Introduction to the French Revolution

The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a defining moment in French and world history,
sparking a shift from monarchy to a republic founded on the principles of liberty, equality, and
fraternity. This period was fueled by a mix of economic hardship, social inequality, and the
spread of Enlightenment ideas. Under King Louis XVI, France was deep in debt, largely due to
expenses from wars, such as helping the American Revolution, and the lavish lifestyle of the
royal court. When financial reforms failed and the cost of basic goods like bread soared,
discontent spread across French society. Enlightenment thinkers, advocating for the rights of
individuals and questioning the absolute authority of monarchs, inspired people to imagine a
new kind of government—one that was more just and representative of the people's will. The
revolution ultimately aimed to dismantle the oppressive old system and create a society based
on democratic values.

Social Structure of the Old Regime

In pre-revolutionary France, society was divided into three estates under what was known as the
Ancien Régime. This social structure was rigid and highly unequal, laying the foundation for
resentment and tension:

 The First Estate was made up of the clergy. Although they held great wealth and
influence, controlling education, hospitals, and religious life, they were exempt from
most taxes. The clergy was divided internally—higher-ranking members enjoyed
considerable wealth, while lower-ranking parish priests often lived modestly and
sympathized with the poor, which sometimes put them at odds with their wealthier
counterparts.

 The Second Estate consisted of the nobility, who owned roughly a quarter of France’s
land. They were exempt from many taxes, including the taille (a direct land tax), and
could collect dues from peasants who worked on their land. Nobles enjoyed privileges,
and some lived luxuriously at the king’s court in Versailles. However, others, especially
those living outside the main cities, faced their own financial struggles. This estate was
generally resistant to any changes that might reduce their power or privileges, which
only added to tensions with the other classes.

 The Third Estate encompassed everyone else, about 97% of the population. This
group included the bourgeoisie (or middle class), peasants, and urban workers. The
bourgeoisie were typically wealthy and educated but lacked the privileges and power
enjoyed by the nobility. Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, they often supported reform
and sought greater representation. The peasants and urban workers, on the other hand,
bore the brunt of the tax burden, including the gabelle (salt tax) and corvée (forced
labor on public projects). They struggled under high taxes and low wages, leading to
widespread resentment against the privileged upper classes. This lack of political
power, combined with financial hardship, made the Third Estate a powerful force for
change.
Problems Facing the French Monarchy

Several critical issues plagued the French monarchy in the years leading up to the revolution:

 Financial Crisis: Decades of war, including involvement in the American Revolution

and the Seven Years’ War, left France deeply in debt. The monarchy’s extravagant
spending, particularly at Versailles, only worsened the situation. Repeated attempts by
finance ministers like Turgot, Necker, and Calonne to reform the tax system were
blocked by the nobility, who refused to sacrifice their tax exemptions. Without new
revenue, France's financial situation grew increasingly dire.

 Economic Hardship: Poor harvests in the 1780s caused food shortages, driving up the
price of bread, which was a staple for most French citizens. As bread prices rose, so did
hunger and desperation among the lower classes. Inflation and high unemployment
rates in cities made it difficult for workers to afford basic necessities, fueling public
anger.

 Political and Social Tensions: Enlightenment ideas challenged traditional hierarchies

and the legitimacy of absolute monarchy. Thinkers like Voltaire and Rousseau argued
for the rights of individuals, inspiring the educated bourgeoisie and others to demand
more representation and reform. As frustrations with the monarchy grew, many began
to see the king and nobility as obstacles to progress and justice.

These factors created a volatile environment, with widespread dissatisfaction across all levels of
society. The monarchy’s inability to address these issues effectively set the stage for
revolutionary change.

From Estates-General to National Assembly

In response to the financial crisis, King Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General in May
1789. This was the first time the assembly had been called since 1614, and it was seen as a
chance to resolve France’s pressing issues. However, the meeting quickly exposed the deep
divisions in society.

 Voting Disputes: Traditionally, each estate had one vote, allowing the First and Second
Estates to outvote the Third Estate. The Third Estate, representing the majority of the
population, demanded a more equitable voting system based on headcount, which
would give them greater influence. When the king refused to change the voting system,
it intensified the Third Estate’s frustrations and highlighted their lack of representation.
 Formation of the National Assembly: On June 17, 1789, representatives of the Third
Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, claiming they represented the true
voice of the people. This was a bold step toward establishing a constitutional
government. A few days later, when they found themselves locked out of their meeting
hall, they moved to a nearby tennis court, where they took the Tennis Court Oath,
vowing not to disband until they had created a constitution for France. This moment
became a powerful symbol of unity and commitment to reform.
The Estates-General quickly evolved into a revolutionary body as the Third Estate asserted its
right to represent the nation and began pushing for a new political order.

