LITERARY CRITICISM REVIEWER

Plato’s THE REPUBLIC

Plato was a philosopher during the 5th century BCE. He was a

student of Socrates and later taught Aristotle. He founded the
Academy, an academic program which many consider to be the first
Western university. Plato wrote many philosophical texts-at least
25. He dedicated his life to learning and teaching and is hailed as
one of the founders of Western philosophy.

PLATO
The Republic is one of Plato's most important works, written around
380 BC. It is a rich and complex text, and each book contains many
layers of meaning and argumentation. It's presented as a series of
conversations, mainly featuring Socrates, where they discuss
profound questions about justice, the ideal society, and what it
means to live a good life. The dialogue is divided into ten books,
each exploring different aspects of these themes, making it a
comprehensive exploration of Plato's philosophical ideas.

Plato's Theory of Mimesis

The word "mimesis", is a Greek word which means "imitation". Plato
and Aristotle spoke of mimesis as the re-presentation of nature.
According to Plato, all artistic creation is a form of imitation that
which really exists (in the "world of ideas") is a type created by God,
the concrete things man. perceives in his existence are shadowy
representations of this ideal type.

The Theory of Forms

Plato believed there was a special place where perfect ideas
existed, like a perfect circle or a perfect chair. The things we see in
the real world are just copies of these perfect ideas.

Poetry as Imitation
He gives first importance to philosophy as philosophy deals with the
ideas whereas poetry deals with illusion things which are twice
removed from reality. So to Plato, philosophy is superior to poetry.

In Book X of "The Republic," Plato discusses poetry and mimesis

(imitation), arguing that poetry is a form of imitation that is twice
removed from the truth. He believes that the physical world is an
imperfect copy of the transcendent ideal forms, and poetry, being
an imitation of the physical world, is even further from the truth.
Plato also expresses concerns about the impact of poetry on the
human soul. He believes that poetry appeals to the emotional and
irrational parts of the soul, potentially leading to moral corruption
and a disregard for reason.
Plato's contributions to literary criticism are foundational,
particularly through his exploration of mimesis, the relationship
betw between poetry and philosophy, and the moral and ethical
implications of art. His critical perspectives, as articulated in works
like Phaedrus, lon, and The Republic, emphasize the concept of art
as an imitation of an imitation, distancing itself from the ultimate
forms of Truth, Beauty, or the Good. For Plato, the physical world,
and by extension art, is a mere shadow of these ideal forms.

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS
ARISTOTLE
• The most brilliant student at Plato's Academy.
• Has enormous contribution on the several areas such as metaphysics,
logic, ethics, politics, literary criticism and various branches of natural
science.
• He opened his own school of rhetoric and philosophy, the Lyceum, in
Athens.
• He insist that the senses are the starting point and the source of
knowledge.

ARISTOTLE'S LOGIC
• Aristotle was the first Philosopher to formalize the rules and methods of
logic.
• The basis of his logic, which acted as the foundation of the discipline for
over 2000 years, was the syllogism. This typically consists of a major
premise, a minor premise, and an inferred conclusion, as in the classic
example: "All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is
mortal."

Laws of Logic (Laws of Thought)

• Law of Identity (A is A)
• Law of non-contradiction (something cannot be A and not-A)
• Law of the excluded middle (something must be either A or not-A)

ARISTOTLE'S POETICS
In contrast with Plato, Aristotle sees poetry as having a positive function in
the political state, which exists not merely for utilitarian purposes but to
promote what Aristotle calls the "good life, " or the achievement of virtue
and phronesis or practical wisdom. For Aristotle, poetry and rhetoric had the
status of "productive" sciences; these disciplines had their place in a
hierarchy of knowledge, and Aristotle viewed them as rational pursuits, as
seeking a knowledge of "universal" truths (rather than of random "particular"
things or events), and as serving a social and moral function.

IMITATION AND ACTION

• Aristotle invests imitation with positive significance, seeing it as a basic
human instinct and as a pleasurable avenue to knowledge.
• These imitations can differ in three ways: in the ineans used, in the kinds of
objects represented, and in the manner of presentation.
• For Aristotle, the poet is an integral part of human society, rationally
developing and refining basic traits which he shares with other human
beings.
• What is common to all arts, says Aristotle, is that they imitate men
involved in action (Poetics, II), For Aristotle, "action" has a moral end or
purpose. Art imitates human action; but human action must have as its
ultimate purpose "the Supreme Good."
• The actions imitated, says Aristotle, must be either noble or base since
human character conforms to these distinctions (Poetics, II).
• Aristotle allows only two basic types: narration, where the poet speaks in
his own person or through a character; and dramatic presentation, where the
story is performed and acted out (Poetics III).
POETRY AND HISTORY
He infers that poetry is more "philosophical" and "serious" (spoudaioteron)
than history because poetry expresses what is universal (ta kathalou), while
history merely deals with individuals. Another way of putting this is to say
that poetry yields general truths while history gives us particular facts and
events. The poet expressига the inner structure of probability or causality
which shapes events and, as such, is universalizable and applicable to other
sets of events.

ARISTOTLE'S VIEW OF TRAGEDY

• Tragedy is, then, an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a
certain magnitude - by means of language enriched with all kinds of
ornament, each used separately in the different parts of the play: it
represents men in action and does not use narrative, and through pity and
fear it effects relief to these and similar emotions.
• The story that the subject matter of tragedy is a course of action which is
morally serious, presents a completed unity, and occupies a certain
magnitude not only in terms of importance but also, as will be seen, in terms
of certain prescribed constraints of time, place, and complexity.
• Poetry, for Aristotle, does not express what is unique about individuals but
rather their universal characteristics, what they share with other members of
society.
• Like philosophy, poetry seeks to express universal truths, which are not
constrained by reference to particular situations. Its relation to reality is
governed by the notions of probability and necessity.
• Aristotle's notions anticipate developments in several areas of literary
criticism: the issue of poetic imitation, the connection between art and
reality, the distinction berween genres as well as between high and low art,
the study of grammar and language, the psychological and moral effects of
literature, the nature and function of the audience, the structure and rules of
drama, as well as the notions of plot, narrative, and character.

HORACE ART OF

Quintus Horatius Flaccus known as “Horace” (65-8 B.C.E.)

