Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist who is considered one of the founders of
modern sociology. He was influenced by Auguste Comte, who believed that
sociology should be studied scientifically, much like the natural sciences (such as
biology or chemistry). Durkheim wanted to make sociology a rigorous science that
looked at society as a whole, rather than just focusing on individual behavior.

Durkheim was interested in groups and society's structures rather than in

individual characteristics. For example, he didn’t focus on the personal traits of
religious believers, but rather on how religious groups function as a whole and
how they maintain social cohesion or unity. He believed that the properties of
groups (like religious or social groups) are independent of individuals and should
be studied on their own.

Durkheim also studied different types of social behaviors in specific groups and
looked at how the characteristics of these groups might change over time. In
simple terms, he wanted to understand how societies and their structures shape
people's behavior, not just what individuals do on their own.

Contribution to developing scope and nature of sociology

Durkheim believed that all sciences, including both natural and social sciences,
came from philosophy, which was the foundation of knowledge. However, he
argued that sociology is a unique field of study, different from psychology and
philosophy, because it focuses specifically on society and human relationships.

While psychology studies the individual mind and philosophy deals with general
ideas and theories, sociology looks at how society functions as a whole. Durkheim
thought that sociology should be seen as separate from the natural sciences (like
biology or chemistry), because those sciences study the physical world, whereas
sociology studies the social world—the way people live together, form
relationships, and create rules and institutions.

Even though sociology is different from natural sciences, Durkheim believed that
sociology could still use scientific methods to study social behavior. This means
observing facts, gathering data, and using logical reasoning to understand society,
just like natural sciences do when they study nature.

Durkheim rejected explanations of social problems based on biological or

psychological factors (like individual mental states or biological instincts).
Instead, he focused on how the structure of society itself—such as laws, norms,
and institutions—shapes people's behavior and causes social issues. For example,
he looked at how the organization of work in society or the rules that govern
behavior can affect things like crime or suicide. In this way, Durkheim helped
establish sociology as a scientific discipline focused on studying the collective
aspects of human life.

Sociology as study of social facts

Emile Durkheim believed that sociology is the study of social facts, which are the
ways people act, think, and feel in society. These social facts are not just personal
choices; they are things that exist outside of the individual and have a strong
influence on how people behave. Social facts shape people's actions, often without
them even realizing it. For example, the law or social norms can control what
people do and influence their decisions.

Durkheim explained that social facts are real and exist independently of individual
will. This means that even if someone doesn't agree with a law or a social norm,
they are still influenced by it. Social facts are also coercive, meaning they have the
power to push or constrain people to behave in certain ways.

He also categorized social facts into different types:

1. Structural/Morphological Facts: These are about the physical organization

of society. For example, the distribution of people in different areas, the type
of housing people live in, and the way communication systems are set up
(like how people talk to each other or share information).
2. Institutional Facts: These are about the major institutions in society, like
laws, religions, moral rules, and customs. These are the shared beliefs and
practices that hold society together.
3. Non-Institutional Facts: These are more temporary and less organized. For
example, sudden public feelings like crowd excitement or emotions such as
sympathy or anger about a certain event. These are not fixed rules or
structures but can still influence people's actions.
4. Normal Social Facts: These are facts that are part of the regular functioning
of society, like the division of labor (how different people do different
jobs), social solidarity (the sense of unity in society), and laws. These facts
develop over time and are seen as normal and natural parts of social life.
5. Pathological Social Facts: These are facts that deviate from what is
considered normal. They represent problems or disorders in society, like
crime, suicide, or other types of deviant behavior. These are seen as signs
that something is wrong in the social system.

In simple terms, Durkheim’s concept of social facts helps us understand that the
way we think, feel, and act is influenced by forces outside ourselves, like the rules,
structures, and collective beliefs of society. Some of these forces are normal and
help society function, while others may show signs of social problems.
Methods adopted
Durkheim wanted to free sociology from being influenced by philosophy and
religion. He believed sociology should be studied in a clear, factual, and scientific
way, using objective evidence rather than personal beliefs or religious ideas.

To study social phenomena (like behavior, institutions, and rules in society),

Durkheim suggested three important guidelines:

1. Set aside personal biases: When studying social facts, researchers must
avoid bringing their own preconceptions or personal opinions into the study.
They should approach the topic with an open mind.
2. Focus on clear, defined phenomena: Researchers should study a group of
social facts that share common characteristics. All the phenomena that fit
this definition should be included in the study.
3. Study social facts in isolation: When studying social facts, researchers
should look at them on their own, without getting mixed up with individual
actions or personal experiences. This means studying social behavior in its
larger, collective form, not just how one person behaves.

Durkheim is also known for developing the functional approach to sociology.

This approach sees society as a system of interdependent parts. Just like in a
machine, each part of society (like the family, education, law, etc.) works together
to keep society functioning smoothly. Durkheim believed that when studying any
social phenomenon (such as crime, religion, or solidarity), it’s important to
understand both its cause and the function it serves in society. For example, he
studied how deviance (breaking the rules) or religion helps society stay stable and
united.

In short, Durkheim pushed for a scientific, objective study of society, focusing on

how different social facts work together to help society function and evolve.

Study of Sucide
Durkheim believed that suicide is not just an individual or psychological issue but
is influenced by society. He argued that some level of suicide and crime is normal
in every society, but it becomes a problem only when it goes beyond a certain
point.

Durkheim identified four types of suicide based on how they relate to social
factors:

1. Altruistic Suicide: This is when someone sacrifices their life for the benefit
of society or a group. It happens in societies with strong collective
consciousness and high social solidarity. For example, a soldier who dies in
 battle for their country is committing altruistic suicide. In these cases, the
individual's sense of duty to the group is so strong that they are willing to
give up their life for the greater good.
2. Egoistic Suicide: This type happens when someone feels disconnected from
society because they can't meet social expectations or find meaning in life.
It's not caused by mental illness, but by isolation or alienation. For
example, a person who feels lonely and unable to fit in with others might
take their own life.
3. Anomic Suicide: This occurs in societies that are very complex or have a
lot of specialization, like modern, industrial societies. People may feel
disconnected or alienated because the usual social bonds and rules no
longer guide them. The individual feels lost or uncertain about their role in
society, leading to feelings of normlessness (anomie), which can result in
suicide.
4. Fatalistic Suicide: This happens in societies that are overly controlling or
oppressive, where people feel trapped or that they have no freedom. The
level of control or oppression is so high that individuals might prefer death
over living under such harsh conditions. They give up on life because they
see no way to escape their situation.

In simple terms, Durkheim explained that suicide is deeply connected to the way
society works. The stronger the social bonds and shared values, the less likely
people are to feel isolated and take their own lives.

Functionalism:
Functionalism is the idea that society is like a living organism, where each part of
society (like family, education, religion, etc.) has a specific role or function that
helps the whole society run smoothly.

 Every part of society serves a purpose or function that contributes to the

stability of society as a whole.
 Example: Just like in a body, the heart, lungs, and brain all have important
roles that help the body function, in society, institutions like schools,
governments, and families work together to keep everything stable and in
order.

Durkheim used this approach to study how social institutions and practices serve
society's needs. He believed that social stability depends on all parts of society
working well together.

Structural Functionalism (A Broader Concept):

Structural Functionalism is an expanded version of functionalism. It looks at
society's structure (the way society is organized) and how each structure
contributes to the overall functioning and stability of society.

 Structure: This refers to the different parts of society, like social institutions
(family, government, education, etc.), norms, values, and roles.
 Function: This refers to the purpose or role each part (structure) plays in
maintaining social order and stability.

Durkheim’s view in Structural Functionalism: Durkheim believed that society

is made up of different parts (structures) like religion, law, family, and
education. These parts have specific functions that help society maintain social
order and cohesion. If any part doesn’t function well, it could lead to social
instability or problems like crime, inequality, or conflict.

 Example: Durkheim saw religion as a vital part of society. Religion’s

function was to create social solidarity—the shared sense of belonging and
unity among people in a society. By participating in rituals, individuals felt
connected to the larger society, reinforcing social cohesion.

Key Ideas of Structural Functionalism:

1. Society is a system of interdependent parts: Just like a body has different

organs that work together, society has various parts that must work together
to function smoothly.
2. Social structures have functions: Every part of society, whether it’s family,
government, education, or religion, has a specific role or function that helps
maintain the stability of society. For example, education helps pass on
knowledge and cultural values to the next generation.
3. Stability and Social Order: Functionalism is mainly concerned with how
society stays stable and how its parts function in harmony. It assumes that
social change happens slowly and gradually to maintain stability.
4. Collective Consciousness: Durkheim argued that society has a collective
consciousness—shared beliefs and values that bind people together. This
collective consciousness helps maintain order and stability.

