of 3 months. Rohit agrees to the request, provided
Mohit pays Rs.200 as inter est in cash. This last bill is paid on maturity.
Draft jour nal entries in the books of Mohit and Rohit.

Solution
Books of Mohit
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
May 01 Rohit’s A/c Dr. 6,000
To Bills Payable A/c 6,000
(The amount of the pr omissory note sent
to Rohit)
Aug.04 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 6,000
Noting charges A/c Dr. 10
To Rohit’s A/c 6,010
(The dishonour of the promissory note and
Rs.10 being payable as noting charges to Rohit)
Aug. 04 Interest A/c Dr. 120
Rohit’s A/c 120
(Interest due to Rohit from part r enewal of
the promissory)

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316 Accountancy

Aug.04 Rohit’s A/c Dr. 6,130

To Bills Payable A/c 4,000
To Cash A/c 2,130
(Payment of Rs. 2,130 in cash and a new
promissory note for Rs. 4,000 sent to Rohit to
settle his account)
Oct.07 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 4,000
To Rohit’s A/c 4,000
(Cancellation of the bill due today)
Oct.07 Interest A/c Dr. 200
To Rohit’s A/c 200
(The amount due as interest ot Rohit on the
renewed bill)
Oct.07 Rohit’s A/c Dr. 4,200
To Cash A/c 200
To Bills Payable A/c 4,000
(The new acceptance and cash sent to Rohit)
2010
Jan.09 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 4,000
To Cash A/c 4,000
(Payment made to meet the bill due this day)

Book of Rohit
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
May 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 6,000
To Mohit’s A/c 6,000
(Mohit’s promissory note received this day)
May 04 Bank’s A/c Dr. 5,730
Discount A/c Dr. 270
To Bills Receivable A/c 6,000
(The discounting of the promissory note by
Mohit at 18% on Rs. 6,000 for 3 months)
Aug.04 Mohit’s A/c Dr. 6,000
To Bank A/c 6,010
(The dishonour of the promissory not by Mohit
Rs. 10 being charged by bank for noting charges)
Aug.04 Mohit’s A/c Dr. 120
Interest A/c 120
(The amount agreed to be paid as interest
by Mohit)

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Bill of Exchange 317

Aug.04 Cash A/c Dr. 2,130

Bills Receivable A/c 4,000
To Mohit’s A/c 6,130
(Cash and promissory note received fr om
Mohit for the amount due from him)
Oct.07 Mohit’s A/c Dr. 4,000
To Bills Receivable A/c 4,000
(Cancellation of the bill due today)
Oct.07 Mohit’s A/c Dr. 200
To Interest A/c 200
(The amount due from Mohit as interest)
Oct.07 Cash A/c Dr. 200
Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 4,000
To Mohit’s A/c 4,200
(Cash and promissory not received from Mohit)
2011
Jan. 10 Cash/Bank A/c Dr. 4,000
To Bills Receivable A/c 4,000
(Mohit met his acceptance on maturity)

Test Your Understanding - III

Fill in the blanks:

(i) A bill of exchange is a ___________________________________instrument.

(ii) A bill of exchange is drawn by the ________________upon his___________.
(iii) A promissory note is drawn by ______________in favour of his__________.
(iv) There are ____________________parties to a bill of exchange.
(v) Ther e are ____________________parties to a promissory note.
(vi) Drawer and ______________can not be the same parties in case of a bill of
exchange.
(vii) Bill of exchange in India languages is called _____________
(viii) __________days of grace are added in ter ms of the bill to calculate the date
of its__________.

8.12 Accommodation Bills

Normally, bills of exchange or promissory notes are drawn to finance the actual
transactions in goods, i.e., an acceptance is made to settle a trade debt owing to
the drawer by the drawee in case of a bill of exchange and the bill is called a
trade bill. As it originates from genuine trade transaction it is for value received
and is enforceable. For example, Ankit buys goods from Bishan, he may postpone
the payment by accepting a draft drawn by Bindu upon him. Bindu can if he
wants, get the money immediately by getting Ankit’s acceptance discounted with