- at the age of 19, he went to Athens to study at the university where he met
Marcus Brutus and was appointed to the high post of military tribune.
- in 42 B.C.E, he went back to Rome and had some setbacks but still got a
chance to purchase a position as ‘scriba quaestorius’. It was also the time
where he started his career as a poet.
- he was celebrated for his poetry between 39 and 10 B.C.E
- he produced numerous epodes (lyric poem), odes, satires, and verse
epistles (letters).
- his best known epistles are “Epistle to Florus”, “Epistle to Augustus”, and
“Epistle to the Pisones”.

DOES HORACE SUPPORTED PLATO’S IDEA OF BANISHING POETS?

Unlike Plato, Horace holds poets in very high regards as his “Epistle to
Augustus” suggests “The poet forms the young child’s stammering mouth,
and turns his ear at a timely hour from obscene discourse, next he also
shapes his heart with friendly precepts, castigating harshness, resentment,
and wrath. He tells of deeds honorably done, instructs rising generations by
the examples of famous men, and consoles the sick and helpless.”
According to Horace, poetry us not merely inspired madness (as in
Plato) or genius; it is an art and, as such, has rules and conventions that
requires both instruction and practice.
Horace understands the concept of ars in three ways: as a practiced
mastery of a craft, as a systematic knowledge of theory and technique, and
as a capacity for objective self-criticism.

ART OF POETRY
ARS POETICA
- was written perhaps as late as 10 B.C.E
-a 476 lines epistolary poem containing 30 maxims for young poets
-a less formal verse epistle
-addressed to the Piso family – Lucius Calpurnius Piso (48 B.C.E-32 C.E), and
his sons who aspired to be a great poet.
-this form was widely imitated by later poets–most notably by GEOFFREY OF
VINSAUF in the twelfth century, PIERRE DE RONSARD in the sixteenth,
Nicolas Boileau in the seventeenth, ALEXANDER POPE in the eighteenth, Lord
Byron in the nineteenth, and Wallace Stevens in the twentieth.
- neither a systematic exposition of a coherent theory or poetic composition
for aspiring writers.
 Poetry’s Key Principle According to Horace’s Ars Poetica
-the use of appropriate vocabulary and diction in each style of writing where
the character/subject or theme must be dealt with in the proper diction,
metre, form, and tone.
Poetry’s Goal According to Horace’s Ars Poetica
“Delight and Instruct” (Horatian Platitude) – the first reading implies that all
literature must be instructive. A related ambiguity is that “instruct” might be
better translated as “help”, “advise”, or “warn”.
Horace repeats this maxim in different wordings: “Aut prodesse uolunt aut
delectare poetae aut simul et iucunda et idonea dicere uitae” (“The poet
wishes to benefit or please, or to be pleasant and helpful at the same time”),
“miscuit utile dulci” (“a mix of useful and sweet”), and “delectando
pariterque monendo” (“delighting and advising”).
In his text, he warns about:
● “purple patch” (purpureus pannus) or the use of flowery words
● “poetry resembles painting” (ut pictura poesis)
● “even Homer sometimes sleeps/nods” (idem dormitat Homerus) or
the tolerance or acceptance of accasional small faults/mistakes.

UNITY AND CONSISTENCY

In Horace’s “Ars Poetica,” unity ensures that all elements of a work
contribute to a single theme, while consistency maintains a uniform style
and tone throughout, creating a coherent and engaging literary experience.
SKILL NEED TO AVOID FAULTS
Writers must choose things according to their abilities, as well as,
considering the things they can and cannot do in order for the author’s point
to achieve excellence and charm while cautiously arranging them to avoid
faults as possible.
FASHION IN WORDS
Horace discussed how words and their usage evolve over time, influenced by
changing fashions and trends. He emphasizes that just like everything else,
words are subject to the whims of fashion and can fall out of use or change in
meaning. Horace advises poets to be mindful of these changes and to adapt
their language accordingly to maintain relevance and clarity in their work.
 METRE AND SUBJECT
When Horace says that everything must keep the “appropriate to which it
was allotted,” he means that each genre or form of poetry should adhere to
its own specific conventions and characteristics to be effective and coherent.
He left advises using specific meters for different genres such as: hexameter
for epic poetry, elegiac couplets for elegies, iambic verse for comedy, and
tetrameter for tragedy. He also highlights the importance of universal
themes, genre conventions, and the poet’s technical skill.