Examples of Durkheim's Structural Functionalism:

1. Division of Labor:
2. Crime and Deviance:
3. Religion:
Criticism of Durkheim's Functionalism:
While Durkheim’s ideas were influential, some critics argue that functionalism can
be too conservative and focus too much on stability, ignoring the potential for
social conflict or the negative aspects of society. For example, it doesn’t explain
how power imbalances or inequalities can lead to social problems.

Division of labour and forms of social solidarity

The division of labor is the way people in society specialize in different jobs or
tasks. Durkheim discussed how this specialization helps people become more
skilled, work together better, and create a sense of unity or solidarity. He believed
that the division of labor is not just about economic benefits but also helps create
social and moral order in society.

Durkheim explained two types of solidarity that come from the division of labor:

1. Mechanical Solidarity: This type of solidarity is found in simple societies,

like tribal communities. In these societies, everyone does similar tasks, so
there is little difference between people. The focus is on the collective
consciousness, or the shared beliefs and values that control behavior. There
is little individual freedom, and people are tightly controlled by rules and
religion. Strict laws are enforced to keep order.
2. Organic Solidarity: This type of solidarity is found in more complex,
modern societies. In these societies, people specialize in different jobs and
rely on each other to function. For example, some people work in healthcare,
others in education, and others in business. There is more individual
freedom, and people become more focused on their personal interests and
goals. Because people are so specialized, they are dependent on each other,
and society's control over individuals is weaker. In these societies, laws
become more about repression and punishment to maintain order.

In short, Durkheim showed how the division of labor helps societies function and
creates different forms of unity, from strict control in simple societies to more
individual freedom and interdependence in complex ones.

Study of religion
For Durkheim, religion is an important social fact that helps unite society. He
explained that religion divides things into sacred and profane. Sacred things are
special, set apart from everyday life, and treated with respect, like holy books,
rituals, or places of worship. On the other hand, profane things are ordinary and
part of daily life, like work, food, and family. This division helps keep the
community connected, as people share beliefs about what is sacred and come
together around these ideas.

Durkheim believed that the origin of religion can be traced back to totemism, a
belief system in early tribal societies, such as among Australian Aboriginals. In
totemism, each tribe or clan has a totem—a plant, animal, or natural object that
represents their group. These totems are sacred to the clan, and they show special
respect toward them. For example, they might avoid eating the totemic animal or
plant. Rituals, festivals, and beliefs about the totem help strengthen the bond
between people in the group.

According to Durkheim, these religious beliefs and practices create social

solidarity—a sense of unity and connection between people in the community.
They help reinforce collective values, and people feel a stronger sense of
belonging when they participate in religious activities together. Religion also helps
keep individuals from going against the shared beliefs and values of society,
guiding them to follow the common rules and stay integrated with the group. In
simple terms, religion is a way for people to come together, feel connected, and
share common values that help maintain social order.

View on Crime
Durkheim believed that crime is a natural and necessary part of any society. He
argued that crime is normal because not everyone can be expected to follow the
rules all the time. A certain amount of deviant behavior (behavior that goes
against the norms) helps society avoid becoming stagnant and allows for social
change. In other words, crime isn't always bad—it can help bring about necessary
changes in society.

Just like crime, punishment is also important. Punishment helps keep crime at a
manageable level and ensures that society doesn't lose its sense of order. Crime
only becomes a problem when it happens too much or becomes too extreme.

Durkheim also talked about anomie, which is the feeling of normlessness or a

lack of clear social rules. This happens when the usual norms and values break
down. Anomie can be caused by two main things:

1. Economic crises or industrial conflicts that cause instability.

2. A rigid, unfair division of labor, where some groups, like the working class,
feel disconnected or oppressed by their jobs, leading them to rebel or lose
interest in society.

In simple terms, Durkheim saw crime as something that is part of life and can even
benefit society by encouraging change, but too much of it can create problems.
When people feel disconnected from society's norms, it can lead to confusion and
disorganization.

Crticism
Durkheim’s ideas about social facts have been criticized for focusing too much on
their objective characteristics, without considering how individuals (the people
involved) understand or interpret these facts. In other words, he didn’t pay much
attention to the personal or subjective experiences of the people who live through
social phenomena. He assumed that people’s actions are mainly driven by their
desire for personal satisfaction, but this idea isn't well-supported in his work.

When Durkheim studied religion, he based his ideas mainly on the practice of
totemism (a belief system in some tribal societies), and then he tried to apply these
ideas to all religions. Critics say that he overemphasized how much society's
collective conscience (the shared beliefs and values) shapes people's behavior. He
argued that religion helps society function, but didn’t address the conflict or
hostility that can arise between different religions, especially in diverse societies.

Durkheim’s work on crime has also been criticized. He didn’t consider how
power plays a role in defining what is considered a crime or how laws are made by
the state to control people’s behavior. This is an important factor in understanding
crime, but Durkheim didn't focus on it enough.

Finally, Durkheim studied suicide, but he didn’t give enough attention to how data
on suicide was collected. His research is said to have serious issues, especially
with the accuracy of official suicide statistics, which might have been flawed or
misleading.

In simpler terms, Durkheim's theories are seen as too focused on big social
structures and patterns, without considering how individuals understand or
experience these things, and his methods were sometimes criticized for not being
thorough enough, especially in the way he gathered data.

Max webber (Interactionism)

Max Weber was a German sociologist who focused on understanding how society
works. He didn't agree with some other sociologists who believed in using
scientific methods like experiments and observations to study social life. Instead,
Weber thought that social life couldn't be fully understood just by using these
methods because human actions are influenced by thoughts, beliefs, and values,
which are harder to measure scientifically.
Max Weber’s theory of interactionism, while not always directly associated with
the same label as symbolic interactionism (a term more commonly linked with
sociologists like George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer), is rooted in his focus
on social action and the subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions
and interactions in society. Weber's work emphasized the interpretive
understanding of social behavior — what he called Verstehen (a German word
meaning "understanding" or "interpretation").

In short, Weber’s approach was more about understanding the deeper meanings
behind people's actions, rather than just observing or experimenting. He
emphasized understanding human behavior through concepts, values, and ideas,
and tried to do this in an objective way, avoiding personal bias.

Major contribution
 Interpretive Understanding (Verstehen)/ (Social Action and Meaning)

One of Weber’s core contributions to sociology is his method of interpretive

understanding, known as Verstehen (a German term meaning "understanding" or
"interpretation").

Verstehen emphasizes the subjective meaning individuals attach to their actions

and social behaviors. Max Weber, a famous sociologist, believed that sociology
should focus on understanding social action — the way people act and interact
with each other. For Weber, social action is not just any action, but one that has a
meaning or purpose behind it. When we do something, we usually have a reason,
even if it's something simple, like following a tradition or pursuing a goal.

Weber said that there are four key elements in every social action:

1. Actor: This is the person who performs the action.

2. Situation: This is the context or environment in which the action takes
place.
3. Means: These are the tools or ways through which the action is carried out.
4. End: This is the goal or purpose the actor hopes to achieve by performing
the action.

Weber believed that understanding these elements was crucial to understanding

how people behave in society. He also argued that sociology should focus on
understanding actions from the actor's point of view — meaning, what the actor
thinks or feels about their own actions.

For Weber, any human action could be called "social" if:

1. It has meaning to the person doing it, based on their experiences, values, or
interests.
 2. It involves others in some way (whether positively or negatively).
3. It is goal-oriented — meaning it’s done with a certain purpose in mind.

Weber also classified social actions into four types:

1. Instrumentally-rational action: These are actions done for practical

reasons, with clear goals in mind. For example, when someone works to
earn money to buy something.
2. Value-rational action: These actions are done because of the values or
beliefs behind them. For example, going to a religious ceremony because it's
part of your faith or tradition.
3. Traditional action: These are actions that people do because it’s how things
have always been done. For example, following family traditions without
thinking too much about them, like celebrating a holiday in the same way
every year.
4. Affectual action: These actions are driven by emotions or feelings. For
example, comforting a friend or expressing love to a family member.

In simple terms, Weber wanted to understand why people do what they do in

society, and he focused on looking at social action from the perspective of the
person doing it, considering the meaning behind their actions, the context, and the
goals they are trying to achieve.

 Study of relation between religion and Society and

capitalist spirit
In his famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905),
Weber explored the link between religion (specifically Protestantism) and the
development of modern capitalism in Western Europe. This is one of Weber's
most famous and widely discussed ideas.

Max Weber compared different religions like Confucianism in China, Judaism in

West Asia, and Hinduism in India to understand how religion influences economic
behavior. He believed that religion and economic practices are connected.