The Rise of the Third Estate

The Third Estate’s determination to pursue reform led to a series of events that would ultimately
dismantle the monarchy:

 Tennis Court Oath: The National Assembly’s oath to create a constitution showed
their dedication to a constitutional government and challenged the king’s authority.
 Popular Uprisings: News of the Assembly’s defiance inspired uprisings across France.
Urban and rural revolts erupted, as people demanded an end to feudal oppression and
high taxes.
 Storming of the Bastille: On July 14, 1789, Parisians stormed the Bastille, a prison that
symbolized royal tyranny. Although the prison held few prisoners, its fall was a
powerful turning point, showing that the people could successfully challenge the
monarchy.
 The Great Fear: A wave of rural unrest known as the Great Fear swept across the
countryside, with peasants attacking manor houses, destroying feudal records, and
demanding an end to their oppressive treatment by landlords.
 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen: On August 26, 1789, the
National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen,
which proclaimed fundamental rights, including freedom, equality, and the right to
participate in government. This document became the foundation of revolutionary
values and laid the groundwork for a new French society.

Through actions like the Tennis Court Oath, the storming of the Bastille, and the Declaration of
Rights, the Third Estate and its supporters began to dismantle the old regime, signaling the start
of a revolutionary era that would reshape France and inspire future movements for democracy
worldwide.

THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN

Historians since the late 20th century have debated how women shared in the French
Revolution and what impact it had on French women. Women had no political rights in pre-
Revolutionary France; they were considered "passive" citizens, forced to rely on men to
determine what was best for them. That changed dramatically in theory as there seemingly were
great advances in feminism. Feminism emerged in Paris as part of a broad demand for social
and political reform. These women demanded equality for women and then moved on to a
demand for the end of male domination. Their chief vehicle for agitation were pamphlets and
women's clubs. The Jacobin element in power abolished all the women's clubs in October 1793
and arrested their leaders. The movement was crushed. Devance explains the decision in terms
of the emphasis on masculinity in wartime, Marie Antoinette's bad reputation for feminine
interference in state affairs, and traditional male supremacy. A decade later the Napoleonic Code
confirmed and perpetuated women's second-class status.

The French Revolution also sparked the modern feminist movement as women's rights
resonated globally. It inspired movements like New Zealand's suffrage bill and helped shape the
foundation of modern feminism, challenging traditional gender roles and advocating for
universal equality

WOMEN’S MARCH TO VERSAILLES

Concerned over the high price and scarcity of bread, women from the marketplaces of Paris led
the March on Versailles on October 5, 1789. This became one of the most significant events of
the French Revolution, eventually forcing the royals to return to Paris.
The Women’s March on Versailles, also known as The October March, The October Days, or
simply The March on Versailles, was one of the earliest and most significant events of the
French Revolution. On the morning of October 5, 1789, women in the marketplaces of Paris
were near rioting over the high price and scarcity of bread. Their demonstrations quickly
became intertwined with the activities of revolutionaries seeking liberal political reforms and a
constitutional monarchy for France.
At the end of the Ancien Régime, the fear of famine became an ever-present dread for the lower
strata of the Third Estate. Rampant rumors of a conspiracy theory held that foods, especially
grain, were purposely withheld from the poor for the benefit of the privileged (the Pacte de
Famine). Stories of a plot to destroy wheat crops in order to starve the population provoked the
so-called Great Fear in the summer of 1789.
Despite its post-revolutionary mythology, the march was not a spontaneous event. Speakers at
the Palais-Royal mentioned it regularly and the idea of a march on Versailles had been
widespread. The final trigger came from a royal banquet held on October 1 at which the officers
at Versailles welcomed the officers of new troops, a customary practice when a unit changed its
garrison. The royal family briefly attended the affair. The lavish banquet was reported in
newspapers as nothing short of a gluttonous orgy. Worst of all, the papers dwelt scornfully on
the reputed desecration of the tricolor cockade; drunken officers were said to have stamped
upon this symbol of the nation and professed their allegiance solely to the white cockade of the
House of Bourbon. This embellished tale of the royal banquet became the source of intense
public outrage.