2015-16
318 Accountancy

his bank. But, apart from financing transaction in goods, bills of exchange promissory
notes may also be used for raising funds temporarily. Such a bill is called an
‘accommodation bill’ as it is accepted by the drawee to accommodate the drawer.
Hence, the drawee is called the ‘accommodating party’ and the drawer is called the
‘accommodation party’.
For example, Raj draws upon Pal a bill for Rs.10,000 on April 01, 2015 for three
months and the latter accepts the same to accommodate Raj. Raj discounts it
with his bank at 6% per annum on the same date. Raj remitted the amount one
day before the maturity of the bill to Pal. Pal met the bill on the date of its maturity.
The journal entries in the books of Raj and Pal will be recorded as follows:

Book of Raj
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Apr. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000
To Pal’s A/c 10,000
(Received Pal’s acceptance)
Apr. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 9,850
Discount A/c Dr. 150
To Bills Receivables A/c 10,000
(Discount Pal acceptance)
Jul. 03 Pal’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Bank A/c 10,010
(Remittance to Pal for paying of f
accommodation bill)

Books of Pal
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Apr.01 Raj’s A/c Dr. 10,000
To Bill Payable A/c 10,000
(Acceptance of accommodation bill drawn by Raj)
Jul.03 Bank A/c Dr. 10,000
To Raj’s A/c 10,000
(Received Raj’s remittance)
Jul.03 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 10,000
To Bank A/c 10,000
(Discharge of accommodation)

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Bill of Exchange 319

Sometimes, the accommodation parties agree to raise the funds through an

accommodation bill for mutual benefits. It can be done in any of the following
two ways:
(a) The drawer and the drawee share the proceeds in an agreed ratio
(b) Each draws a bill and each accepts a bill
In the case (a) the discounting changes are shared by drawer and drewee in the
ratio in which they share the proceeds. But in the case (b) the discount is not
shared as each party retains the entire proceeds of the bill drawn and discounted
by him. On maturity, each party meets his acceptance out of his own resources
if everyone draws and accepts bills of the same denomination and tenure. But
where they share the proceeds of the same bill, the drawer should remit, just
before maturity, the balance due to the drawee, so that the latter could duly
meet his acceptance. Based upon the above discussion, it can be stated that an
accommodation bill helps both the parties to the instrument to temporarily
raise the necessary funds from discounting institutions.
Illustaration 9
Ashu and Mudit were in need of funds. On October 01, 2015 Ashu drew upon a bill for
Rs. 9,000 for 2 months. Mudit accepted the bill and r eturned to Ashu. Ashu got it
discounted at 5% from Bank same day. Half of the amount were remitted to Mudit. On the
due date Ashu sent the required sum to Mudit, who met the bill. Journalise the transactions
in the books of Ashu and Mudit.
Books of Ashu
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Oct. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 9,000
To Mudit’s A/c 9,000
(Mutual accommodation bill receipts
from Mudit)
Oct. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 8,925
Discount A/c Dr. 75
To Bill Receivable A/c 9,000
(Bill discounted from bank)
Oct. 01 Mudit’s A/c Dr. 4,500
To Cash A/c 4,462.50
To Discount A/c 37.50
(Half the proceeds r emitted to Mudit)
Oct. 01 Mudit’s A/c Dr. 4,500
To Cash A/c 4,500
(Half amount of the bill sent to Mudit to
enable him to meet it)

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Books of Mudit
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Oct. 01 Ashu’s A/c Dr. 9,000
To Bills Payable A/c 9,000
(Mutual Accommodation bill accepted)
Oct. 01 Cash A/c Dr. 4,462.50
Discount A/c Dr. 37.50
To Ashu’s A/c 4,500
(half amount of Discounted Bill received
from Ashu)
Dec. 04 Cash A/c Dr. 4,500
To Auhu’s A/c 4,500
(Amount retained by Ashu now received from him)
Dec. 05 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 9,000
To Bank A/c 9,000
(Acceptance honoured)

Illustration 10
Rohan and Rohit were both in need to temporary accommodation. On November 01, 2015,
Rohan accepted Rohit draft for Rs. 5,000 for 3 months and Rohit accepted Rohan draft for
Rs. 4,000 for 3 months. The both bills were discounted at the respected banks for Rs 4,800
and Rs. 3,850. Before maturity of the bill Rohit sent Rs. 1,000 to Rohan for difference in
accommodation bill. Rohan and Rohit met his acceptance on the due date. Records the
transaction in the journal of Rohan and Rohit.
Books of Rohan
Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit

Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Nov. 01 Rohit’s A/c Dr. 5,000
To Bills Payable A/c 5,000
(Rohan accepted bill accommodation)
Nov. 01 Bill Receivable A/c Dr. 4,000
To Rohit’s A/c 4,000
(Accommodated bill received)
Nov. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 3,850
Discount A/c Dr. 150
To Bill Receivable A/c 4,000
(Bill discounted by bank)

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Bill of Exchange 321

Feb. 04 Cash A/c Dr. 1,000

To Rohit’s A/c 1,000
(Cash received for meet the bill)
Feb. 04 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 5,000
To Bank A/c 5,000
(Bill met on maturity)

Books of Rohit
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
Amount Amount
Rs. Rs.
2015
Nov. 01 Rohan’s A/c Dr. 4,000
To Bills Payable A/c 4,000
(Rohit accepted bill accommodation)
Nov. 01 Bill Receivable A/c Dr. 5,000
To Rohan’s A/c 5,000
(Accommodated bill received)
Nov. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 4,800
Discount A/c Dr. 200
To Bill Receivable A/c 5,000
(Bill discounted by bank)
Feb. 04 Rohan’s A/c Dr. 1,000
To cash A/c 1,000
(Sent cash to Rohan)
Feb. 04 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 4,000
To Bank A/c 4,000
(Bill met on due date)

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

(a) Drawer
(b) Drawee
(c) Payee
(d) Bill Receivable
(e) Bill Payable
(f) Drawing of a Bill
(g) Acceptance of a Bill
(h) Payment of a bill

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Bill of exchange as an Instrument : A bill of exchange is a device by
which the purchaser or debtor in a credit transaction is not required to

2015-16
322 Accountancy

make immediate payment but satisfies the seller or creditor by accepting

in writing the liability to pay the amount due from him.
2. Meaning of bill of exchange and promissory note: A bill of exchange is
an acknowledgement of debt given by one person to another, incorporating
all the terms and conditions of payments. A promissory note is an
undertaking in writing given by the debtor to the creditor to pay the
latter a certain sum of money in accordance with the conditions stated
therein.
3. Difference between a bill and a note.
(a) A bill is prepared by the creditor and accepted by the debtor; a note
is pr epared by the debtor.
(b) There are three parties to a bill; there are only two parties to a note.
(c) A bill requires acceptance to acquire financial status; a note in
itself has financial status.
4. Features and advantages of a bill : A bill is a written unconditional order;
it is signed by the creditor and accepted by the debtor; the amount of
the bill is payable either on demand or at a fixed period.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. Name any two types of commonly used negotiable instruments.

2. Write two points of distinction between bills of exchange and promissory
note.
3. State any four essential features of bill of exchange.
4. State the three parties involved in a bill of exchange.
5. What is meant by maturity of a bill of exchange?
6. What is meant by dishonour of a bill of exchange?
7. Name the parties to a promissory note
8. What is meant by acceptance of a bill of exchange?
9. What is Noting of a bill of exchange.
10. What is meant by renewal of a bill of exchange?
11. Give the performa of a Bills Receivable Book.
12. Give the performa of a Bills Payable Book.
13. What is retirement of a bill of exchange?
14. Give the meaning of rebate.
15. Give the performa of a Bill of Exchange.

Long Answers
1. A bill of exchange must contain “an unconditional promise to pay” Do
you agree with a statement?

2015-16
Bill of Exchange 323

2. Briefly explain the effects of dishonour and noting of a bill of exchange.

3. Explain briefly the procedure of calculating the date of maturity of a bill
of exchange? Give example.
4. Distinguish between bill of exchange and promissory note.
5. Briefly explain the purpose and benefits of retiring a bill of exchange to
the debtor and the creditor.
6. Explain briefly the purpose and advantages of maintaining of a Bills
Receivable Book.
7. Briefly explain the benefits of maintaining a Bills Payable Book and
state how is its posting is done in the ledger?

Numerical Questions
1. On Jan 01, 2015 Rao sold goods Rs.10,000 to Reddy. Half of the payment
was made immediately and for the remaining half Rao drew a bill of
exchange upon Reddy payable after 30 days. Reddy accepted the bill
and retur ned it to Rao. On the due date Rao presented the bill to Reddy
and received the payment.
Journalise the above transactions in the books Rao and prepare of
Rao’s account in the books of Reddy.