EMOTION AND CHARACTER

When Horace say that poetry must be pleasing and lead hearer’s mind as
being beautifully crafted is not enough, he means, poetry should not only be
aesthetically pleasing but also engaging and impactful. It should captivate
the listener or reader, guiding their thoughts and emotions in a meaningful
direction. Essentially, poetry should combine beauty with the ability to
influence and resonate with its audience, making it both enjoyable and
thought-provoking. But, in order to achieve that, poets must feel the feelings
they want to instill to their audience first.
CHOICE AND HANDLING OF MYTH
In Horace’s “Ars Poetica,” he stated that poets has the choice if they will
follow the traditional myths or they will invent a new consistent story. Along
with it, Horace advises that poets should use myths that enhance their
narrative or message rather than distracting from it and it should be adapted
to fit the context of the poem and should contribute meaningfully to its
overall impact.
SOME RULES FOR DRAMATISTS
Horace outlined key rules for dramatists: plays should ideally be five acts
long and avoid extremes in length. Divine intervention or the Deus ex
Machina (god from the machine) should be used sparingly, only as a last
resort to resolve plot issues. No more than three characters should speak
simultaneously on stage. The chorus should contribute meaningfully to the
narrative and moral tone rather than just filling space. Additionally,
important events should be depicted through action rather than merely
narrated.
SATYR-PLAYS
Horace views satyr-plays as a form of comic relief following tragedies. They
should be lively and entertaining, featuring satyrs in a humorous and
somewhat crude manner. While they are meant to provide light-hearted
contrast, Horace emphasizes that they should still maintain a connection to
the themes and tone of the preceding tragedies, ensuring a coherent overall
experience for the audience.
THE NEED FOR TECHNICAL PERFECTION
Horace emphasizes that technical perfection is crucial in poetry and drama.
He believes that skillful use of language, meter, and structure is essential for
creating effective and compelling works. According to Horace, poets and
dramatists must master these technical aspects to ensure that their work not
only adheres to genre conventions but also achieves a high level of artistry
and impact.
GREEK MODELS
Horace recommends studying Greek literature for its sophisticated style and
effective techniques, suggesting that Roman poets should adopt these
models to refine their own work. However, he also advises adapting Greek
conventions to suit Roman tastes and sensibilities, ensuring that while the
Greek influence is respected, it is also tailored to fit the unique cultural
context of Roman audiences.
INVENTIVENESS OF GREEK IN DRAMA
In his epistle, Horace mentioned and praises the creativity of Greek’s in
drama of tragic Muse and its old comedy. He acknowledges the Greeks’
inventiveness, noting their significant contributions to theatrical forms and
techniques. He admires their originality in developing complex plots, diverse
characters, and effective dramatic structures.
INVENTIVENESS OF ROMANS
Horace recognizes that while Romans were influenced by Greek drama, they
also introduced their own innovations where they successfully produced
historical and comedy plays. He also values Roman contributions such as the
adaptation of Greek forms to fit Roman tastes, and the incorporation of local
themes and customs into their plays.
THE POET
A great poet is being himself while crafting a piece and does not let anyone
take or limit his potential. He writes from his experience with combination of
common sense, practical observations drawn from a lifetime of writing, and
views inherited from earlier literary critics.
GREEK AND ROMAN ATTITUDES
“The Greeks have the gift of genius from the Muse, and the power of well-
rounded speech. They covet nothing but praise. Roman boys do long sums
and learn to divide them into a hundred parts.”
Horace’s statement contrasts the Greeks and Romans in their approach to
poetry. He suggests that Greeks possess an innate poetic genius and a
natural ability for eloquence, driven primarily by a desire for praise. In
contrast, he implies that Romans are more methodical and analytical,
focusing on technical skill and the rigorous division of their poetic craft into
precise elements.
He left an advise, for a poet who invents in pleasure, the work must be near
to truth as poets aim to do good or to give pleasure or to do both–a pleasing
poetry and serviceable for life. The advise a poet could give shall be brief in
order for the audience to grasp it easily, get and take it devoutly as for him,
anything superfluous overflows from the full mind.
POETRY AND ITS SOCIAL USES AND VALUE
Horace described poetry as a tool that one could use to inspire and oneself
strong to do impossible things. It also helps to build human relations, gives
entertainment, and rest after a long labour.
ART AND NATURE
Does poems come by nature or by art?
In Horace’s part, both shall play part together and help each other in order to
work.

LONGINUS' "ON THE SUBLIME" : A GUIDE TO LITERARY EXCELLENCE

LONGINUS' ON THE SUBLIME : A GUIDE TO LITERARY EXCELLENCE

Longinus, a Greek rhetorician and literary critic whose exact identity and
dates remain shrouded in mystery. Longinus' "On the Sublime" is a renowned
ancient Greek treatise on the nature and principles of literary greatness. It
offers insights into what makes writing truly sublime, that is, moving,
powerful, and awe-inspiring. Longinus defines sublimity as a quality that
elevates the reader's mind and stirs their emotions. It's not merely about
beautiful language but about the power and intensity of the writing itself.

THE NATURE OF THE SUBLIME

Longinus's concept of the sublime transcends mere beauty or eloquence. He
defines it as a quality that "raises the soul to a state of exaltation and
transports the hearer beyond himself." This elevation, he argues, is achieved
through the skillful use of language, which evokes powerful emotions and
inspires awe in the reader. The sublime, therefore, is not merely an aesthetic
effect; it is a transformative experience that elevates the reader's
understanding and appreciation of the world.

SOURCES OF THE SUBLIME

Grand thoughts: Profound, original, and thought-provoking ideas.
Strong emotions: The writer's own passion and emotion can be infectious.
• Elevated language: Powerful metaphors, vivid imagery, and rhythmic
language.
• Noble figures: Characters who embody strength, virtue, and greatness.
• Structure and arrangement: The skillful organization of ideas and rhetorical
devices

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBLIMITY
Awe and Wonder: Sublime art inspires a sense of awe and wonder, often
by presenting something grand, vast, or overwhelming. Think of the vastness
of the ocean of the grandeur of a mountain range.
Emotional Intensity: It provokes intense emotions, ranging from fear and
terror to joy and exhilaration. This emotional intensity can lead to a profound
sense of connection with the work of art.
Transcendence: The sublime transcends ordinary experience, revealing
something beyond the everyday world. It can be a glimpse of the infinite, the
spiritual, or the unknown.
Spiritual Elevation: Sublime art can evoke a sense of spiritual elevation,
inspiring a feeling of awe and reverence for something greater than
ourselves.

EFFECTS OF THE SUBLIME

Longinus argues that the sublime has a profound effect on the reader,
elevating their understanding and inspiring them to greater heights. He
describes the experience of reading sublime literature as a "spiritual
awakening" that leaves a lasting impression on the reader's soul.

LONGINUS'S IMPLICIT DEFENSE OF POETRY

Longinus saw poetry as a source of inspiration and a means of exploring the
human condition. He believed that poetry could elevate the soul and inspire
virtuous actions. He recognized that poets often tapped into a realm of
intuition and imagination that transcended the limitations of reason. While
Longinus did not explicitly address Plato's call for the expulsion of poets, his
writings implicitly defend the value of poetry. By celebrating the "fine
madness" of poets and their ability to achieve the sublime, Longinus
implicitly rejects Plato's view of poetry as a corrupting force. He suggests
that poetry, rather than being banished, should be embraced as a vital part
of human culture and intellectual life. Longinus and Plato held drastically
different views on the role of poets in society. While Plato saw poetry as a
threat to reason and virtue, Longinus celebrated its power to inspire and
elevate the human spirit. Longinus's implicit defense of poetry stands in
stark contrast to Plato's call for its expulsion, highlighting the enduring
debate about the nature and influence of art.

GIAMBATTISTA GIRALDI (1504-1573)

An Italian, Renaissance dramatist, poet and literary theorist who distinguisht
himself as an early advocate of innovative literary form. Giambattista Giraldi
argued in favor of vernacular languages and national literature. Giraldi work
prom myoting the new Renaissance romantic epic romance") was also a
controversial, eliciting uh criticism for many of his contemporaries argued
tried-and-ideas of antiquity, particularly those Aristotle and Horace. Giraldi
was not opposed in principle classical tradition. He influenced Aristotle
poetics grew steadily in the Italy in 16th century, Giraldi was willing
questions limits Aristotle percepts and that called debate ween "ancient" and
"moderns" in the 18th century.
Giambttista born in Ferrara and taught a rhetoric at the University Ferrara
1541 to 1562. Perhaps the most noteworthy biography in his life is the
controversy between his students Giovambattista Pigna, who published the "I
romananzi" (1554). In literary matters. Giraldi specially noted for writing an
accomplished tragedies, Orbecche (1541) Dido (1543). Although influenced
by classical tradition of drama, Giraldi was the first tragic playwright depict
atrocities on stage rather Whan simply reporting them through messenger.