The Day of the March

On the morning of October 5, a young woman struck a marching drum at the edge of a group of
market women who were infuriated by the chronic shortage and high price of bread. From their
starting point in the markets of the eastern section of Paris, the angry women forced a nearby
church to toll its bells. More women from other nearby marketplaces joined in, many bearing
kitchen blades and other makeshift weapons. As more women and men arrived, the crowd
outside the city hall reached between 6,000 and 7,0000 and perhaps as high as 10,000. One of
the men was Stanislas-Marie Maillard, a prominent conqueror of the Bastille, who by unofficial
acclamation was given a leadership role.
When the crowd finally reached Versailles, members of the National Assembly greeted the
marchers and invited Maillard into their hall. As he spoke, the restless Parisians came pouring
into the Assembly and sank exhausted on the deputies’ benches. Hungry, fatigued, and
bedraggled from the rain, they seemed to confirm that the siege was mostly a demand for food.
With few other options available, the President of the Assembly, Jean Joseph Mounier,
accompanied a deputation of market-women into the palace to see the king. A group of six
women were escorted into the king’s apartment, where they told him of the crowd’s privations.
The king responded sympathetically and after this brief but pleasant meeting, arrangements
were made to disburse some food from the royal stores with more promised. Some in the crowd
felt that their goals had been satisfactorily met.
However, at about 6 a.m., some of the protesters discovered a small gate to the palace was
unguarded. Making their way inside, they searched for the queen’s bedchamber. The royal
guards fired their guns at the intruders, killing a young member of the crowd. Infuriated, the rest
surged towards the breach and streamed inside.
Although the fighting ceased quickly and the royal troops cleared the palace, the crowd was still
everywhere outside. Lafayette (commander-in-chief of the National Guard), who had earned the
court’s indebtedness, convinced the king to address the crowd. When the two men stepped out
on a balcony an unexpected cry went up: “Vive le Roi!” The relieved king briefly conveyed his
willingness to return to Paris. After the king withdrew, the exultant crowd would not be denied
the same accord from the queen and her presence was demanded loudly. Lafayette brought her
to the same balcony, accompanied by her young son and daughter. However pleased it may have
been by the royal displays, the crowd insisted that the king come back with them to Paris. At
about 1 p.m. on October 6, the vast throng escorted the royal family and a complement of 100
deputies back to the capital, this time with the armed National Guards leading the way.
The march symbolized a new balance of power that displaced the ancient privileged orders of
the French nobility and favored the nation’s common people, collectively termed the Third
Estate. Bringing together people representing sources of the Revolution in their largest numbers
yet, the march on Versailles proved to be a defining moment of that Revolution.
Consequences of the March
The rest of the National Constituent Assembly followed the king within two weeks to new
quarters in Paris, excepting 56 pro-monarchy deputies. Thus, the march effectively deprived the
monarchist faction of significant representation in the Assembly as most of these deputies
retreated from the political scene. Conversely, Robespierre’s impassioned defense of the march
raised his public profile considerably. Lafayette, though initially acclaimed, found he had tied
himself too closely to the king. As the Revolution progressed, he was hounded into exile by the
radical leadership. Maillard returned to Paris with his status as a local hero made permanent. For
the women of Paris, the march became the source of apotheosis in revolutionary hagiography.
The “Mothers of the Nation” were highly celebrated upon their return and would be praised and
solicited by successive Parisian governments for years to come.
Louis attempted to work within the framework of his limited powers after the women’s march
but won little support, and he and the royal family remained virtual prisoners in the Tuileries.
Desperate, he made his abortive flight to Varennes in June 1791. Attempting to escape and join
with royalist armies, the king was once again captured by a mixture of citizens and national
guardsmen who hauled him back to Paris.
THE JACOBIN CLUB (JUNE 1789)
Jacobin Club, the most famous political group of the French Revolution, which became
identified with extreme egalitarianism and violence and which led the Revolutionary
government from mid-1793 to mid-1794.
The Jacobins originated as the Club Breton at Versailles, where the deputies from Brittany to
the Estates-General (later the National Assembly) of 1789 met with deputies from other parts
of France to concert their action. The group was reconstituted, probably in December 1789,
after the National Assembly moved to Paris, under the name of Society of the Friends of the
Constitution, but it was commonly called the Jacobin Club because its sessions were held in a
former convent of the Dominicans, who were known in Paris as Jacobins. Its purpose was to
protect the gains of the Revolution against a possible aristocratic reaction. The club soon
admitted no deputies—usually prosperous bourgeois and men of letters—and
acquired affiliates throughout France. By July 1790 there were about 1,200 members in the
Parisian club and 152 affiliate clubs.
In July 1791 the Jacobin Club split over a petition calling for the removal of Louis XVI after his
unsuccessful attempt to flee France; many of the moderate deputies left to join the rival club of
the Feuillants. Maximilien Robespierre was one of the few deputies who remained, and he
assumed a position of prominence in the club.
After the overthrow of the monarchy, in August 1792 (in which the Jacobin Club, still reluctant
to declare itself republican, did not have a direct role), the club entered a new phase as one of
the major groups directing the Revolution. With the proclamation of the republic in September,
the club changed its name to Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Liberty and Equality. It
acquired a democratic character with the admission of the leftist Montagnard deputies in
the National Convention (the new legislature) and also a more popular one as it responded to the
demands of the Parisian working and artisan class. Through the early phase of the Convention,
the club was a meeting place for the Montagnards, and it agitated for the execution of the king
(January 1793) and for the overthrow of the moderate Girondins (June 1793).
With the establishment of the Revolutionary dictatorship, beginning in the summer of 1793, the
local Jacobin clubs became instruments of the Reign of Terror. (In 1793 there were probably
5,000 to 8,000 clubs throughout France, with a nominal membership of 500,000.) The clubs, as
part of the administrative machinery of government, had certain duties: they raised supplies for
the army and policed local markets. Often local government officials were replaced with
members of clubs. As centres of public virtue, the clubs watched over people whose opinions
were suspect, led the dechristianizing movement, and organized Revolutionary festivals.
The Parisian club was increasingly associated with Robespierre, who dominated the