2. On Jan 01,2015, Shankar purchased goods from Parvati for Rs.8,000

and immediately drew a promissory note in favour of Parvati payable
after 3 months. On the date of maturity of the promissory note, the
Government of India declared holiday under the Negotiable Instrument
Act 1881. Since, Parvati was unaware about the provision of the law
regarding the date of maturity of the bill, she handed over the bill to
her lawyer, who duly presented the bill and r eceived the payment. The
amount of the bill was handed over by the lawyer to Parvati immediately.
Recore the necessary Journal entries in the books of Parvati and
Shankar.

3. Vishal sold goods for Rs.7,000 to Manju on Jan 05, 2015 and drew upon
her a bill of exchange payable after 2 months. Manju accepted Vishal’s
draft and handed over the same to Vishal after acceptance. Vishal
immediately discounted the bill with his bank@12% p.a. On the due
date Manju met her acceptance.
Journalise the above transactions in the books of Vishal and Manju.
4. On Feb 01, 2015, John purchased goods for Rs.15,000 from Jimmi. He
immediately made a payment of Rs.5,000 by cheque and for the balance
accepted the bill of exchange drawn upon him by Jimmi. The bill of
exchange was payable after 40 days. Five days before the maturity of
the bill, Jimmi sent the same to his bank for collection. The bank duly
presented the bill to John on the due date who met the bill. The bank
informed the same to Jimmi.
Prepare John’s account in the books of Jimmi and Jimmi account in
the books of John.

2015-16
324 Accountancy

5. On Jan 15, 2015, Kartar Sold goods for Rs.30,000 to Bhagwan and drew
upon him three bills of exchanges of Rs.10,000 each payable after one
month, two month, and three months respectively. The first bill was
retained by Kartar till its maturity. The second bill was endorsed by him
in favour of his creditor Ratna and the third bill was discounted by him
immediately @ 6% p.a. All the bills were met by Bhagwan. Journalise
the above transactions in the books of Kartar and Bhagwan. Also prepare
ledger accounts in books of Kartar and Bhagwan.
6. On Jan. 01, 2015 Arun sold goods for Rs.30,000 to Sunil. 50% of the
payment was made immediately by Sunil on which Arun allowed a cash
discount of 2%. For the balance Sunil drew a promissory note in favour
of Arun payable after 20 days. Since, the date of maturity of bill was a
public holiday, Arun presented the bill on a day, as per the provisions
of Negotiable Instrument Act which was met by Sunil. State the date on
which the bill was presented by Arun for payment and Jounalise the
above transactions in the books of Arun and Sunil.
7. Darshan sold goods for Rs. 40,000 to Varun on 8.1.2015 and drew upon
him a bill of exchange payable after two months. Varun accepted the
bill and returned the same to Darshan. On the due date the bill was
met by Varun. Record the necessary Journal entries in the books of
Darshan and Varun in the following circumstances.
• When the bill was retained by Darshan till the date of its maturity.
• When Darshan immediately discounted the bill @ 6% p.a. with
his bank.
• When the bill was endorsed immediately by Darshan in favour of
his cr editor Suresh.
• When three days befor e its maturity, the bill was sent by Darshan
to his bank for collection.
8. Bansal T raders allow a trade discount of 10% on the list price of the
goods purchased from them. Mohan traders, who runs a retail shop
made the following purchases from Bansal Traders.
Date Amount
(Rs.)
Dec. 21, 2015 1,000
Dec. 26, 2015 1,200
Dec. 18, 2015 2,000
Dec. 31, 2015 5,000

For all the purchases Mohan Traders drew promissory note in favour of
Bansal T raders payable after 30 days. The promissory note for the sale
of Dec. 21, 2015 was retained by Bansal Traders with them till the date
of its maturity. The promissory note drawn on 26.12.2015 was discounted
by Bansal Traders from their bank at 12% p.a. The promissory note
drawn on Dec. 28, 2015 was endorsed by Bansal Traders in favour of
their creditor Dream Soaps in full settlement of a purchase amounting
to Rs. 1,900. On 25.1.2016 Bansal Traders sent the promissory note
drawn on Dec. 31, 2015 to their bank for collection. All the promissory