In the case of Hinduism, Weber found that the religion's beliefs, such as karma
(the idea that your actions affect your future), dharma (the moral order), and
punarjanam (reincarnation or rebirth), made people more fatalistic. This means
that Hindus tended to accept their social position, believing that their actions in
past lives determined their current fate. As a result, this mindset, combined with
the caste system (where people are born into specific social groups with fixed
occupations), discouraged the development of a rational capitalist economy. The
rigid social structure in Hindu society made it harder for people to think about
economic growth in the way that capitalism requires.
On the other hand, Weber studied the Protestant religion in America and found
that its ethics helped encourage economic growth. Protestants believed that hard
work, discipline, and prosperity were signs of being chosen by God. They
believed that success in life could lead to salvation, and failure meant being
damned. This focus on work as a mission — something sacred and not a lowly
task — helped people develop skills, work hard, and achieve success. Weber saw
this Protestant ethic as being linked to the rise of capitalism in America, where
Protestants were often the leaders in business, education, and government.

Now, regarding other concepts:

1. Survival of the fittest: This idea, originally from biology, means that only
the strongest or most adaptable species survive. The philosopher Herbert
Spencer applied this idea to both biology and society, suggesting that just
like in nature, in society, the strong (wealthy, skilled, or powerful) will
succeed, while the weak (poor or unskilled) will fail.
2. Social Darwinism: This is the idea of applying the principles of biological
evolution (like survival of the fittest) to society. It suggests that some
people or groups are more "fit" to survive and thrive in society, while others
are not. It compares society to living organisms, where the state or social
structures also evolve over time.
3. Repressive and restitutive laws: These are two types of laws discussed in
sociology. Repressive laws punish behavior that goes against society's rules
(like criminal laws). Restitutive laws, on the other hand, focus on restoring
the status quo (for example, laws related to contracts or restoring someone’s
property).
4. Church: In sociological terms, a church refers not just to a building, but the
entire system of religious beliefs, ideas, rituals, and the community that
practices them.
5. Caste system and occupation: In the traditional caste system in India,
people’s occupations were often determined by their caste. For example, if
someone was born into a caste of farmers, they were expected to be a
farmer, and this role was very strictly followed, especially in rural areas.
Each caste had its own specific role in society.

Contribution to the Development methodology

According to Weber, sociology was to adopt empirical (rather than historical
method) to study human society. Sociologists study the individuals as social
actors and examine their conduct and social action — they do not lay down a
theory about abstract forms of human conduct. A careful, meaningful study of
actual social behaviour is a must for a sociologist. To conduct research/study in
sociology, Weber introduced the concept of ideal types. According to him,
ideal types are the concepts developed and formulated on the basis of facts
 collected carefully and analytically from empirical research. They are
constructs or concepts that are used as methodological devices in our
understanding and analysis of any social problem. Thus, Weber suggested that
one can bring objectivity in social science and research by using the concept of
ideal types. Through its use in sociology, one can scrutinise, systematise and
define social reality without any subjective bias. The steps involved in
constructing the ideal types constituted selecting those characteristics of an
object/phenomena that are regarded as its essential or typical features.
According to Weber, the main purpose of ideal types is to understand and
analyse particular social phenomena problems, to avoid confusion in the
concepts and to increase the precision and accuracy of the sociological analysis.
 Pressure Group
Meaning:-Pressure groups are organizations formed by people with common
interests who come together to influence government decisions. These groups aim
to put pressure on the government or other organizations to recognize and support
their specific interests, whether related to social, political, economic, religious, or
vocational issues. Unlike political parties, which seek to gain political power,
pressure groups focus on shaping policies and government actions in ways that
benefit their members. They try to sway government decisions through lobbying,
protests, or other methods of influence. In modern society, these interest groups
play a significant role in influencing political decisions, both directly and
indirectly, by pushing for policies that align with their specific goals or needs.

Definitions of Pressure Group

There are many definitions given by a lot of scholars. Here I have highlighted
some definitions given by the most prominent scholar on pressure groups.

General Definition: A pressure group is an organized group that tries to

influence government decisions without aiming to gain political power itself.

Alan R. Ball: Pressure groups are part of the political system, aiming to change
or support government policies, but they don’t seek to become the government.

David Easton: A pressure group is an organized group that seeks to influence

the allocation of values in a society, particularly in government policy.

Techniques Used by Pressure Groups

Pressure groups use different techniques to influence the government and achieve
their goals. Here are four common techniques:

1. Lobbying
  Lobbying is when pressure groups try to influence government decisions
by directly communicating with lawmakers or government officials. In the
United States, for example, pressure groups send representatives to meet
with members of Congress to advocate for their interests. These
representatives try to convince lawmakers to pass laws or make decisions
that favor the group’s goals.

2. Strike

 A strike happens when workers stop working to protest or demand

something, like better pay or working conditions. It’s a temporary stoppage
of work, and workers won’t resume until their demands are met. Pressure
groups like trade unions often organize strikes to achieve their goals, and
sometimes strikes lead to successful outcomes for the workers.

3. Bandh

 A Bandh is a tactic mainly used in India where everything shuts down for
a day or more, including offices, shops, and transportation. It’s used to put
pressure on the government for political or social reasons. During a Bandh,
pressure groups may support political parties to help achieve their demands.
Though it’s meant to be a peaceful protest, sometimes there can be
incidents of violence or damage to public property.

4. Gherao

 Gherao happens when workers surround or trap their employer or manager

in their office to force them to agree to their demands. It’s a form of
physical protest where workers stay around the employer until their
demands are met. It is often used by labor unions in India to pressure
employers.

Features/Funtions/Relevance of Pressure Groups

In a socialist political system, pressure groups are usually not needed because the
government is supposed to look after the interests of all people. However, in a
liberal democratic system, pressure groups play an important role. Here are the
main functions and features of pressure groups:

1. Connecting People with the Government: Pressure groups help bring

people's concerns, complaints, and demands to the government's attention.
They act as a bridge between the public and the government, making sure
the government knows what the people need and want.
2. Monitoring Government Actions: Pressure groups keep an eye on what the
government is doing. If the government makes any wrong decisions, these
groups highlight the issue, inform the public, and push for changes.
 3. Gaining Public Support: Pressure groups try to gain public support for
their cause. They collect information and spread news related to their issues,
aiming to influence the government's decisions in their favor.
4. Political Socialization: Pressure groups help teach people about political
values and ideas. They are often linked to political parties, and they play a
role in shaping public attitudes towards politics.
5. Representing Different Interests: Pressure groups bring together different
sections of society and represent their interests. Whether people are from
different jobs, industries, or backgrounds, pressure groups make sure their
voices are heard.
6. Influencing Government Decisions: Pressure groups focus on influencing
government policies and laws. They want to make sure that government
decisions benefit their members or the causes they represent.

In short, pressure groups help the government understand public opinion, keep
them accountable, and ensure that their decisions reflect the needs and interests of
society. This helps maintain the democratic nature of the government.

Types or examples of Pressure Groups

Pressure groups can be divided into four main types, as explained by Almond and
Powell:

1. Associational Groups
These are formal organizations with clear rules and goals. They are set up to
represent specific interests, like student unions or labor unions. They are
well-organized and have things like members, offices, and finances.
2. Non-Associational Groups
These groups are informal and don’t have a clear structure. They include
people who share common characteristics like race, ethnicity, or class. For
example, a group of people from the same ethnic background or social class
might come together to promote their interests.
3. Institutional Groups
These groups are made up of people from specific professions or institutions
like political parties, government offices, or businesses. Their goal is often
to represent the interests of their own profession or organization.
4. Anomic Groups
These groups are formed when people get frustrated or upset, often due to a
specific event. They can include groups that protest or riot to express their
anger. These groups are not well-organized and tend to be more
spontaneous.
Conclusion

From the above discussion, we can say that pressure groups play an important role
in promoting the interests of specific groups. Each of us is part of society, and we
are often involved with at least one pressure group that works to achieve our goals
on a larger scale.

In simple terms, pressure groups help identify important issues that need attention.
They not only bring these issues to the forefront but also push for them to be
considered in political decision-making, making sure people's concerns are heard
and acted upon.

Society

Meaning:-Society is a group of people who live together and interact with each
other. It is made up of relationships and connections between individuals, where
people share common interests, norms, and values. Society includes all the
different ways people work together, cooperate, compete, and even disagree. It
helps organize how people live, what behaviors are expected, and how people
relate to one another. Society can be made up of small groups, like families, or
large groups, like countries, all working together to maintain order and stability.

Definition of Society

MacIver and Page say society is about how people help each other, follow rules,
and work together in groups. When people form relationships, they agree on
certain rights and responsibilities to make sure things run smoothly. These rules
help people act in ways that society expects.

Morris Ginsberg sees society as a group of people who share similar behaviors
and relationships.

Emile Durkheim think society is real and exists on its own,

Talcott Parsons see it as a collection of connected actions between people.

G.H. Mead believes society is about the way people use symbols when they
communicate.