Revolutionary government through his position on the Committee of Public Safety. It supported
Robespierre in his attacks on the enemies of the Revolution and helped him resist the growing
demands of the discontented workers for a controlled economy. After the fall of Robespierre on
9 Thermidor, year II (July 27, 1794), the Parisian club, now a symbol of dictatorship and terror,
was temporarily closed. It reopened as a centre of opposition to the Thermidorian government,
but it was permanently closed on 21 Brumaire, year III (November 11, 1794).
The Club du Panthéon in 1795 and Club du Manège of 1799 briefly revived the Jacobin spirit,
while some local clubs lasted until the year VIII (1799–1800) despite there having been
officially banned.
The name Jacobin was also applied to radicals in England and other countries in the period of
the French Revolution.
The First French Republic Established (September 1792)
The First Republic of France is established on September 22 of 1792. The National Convention
is made up of the Girondins, who support the bourgeoisie, the Montagnards, who favor a central
regime, and the Marais who are positioned in between the two. At their first meeting, the
Convention decides to try King Louis XVI for treason, finds him guilty, and executes him on
January 21, 1793. In an attempt to defend the cause of the revolutionists, and in hopes of
restoring the King’s powers before his death, both leftist and conservative forces (the Royalists)
support the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) that take place throughout Europe.
The years of 1793-1794 mark the Reign of Terror, a period of mass executions directed by the
Montagnards’ Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal in an attempt to rid
France of counterrevolutionaries. Thousands of people are executed, and over 200,000 arrests
are made during the two years of massive uprising. Despite the domestic chaos plaguing France,
the government insists on a military draft and preparation for international war. On July 27,
1794, Robespierre, a major leader of the Reign of Terror, is overthrown and executed, but the
revered reputation of the French Revolution is drastically diminished throughout Europe.
By 1796, Europe is still plagued by French wars, and Britain is refusing to submit to French
forces. As a strong and powerful leader, Napoleon begins his Italian Campaign, ambushes
Austrian forces, and launches a victorious offensive. Napoleon invades Egypt in May 1798 with
the goal of destroying British troops as his popularity and ambition increase. In August, British
troops destroy the French fleet following a few victorious fights. In September 1798, Paris hosts
an international fair, but the economy is still in bad shape. France invades Switzerland that same
year. In retaliation, the Second Coalition against France is formed by Russia, Austria, Britain,
Turkey, Portugal, and Naples.
THE EXECUTION OF KING LOUIS XVI
One day after being convicted of conspiracy with foreign powers and sentenced to death by the
French National Convention, King Louis XVI is executed by guillotine in the Place de la
Revolution in Paris.
Louis ascended to the French throne in 1774 and from the start was unsuited to deal with the
severe financial problems that he had inherited from his grandfather, King Louis XV. In 1789, in
a last-ditch attempt to resolve his country’s financial crisis, Louis assembled the States-General,
a national assembly that represented the three “estates” of the French people—the nobles, the
clergy and the commons.
The States-General had not been assembled since 1614, and the third estate—the commons—
used the opportunity to declare itself the National Assembly, igniting the French Revolution. On
July 14, 1789, violence erupted when Parisians stormed the Bastille—a state prison where they
believed ammunition was stored.
Although outwardly accepting the revolution, Louis resisted the advice of constitutional
monarchists who sought to reform the monarchy in order to save it; he also permitted the
reactionary plotting of his unpopular queen, Marie Antoinette. In October 1789, a mob marched
on Versailles and forced the royal couple to move to Tuileries; in June 1791, opposition to the
royal pair had become so fierce that the two were forced to flee to Austria. During their trip,
Marie and Louis were apprehended at Varennes, France, and carried back to Paris. There, Louis
was forced to accept the constitution of 1791, which reduced him to a mere figurehead.
In August 1792, the royal couple was arrested by the sans-culottes and imprisoned, and in
September the monarchy was abolished by the National Convention (which had replaced the
National Assembly). In November, evidence of Louis XVI’s counterrevolutionary intrigues with
Austria and other foreign nations was discovered, and he was put on trial for treason by the
National Convention.
The next January, Louis was convicted and condemned to death by a narrow majority. On
January 21, he walked steadfastly to the guillotine and was executed. Nine months later, Marie
Antoinette was convicted of treason by a tribunal, and on October 16 she followed her husband
to the guillotine.
THE PROGRAM OF CONVENTION
National Convention, assembly that governed France from September 20, 1792, until October
26, 1795, during the most critical period of the French Revolution. The National Convention
was elected to provide a new constitution for the country after the overthrow of the monarchy
(August 10, 1792). The Convention numbered 749 deputies, including businessmen, tradesmen,
and many professional men. Among its early acts were the formal abolition of the monarchy
(September 21) and the establishment of the republic (September 22).
The struggles between two opposing Revolutionary factions, the Montagnards and the
Girondins, dominated the first phase of the Convention (September 1792 to May 1793). The
Montagnards favoured granting the poorer classes more political power, while the Girondins
favoured a bourgeois republic and wanted to reduce the power of Paris over the course of the
Revolution. Discredited by a series of defeats in the war they promoted against the anti-
Revolutionary European coalition, the Girondins were purged from the Convention by the
popular insurrection of May 31 to June 2, 1793.
The Montagnards controlled the Convention during its second phase (June 1793 to July 1794).
Because of the war and an internal rebellion, a revolutionary government with dictatorial
powers (exercised by the Committee of Public Safety) was set up. As a result, the democratic
constitution approved by the Convention on June 24, 1793, was not put into effect, and the
Convention lost its legislative initiative; its role was reduced to approving the Committee’s
suggestions.
Reacting against the Committee’s radical policies, many members of the Convention
participated in the overthrow of the most prominent member of the Committee, Maximilien
Robespierre, on 9 Thermidor, year II (July 27, 1794). This Thermidorian Reaction corresponded
to the final phase of the Convention (July 1794 to October 1795). The balance of power in the
assembly was then held by the moderate deputies of The Plain (La Plaine). The surviving
Girondins were recalled to the Convention, and the leading Montagnards were purged. In
August 1795 the Convention approved the constitution for the regime that replaced it, the
bourgeois-dominated Directory (1795–99).