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Bill of Exchange 325

notes were met by Mohan Traders. Record the necessary journal entries
for the above transactions in the books of Bansal Traders and Mohan
Traders and prepare Mohan Traders account in the books of Bansal
Traders and Bansal Traders account in the books of Mohan Traders.
9. Narayanan purchased goods for Rs.25,000 from Ravinderan on Feb. 01,
2015. Ravinderan drew upon Narayanan a bill of exchange for the same
amount payable after 30 days. On the due date Narayanan dishonoured
his acceptance.
Pass the necessary jour nal entries in the books of Ravinderan and
Narayanan in following cases:
• When the bill was r etained by Ravinderan with him till the date of
its maturity.
• When the bill was discounted by Ravinderan immediately with his
bank @ 6% p.a.
• When the bill was endorsed to his creditor Ganeshan.
• When the bill was sent by Ravinderan to his bank for collection a
few days before it maturity.
10. Ravi sold goods for Rs.40,000 to Sudershan on Feb 13, 2015. He drew
four bills of exchange upon Sudershan. The first bill was for Rs.5,000
payable after one month. The second bill was for Rs.10,000 payable after
40 days; the third bill was for Rs.12,000 payable after three months and
fourth bill was for the balance amount payable after 19 days. Sudershan
accepted all the bills and retur ned the same to Ravi. Ravi discounted the
first bill with his bank at 6% p.a. He endorsed the second bill to his
creditor Mustaq for the full settlement of a debt of Rs.10,200. The third
bill was kept by Ravi with him till the date of maturity. Five days before
the maturity of the fourth bill, Ravi sent the bill to his bank for collection.
All the four bills were dishounoured by Sudarshan on maturity. Sudershan
settled Ravi’s claim in cash three days after the dishonour of each bill
along with interest @ 12% p.a. for the ter ms of the bills.
You are requested to record the necessary journal entries in the books
to Ravi, Sudershan, Mustaq and bank for the above transaction. Also
prepar e Sudershan’s account and Mustaq’s account in the books
of Ravi.
11. On Jan 01, 2015 Neha sold goods for Rs.20,000 to Muskan and drew
upon her a bill of exchange payable after two months. One month before
the maturity of the bill Muskan approached Neha to accept the payment
against the bill at a rebate @ 12% p.a. Neha agr eed to the request of
Muskan and Muskan retired the bill under the agreed rate of rebate.
Journalise the above transaction in the books of Neha and Muskan.
12. On Jan 15, 2015 Raghu sold goods worth Rs. 35,000 to Devendra and
drew upto the latter three bills of exchanges. The first bill was for
Rs.5,000 payable after one month, the second bill was for Rs.20,000
payable after three months and third bill for balance amount for 4
months. Raghu endorsed the first bill in favour of his creditor Dewan in
full settlement of a debt of Rs.5,200. The second bill was discounted by
Raghu @ 6 % p.a. and the third bill was retained by Raghu till the date

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of maturity. Devendra dishonoured the bill on maturity and the bank

paid Rs. 30 as noting charges. Four days before the maturity of the
third bill Raghu, sent the same for collection to his bank. The third bill
was also dishonored by Devendra and the bank paid Rs.200 as noting
charges. Five days after the dishonour of the bill Devendra paid the
entire amount due to Raghu along with interest Rs.1,000 for this purpose
Devendra obtained a short term loan from his bank.
You are requested to record the necessary journal entries in the books
of Raghu Devendra and Dewan and also prepare Devendra’s account in
Raghu’s books and Raghu’s account in Devendra’s account.
13. Viaml purchased goods Rs.25,000 from Kamal on Jan 15, 2015 and
accepted a bill of exchange drawn upon him by Kamal payable after
two months. On the date of the maturity the bill was duly presented for
payment. Vimal dishonoured the bill.
record the necessary journal entries in the books of Kamal and Vimal
when.
• The bill was retained by Kamal till the date of its maturity.
• The bill was immediately discounted by Kamal with his bank @ 6% p.a.
• The bill was endorsed by Kamal in favour of his creditor Sharad.
• Five days before its maturity the bill was sent by Kamal to his bank
for collection.
14. Abdulla sold goods to Tahir on Jan 17, 2015 for Rs.18,000. He drew a
bill of exchange for the same amount on Tahir for 45 days. On the same
date Tahir accepted the bill and returned it to Abdulla. On the due date
Abdulla presented the bill to Tahir which was dishonoured. Abdulla
paid Rs.40 as noting charges. Five days after the dishonour of his
acceptance Tahir settled his debt by making a payment of Rs.18,700
including interest and noting char ges.
Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Abdulla and T ahir.
Also prepare Tahir’s account in the books of Abdulla and Abdulla’s
account in the books of T ahir.
15. Asha sold goods worth Rs.19,000 to Nisha on March 02, 2015. Rs.4,000
were paid by Nisha immediately and for the balance she accepted a bill
of exchange drawn upon her by Asha payable after three months. Asha
discounted the bill immediately with her bank. On the due date Nisha
dishonoured the bill and the bank paid Rs.30 as noting charges.
Record the necessary jour nal entries in the books of Asha and Nisha.
16. On Feb. 02, 2015, Verma purchased from Shar ma goods for Rs.17,500.
Verma paid Rs.2,500 immediately and for the balance gave a promissory
note to Shar ma payable after 60 days. Sharma immediately endorsed
the promissory note in favour of his creditor.
Gupta for the full settlement of a debt of Rs.15,400. On the due date of
the bill Gupta presented the bill to Verma which the latter dishonoured
and Gupta paid Rs.5,000 noting charges. On the same date Gupta
informed Sharma about the dishonour of the bill. Shar ma settled his
debt to Gupta by cheque for Rs.15,500 which includes noting charges