In his poetry Giraldi referred to himself as "Cynthuis" epithet for the Greek
god Apollo to be born atop of mount Cynthuis on the Aegan island of Delos.
He became known in the Italy as "Giraldi Cinzio" or "II Cinzio" in England
"Cynthio" or "Cinthio". He contributed most influentially to Renaissance
poetics in the controversy over the genre of the new romance. Ex, Oriando
Furioso (1561) composed by Italian poet Ludovico Ariosto that is written
vernacular tounge rather than latin, Renaissance romances are long
narrative poems in metrical form on courtly subjects that combines
techniques of classical epic with the method of materials of medieval
romance that aboundnce of characters and plot lines.

From the Discourse, Girladi first claims that the multiple plots of the romance
genre possess an organic unity, much like a well- proportioned body. Modern
organicist claim, even unjustified by most Renaissance romances, al an
interesting anticipation of Romantic theories of poetry exemplified by
(Samuel Taylor Coleridge). He argues against strict imitation of classical
modes, on the grounds of that poetry, following the dictates of "decurom,
"ought to be judiciously reflect the mores of specific places, times, and
people. Moreover he argues for a moral view of poetry, as SIR PHILIP SIDNEY
does in England at the time, but against the values of classical literatures
which are not suitable for his own age, not least because of their pagah
eligions

GIRALDI'S CONTRIBUTION TO POETRY

Giraldi vews of poetry echo those of Horace and other classical writers. As
regards the civil function of the poet, Giraldi insists that poetry must "praise
virtuous actions and censure the vicious." He claims that Italian poets, such
as Dante, Petrarch, and Ariosto, are actually more decisive in this regard
than the Greeks and Romans "who only hinted at such censures and praises
(DCR, 52) Moreover, the poet should always observe "decorum, which is
none other than what is fitting to places, times, and persons" (DCR, 56).
Giraldi also urges the use of moderation when employing principles of
allegorical explanation, being sure not to veer into "chimeras and fantasies
completely foreign to the meaning of the things on which they comment
(DCR, 67). Hence, Giraldi attempts a balance or compromise between
classical virtues and contemporary artistic needs.

Romances Not of One Action

undertook imitating only one action of the man, whereas ours have imitated
many actions not one man only but of many.

Modern Poets Model

- more than one action the actions of the writers to be followed will be those
whose made of composing will merit praise Decorum
- nothing than the grace and appropriateness, the poet should be mindful not
only for the actions but also the speeches and responses

SIR PHILIP SIDNEY'S THE DEFENCE OF POESIE

SIR PHILIP SIDNEY (1554-1586):

(born November 30, 1554, Penshurst, Kent, England-died October 17, 1586,
Arnhem, Netherlands) was an Elizabethan courtier, statesman, soldier, poet,
and patron of scholars and poets, considered the ideal gentleman of his day.
After Shakespeare's sonnets, Sidney's Astrophel and Stella is considered the
finest Elizabethan sonnet cycle. His The Defence of Poesie introduced the
critical ideas of Renaissance theorists to England. (www.britannica.com)

Stephen Gosson

1554-1624) anti-theatrical polemicist and a Puritan clergyman

www.oxfordreference.com)

He wrote three plays, all of which are lost and none of which seems to have
been successful. He is best known for his attack on plays, poetry, and other
arts in The School of Abuse 1579, which evoked in reply a defense from
Thomas Lodge and Sir Philip Sidneys Apology for Poetry.

Charges of Stephen Gossen

(a) Poetry is the waste of time.

(b) Poetry is mother of les

(c) it is nurse of abuse.

(d) Plato had rightly banished the poets from his ideal world.

Sidney's Reply to Charges

Poetry is the source of knowledge and a civilizing force, for Sidney. Gossoon
attacks on poetry saying that it corrupts the people and the waste of time,
but Sidney says that no learning is so good as that which teaches and moves
to virtue and that nothing can both teach and amuse so mu poetry does. In
essay societies, poetry was the main source of education. He remembers
ancient Greek society that respected poets. The poets always to be looked
up. So, poetry is not wasted of time.

To the second charge, Sidney answers that poet does not lie because he
never affirms that his fiction is true and can never lie. The poetic truths are
ideal and universal. Therefore, poetry cannot be a mother of lies.

Sidney rejects that poetry is the source of abuses. To him, it is people who
abuses poetry, not the vice versa. Abuses are more nursed by philosophy
and history than by poetry, by describing battles, bloodshed, violence etc.
On the contrary, poetry helps to maintain morality and peace by avoiding
such violence and bloodsheds. Moreover it brings light to knowledge.

Sidney views that Plato in his Republic wanted to banish abuse of poetry not
the poets. He himself was not free from poeticality, which we can find in his
dialogues. Plato never says that all poets should be banished. He called for
banishing only those poets who are inferior and unable to instruct the
children.

For Sidney, art imitation of nature but it is not slavish imitation as Plato views
Rather it is creative imitation. Nature is dull, incomplete and ugly. It is artists
who turn dull nature in to golden colour. He employs his creative faculty,
imagination and style of presentation to decorate the materials of nature. For
Sidney, a speaking picture having spatiotemporal dimension. For Aristotle
human action is more important but for Sidney nature is important.

Artists are to create arts considering the level of readers. The only purpose of
art is to teach and delight like the whole tendency of Renaissance. Sidney
favours poetic justice that is possible in poet's world where good are
rewarded and wicked people punished.

Plato's philosophy on virtue' is worthless at the battlefield but poet teaches

men how to behave under all circumstances Moral philosophy teaches
virtues through abstract examples and history teaches virtues through
concrete examples but both are defective. Poetry teaches virtue by example
as well as by percept (blend of abstract concrete). The poet creates holds
own world where he gives gives only the inspiring things and thus poetry
superior position to that of philosophy and history.
In the poet's golden world, heroes are ideally presented and evils are corrupt.
Didactic effect of a poem depends up on the poet's power to move. It
depends up on the affective quality of poetry. Among the different forms of
poetry like lyric, elegy, satire, comedy etc. epic is the best form as it portrays
heroic deeds and inspires heroic deeds and inspires people to become
courageous and petriotic.