• Reign of Terror (September 5, 1793 - July 27, 1794)

Simply "The Terror" (La Terreur) was a climatic period of state-sanctioned violence during the
French Revolution (1789-1799), which saw the public executions and mass killings of
thousands of counter-revolutionary 'suspects between September 1793 and July 1794.

-atleast 300,000 suspects were arrested

-exactly 16, 594 were officially executed
-10, 000 died in prison / without trial
-used guillotine, an apparatus designed for efficiently carrying out executions by beheading. The
device consists of a tall, upright frame with a weighted and angled blade suspended at the top

Several factors led to the beginning of the Reign of Terror:

1. France's military situation
2. Chaos throughout the country
3. Robespierre's development of the Law of Suspects

Main Purpose and Goals

- To ensure compliance with the demands of the government.
- To protect France from enemies of the Revolution that threatened France's stability.
- To take harsh measures against thos suspected of being enemies of the Revolution
- Use violence to achieve a higher political goal.

Benefited the Event

1. Conscripted army
2. Radical Jacobins

Maximilien Robespierre
- came to dominate the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror.

•Fall of Robespierre (July 1794)

Maximilien Robespierre
-born on May 6, 1758 at Arras, France
- studied Law and elected to the Estate General in 1789
-he became a key figure in the Jacobin Cluband appointed to the Committee of Public Safety on
1793
-a French Revolutionary leader
-one of the most inf3luential figures of the French Revolution

July 1794
-Robespierre's opponents, including Georges Danton and Paul Barras, turned against him.
-He was arrested, put on trial, and guillotined on July 28, 1794

Maximilien Robespierre's actions and policies led to widespread criticism and ultimately, his
downfall.

1. Excessive use of the Guillotine

2. Suppression of Opposition
3. The Fall of the Girondins
4. The Execution of Georges Danton
5. The Law of 22 Prairial
6. Cult of Personality
7. Economic Mismanagement
8. Violence against Catholics
9. Suppression of Free Speech
10. Dictatorial Tendencies
11. The September Massacres
12. Targeting of Nobles and Aristocrats

Key events leading to his arrest and execution:

1. Speech on June 8, 1794: Robespierre's speech criticizing corruption and indecency offended
many Convention members.
2. Failed attempt to purge opponents: Robespierre's list of enemies was rejected by the
Convention.
3. Loss of support from the Commune: Robespierre's policies alienated the Paris Commune.
These actions and policies ultimately led to Robespierre's downfall and execution, marking the
end of the Reign of Terror.

• The Thermidorian Reaction

The Thermidorian Reaction refers to the period of the French Revolution (1789-1799) between
the fall of Maximilien Robespierre on 27-28 July 1794 and the establishment of the French
Directory on 2 November 1795.

Causes:
1. Overreach of the Committee of Public Safety
2. Exhaustion and opposition to the Reign og Terror
3. Economic crisis and food shortage
4. Militaty successes reducing sense of urgency

The Thermidorians came to power by conspiring against and overthrowing Maximilien

Robespierre (1758-1794). They restored freedom of religion, reintroduced free market
capitalism, and allowed the return of some aristocratic émigrés into France, leading to a rise in
openly royalist sentiment.