Basic Features of Society

According to Harry M. Johnson, there are four key features of human society:

1. Definite Territory: Every society has a specific area or space where its
members live and interact with each other.
 2. Progeny: Societies grow by having new members, either through birth,
adoption, or other means like immigration. The most important way
societies continue is through the birth of new people.
3. Culture: Every society has its own culture, which includes traditions,
beliefs, and ways of life that are unique to it.
4. Independence: A society is a self-sufficient and independent group that
doesn't rely on other groups for its survival. It functions on its own without
being a part of another group.

Apart from these features, some more identifying features of society may be
discerned as follows.

Other Features:-

I. Society is an Abstract Concept Society is not something we can see or

touch directly. It’s an idea based on how people interact with each other.
Sociologists study society by looking at how people relate to one another
and build relationships.
II. Mutual Awareness: For society to work, people need to be aware of each
other and understand each other’s needs. Their relationships are built on this
recognition.
III. Nature of Relationships: Social relationships are ongoing and lasting, not
temporary like a crowd. Even if people come and go (like when someone is
born or dies), the relationships continue, and society keeps going.
IV. Purposive Interactions: People interact with each other for specific
reasons, like meeting their needs. These interactions happen over and over
again, not just once.
V. Cooperation: Society is built on people working together. They share
common values, goals, and traditions to help each other out and achieve
things as a group.
VI. Sense of Belongingness: Everyone in society feels connected to it. This
connection comes from shared values, goals, and experiences, making
people feel part of something bigger.
VII. Society is Bigger Than Individuals: Society is more than just a group of
people. It is a force that guides behavior, and it continues even if individual
people pass away. Society doesn’t depend on any one person to exist.
VIII. Code of Conduct: Society has rules for how people should behave. These
rules can be informal (like social customs) or formal (like laws). Following
these rules helps keep society running smoothly.
IX. Social Control: To make sure people follow the rules, society has ways to
control behavior. Families, friends, and groups help informally, while the
government uses police and courts for formal control.
X. Society is “sui generis” or Society is Unique: Society is something special
and can’t be explained just by looking at individuals or biological factors.
It’s created when people come together and form something larger than
Prerequisites of Society

For society to exist, there are certain basic conditions that must be met. These
conditions are:

1. Two or More Individuals: There must be at least two people who interact
with each other to form a society.
2. Mutual Awareness: People need to be aware of each other's presence and
understand each other’s needs.
3. Enduring Relationships: The relationships between people must last over
time and continue despite changes, such as people coming and going.
4. Purposive Interaction: People interact with each other for specific goals
and needs, and these interactions happen regularly.
5. Code of Conduct: There should be rules or guidelines on how people
should behave to create order and harmony in society.
6. Social Control: There needs to be a system in place to manage and correct
any behaviors that go against the society’s rules.
7. Ability to Meet Basic Needs: Society must have a system that allows its
members to meet their basic needs, like food, shelter, and safety, through
collective effort.

Community

A community is a group of people who live together and share a common area or
territory. In a community, people have a strong feeling of belonging and
connection with one another, even though they might not share the same interests.
What brings them together is the experience of living in the same place and being
part of the same social life.

The idea of community can be explained using two terms by sociologist Tönnies:
gemeinschaft and gesellschaft.

Gemeinschaft is a type of community where people live closely and privately,

while gesellschaft refers to larger, more impersonal groups like associations or
organizations.

Other sociologists have defined community in different ways:

 MacIver and Page said that a community is a social area where people live
and interact with some degree of harmony.
 Ginsberg viewed community as a group of people living a common life,
with many different types of relationships forming from that shared life.
  Mannheim described it as a group of people who live together and share a
variety of interests, not just one.
 Kingsley saw the community as the smallest group where all aspects of life
are involved.

Characteristic features of community

In a community, all members live in a specific area or territory together, which

gives them a sense of unity. This shared space also connects their social lives to the
environment around them.

Population: A community consists of a certain number of people who interact

based on shared needs and conditions. Unlike society, a community is smaller in
size and its members are directly involved in the community's activities.

Sense of Belongingness: People in a community feel connected because they share

common values, beliefs, culture, and their location. In big cities, however, this
sense of belonging is often weaker, leading to feelings of isolation and sometimes
higher rates of suicide.

Close Social Relationships: Community members tend to have closer, more

personal relationships. They interact regularly and know each other well, forming
intimate connections.

Feeling of Unity: There is a strong feeling of togetherness among community

members. They care about each other's welfare and support traditional values and
goals.

Goals: A community's main purpose is not to achieve specific goals but to meet
the basic needs of its members. These goals are generally broad and focused on
everyday living.

Interaction: People in a community interact based on mutual understanding and

respect. These interactions involve all aspects of a person’s life and personality.

Membership: Being part of a community is often automatic, as people are born

into it. However, someone can also join a community by moving there, being
adopted, or adopting the community's culture.

Code of Conduct: The community has informal, unwritten rules that guide how
people behave and interact with each other. These rules are usually based on
traditions, customs, and social norms.

Difference between Society and Community

Aspect Society Community

Larger – Society includes Smaller – A community is

Size many communities and can localized, consisting of a
span entire nations or even group of people living in a
global connections. It's vast specific area or sharing
and more abstract. common interests.
Broad scope – Society Narrower scope –
includes a wide range of Community focuses more
social relationships, on the day-to-day needs of
Scope institutions, and its members, such as living
interactions across all together, sharing resources,
sectors of life like politics, or having shared cultural
economics, and culture. practices.
Voluntary and diverse –
Involuntary or natural –
People join society through
People are born into
various roles, such as
communities or enter
citizenship or membership
through immigration or
Membership in various social groups.
adoption, and membership
Membership is not fixed
is more stable as it is
and can include people
defined by local or shared
from different backgrounds
characteristics.
and interests.
Formal and informal Informal and close – In a
relationships – In society, community, the
relationships can be both relationships are usually
formal (such as legal informal and intimate,
Relationship
systems) and informal (like based on mutual
casual friendships), and recognition and personal
they can vary greatly in connection, often forming a
nature. close-knit environment.
Strong sense of belonging
Less personal connection
– Community members
– Society is more abstract,
typically share deep,
and the sense of belonging
Sense of emotional ties due to shared
can be weaker since people
Belonging cultural, social, or
often interact with large
geographical connections,
numbers of strangers or
leading to a stronger sense
distant acquaintances.
of belonging.
Territory No fixed boundaries – Defined territory –
Society is not limited to a Communities are defined
specific location. It can span by a physical or geographic
large geographical areas, boundary where its
Aspect Society Community
including multiple countries, members live or interact,
and can exist across virtual such as a neighborhood or
spaces (like the internet). village.
Broad and abstract goals – Concrete and specific
Society aims to address larger, goals – Communities aim
more abstract issues like to fulfill practical, everyday
political stability, economic needs such as food, shelter,
Purpose/Goals
growth, and cultural safety, and mutual support.
development. Its goals are Goals are often related to
often driven by institutions and improving the living
laws. conditions of its members.
Culturally diverse – Society Culturally homogenous –
includes many different Communities are more
cultures, languages, religions, likely to share similar
Cultural and beliefs, offering a wide values, traditions, and
Homogeneity array of diversity in values and cultural practices, creating
practices. a sense of unity and
cohesion among its
members.
Frequent and personal
Less frequent, impersonal
interactions – In
interactions – In society,
communities, members
interactions are less personal
interact with each other
Interpersonal and often occur between
regularly and personally,
Interaction strangers or individuals with
often in familiar and casual
specific roles (such as
settings. These
professionals, government
relationships tend to be
officials, etc.).
more direct and intimate.
Formal control – In society, Informal control – In
social control is enforced by communities, social control
institutions like the is more informal, with
government, police, and legal norms, customs, and
Social Control systems through laws and traditions guiding members'
regulations to maintain order behavior. Peer pressure,
and ensure conformity. family influence, and
shared cultural practices
play a larger role.

Marriage
Marriage is a social and legal institution that brings two individuals together,
often for life. It plays a significant role in creating families, ensuring social
stability, and upholding cultural and religious values. In the past, marriage was
more of a social arrangement, where women were seen as property and it was often
used to form political or business alliances. But today, marriage is seen as a
partnership between two people, based on mutual respect, love, and equality.
Legal Definition:-  Marriage is a legal contract between two people, usually a
man and a woman (though same-sex marriages are now recognized in many
places). The contract includes shared rights and responsibilities, like financial
duties and taking care of each other. If the marriage ends, it is dissolved through a
legal process called divorce.
Scared Bond:-In many religions, marriage is seen as a sacred or spiritual bond.
Couples often take vows in front of God, promising loyalty and love, which adds a
spiritual meaning to marriage. In India, marriage is deeply connected to religion
and culture. It is seen as a duty, both for individuals and society. Marriage helps
continue family traditions and is seen as an essential part of life. It is also
connected to having children, especially sons, who are considered important for
continuing the family lineage.
Modern Trend:- Marriage is becoming more flexible today. People can choose
whom to marry based on love, and same-sex marriages are being accepted more
widely. In the past, marriage was expected to last forever, but now divorce is more
common when the relationship doesn’t work out.
Marriage and Children:- Marriage is the foundation for creating families, where
children are raised with care and love. It helps to pass on traditions and values to
the next generation. Children born in marriage are usually considered legitimate,
meaning they are socially and legally recognized as part of the family.
Still Important:-Marriage is important not just for the people involved, but for
society as a whole. It helps maintain social order, creates families, and ensures the
passing down of traditions. While marriage has changed over time, it is still a key
part of human life, helping individuals meet emotional, social, and cultural needs.