In this way, Sidney defines all the charges against poetry and stands for the
sake of universal and timeless quality of poetry making us know why the
poets are universal genius.

Main Ideas in 'An Apology for Poetry' and its Significance

An Apologie for Poetrie or Defence of Poesie or Defense of Poetry may for

purposes of convenience be divided into sixteen sections.

1. The Prologue

Before launching a defence of poetry, Sidney justified his stand by referring

in a half humorous manner to a treathe on horseman-ship by Pietro Pugliano.
If the art of horsemanship can deserve such an eloquent eulogy and
vindication, surely poetry has better claims for eulogy and vindication. There
is a just cause to plead a case for poetry. since it has fallen from the highest
estimation of children. learning to be the laughing stock of

2. Some Special Arguments in Favour of Poetry

Poetry has been held in high esteem since the earliest times. It has been 'the
first light giver to ignorance. The earlier Greek philosophers and historians
were, in fact, poets, Even among the uncivilized nations, Turkey, among the
American Indians, and m Wales, poetry enjoys an undiminishing popularity.
To attack poetry is, therefore, to cut the roots of culture and intelligence.

The Prophetic Character of Poetry

The ancient Romans paid high reverence to the poet by calling him Vates,
which means a Diviner, a Prophet, or a Foreseer. The etymological ongin of
Greek word 'poet' is Poiein, and this means 'to make. Hence the Greeks
honour the poet as a maker or creator. This suggests the divine nature of
poetry.

4. The Nature and Function of Poetry

Poetry is an art of 'imitation and its chief function is to teach and delight.
Imitation does not mean mere copying or reproduction of facts. It means a
representing transmuting of the real and actual, and sometimes creating
something entirely new. The post, so Sidney declares, "lifted up with the
vigour of his own invention, doth grow in effect another nature, in making
things either better than Nature bringeth forth, or, quite a new, forms such
were in Nature, as the Heroes, Demigods, Cyclops, Chimeras, Furies, and
such like."

Commenting on the creative powers of the poet, Sidney further states:

"Nature never set forth the earth rich tapestry as divers poets have done,
neither with pleasant rivers, fruitful trees, sweet smelling flowers,
whatsoever else may make the too much loved earth more lovely. Her world
is brazen, the poets only deliver a golden."

5. The Three Kinds of Poetry

The three kinds poetry, according to Sidney, are (a) Religious poetry, (b)
Philosophical poetry, and (c) Poetry as an imaginative treatment of life and
nature. He calls special attention to the third class of poets, for these be they
that, as the first and must noble sort may justly be termed vates. They 'most
properly do imitate to teach and delight, and to imitate borrow nothing of
what is, has been, or shall be, but range, only with learned discretion, into
the divine consideration of what may be, and should be.

6. Various Sub-divisions of the Third Kind of Poetry

Poetry proper may further be divided into various speces the heroic, lyric,
tragic, comic, satiric, iambic, elegiac, pastoral and others. Poets generally
make use of verse to apparel their poetical inventions. But verse is an
ornament and no cause to poetry since there have been many most
excellent poets that never versified, and now siwarm many versifiers that
need never answer to the name of poets.

7. Superiority of Poetry to Philosophy and History

In the promotion of virtue, both philosophy and history play their parts.
Philosophy deals with its theoretical aspects and teaches virtue by precept.
History teaches practical virtue by drawing concrete examples from life. But
poetry gives both precepts and practical examples. Philosophy, being based
on abstractions, is hard of utterance and mystery to be conceived. It cannot
be a proper guide for youth. On the other hand, the historian is tied to
empirical facts that his example drags no necessary consequence. Poetry
gives perfect pictures of virtue which are far more effective than the mere
definitions of philosophy. It also gives imaginary examples which more
instructive than the real examples of history. The reward of virtue and the
punishment of vice is more clearly shown in Poetry than in History, Poetry is
superior to Philosophy in the cense that it has the power to move and to give
incentive for virtuous action. It presents moral lessons very attractive form,
Things which in themselves horrible as cruel battles, unnatural monsters, are
made delightful in poetic imitation, Poet is, therefore, the monarch of all
sciences. "For he doth not only show the way but giveth so sweet a prospect
into the way, as will entice any man to enter into it. The peet does not begin
with obscure definitions which load the memory with doubtfulness, "but
cometh to you with words set in delightful proportion, either accompanied
with, or prepared for, the well enchanting skill of music; and with a tale
forsooth he cameth unte you, with a tale which holdeth children from play,
and old men from the chimney corner. And pretending no more, doth intend
the winning of the mind from wickedness to virtue.

8. Various Species of Poetry

The pastoral poetry treats of the beauty of the simple life, and sometimes, of
the misertes of the people under hard Lords. Why should it be disliked?
Elegiac poetry deals with the weakness of mankind and wretchedness of the
world. It should evoke pity. rather than blame lame. Satinc poetry laughs at
folly, and lambic poetry tries to unmask villainy. These also do not deserve to
be condemned.
Nobody should blame the right use of comedy, Comedy is an imitation of the
common errors of our life presented in a ridiculous manner. It helps men
keeping away from such errors. Tragedy, Tragedy, which opens the greatest
wounds of this world. Nobody can resist the 'sweet violence o in our hearts,
teaches the uncertainty of a tragedy.

The lync which gives moral precepts and soers to the heavens in singing the
praises of the Almighty, cannot be displeasing. Ner the epic or heroic poetry
be disliked because it inculcates virtue to the highest degree by portraying
heroic and moral goodness in kind, but the most effective manner. Sidney
asserts that the heroical is is not only a and most accomplished kind of
poetry.

Main Objections Brought Against Poetry by its Enemies.

A common complaint against poetry is that it is bound up with 'hyming and

versing. But verse is not essential for poetry. One may be a poet without
versing, and a versifier without poetry Verse is used for convenience. It
produces verbal harmony and lends itself easily to memorizing. It is the only
fit speech for music. It adds to words a sensuous and emotional quality.

10. Four Chief Objections to Poetry

There some serious objections to poetry, namely;

(a) That there being many other more fruitful knowledges, a man might
better spend his time in them than in this;

(b) That it is the mother of lies

(c) That it is the nurse of abuse, infecting us with many pestilent desires;
and,

(d) That Plato had banished poets from his ideal republic.