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Bill of Exchange 327

and inter est. Verma settled Sharma’s claim by cheque for the same
amount.

Record the necessary jour nal entries is the books of Sharma, Gupta
and Verma for the above transaction and prepare Verma’s and Gupta’s
accounts in the books of Sharma. Shar ma’s account in the books of
Verma. And also Shar ma’s account in the books of Gupta.
17. Lilly sold goods to Methew on 1.3.2015 for Rs.12,000 and drew upon
Methew a bill of exchange for the same amount payable after two months.
Lilly immediately discounted the bill with her bank at 9% p.a. The
maturity date of the bill was a non business day (holiday), therefore,
Lilly had to present the bill as per the pr ovisions of the Indian
Instruments Act.1881. The bill was dishonour ed by Methew and Lilly
paid Rs.45 as noting char ges. Methew settled the claim of Lilly five
days after the disonour of the bill by a cheque, whch includes interest
@ 12% for the term of the bill.
Journalise the above transactions in the books of Lilly and Methew and
prepare Mathew’s account in the books of Lilly and Lilly’s account in
the books of Mathew.
18. Kapil purchased goods for Rs.21,000 from Gaurav on 1.2.2015 and
accepted a bill of exchange drawn by Gaurav for the same amount. The
bill was payable after one month. On 25.2.2015 Gaurav sent the bill to
his bank for collection. The bill was duly presented by the bank. Kapil
dishonoured the bill and the bank paid Rs.100 as noting charges.
Record the necessary journal entries for the above transactions in the
books of Kapil and Gourav.
19. On Feb. 14, 2015 Rashmi sold good Rs.7,500 to Alka. Alka paid Rs.500
in cash and for the bank balance accepted a bill of exchange drawn
upon her by Rashmi payable after two months. On Apr.10, 2015 Alka
approached Rashmi to cancel the bill since she was short of funds. She
further requested Rashmi to accept Rs.2,000 in cash and draw a new
bill for the balance including inter est Rs.500. Rashmi accepted Alka’s
request and drew a new bill for the amount due payable after 2 months.
The bill was accepted by Alka. The new bill was duly met by Alka on
maturity.
Record the necessary jour nal entries in the books of Rashmi and Alka
and prepared Alka’s account in the books of Rashmi’s and Rashmi’s
account in the books of Alka’s
20. Nikhil sold goods for Rs.23,000 to Akhil on Dec. 01, 2015. He drew upon
Akhil a bill of exchange for the same amount payable after 2 months.
Akhil accepted the bill and sent it back to Nikhil. Nikhil discounted the
bill immediately with his bank @12 p.a. On the due date Akhil
dishonoured the bill of exchange and the bank paid Rs.100 as noting
charges. Akhil requested Nikhil to draw a new bill upon him with interest
@10% p.a. which he agreed. The new bill was payable after two months.
A week before the maturity of the second bill Akhil requested Nikhil to
cancel the second bill. He further requested to accept Rs.10,000 in cash