Functions of Marriage
1. Regulation of Sexual Behavior:
Marriage plays a crucial role in regulating sexual behavior within society. By
providing a legal and socially recognized bond between two individuals, marriage
sets clear boundaries for sexual relations. Before marriage, any sexual relationship
outside of this union is often seen as immoral or inappropriate. The institution of
marriage helps control promiscuity, ensuring that sexual relationships are bound by
clear social and legal expectations. In this way, marriage helps maintain social
order by providing a formal and respected framework for sexual conduct.
2. Protection for Women and Children:
One of the most important functions of marriage is to protect the more vulnerable
members of the relationship, particularly women and children. In many societies,
marriage provides legal security to women by ensuring they have rights to support
and protection, both during and after the marriage. Children born within the union
are also legally recognized as legitimate offspring, ensuring they have the rights
and protection of both parents. This protection helps ensure that both women and
children are cared for in a stable, secure environment, especially in cases of dispute
or separation.
3. Legitimizing Relationships:
Marriage serves as a social and legal institution that legitimizes the relationship
between a man and a woman. It provides official recognition to their union,
marking it as socially acceptable and morally proper. This is often done through a
wedding ceremony that may involve public rituals, vows, and celebrations.
Marriage turns what could be seen as an informal or temporary relationship into
one that is recognized by society as valid and permanent. By legitimizing the
relationship, marriage ensures that both partners have clear rights and obligations
toward each other and any children born from the union.
4. Psychological and Biological Needs:
Marriage helps meet both the biological and emotional needs of individuals. On
the biological side, marriage allows for procreation—the bringing of children into
the world—while also providing a stable environment for their care and
upbringing. Psychologically, marriage offers emotional support, companionship,
and a sense of security for both partners. It helps individuals fulfill their desire for
intimacy, belonging, and shared experiences. These factors are essential for
personal well-being and contribute to the overall stability of society, as the family
unit is strengthened through marriage.

5. Rights and Obligations:

Marriage establishes clear rights and obligations between the spouses. These rights
may include sexual rights, financial support, inheritance, and property rights,
among others. Additionally, each spouse has a duty to care for the other, help with
domestic chores, and support each other emotionally and financially. Society and
the state recognize these rights and duties, ensuring that they are legally protected.
If a spouse fails to fulfill these responsibilities, the marriage may be legally
challenged or dissolved. This legal framework helps to ensure fairness and
accountability within the marriage.
6. Foundation for Family:
Marriage is the foundation of the family, the basic social unit where children are
born, nurtured, and raised. Through marriage, couples form a family unit that is
responsible for the well-being and upbringing of their children. The family
provides a safe space for children to grow and learn, while also offering economic
support through the combined resources of the parents. Marriage allows for the
creation of a stable home environment, ensuring that children receive the care,
education, and resources they need to thrive. Additionally, the family plays a vital
role in perpetuating the culture and values of society.
7. Broader Social Unity:
Marriage serves to connect people from different social and cultural backgrounds,
thus helping to create broader social unity. The rules governing whom one can
marry help prevent incest (marriage between close relatives) and encourage
individuals to seek partners from outside their immediate kinship groups. This
practice helps create alliances between different families, clans, or communities,
strengthening social ties. Marriage, in this way, helps bridge gaps between
different groups and promotes unity, understanding, and cooperation across
society.
8. Marriage and Society:
In many societies, marriage is not just an individual or family matter but involves
the larger community. For example, in some cultures, a woman who marries not
only becomes part of her husband's family but also part of the broader social
community, such as a village or town. Her behavior and responsibilities extend
beyond the immediate family to the wider community, creating a network of
relationships that bind people together. Marriage thus reinforces social bonds by
connecting individuals to their extended families and communities, ensuring that
everyone shares a sense of belonging.
9. Marriage and Religion:
Marriage is often intertwined with religious beliefs and practices. In many
religions, marriage is seen as a sacred vow taken before God, making it a more
serious and enduring commitment. Religious rituals, ceremonies, and blessings are
often part of the marriage process, and these can help couples feel a deeper
spiritual connection. In such cases, marriage is viewed as a duty to God, as well as
to each other, and religious teachings often guide how the couple should behave in
their relationship. This sacred aspect of marriage helps provide stability and
commitment, as couples strive to fulfill not only their social obligations but also
their spiritual ones.
10. Marriage as a Political or Social Contract:
Marriage can also serve as a means of forming alliances between families, groups,
or even entire societies. In some historical contexts, marriages were arranged to
strengthen political power, resolve conflicts, or form peace treaties between
different groups. For example, royal marriages were often used to unite different
kingdoms or families for mutual benefit. This type of marriage was seen as a social
contract that went beyond the couple and extended to their families and
communities. Even today, in some cultures, marriage may be seen as an alliance
between two families or communities, especially in arranged marriages.
In conclusion, marriage is not only a private relationship but an important social
institution that serves many functions for society, individuals, and families. It
regulates sexual behavior, provides legal and social protection, supports the family,
creates social unity, and can even play a role in religious and political spheres.
These various functions make marriage a key element in maintaining social order
and stability.

Types of Marriage
1. Classification Based on the Number of Spouses:
Marriages can be classified based on how many spouses a person has at a time.
The main types are monogamy, polygamy, and group marriage.
a) Monogamy:
Monogamy is when a person has only one spouse at a time. This is the most
common form of marriage worldwide. If someone divorces or if a spouse dies, and
the surviving partner marries again, it’s called serial monogamy. However, if a
person is expected to have only one partner for life, it’s known as non-serial
monogamy.
b) Polygamy:
Polygamy is when a person has more than one spouse at the same time. There are
two main types:
 Polygyny: A man has multiple wives. It can be sororal (if the wives are
sisters) or non-sororal (if the wives are not related). For example, in some
Muslim communities, a man can have up to four wives. A famous example
of non-sororal polygyny is King Dashratha from the Ramayana, who had
three wives.
 Polyandry: A woman has multiple husbands. If the husbands are brothers,
it’s called fraternal polyandry. An example is in the Mahabharata, where
Draupadi was married to the five Pandavas.
c) Group Marriage:
Group marriage is when several men and women are married to each other
simultaneously. This is the rarest form of marriage and is mostly found in some
African tribes, though it is becoming less common.
2. Classification Based on Mate Selection:
This type of classification is about how people choose their marriage partners.
I. Endogamy:
Endogamy is when people are encouraged or required to marry within a specific
group. This can be based on factors like:
 Caste: In India, many people marry within their own caste.
 Religion: Some people may only marry within their own religious group
(for example, some Muslim groups marry only within their sect, like Shia or
Sunni).
 Village: In some places, people marry others from their own village.
II. Exogamy:
Exogamy is the opposite of endogamy. It’s when people are required to marry
outside of a specific group. This prevents incest (marriage between close relatives).
For example, in some places, marriage within the same village or clan is not
allowed, because members of the same clan are considered too closely related.
 Sagotra Exogamy: This is when people are not allowed to marry someone
from the same "gotra" (ancestral clan) because they share a common
ancestor.
 Sapinda Exogamy: This is the rule that prohibits marriage between people
who share common ancestors, specifically from certain generations.
In some regions, people are not allowed to marry close cousins, while in others
(like in South India), marriage with cousins is allowed.