11. Replies to These Objections

Sidney dismisses the first charge by saying that he has already established
thet 'no learning is so good as that which reacheth and moveth to virtue, and
that none can both teach and move thereto so much as poetry."

His answer to the second objection that poets are liars in that of all writers
under the sun the poet is the least liar. The Astronomer, the Geometrician,
the fustorian, and others, all make false statements. But the poet 'nothing
affirms, and therefore never lieth, his aim being 'to tell not what presents
not, but what should or should not be. So what he fact but fiction embodying
truth of an ideal kind.

The third charge against poetry is that its entire species are infected with
love themes and amorous conceits, which have a demoralising effect on
readers. To this charge. Sidney replies that poetry does not abuse man's wit,
it is man's that abuseth poetry All arts and sciences misused bad evil effects,
but that did not mean that they were less valuable when rightly employed.
Shall the abuse of a thing make the right use odious? Certainly not

Sidney is rather perplexed at the last charge, namely Plato's rejection of

poetry. He wonders why Plate found fault with poetry. In fact, Plato wamed
men not against poetry but against its abuse by his contemporary poets who
filled the world with wrong opinions about the gods. So Plato's objection was
directed against the theological concepts. In fon, Plato gives high and rightly
divine commendation to poetry. His description. of the post as 's light winged
and sacred thing in that dialogue reveals his attitude to poetry. In fect by
attributing unto poetry a very inspiring of a divine force, Plato was making a
claim for poetry which he for his part could not endorse. Not only Plato but,
Sidney tells us, all great men have honoured poetry.

12. Why is Poetry not honoured in England as it is elsewhere?

Why has England grown so hard a step-mother to Poets? Asks Sidney. He

thinks that is so because poetry has come to be represented by 'base men
with servile wits' or to men who, however studious, are not bom poets. He
says that 'a poet no industry can make, if his own genius be not carried unto
it. Another cause is the want of serious cultivation of the Poetic Art. Three
things necessary for producing good poetry are Art, Imitation, and Exercise
which are lacking in the present generation of poets.

13. A Brief Review of the State of Poetry in England from Chaucer to Sidney's
own Time

Sidney says that few good poems have been produced in England since
Chaucer. Chaucer did marvellously well in Troilus and Cresseida, The Marrour
of Magistrates also contains some beautiful passages. Earl of Surrey's Lyrics
also deserve praise. Spenser's The Shepherds Calender is worth reading.
English lyric poetry is scanty and poor. Love lyrics and sonnets lack genuine
fire and passion. They make use of artificial diction and swelling phrases.

14. Condition of Drama

The state of drama also degraded. The only redeeming tragedy Is Gorboduc
which itself is a faulty work. A tragedy should be tied to the laws of poetry
and a not t of history. A dramatist should have liberty to frame the history to
his own tragical convenience. Again many things should be told which cannot
be shown on the stage. The dramatists should know the difference between
reporting and representing. They should straightway plunge into the principal
point of action which they want to represent in their play. There should be no
mingling of tragedies and comedies; English comedy is based on a false
hypothesis. It aims at laughter, not delight. The proper aim of comedy is to
afford delightful teaching, not mere coarse amusement. Comedy should not
only amuse but morally instruct

15. Advantages of the English Language

The English language has some definite advantages. It is appreciable for its
adaptability to ancient and modern systems of versification. It admits both
the unrhymed quantitative system of the ancient poetry and the rhyme
peculiar to modern language.

Significance of "An Apology for Poetry"Major Contribution to

Renaissance Literary Theory: Sidney’s work is pivotal in establishing the
value of poetry within the aristocratic state and its relation to literary and
national identity (Griffiths).Response to Criticism: The text counters Stephen
Gosson’s "The Schoole of Abuse" (1579), which criticized imaginative
literature, presenting a defense against emerging puritanical views.Defense
of Poetry's Nobility: Sidney argues that poetry has the power to inspire
virtuous actions in readers (Robertson), continuing the tradition of poets both
teaching and delighting audiences, a concept dating back to Horace.Literary
Criticism Foundations: Sidney's work marks England’s first philosophical
defense of poetry, emphasizing its ancient and essential role in society, its
mimetic nature, and its ethical function (Harvey).Respect for Tradition and
Innovation: While honoring classical traditions, Sidney also experiments with
ideas, notably reinterpreting Plato's critique of poets by claiming they are
“the least liar” (Leitch).Hypothetical Nature of Literary Statements: He posits
that poets do not assert absolute truths, presenting their works as
hypothetical or pseudo-statements (Frye).Attention to Drama: Sidney
differentiates drama from poetry, critiquing contemporary drama for lacking
adherence to the rules of civility (Leitch).Context of Anti-Theatricality:
Sidney's views reflect the anti-theatrical sentiments of his time, amidst a
growing disdain for emerging consumer culture and changing social values
(Acheson, Davies).Popularity of Theaters: By 1605, London theaters became
immensely popular, accommodating thousands despite rising ticket prices
(Hale).Views on Tragedy: He argues that tragedy should follow the "laws of
poesy," allowing for creative liberties rather than strict historical adherence
(Leitch).Defense of Poetry as a Noble Art: Sidney introduces poetry as a
companion of noble pursuits, appealing to themes of courage, particularly as
he was a soldier himself (Pask).Judicial Structure: "An Apology for Poetry" is
structured like a trial, employing forensic rhetoric to defend poetry's
separate reality and historical significance (Harvey).Conclusion: Sidney
advocates for poetry's defensibility and its ability to inspire virtuous actions,
asserting its crucial role in society.

THE PLEIADE

La Pleiade, whose name was taken from that given ancient alexandrian
critics to seven tragic poets of the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246
bc).

A group of seven French poets and thinkers in the 16th century, played a
povital role in the development of literary criticism by advocating for the
elevation of the French language and its potential for literary expression.

The Pléiade's official manifesto, La Défense et Illustration de la

Langue Française (The Defense and Illustration of the French
Language), written by Joachim du Bellay in 1549, outlined their core
principles and ambitions. This work served as a foundational text for literary
criticism in France, advocating for a break

7 FRENCH POETS

1. Pierre de Ronsard - He was a poet, chief among the French Renaissance

group of poets.