The name 'Thermidorians', ascribed to the conspirators against the Robespierrist regime, is
derived from the mid-summer month of Thermidor in the French Republican calendar, during
which the coup took place. Many were conservative republicans who represented the centrist
mass of Convention deputies known as the 'Plain', who desired to turn back the clock to the way
the Revolution had been in 1792, pre-Terror; others wished to go back further, seeking a second
attempt at constitutional monarchy, as in 1791.
The lack of consensus & the absence of dominating personalities contributed to the
ineffectiveness & unpopularity of the Thermidorian Convention

Fall of the Jacobins

After months of bloodletting, France's Reign of Terror came crashing down on 28 July 1794 (10
Thermidor Year II) with the execution of Maximilien Robespierre.

White Terror
However, there were those who were unsatisfied with the Thermidorians' promise of justice.
Many who had recently been released from prison still felt bitterly towards the men who had put
them there, while others had not forgotten the friends and loved ones they had lost to the
guillotine. Many in France demanded revenge, not justice, be the order of the day.
The White Terror, which lasted roughly from April to July 1795, saw the murders of close to
 2,000 people. Eventually, the violence petered out, and most of the 90,000 Jacobin prisoners
were released by winter, relatively unscathed.

Thermidorian Policy
The Thermidorians first tried to reverse the Jacobin economic policy by repealing the Law of
the General Maximum, which had put a price cap on bread and other essential supplies.
The Thermidorians declared freedom of worship in February 1795.

Rise of Royalism
The Thermidorians also pardoned many of the aristocratic émigrés who had fled France during
the collapse of the Ancien Régime. Naturally, this led to a spike in royalist sentiment, as citizens
no longer felt afraid to let their preference for monarchy known.

Uprising of Prairial & Creation of the Directory

By the spring of 1795, the French Republic had been without a constitution for nearly three
years. The democratic Constitution of 1793 had been written by the Jacobins but lay contained
in a cedar ark, having never been implemented; starving, poor, and tired of the corruption of
Thermidorian rule, Parisians rose up in insurrection on 1 Prairial Year III (20 May 1795),
demanding bread and the Constitution of 1793.
The Directory, officially inaugurated on 2 November 1795, continued the Thermidorians'
conservative push away from Jacobinism and sought to stabilize France. It was finally
overthrown on 8-9 November 1799 in the Coup of 18 Brumaire; this coup, which launched
Napoleon Bonaparte into power, is also often credited with being the end of the French
Revolution.

Notable Figures
1. Paul Barras - led the conspiracy against Robespierre
2. Louis Antoine de Saint-Just - initially allied with Robespierre, later turned against him.
3. Pierre-Louis Bentabole - key conspirator
4. Napoleon Bonaparte - rose to prominence during this period.

Key events
July 27, 1794 : Robespierre's Arrest
July 28, 1794 : Robespierre's execution
August 1794 : Release of political prisoners
November 1794 : Closure of the Jacobin Club
December 1794 : Execution of remaining Hebertists and Montagnards

THE COUP D'ÉTAT OF 1799

 Napoleon Bonaparte returned to Paris, France from Egypt.

 Napoleon gained extreme popularity among the French people from his previous triumphs,
while the French government, the DIRECTORY at the time produced an unpleasant name
among the citizens.
 Napoleon Bonaparte together with Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes and Pierre-Roger Ducos planned
and executed a coup d’etat against the Directory at 1799.
 Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès
 - usually known as the Abbé Sieyès,
- French Roman Catholic abbé, clergyman
- Political writer who was the chief political theorist of the French Revolution.
- Held offices in the governments of the French Consulate and the First French
Empire.
- Born: May 3, 1748, Fréjus, France
- Died: June 20, 1836 (age 88 years), Paris, France

 Pierre - Roger Ducos

- better known as Roger Ducos,

- French political figure during the Revolution and First Empire,
- A member of the National Convention, and of the Directory.
- Born: July 25, 1747, Dax, France
- Died: March 16, 1816 (age 68 years), Kingdom of Württemberg
- Nationality: French

AUTHORITARIAN GOVERNMENT – THE CONSULATE

After the Coup d’etat Napoleon created a new constitution and made him basically a dictator.
Napoleon gained control over France at 30 years old.

- Controlled the entire executive authority of government. Had overwhelming

influence over the legislature, appointed members of the administrative
bureaucracy, commanded the army and conducted foreign affairs.

- (1802) – Napoleon was made consul for life.

- (1804) – Returned France to monarchy when he crowned himself Emperor

Napoleon I.

Domestic Policies

- Established back the Catholic Church. – (1801) Napoleon arranged a concordat

with the pope that recognized Catholicism as the religion of a majority of the
French people. In return, the pope agreed not to raise the question of the church
lands confiscated in the Revolution.
- Codification of the Laws (Civil Code)
o this preserved most of the revolutionary gains by recognizing the principle
of the equality of all citizens before the law, the abolition of serfdom and
feudalism, and religious toleration. Property rights were also protected.
 o Divorce was still allowed but was made difficult for women to obtain.
“Women are now less equal than men”. When they married, their property
came under the control of their husbands.
- Developed a bureaucracy of capable officials.
- Promotion, whether civil or military offices was to be based not on rank or birth but
on ability only.
- Liberty had been replaced by an initially benevolent despotism that grew
increasingly arbitrary.
- Shutdown 73 newspapers and insisted that all manuscripts be subjected to
government scrutiny before they were published.