Latest Trend Marriages

 Homosexuality and Same-Sex Marriage
Same-sex marriage refers to the union of two people of the same sex. In the past,
same-sex relationships (such as gay and lesbian relationships) were often not
accepted by society and were even considered illegal in many places. However, in
recent years, as the focus has shifted towards individual rights, many countries
have legalized same-sex marriages, recognizing them as equal to heterosexual
marriages.
In Western countries, same-sex marriages are becoming more common as society
grows more accepting of different sexual orientations. Despite this progress, there
are still many people who oppose same-sex marriages, viewing them as a threat to
traditional social structures. One common argument against same-sex marriages is
that they cannot naturally produce children, which some see as the main purpose of
marriage. However, this argument is becoming less significant because procreation
is no longer seen as the only reason for marriage. Same-sex couples can also have
children through methods like artificial insemination or surrogacy.
When same-sex marriages are legalized, it allows the partners to enjoy the same
legal rights as heterosexual couples, such as inheritance rights, parental rights, and
the ability to claim pensions. Scholars like Sullivan and Giddens argue that sexual
orientation is natural and not a choice, and prohibiting same-sex relationships only
marginalizes these individuals further. Some countries have even recognized the
parental rights of gay couples, allowing both partners’ names to appear on their
child’s birth certificate. This reflects a broader shift toward valuing loving and
nurturing families, regardless of sexual orientation.
However, same-sex marriages are still a controversial topic in many societies, with
some viewing changes in marriage and reproductive practices as a threat to social
stability.
 Live-in Relationships
A live-in relationship is when a couple chooses to live together without getting
married. In this arrangement, there is no formal marriage, but the couple may live
together and share their lives, similar to a married couple. Live-in relationships are
becoming more common in cities, especially among young people who prefer not
to commit to marriage immediately.
These relationships face resistance in traditional societies and have no legal
recognition in many places. However, in countries like the UK and the US, couples
in live-in relationships can register themselves as domestic partners or enter into
cohabitation contracts, giving them some legal rights. In India, the legal status of
live-in relationships is unclear. Sometimes, the courts recognize long-term
cohabitation as equivalent to marriage, giving the couple the same rights and
responsibilities as married couples. But if the relationship is short-term or purely
for sexual purposes (such as a "keep"), it is not considered a marriage.
Live-in relationships offer individuals more freedom, as there are fewer social or
legal obligations between the partners. However, they also raise questions about
the stability and well-being of children born from these relationships. The children
from live-in relationships have the same rights to inheritance as children born to
married couples, but they cannot claim rights to ancestral property under Hindu
law.
While live-in relationships allow greater liberty, some people view them as
unstable and harmful to society. There are concerns about their impact on
children's moral development. There is a push to bring live-in relationships under
laws that provide for maintenance and rights similar to those of married couples.
However, this could lead to confusion and conflict between the rights of a wife and
those of a live-in partner. Therefore, some believe that a separate law is needed to
address the unique aspects of live-in relationships, particularly to protect women
and children involved in them.

Family

The idea that the family is universal—that it exists in every society—has been
widely accepted. G.P. Murdock, in his study, concluded that the family, especially
the nuclear family, is found in all societies around the world. The family is seen as
essential because it serves basic functions that are crucial for both individuals and
society. For individuals, the family provides basic needs, while for society, the
family plays a key role in its continuation by fulfilling reproductive and social
roles.

Meaning:- Family is more or less durable association of husband wife, with or

without children, or a man or woman alone, with children. Family is most
important, functional social institution in society. Family teaches norms, values,
rituals, traditions to its members. In other words it socialize its members. Family
also define the limits tro its members or in other words it control the behaviour of
its member. It is a social institution therefore it has particular goals in society. The
word family has been taken from Famulus which mean a servant. Family serve as
Group, association and Institution.

According to Murdock, a family is a social group that lives together, works

together economically, and is involved in reproduction.

According to Burgess and Locke, family as a group connected by marriage,

blood, or adoption, who live together as a single household and communicate with
each other through roles such as husband and wife, mother and father, etc.

According to K.Davis, Family is a group of persons whose relations to one

another are based upon consanguinity and who are therefore, kin to another.

But there is difference between Family and Household

It’s important to distinguish between family and household:

 A family consists of two or more people who are related by blood, marriage,
or adoption.
 A household, on the other hand, is a group of people who live together in
the same residence, such as a house or apartment. The people in a household
don’t necessarily have to be related.

For example, a family may consist of parents and children who live in different
houses, but they are still part of the same family. In contrast, a household is more
about people who live together, share a home, and may or may not be related. In
big cities, for instance, a group of students might live together in one apartment,
sharing meals and expenses, but they aren’t related by blood or marriage—they are
just a household.

So, a family is an emotional and social unit with strong ties of kinship, while a
household is more of an economic unit where people live together and share
resources, but they may not have familial bonds.

Function of Family
Functions of the Family

The family is a key social institution in society, and it performs several important
functions that help individuals and society as a whole. G.P. Murdock identified
some universal functions that families fulfill:

1. Reproductive: The family’s basic function is to bring new members into

society. This means having children who will grow up to become part of the
next generation. Families ensure that society continues by raising children
who will contribute to the community in the future.
 2. Maintenance: The family provides the basic needs for its members, such as
food, shelter, and clothing. It’s where people take care of each other and
ensure that everyone has what they need to survive and thrive. Parents, for
example, make sure their children have a safe place to live and enough to
eat.
3. Placement: Families also give individuals their identity and place in society.
This includes things like family names, traditions, and the roles people take
on within the family, such as being a parent, sibling, or child. Families help
individuals understand who they are and their place in the world.
4. Socialization: Families teach children how to behave and interact with
others in society. This includes teaching them about right and wrong, how to
share, how to respect others, and how to follow social rules. It's in the family
where children first learn the basics of how to communicate, build
relationships, and fit into society.
5. Affectional: Families provide emotional support and love. They offer care,
comfort, and affection that help individuals feel valued and secure. For
example, when someone feels sad or upset, family members often provide
the emotional support they need to feel better and deal with difficult
situations.
6. Economic: Families support their members financially. Parents typically
work to earn money to take care of the family, buy food, pay for housing,
and provide for the children’s needs. In some families, older children might
also contribute by working part-time jobs or helping out in other ways.
7. Recreational: Families offer opportunities for fun, relaxation, and play.
They spend time together through activities like playing games, going on
trips, celebrating holidays, or enjoying hobbies. This helps to build strong
bonds and creates happy memories.
8. Protective: Families protect their members from harm, both physically and
emotionally. They ensure that children are safe, that they are shielded from
dangers, and that they grow up in a supportive environment. This could
mean protecting children from bad influences or helping a family member
who is going through a tough time.
9. Religious: Families also play a role in passing down religious beliefs and
practices. Parents and elders often teach children about their religious
traditions, values, and rituals. This helps preserve cultural and spiritual
practices and provides a moral framework for the family members.
10.Educational: Families are often the first place where children learn
important skills and values. Parents teach their children not only basic life
skills but also how to think, solve problems, and make decisions.
Additionally, families can help children with their schoolwork and
encourage them to pursue education and personal growth.

Dysfunctional Aspects of the Family (Negative role of Family)

While families serve many positive functions, some scholars, like David Cooper,
point out the dysfunctions or negative aspects of the family. These include:

 Restricting Individuality: Families sometimes limit the personal growth of

their members, especially children. Overly strict or controlling parents can
hinder the development of healthy personalities.
 Negative Role Models: In some cases, parents may fight or behave in
harmful ways, providing negative examples for their children, which can
lead to emotional problems in kids.
 Abuse or Violence: Children in some families may face abuse or neglect,
leading to the development of unhealthy or unbalanced personalities.

In modern Western societies, the family structure is changing. As families become

more focused on relationships between adults (husband and wife), the
responsibility for children’s welfare is increasingly shared with the State.
Governments provide social services, including education and healthcare, to
support children and protect their rights. Laws are also in place to prevent child
abuse and neglect, and parents who fail to meet their responsibilities can face legal
consequences.

In summary, while the family plays a crucial role in society by performing

essential functions like sexual, reproductive, economic, and socializing tasks, it can
also have negative impacts, especially if there are issues like abuse or neglect.
Social systems and laws aim to address these problems and support families in
fulfilling their functions.

Types of Families
Families come in various types based on structure, roles, and relationships. Here
are the main types of families:

On the basis of Size

1. Nuclear Family

A nuclear family consists of two parents (a mother and father) and their unmarried
children. This is the most common family structure in many societies.

Sub-types of Nuclear Family:

 Single-Person Household: A family where one individual lives alone.

 Conjugal Family: A married couple living without children.
 Incomplete Nuclear Family: A single parent (due to divorce, separation, or
death) raising children.
 Nuclear Family with Dependents: A nuclear family that includes other
dependents, like an elderly parent or unmarried sibling.
 2. Joint Family

A joint family includes more than two generations living together. Typically, it
involves parents, children, grandparents, and sometimes uncles, aunts, and cousins.
Joint families are common in certain cultures, like in India.

Sub-types of Joint Family:

 Lineal Joint Family: Expands vertically with more generations (e.g.,

grandparents, parents, children).
 Collateral Joint Family: Expands horizontally with relatives of the same
generation (e.g., brothers and their families).
 Lineal Collateral Joint Family: A combination of both vertical and
horizontal expansion.
 Joint Family with Dependents: A joint family that includes additional
dependent relatives like elderly parents or other unmarried relatives.

3. Extended Family

An extended family includes multiple generations, such as grandparents, uncles,

aunts, and cousins, who may or may not live together but still share close ties and
responsibilities. It is similar to a joint family but can be geographically separated.