Often referred to by his contemporaries in France as the “Prince of Poets”

Ronsard’s best work was the Les Amours, showcased Ronsard’s mastery of
language and the complexities of love and desire, and Les Odes,
showcasing versatility and his ability to adapt classical forms to French
poetry.

2. Joachim du Bellay - He was a leading figure of the literary group known

as La Pléiade.

Du Bellay is best known for his manifesto, La Défense et illustration de la

langue française (The Defence & Illustration of the French
Language), published in 1549. This work argued for the capability of the
French language to produce literature equal to that of ancient Greece and
Rome, advocating for the enrichment of French through imitation of classical
and contemporary Italian works.

3. Pontus de Tyard - He was a Burgundian poet and member of the literary

circle known as La Pléiade who was a forthright theorist and a popularizer of
Renaissance learning for the elite.

In 1551 he translated León Hebreo’s Dialoghi di amore (“Dialogues of

Love”), the breviary of 16th-century philosophic lovers. His poetry
collection Erreurs amoureuses (1549; “Mistakes in Love”), which
include one of the first French sonnet sequences, also revived the sestina in
France.

4. Jean-Antoine de Baïf - He was the most learned of the seven French

poets who constituted the group.
Baïf received a classical education and in 1547 went with Pierre de Ronsard
to study under Jean Dorat at the Collège de Coqueret, Paris, where they
planned, with Joachim du Bellay, to transform French poetry by imitating the
ancients and the Italians. To this program Baïf contributed two collections
of Petrarchan sonnets and Epicurean lyrics, Les Amours de Méline
(1552) and L’Amour de Francine (1555).

5. Jean Dorat - He was a French humanist, a brilliant Hellenist, one of the

poets of the Pléiade, and their mentor for many years.

He tutored Jean-Antoine de Baïf, whose father he succeeded as director of

the Collège de Coqueret. He is said to have composed more than 15,000
Greek and Latin verses. He published a collection of the best of his Greek
and Latin verse in 1586.

6. Rémy Belleau - was a Renaissance scholar and poet who wrote highly
polished portraits known as miniatures.
It inspired Belleau to write La Bergerie (1565–72; “The Shepherd’s
Song”), a collection of pastoral odes, sonnets, hymns, and amorous
verse. Belleau’s detailed descriptions of nature and works of art earned him
a reputation as a miniaturist in poetry and prompted Ronsard to characterize
him as a “painter of nature.”

7. Étienne Jodelle) He was a French dramatist and poet.

Jodelle aimed at creating a classical drama that in every respect would be

different from the moralities and mysteries then occupying the French stage;
he succeeded in producing the first modern French tragedy and comedy.

The Pléiade, a group of seven influential French poets and thinkers of the
16th century, made significant contributions to the development of literary
criticism. Their impact can be summarized in three key areas:

1. Championing the French Language: The Pléiade's primary goal was to

elevate the French language to a level comparable to classical languages like
Latin and Greek. Their manifesto, La Défense et Illustration de la
Langue Française by Joachim du Bellay, advocated for enriching the
language through borrowing from classical sources, reviving archaic terms,
and incorporating words from regional dialects.

2. Introducing New Poetic Forms and Themes: The Pléiade introduced

new poetic forms like the alexandrine, the sestina, and the sonnet into
French poetry.

3. Emphasizing Classical Themes and Erudition: The Pléiade's

exploration of classical themes, such as love, nature, and mortality,
combined with their use of classical allusions and mythological references,
enriched the French literary landscape.

The Medieval Period

Overview

 Spanning from the 5th to the 15th century, the Medieval Period is often
referred to as the “Middle Ages” or "Dark Ages."
 Literature flourished from Charlemagne's educational reforms and the
Catholic Church's influence.

The Middles Ages can be split up into three periods:

Early Middle Ages

 Begins with the fall of Rome.

 Anglo-Saxon invasions introduced Old English, significantly impacting
literature.
 Key texts: Bede’s writings, Caedmon’s Hymn, and the epic Beowulf,
which embodies the "heroic code" blending pagan and Christian
values.

High Middle Ages

 Initiated by the Norman Invasion, leading to the transition from Old

English to Middle English.
 Emergence of medieval romances, focusing on themes of nobility,
adventure, and societal reintegration.
 Prominent figures include King Arthur; notable works: Sir Gawain and
the Green Knight, The Canterbury Tales, Piers Plowman.

Late Middle Ages

  Ends around 1485 with the rise of the Tudor dynasty.
 Significant events include the Hundred Years' War and the Black Death.
 Introduction of printing books by William Caxton, notably with Morte
d'Arthur.

Literary Genres

 Oral Poetry
 Germanic Heroic Poetry
 Romance (Courtly Romance)
 Drama
 Morality Plays
 Allegory

Example of Literature During Medieval Period

 The Canterbury Tales

 The Song of Roland
 Beowulf
 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
 The Divine Comedy
 Caedmon’s Hymn
 Piers Plowman

The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri

Overview

 Written between 1308 and 1321, it consists of three parts: Inferno,

Purgatorio, and Paradiso.
 It is considered to be one of the world’s great works of literature.
 Traces Dante's spiritual journey from darkness to divine enlightenment.

What is Comedy?

 Comedy is derived from comos, "a village," and from oda, "a song,"
meaning "a rustic song."
 Comedy is a certain genre of poetic narrative differing from all others.

Comedy vs. Tragedy

Tragedy:

 Starts tranquil, invokes wonder.

  Ends in horror or catastrophe.
 Originates from "tragos" (goat) and "oda" (song), making it, as it
were, a "goat song," that is, foul as a goat is foul.
 Exemplified in Seneca's works.
 uses an elevated and sublime style (which is what Horace implies in
the Art of Poetry where he allows comic writers occasionally to speak
like the tragic)

Comedy:

 Introduces adversity but concludes in prosperity.

 Evident in Terence's comedies.
 And for this reason some writers have the custom of saying in their
salutations, by way of greeting, "a tragic beginning and a comic
ending to you."
 uses an unstudied and low style

Dante’s Background

 Born in Florence, he had a modest upbringing and was influenced by

significant philosophical works.
 In 1283 he inherited a modest amount of money from his parents, and
two years later he married Gemma Donati, who bore him four
children.
 His love for his childhood friend Beatrice Portinari inspired much of his
poetry, including La Vita Nuova and her role in The Divine Comedy as a
guide to redemption.

Political Involvement

 Active in Florence’s politics, supporting the White Guelphs.