1805-1807 – Napoleon’s Grand Army defeated the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies,
giving Napoleon the opportunity to create a new European order.
The Grand Empire (1807 – 1812) – Napoleon’s grand empire was composed of three parts:
French Empire, dependent states (Kingdoms under the rule of Napoleon’s relatives: Spain,
Netherlands, Kingdom of Italy, Swiss Republic, the Grand Dutchy of Warsaw, and the
Confederation of the Rhine), and allied states (those defeated by Napoleon and forced to join his
struggle against Britain: Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Sweden.)
In the inner core and dependent states of his Grand Empire, Napoleon tried to destroy the old
order. (Nobility and clergy everywhere in these states lost their special privileges.
Decreed equality of opportunity with offices open to talent, equality before the law and religious
toleration. (This spread of French revolutionary principles was an important factor in the
development of liberal traditions in these countries.
-Napoleon hoped to invade Britain and tried to weaken the economy of Britain by the
Continental System, an alliance put into effect between 1806 – 1808. But failed, allied states
resented it, some began to cheat and others to resist.
The Fall of Napoleon – Refusal of Russia to remain in the Continental System.
-June 1812 – led his army of more than 600 000 men into Russia. Russian forces
retreated and refused to give battle, torching their own villages and countryside to keep
Napoleon’s army from finding food.
-Napoleon’s forces won an indecisively costly victory.
1813 January – only 40, 000 men of the original 600 000 men managed to arrive back
in Poland.

- Paris was captured in 1814. Napoleon was sent to exile on the island of Elba, off the
coast of Italy.
- Bourbon Monarchy was restored by the person of Louis XVIII, the Count of
Provence, brother of the executed king.
- Napoleon slipped back to France due to boredom, when troops were sent to capture
him, Napoleon opened his coat and addressed them: “Soldiers of the 5th regiment, I
am your Emperor…If there is a man among you would kill his Emperor, here I
am!” No one fired a shot. Shouting “Vive l’Empereur! Vive l’Emperuer!”.
Napoleon entered Paris in triumph on March 20, 1815.
 - Napoleon raised another army and moved to attack the allied forces station in what
is now Belgium. At Waterloo on June 18, Napoleon suffered a bloody defeat by the
combined forces of British and Prussian Army under the Duke of Wellington.
- Exiled him to Saint Helena, a small, forsaken island in the South Atlantic.

ROTHSCHILD FAMILY: ROLE IN FRENCH REVOLUTION AND IT’S AFTERMATH

Early involvement (1789-1795 - Mayer Amschel Rothschild, the patriarch, established
connections with French aristocrats and financiers.
- His son, Nathan Rothschild, supplied textiles to the French army.
- James Rothschild, another son, worked in Paris, building relationships with influential
figures.
Financing the French government (1795-1800)- The Rothschilds provided loans to the French
Directory, helping to stabilize the government.
- They managed French government bonds, enhancing their influence.
- Nathan Rothschild negotiated with the British government to supply gold to France.
Napoleonic Wars (1800-1815) - The Rothschilds financed Napoleon's military campaigns.
- They facilitated trade between France and Britain, despite the war.
- James Rothschild became a key advisor to Napoleon on economic matters.
Bourbon Restoration (1814-1830)- The Rothschilds supported the restoration of the Bourbon
monarchy.
- They provided financial backing to King Louis XVIII.
- James Rothschild became a key figure in French finance, managing state debts.

The key contributions of this family to this timeline are:

-Stabilizing the French economy
- Financing infrastructure projects (e.g., canals, roads)
- Advising on economic policy
- Managing European debt and finance
Controversies and criticisms
- Accusations of profiteering from war and revolution
- Allegations of manipulating European politics and economies
- Anti-Semitic conspiracy theories surrounding the Rothschilds' influence
Family members' roles
1. Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744-1812): Founder, established connections with French
aristocrats.
2. Nathan Rothschild (1777-1836): Financed British government, supplied textiles to French
army.
3. James Rothschild (1792-1868): Worked in Paris, advised Napoleon, managed French
government bonds.
4. Salomon Rothschild (1774-1855): Coordinated family activities, managed Vienna branch.
Significance in Globalization
The French Revolution, though rooted in local discontent, ultimately had far-reaching
implications that rippled across borders and impacted the entire world. It marked the first time
that a nation's lower classes rose up en masse against entrenched social hierarchies and the
absolute power of monarchy. This radical reshaping of French society—abolishing feudal
privileges, asserting human rights, and striving for a more equal social structure—challenged
the status quo and became a powerful example that other nations would follow. Revolutionary
ideas, embodied in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, preached that all
people, regardless of class, had rights and a voice in their governance. These concepts spread
rapidly across Europe, South America, and even reached the United States, influencing
emerging democracies worldwide.