On the Basis of Marriage

1. Monogamous Family: In a monogamous family, one person marries one
partner. It’s a family where the couple (husband and wife) are together and
build their family. For example, a husband and wife who have children
together form a monogamous family.
2. Polygynous Family: In a polygynous family, one man has more than one
wife. This means that a man is married to multiple women, and they live
together as a family. For example, in some cultures, a man may have two or
three wives at the same time.
3. Polyandrous Family: In a polyandrous family, one woman has more than
one husband. This is less common but still exists in some cultures. Here, a
woman is married to multiple men, and they all share responsibilities and
live together as a family.

On the Basis of Authority

1. Patriarchal Family: In a patriarchal family, the father or the eldest male
member holds the most power and makes important decisions. For example,
in many traditional families, the father may decide where the family lives,
how money is spent, and how to handle major family matters.
 2. Matriarchal Family: In a matriarchal family, the mother or the eldest
female member is in charge and makes the key decisions. For example, in
some families, the mother may be the one who manages the household,
makes decisions about money, and leads the family’s activities.

On the Basis of Residence

1. Patrilocal Family: In a patrilocal family, after marriage, the wife moves in
with her husband’s family, usually with his parents. This means that the
couple starts living in the husband’s home, and the wife adjusts to his
family’s way of life. For example, after marriage, the wife may move from
her own home to live with her husband's family.
2. Matrilocal Family: In a matrilocal family, after marriage, the husband
moves in with his wife’s family, usually with her parents. In this case, the
husband lives in the wife’s home or close by. For example, after the
wedding, the husband might move into his wife’s family’s house, and they
live with her relatives.

On the Basis of Descent

1. Patrilineal Family: In a patrilineal family, family property, names, and
inheritance are passed down through the father’s side. This means that
children inherit things like family wealth or land from their father. For
example, if a father has a farm, his sons may inherit it, and the family name
is passed down through the male line.
2. Matrilineal Family: In a matrilineal family, family property, names, and
inheritance are passed down through the mother’s side. This means that
children inherit from their mother’s family, not their father’s. For example,
if a woman has property or land, her children (especially daughters) may
inherit it, and the family name is passed down through the female line.

Recent Trend
In recent years, there has been a shift in the traditional family structure in India,
moving away from the joint family system toward smaller nuclear families. This
change is often seen as a sign of progress, with the joint family system considered
outdated or even harmful to modern development.

Reasons for the Change:

 1. Industrialization: As industries grow in cities, people are moving from
rural areas to urban centers in search of work. This rural-to-urban migration
has led to families breaking apart, as they no longer need to stay together for
agricultural work, which used to require shared labor and resources.
2. Land Reforms: Laws limiting the amount of land a family can own have
made it harder for joint families to maintain their vast properties. As land is
divided, families often split into smaller units.
3. Modernization: With the spread of technology and factories replacing
traditional rural jobs, many rural workers have moved to cities for better
opportunities. This has contributed to the weakening of the joint family
system.

Different Perspectives:

Some sociologists, however, argue that while families in cities may appear to be
nuclear (parents and children), they still maintain strong ties to their extended
families in the villages. For example, families may continue to support relatives in
the village or preserve traditional values despite urban life.

Changes in Family Dynamics:

1. Loss of Authority: The traditional role of the patriarch (the eldest male) in
the family is weakening. Younger family members, especially women, are
now having a greater say in family matters.
2. Economic Independence: As smaller units within the family can now earn
their own income, there is less financial sharing. This reduces the support
systems for elderly or dependent family members.
3. Urban Families: In cities, families have become more individualistic.
Decisions that used to be made by the eldest male are now being made
individually, especially in higher-income groups. However, in some cases,
families still hold onto traditional structures, like in the business or
professional classes.
4. Changes in the Role of Women: Women are now taking on more authority
and independence in family matters. The traditional hierarchy, where
mothers-in-law dominated daughters-in-law, has shifted, and women now
have more control over their domestic lives.

Urban Family Trends:

 Support Systems: In urban areas, both spouses often work, so families may
depend on external help like housemaids or even invite elderly relatives to
assist with household chores and childcare.
 Increasing Individualism: As families become smaller and more self-
reliant, traditional values are breaking down. This can lead to less emotional
connection and more social problems like substance abuse or family
violence.
Conclusion:

The shift from joint to nuclear families is a complex process driven by

industrialization, migration, and modernization. While many families have adapted
to this change, some still maintain close ties with their extended families, blending
the old and the new in their own unique ways. The changes in family dynamics
have had a significant impact on roles, authority, and family support systems.

Kinship
Kinship refers to the relationships between individuals based on blood
(consanguinity) or marriage (affinity). It plays a vital role in organizing society and
regulating social behavior. Kinship systems are based on shared norms, roles, and
expectations, and they help organize social and economic activities.

Meaning:- Kinship is an interlocking system of families of orientation and

procreation. Family of orientation –The family in which one is born. Family of
Procreation – The family which is established after marriage. Kinship is the most
basic principle of organizing individuals into social groups, roles and categories.

The bond of blood or marriage which bind people together in group is called
kinship.

Definitions

According to Robin Fox- “Kinship is simply the relation between kin that is
persons related by real, putative or fictive consanguinity.”.

According to Aberchrombie- “ The social relationships deriving from blood ties

(real and supposed) and marriage are collectively referred to as kinship.

Function/Usage of kinship
Functions of Kinship:

1. Social Organization: Kinship helps organize society by defining clear roles

for people. It decides who does what in a family or community. For
example, it often says that the oldest male makes decisions, or women are in
charge of taking care of the home. These clear roles help everyone know
their duties, which helps the family or group work together smoothly.
2. Determines Family Line Relationships: Kinship determines the family
connections and how people are related to one another (like who is a brother,
sister, aunt, uncle, etc.). It helps establish family lines, meaning who belongs
to which family and how different generations are connected. This is
especially important for understanding inheritance and family legacy.
 3. Marriage and Reproduction: Kinship decides who can marry whom. It
helps prevent people from marrying close family members, which could
cause problems for the family or the community. It also governs who has
rights over children and what their roles in the family should be, making
sure that the family grows in an organized way.
4. Inheritance and Property: Kinship rules say who gets what when someone
dies. In some cultures, property passes from father to son, while in others, it
passes from mother to daughter. These rules make sure that property, wealth,
and titles are passed down correctly through the family.
5. Support and Social Security: Kinship ensures that family members look
after each other. If someone is sick, elderly, or in need, their family steps in
to help. This system makes sure no one is left alone without support,
whether it’s emotional, financial, or physical.
6. Cultural Transmission: Kinship helps pass down traditions, values, and
customs from one generation to the next. Elders in the family teach younger
members about the family’s history, culture, and important ceremonies. This
way, family members stay connected to their heritage.
7. Conflict Resolution: Kinship also helps solve family disputes. Elders or
leaders in the family are usually the ones who help settle arguments or
disagreements between family members. This system keeps the peace and
prevents fights from growing bigger.
8. Identity and Belonging: Kinship gives people a sense of who they are and
where they come from. It connects them to a family, clan, or tribe. This
connection helps people feel like they belong and are part of something
bigger than just themselves.

Issues and Challenges Related to Kinship

Kinship is a central institution in many societies, but it also faces a range of issues
and challenges, particularly in the context of modernization, urbanization, and
social change. Here are some of the main issues related to the kinship institution:

1. Decline of Extended Families

 Issue: With modernization and the shift from agrarian to industrial

economies, the traditional extended family structure is changing. The joint
family system, where multiple generations lived together, is increasingly
being replaced by nuclear families (parents and children).
 Impact: This shift can lead to weaker ties between relatives and a loss of
traditional family support systems. Elderly members of the family, in
particular, may be left without the support they once received from extended
family members.

2. Gender Roles and Inequality

  Issue: In many kinship systems, traditional gender roles place women in
subordinate positions, limiting their power and control in family decisions.
Men typically hold authority in patriarchal kinship systems, while women
may be expected to manage the home and care for children.
 Impact: This often leads to gender-based inequality, where women have
limited access to education, employment, and decision-making power.
Although changes are occurring, these traditional roles are deeply rooted in
many societies.

3. Inheritance and Property Disputes

 Issue: Inheritance rules within kinship systems can sometimes lead to

conflicts, especially when it comes to the division of property.
Disagreements can arise when family members, particularly between
siblings or generations, feel that the distribution of wealth or property is
unfair.
 Impact: These disputes can create rifts within families, sometimes lasting
for generations. In some cultures, male descendants may have more
inheritance rights than female members, leading to further gender inequality.

4. Changing Marriage Norms

 Issue: Traditional marriage patterns and rules of endogamy (marrying

within the same group) are being challenged by globalization and changing
cultural norms. Intercultural marriages, late marriages, or choosing partners
for reasons other than kinship alliances are becoming more common.
 Impact: While these changes may promote individual freedom and social
integration, they can also cause tensions within families and kinship groups,
especially when traditional marriage rules are challenged or rejected.