 Exiled in 1302 due to political conflict, prompting his focus on The
Divine Comedy.

Allegorical Interpretation

 Dante's works allow for multiple interpretations (literal, allegorical,

moral, anagogical).
 His texts are polysemous, meaning they have various meanings that
can coexist.
 His allegories are not simplistic substitutions; they engage with deeper,
simultaneous meanings.

Scholarly Critique
  Dante’s approach to allegory has been a subject of extensive literary
criticism, with notable scholars like T.S. Eliot and Erich Auerbach
examining its complexities.
 Discussions around Dante's Epistle to Can Grande focus on its
relevance to allegorical interpretation and the debates on its
authenticity.

Renaissance (14th–17th century)

Historical Background:

 The Renaissance (14th–17th century) marked a “rebirth” of classical

values, shifting from medieval theology to secular humanism.
 Humanism focused on human potential and achievements.
 There was a shift from focusing on the afterlife to valuing earthly life
and actions.
 Feudalism declined, cities and centralized governments rose, and
literature reflected these societal changes.

Intellectual Background:

 Humanism emphasized classical studies, leading to secular and

scholarly developments in literature and rhetoric.
 Writers like Machiavelli and Erasmus critiqued social and religious
issues through literature.
 English vernacular literature flourished with writers like Shakespeare
and Chaucer.

Philosophy and Science:

 Ancient philosophies were revived, and empiricism gained prominence

with figures like Francis Bacon.
 The scientific outlook shifted from a geocentric to a heliocentric model
with Copernicus and Galileo.
 The invention of the printing press helped spread knowledge.

Religion:

 The Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Reformation (Counter-

Reformation) reshaped Christianity, with doctrinal splits emphasizing
personal faith (Luther) and predestination (Calvin).
 The Reformation contributed to the rise of individualism and
nationalism.
Literary Criticism:

 Humanism influenced literary criticism, focusing on classical texts and

debates about imitation, genre, and style.
 Critics defended poetry’s social and didactic roles and promoted the
use of vernacular languages.
 Innovations in genres like tragicomedy and essays reflected the
period’s literary creativity.

Lodovico Castelvetro:

 A key Renaissance critic, known for his commentary on Aristotle’s

Poetics.
 Argued that the sole purpose of poetry is to provide pleasure.
 Advocated for strict interpretations of Aristotle’s unities of time and
space in drama, emphasizing realism.

Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375)

An Italian writer, poet, and scholar and a key figure in the early Renaissance
and contributed significantly to the development of Italian vernacular
literature, along with Dante and Petrarch.
He was best-known for his work, The Decameron (1348–1353) – a
collection of 100 stories told by 10 young people escaping the bubonic
plague in Florence. The stories reflect diverse human experiences, ranging
from love and tragedy to humor and bawdiness.

Other Major Works

 De Genealogia Deorum Gentilium (Genealogy of the Gentile
Gods): A mythological compendium and defense of poetry, influential
in Renaissance literary criticism.
 De Casibus Virorum Illustrium (On the Fates of Illustrious Men):
Chronicles the fates of famous men, shaping later moralistic literature.
 De Mulieribus Claris (On Famous Women): A pioneering collection
of biographies of notable women in Western literature.

Boccaccio’s Perspective on Poetry

 He believed that poetry comes from divine inspiration, combining
intellect, craft, and imagination.
  While education is crucial, imagination and inspiration are equally
important for transcending the limits of reason and expressing
profound truths.
 Boccaccio argued that poetry conveys truth more effectively
through symbolism and fiction, rather than mere factual
rhetoric.

Contributions to Literary Criticism

 Defense of Poetry. In Genealogy of the Gentile Gods, Boccaccio
defended poetry against criticisms from Plato’s time, asserting that
poetry offers both pleasure and wisdom. This work influenced
Renaissance literary theory and writers like Philip Sidney.
 Poetry vs. Philosophy. He viewed poetry as a unique art form
capable of revealing truths more swiftly and profoundly than
philosophy.
 Complexity and Interpretation. Boccaccio defended the complexity
of poetry, stating that its challenges encourage deeper reader
engagement and multiple interpretations

Neoclassicism

• Neoclassicism is a literary and social movement that emphasizes reason,

order, and balance, drawing inspiration from classical Greek and Roman
works.

It values strict adherence to established rules and conventions, particularly

in drama and poetry.

Neoclassicism's Influence in France and England

• Neoclassicism had a strong influence in France, with critics enforcing strict

adherence to the "unities" and genre conventions.

In England, Neoclassicism had a lesser impact due to Puritanism, a more

plebeian literary taste, and the enduring influence of Shakespeare.

The Decline of Neoclassicism

The rise of the novel and a growing bourgeoisie with different tastes
contributed to the decline of Neoclassicism
A shift towards "feeling" and subjective experience challenged the emphasis
on reason and moderation.

Nationalism and historical consciousness led to a fecus on national

literatures and the "spirit of the age.

The appreciation for strangeness and strong emotion fueled new literary
trends like sublimity, graveyard poetry, and medievalism.

Literary Rebels

Denis Diderot (France)

he criticized the strict rules of Neoclassicism and thought writers should be

able to express themselves freely

Gotthold Lessing (Germany).

who was very critical of the strict rules of Neoclassicism in drama. He said
plays should be more relation and real life, not just follow old formulas

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (Germany)

he challenged the rules of Neoclassicism by exploring emotions and human

experiences in a new way

Friedrich Schiller (Germany)

he orticaad Neoclassicism for being too cold and detached

ROMANTICISM

•Romanticism was a diverse and influential movement that emerged in the

late 18th and early 19th centuries, originating in Germany and England.

It spread to France, Italy, and the United States

Romantic Views on Poetry and the Poet

• Romantics saw poetry as a transcendent activity, closely linked to the
perception of meaning in the world.

• The poet was seen as having a godlike power to unveil the beauty and
spirit of the world.

This view drew inspiration from Plato's Idealism and Transcendental

philosophy.

Key Features of Romantic Literature

• Emphasis on individual passion, inspiration, and intuition.

• A taste for symbolism and historical awareness.

• A conception of art as internally whole structures, where feelings are

integrated with their opposites.

Romantic Criticism and the Rise of Aesthetics

•Romantic criticism coincided with the emergence of aesthetics as a distinct

philosophical field.

Both movements challenged the ethical demands placed on literature,

emphasizing artistic coherence and intensity over moral instruction.