The global significance of the French Revolution also lay in its inspiration for other
independence movements and social reforms. In Europe, the revolution sparked a wave of
upheavals and uprisings as citizens began to question traditional authority. Latin American
countries, seeking independence from European colonial rule, were emboldened by France’s
example. Figures like Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin were inspired by the revolutionary
ideals of liberty and equality. Even in places not directly touched by French arms, like Asia and
Africa, the French Revolution planted the seeds of change as people started to challenge
colonial powers and demand rights.

Napoleon Bonaparte's campaigns further spread these revolutionary principles across Europe,
albeit by force, and left a lasting impact on legal and administrative structures through the
Napoleonic Code. Although Napoleon’s own ambitions led to conflict, his imposition of the
code brought ideas of secular governance, legal equality, and civil rights to many regions, even
after his downfall. Over time, these reforms influenced legal systems beyond Europe and are
still foundational in modern civil codes across the world.

In short, the French Revolution was a cornerstone in the emergence of modern democratic
ideals and a crucial catalyst for global change. By challenging and overturning established
monarchies, it set the stage for a more interconnected world where ideas, rather than rulers, held
sway over nations. The concepts of liberty, fraternity, and equality, born in the turmoil of Paris,
continue to echo in global movements for freedom and justice.

Conclusion
The French Revolution was more than just a rebellion against a monarchy; it was a complex
transformation that altered the fabric of French society and inspired a wave of revolutionary
fervor worldwide. Driven by economic hardship, social inequality, and the powerful ideals of
the Enlightenment, ordinary people stood up to demand change. The rigid, exploitative social
structure of the Ancien Régime crumbled as the Third Estate, representing the majority, forced
their way into political power. With symbolic moments like the storming of the Bastille and the
adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, they dismantled the old
order and laid the groundwork for a new era centered on human rights and equality.

The revolution was marked by both triumph and tragedy. While it succeeded in abolishing
feudal privileges and inspired lasting democratic ideals, it also descended into the Reign of
Terror, where thousands were executed in the name of "virtue." Figures like Robespierre and the
radical Jacobin Club shaped this phase with their uncompromising vision of a republic,
demonstrating both the power and peril of ideological extremism. The rise and fall of Napoleon
Bonaparte, who both spread and betrayed revolutionary ideals, showed the complexities of
translating revolutionary passion into stable governance.

Yet, despite its internal contradictions, the French Revolution’s legacy endures. It reshaped
France, influenced the course of European history, and ignited a chain reaction across
continents. Its principles of freedom, equality, and fraternity continue to resonate, reminding us
that true change often requires sacrifice and struggle. The French Revolution was not merely a
chapter in history; it was a profound statement on human dignity and the right of people to
shape their destiny. Through its successes and failures, it stands as a reminder that the fight for a
just and equitable society is a continual and universal pursuit.
REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION, SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE OLD

REGIME, PROBLEMS FACING THE MONARCHY, FROM ESTATE-GENERAL
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, THE RISE OF THE THIRD STATE

 "The French Revolution: From Enlightenment to Tyranny" by Ian Davidson The

French Revolution by William Doyle
 https://academic.oup.com/book/47876?login=falseLouis XVI: The Last King of
France by Antonia Fraser
 "Revolutionary Ideas: An Intellectual History of the French Revolution from
The Rights of Man to Robespierre" by Jonathan Israel”
 https://www.britannica.com/summary/Causes-and-Effects-of-the-French-
Revolution

FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC, EXECUTION OF KING LOUIS XVI & THE PROGRAM OF
CONVENTION

 French Revolution: Counterrevolution, regicide, and the Reign of Terror.

 The French Revolution by William Doyle
 A History of the French Revolution by Georges
 Louis XVI: The Last King of France by Antonia Fraser
 Napoleon by Andrew Roberts

COUP D’ETAT, AUTHORITARIAN GOVERNMENT&ROTHSCHILD FAMILY

 Duiker, W. J. (2010). Contemporary world history. Wadsworth Publishing

Company.
 Duiker, W. J., & Spielvogel, J. J., PhD. (2003). World History to 1800.
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
 FINAiUS. (2023, November 18). Empire of Shadows: True story of the richest
family in history [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=IbWl40xgw0A
 "The Rothschilds: A Family of Fortune" by Virginia Cowles (1973)
 "The House of Rothschild" by Niall Ferguson (1998)
 "Rothschild: A Biography" by Derek Wilson (1988)
 "The Rothschilds and the French Revolution" by Herbert Lüthy (1959)

REIGN OF TERROR
 Mark, H. W. (2022, November 01). Reign of Terror. World History
Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.worldhistory.org/Reign_of_Terror/
FALL OF ROBESPIERRE
 Mark, H. W. (2022, November 30). Fall of Maximilien
Robespierre. World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2119/fall-of-maximilien-
robespierre/
THE THERMIDORIAN REACTION

 Mark, H. W. (2022, December 06). Thermidorian

Reaction. World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.worldhistory.org/Thermidorian_Reaction/