5. Erosion of Traditional Kinship Structures

 Issue: As societies become more individualistic and mobile, traditional

kinship structures are breaking down. Kinship roles that once provided
social security, identity, and stability are becoming less important in many
urban and industrialized settings.
 Impact: Families may face challenges related to caregiving for the elderly,
child-rearing, and economic support, as the extended family is no longer
available to offer these services. Social security systems or alternative
support structures might not always be sufficient.

6. Impact of Urbanization and Migration

 Issue: Urbanization and migration have led to changes in kinship networks.

People moving from rural areas to urban centers for better opportunities may
find themselves geographically and emotionally distanced from their kin.
  Impact: This can lead to the fragmentation of kinship networks, where
people may feel isolated and unsupported in urban environments. Traditional
kinship roles may also be disrupted, as people adjust to new lifestyles and
priorities in the city.

7. Changing Parental Roles

 Issue: With the rise of dual-income households, both parents are often
working outside the home. This change in the family structure affects the
roles of parents, especially in terms of childcare and domestic
responsibilities.
 Impact: Traditional kinship roles related to parenting may become less
defined, leading to changes in family dynamics. In some cases, elderly
relatives or hired help may take on parenting roles, which can affect the
emotional bonds within the family.

8. Intergenerational Tensions

 Issue: As younger generations adopt more modern lifestyles and values,

there may be tension with older generations who hold traditional kinship
beliefs and practices. This generation gap can create friction within families
and kin groups.
 Impact: These tensions can lead to misunderstandings, disagreements, or
even family breakups. Younger family members may resist the authority of
older members, particularly in patriarchal kinship systems, leading to a shift
in power dynamics.

9. Impact of Technology

 Issue: The rise of digital technology and social media has altered how
families interact. Kinship ties are no longer solely maintained through face-
to-face communication but are increasingly sustained through online
platforms.
 Impact: While technology can help families stay in touch, it can also lead to
a loss of the deeper, more personal connections that were once nurtured
through direct interaction. This shift may also contribute to the erosion of
traditional kinship roles.

10. Cultural Assimilation and Loss of Traditions

 Issue: In multicultural and globalized societies, kinship systems may face

challenges from the influence of other cultures. Younger generations may
prefer to assimilate into dominant cultures, sometimes at the expense of
traditional kinship practices.
  Impact: As a result, traditional family structures, rituals, and kinship rules
may be weakened or lost. This can lead to a loss of cultural identity and
heritage for younger generations.

Conclusion:

Kinship institutions, while still playing a key role in societies, are facing
challenges due to modernization, urbanization, and social changes. These issues
can have profound effects on family structures, gender relations, inheritance
practices, and the way kinship networks function. Addressing these challenges
often requires finding a balance between tradition and modernity to ensure that
kinship systems continue to meet the evolving needs of society.

Institution
In everyday language, the word "institution" is often used to refer to
organizations or groups that serve a specific purpose, like hospitals, schools, or
banks. These are institutions because they are set up to provide certain services or
carry out specific tasks in society.

But the word "institution" can also refer to any group of people working together
in an organized way. This could include a family, a club, a government, or even a
social group with a common interest. In this case, an institution is not just a
building or organization, but a set of people interacting with each other based on
rules, traditions, and shared goals.

Differences Between Institute, Institution, and Institutionalization:

The words "institution" and "institute" are closely related but have different
meanings.

An institute is a specific organization created for a particular purpose, like a

school, research center, or training center. It refers to a place with people and
resources working towards a common goal.

An institution, on the other hand, is a broader concept. It refers to an organized

system of people, behaviors, and traditions that help society function. It’s about the
rules and customs that guide how people act in a society, such as the institution of
marriage, education, or government.

Institutionalization is the process of making something part of society by creating

stable, widely accepted structures and rules. For example, when education
becomes a system regulated by laws and accepted by everyone, it is
institutionalized. It means that a practice or behavior becomes regular and accepted
as part of how society works.

Sociological Perspective on Institutions:

In sociology, institutions are socially organised groups which are bound or

governed by rules and regulations. Moreover, institutions are set of norms, values,
ethics, mores, beliefs etc.

Institutions can be formal (like laws, governments, and schools) or informal (like
family, friends, and social groups). Both types are important because they help
keep society running smoothly and meet basic needs like raising children,
teaching, and sharing resources.

Institutions are key to maintaining order in society. They create a predictable

structure, so people know what to expect and how to behave. For example, in a
family, the institution of marriage sets roles for a husband and wife, and the family
itself decides how members interact. In a government, laws tell people how to act
and how power and resources are shared.

Definition of Institution
According to William Graham Sumner, “An institution consists of a concept
(idea, notion, doctrine or interest) and structure.

According to Bogardus, “A Social institution is a structure of society that is

organized to meet the needs of people chiefly through well established
procedures.”

Characteristics of Institutions
1. Control over individuals: Institutions help shape and guide the behavior of
people. They set rules and expectations that individuals must follow, which
helps keep society organized. For example, schools control behavior by
setting rules for students to follow, like respecting teachers and completing
assignments.
2. Depend on collective activities: Institutions rely on the collective efforts of
many people to function. They are not about just one person; they work
because many individuals come together to achieve common goals. For
 example, a hospital works because doctors, nurses, and other staff work
together to care for patients.
3. Formed to satisfy primary and secondary needs: Institutions exist to meet
both basic and more complex needs of people. Primary needs are basic
things like food, shelter, and family care, while secondary needs are things
like education, social interaction, and career development. For example, the
family helps meet primary needs by providing food and care, while schools
satisfy secondary needs like learning.
4. Social recognition: Institutions are accepted by society because people
recognize their importance and role. They gain trust and respect through
their functions. For example, schools, hospitals, and governments are
recognized as important parts of society because they provide essential
services.
5. Set of rules, traditions, and usages: Every institution has a set of rules or
guidelines that its members must follow. These rules can be formal, like
laws, or informal, like social customs. For example, in a school, there are
rules about attendance, behavior, and respect. Traditions and usages, like
cultural practices in a family, also guide how people act within an
institution.
6. Forms of procedure recognized and accepted by society: Institutions have
accepted ways of doing things, called procedures. These are the steps people
follow to achieve goals or complete tasks. For example, in the legal system,
there are established procedures for how trials are conducted and how justice
is served.
7. Relatively permanent: Institutions are usually stable and long-lasting. They
do not change quickly or often because they are deeply embedded in society.
For example, marriage and education have been important institutions in
most societies for centuries.
8. Structural: Institutions are organized in a way that allows them to function
properly. They have a clear structure, with roles and responsibilities for
different members. For example, in a company, there is a structure of
managers, workers, and departments that helps the company run smoothly.
9. Universal: Many institutions are found in all societies, though they may
look different in each culture. For example, most societies have some form
of family, education, and government, even if the specific practices differ.
10.Bound with norms, values, and ideas: Institutions are influenced by the
shared values, beliefs, and norms of the society. These values guide how
people behave and what they think is important. For example, in a religious
institution, the values of faith and spirituality guide the behavior of its
members. Similarly, in a school, the value of education and learning shapes
how students and teachers interact.

These characteristics show how institutions are essential to maintaining order and
meeting the needs of individuals and society. They help guide behavior, provide
structure, and ensure that society functions smoothly.
Functions of Institutions
1. Control Behavior: Institutions help control how people behave by setting
rules and expectations. They guide people on what is acceptable and what is
not. For example, schools have rules to ensure students behave respectfully
and follow the schedule, while laws in a society control how people act to
maintain safety and order.
2. Socialization: Institutions play a big role in teaching individuals how to live
in society. They help people learn the norms, values, and behaviors that are
accepted in their culture. For instance, families teach children how to
communicate, behave, and interact with others, while schools teach students
how to be responsible and work together.
3. Maintain peace and order: Institutions help maintain peace and order in
society. They make sure people follow rules and behave in ways that keep
things running smoothly. For example, governments create laws that people
must follow to avoid chaos, and police enforce these laws to keep everyone
safe and secure.
4. Coordinate with different parts of society: Institutions help coordinate
different parts of society so that everything works together. They ensure that
different areas of life, like education, family, economy, and government, all
function in a way that supports the overall culture. For example, the
education system prepares young people to enter the workforce, while the
government manages the economy and public services.
5. Provide Ready-Made Forms of Social Relations and roles: Institutions
give people roles and relationships that help them understand how to interact
with others. These roles are often based on social expectations, like being a
student, a teacher, a parent, or a worker. For example, in a family, parents
are expected to care for children, while children are expected to listen to
their parents and respect them.
6. Satisfying Needs of Individuals: Institutions also help meet the needs of
individuals. They provide services or benefits that people need to live a good
life. For instance, schools provide education, hospitals offer healthcare, and
businesses offer products and jobs. These services help people live better
lives and meet their personal and social needs.

In short, institutions are important because they help guide behavior, teach people
how to fit into society, keep everything organized and orderly, provide clear roles,
and meet the basic needs of individuals. They make sure society works smoothly
and that people can live together in harmony.