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328 Accountancy

immediately and drew a third bill upon him including interest of Rs.500.
Nikhil agreed to Akhil’s request. The third bill was payable after one
month. Akhil met the third bill on its maturity. record the necessary
journal entries in the books of Nikhil and Akhil and also prepare Akhil’s
account in the books of Nikhil and Nikhil’s account in the books of
Akhil.
21. On Jan 01, 2015 Vibha sold goods worth Rs.18,000 to Sudha and drew
upon the latter a bill of exchange for the same amount payable after
two months. Sudha accepted Vibha’s draft and retur ned the same to
Vibha after acceptance. Vibha endorsed the bill immediately in favour
of her creditor Geeta. Five days befor e the maturity of the bill Sudha
requested Vibha to cancel the bill since she was short of funds. She
further requested to draw a new bill upon her including interest of
Rs.200. Vibha accepted Sudha’s request. Vibha took the bill from Geeta
by making the payment to her in cash and cancelled the same. Then
she drew a new bill upon Sudha as agreed. The new bill was payable
after one month. The new bill was duly met by Sudha on maturity.
Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Vibha.
22. Following was the position of debtor and creditor of Gautam as
on 1.1.2015.
Debtors Creditors
Rs. Rs.
Babu 5,000 -
Chanderkala 8,000 -
Kiran 13,500 -
Anita 14,000 -
Anju - 5,000
Sheiba - 12,000
Manju - 6,000
The following transactions took place in the month of Jan 2015:
Jan 2
Drew on Babu at two months after date at full settlement for Rs.4,800.
Babu accepted the bill and returned it on 5.1.2015 .
Jan. 04
Babu’s bill discounted for Rs.4,750.
Jan. 08
Chanderkala sent a promissory note for Rs.8,000 payable three months
after date.
Jan. 10
Promissory note received from Chanderkala discounted for Rs.7,900.
Jan. 12
Accepted Sheiba draft for the amount due payable two months after
date.
Jan. 22
Anita sent his promissory note payable after two months.

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Bill of Exchange 329

Jan. 23
Anita’s promissory note endorsed in favour of Manju.
Jan. 25
Accepted Anju’s draft payable after three months.
Jan. 29
Kiran sent Rs.2,000 in cash and a promissory note for the balance payable
after three months.
Record the above transactions in the pr oper subsidiary books.
23. On Jan. 01, 2015 Harsh accepted a months bill for Rs. 10,000 drawn
on him by tanu for latter’s benefit. Tanu discounted the bill on same
day @ 8% p.a On the due date tanu sent a cheque to Harsh for honour
the bill. Harsh duly honoured his acceptance.
Record the jour nal entries in the Books of Tanu and Harsh.
24. Ritesh and Naina were in need of funds temporarily. On August 01 2015
Ritesh drew upon Naina a bill for Rs. 12,000 for 4 months. Naina Accepted
the bill and returned to Ritesh. Ritesh discounted the Bill @ 8% p.a.
Half amount of the discounted bill remitted to Naina. On due date,
Ritesh sent the required sum to Naina, who met the bill. Journalise the
transaction in the books of both the parties.
25. On Jan. 01, 2014, bhanu and Naman drew on each other a bill for Rs.
8,000 payable 3 months after the due date for their Mutual benefit. On
January 02 they discounted with their bank each other’s bill at 5% p.a.
on the due date each met his Own’s acceptance. Give jour nal entry in
the books of Bhanu and Naman.
26. On Nov. 01, 2014 Sonia drawn a bill on sunny for Rs. 15,000 for 3
months for mutual accommodation. Sunny accepts the bill and retur n
it to sonia. Sonia discounted the same with his bankers @ 6% p.a. The
proceeds are shared between sonia and sunny in pr oportion of 2/3rd,
1/3rd respectively. On the due date sonia remits his pr oportion to sunny
who fails to met the bill and as a result sonia has to meet it. Sunny Give
a fresh acceptance for the amount due to sonia plus interest of Rs. 100
sunny meet his second acceptance on due date. Record the necessary
journal entries in the books of sonia and sunny.

Checklist to test Your Understanding

Test your understanding-I
(i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) True
(vi) False (vii) True (viii) False (ix) False (x) False
Test Your Understanding-II
(i)Promisee (ii) Endorsement (iii) Promissor (iv) Endorser
Test Your Understanding-III
(i) Negotiable, (ii) Drawer, Drawee (iii) Debtor, Cr editor (iv) Three
(v) Two. (vi) Drawee (vii) Hundi (viii) 3, Maturity

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