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Karuna Singh · Neelabh Srivastava
Editors
Recent Trends
in Human
and Animal
Mycology
Recent Trends in Human and Animal
Mycology
Karuna Singh • Neelabh Srivastava
Editors
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Foreword
It is a pleasure for me to write a foreword for the book Recent Trends in Human and
Animal Mycology edited capably by Dr. Karuna Singh of the Department of Zoology
(MMV), Banaras Hindu University, India. In a time when the concept of One
Health is well accepted, this book takes things to the next level by considering fun-
gal disease entities within the conceptual framework of Planetary Health, taking
into account the environment, animals, humans and plants, plus their fungal patho-
gens, and taking a holistic view of how they all interplay. Not only are the authors
focused on human and animal disease, but they are interested in crop diseases, envi-
ronmental health and food security and what strategies are affordable in the devel-
oping as well as the developed world.
    Marauru, Chermette and Guillot from France cover the superficial fungal dis-
eases of companion animals, with special emphasis on dermatophytes and
Malassezia, common and important pathogens of pedigree dogs and cats. Signs,
diagnostic approaches and therapy are covered in an overarching up-to-date review.
Singh and Gumsta from India review the phaeohyphomycosis, uncommon but chal-
lenging causes of infections which are characterized by the elaboration of melanin
within lesions, this pigment being a critical virulence factor. Clinical disease, diag-
nostic testing and future areas for research are all covered. Ovchinnikov and Vasyliev
from Russia cover the Chrysosporium-related fungi, the major cause of mycotic
disease of reptiles worldwide. Interestingly, it is the popularity of exotic reptiles as
pets that has facilitated worldwide spread of these infections in recent years, a fail-
ure of international biosecurity akin to the situation for chytrid disease of frogs.
    de Moraes Gimenes Bosco has tackled the large topic of endemic systemic
mycoses of North and South America, covering histoplasmosis, blastomycosis, coc-
cidiomycosis, sporotrichosis and paracocidiomycosis, with special emphasis on
Sporothrix brasiliensis, an emerging infectious zoonotic disease of Brazil, with the
cat being the pivotal amplifying host and cause of infections in man and dog. The
same author tackles the fascinating pathogen Pythium insidiousum, an oomycete
which causes ‘swamp cancer’ in horses and severe cutaneous and alimentary dis-
ease of dogs and serious disease in humans in certain geographical regions where
the pathogen is endemic, such as Thailand, northern Australia and the southern
states of the USA.
    Pieckova from Slovakia addresses the risk of mycotoxins, whether they are pres-
ent in foods (e.g. poorly stored grain) or inhaled from moist environments where
                                                                                      v
vi                                                                            Foreword
fungal growth is favoured. The pathomechanism by which these potent fungal tox-
ins derange function of the respiratory system are addressed, as is their role in food
security in developing nations where storage of grain may be suboptimal. Kumari
and Tirkey from India discuss tenuazonic acid, a potent mycotoxin elaborated by
Alternaria spp. growing on cereals and fruits, including tomatoes. Raghuwanshi
from India discuss the use of phytochemicals (medicinal plants) as potential drugs
to treat candidiasis and other fungal infections, while Sharma and Katiyar from
India look at re-tasking coumarin derivatives as antifungal agents.
   Seyedmousavi, affiliated with the NIH (USA), provides an up-to-date summary
of the comparative knowledge on Aspergillus infections in humans and various
types of animals. A two-step molecular barcode, using ITS and β-tubulin, is sug-
gested for taxonomic division of the genus, including new cryptic species, while the
growing place of MALDI-TOF is mentioned, as well as aspects of azole resistance
for this genus as a worrying concern especially in Europe.
   Throughout this book, despite the multiauthor format, certain themes emerge
and are reinforced through a repetition in different conceptual frameworks. Fungal
disease is more complex and challenging because the pathogens are eukaryotic. The
knowledge gap is greater for fungal diseases than those caused by bacteria or
viruses, and there is an urgent need for new antifungal agents. Fungi are just as
important plant pathogens as animal pathogens, and key insights can come from
botany as well as human and veterinary medicine. Animals are oftentimes important
sentinels for human disease. To understand any fungal infection, it’s vital to appre-
ciate its environmental niche and host: environment-pathogen interactions are key
to understanding the aetiopathogenesis of disease.
   I trust you will enjoy this book and find it helpful to achieve a greater understand-
ing of fungal disease pathogenesis.
Adjunct Professor                                                       Richard Malik
Charles Sturt University
Bathurst Australia Veterinary Specialist,
Centre of Veterinary Education
University of Sydney
Camperdown Australia
Preface
Fungi are vitally different from other pathogenic microbes. The pathogenicity of
these eukaryotes depends on the immune status of the host. The frequency of
mycotic diseases is increasing day by day, and the whole animal kingdom including
humans is affected by them. The scenario has worsened with the emergence and
re-emergence of fungal opportunists. Besides, endemic mycoses are now being evi-
dent from other parts of the world owing to travel across the globe. Although few
pathogenic fungi are communicable from person to person, fungal infections trans-
mitted through zoonotic and sapronotic sources are of main concerns.
    Apart from mycoses, fungal pathogens indirectly harm the homeotherms by
secreting toxins which are capable of exerting detrimental effects even in a very low
concentration. These heat-resistant organic compounds enter through inhalation
and/or ingestion and cause mycotoxicoses-state of ill health including occupational
hazards. Moreover, the absence of specific clinical symptoms makes their diagnosis
difficult.
    Despite the use of effective antifungals, the morbidity of mycotic diseases
remained persistently high. Inevitable increase in antifungal resistance in estab-
lished pathogens, global warming, advent of new pathogens and more cases of
impaired immunity jeopardize existing therapeutic options. The escalating demand
of new antifungals could be fulfilled by adding new dimensions in the area of anti-
fungal drug discovery, like identification of new drug targets, lead optimization,
molecular validation and development of plant-based drugs.
    This book is an effort to refine our knowledge about human and animal mycoses
and provide a scalable platform to current trends of mycological research. This
amalgam of chapters has three parts. Part I includes six chapters describing mycoses
and their etiological agents. Part II contains two chapters addressing mycotoxins
and their deleterious effects. Part III summarizes reviews on antifungal drug
candidates.
    Last but not the least, we would like to express our deep sense of gratitude to all
the contributors for their benevolent contribution.
                                                                                    vii
Contents
                                                                                                                    ix
x                                                                                                               Contents
Index.................................................................................................................. 265
Abbreviations
5FC          5-Flucytosine
3-NPA-3      Nitropropionic acid
AAL toxins   Alternaria alternata lycopersici toxins
AAL-TA       Alternaria alternata toxins TA
AAL-TB       Alternaria alternata toxins TB
ABPA         Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis
AD           Autosomal dominant
Af           Aflatoxin
AFP          Antifungal peptide/protein
Ag           Silver
AGID         Agar gel immunodiffusion
ALT          Altenuene
AmB          Amphotericin B
AME          Alternariol monomethyl ether
AMP          Adenosine monophosphate
AMP          Antimicrobial peptides
ampB         Amphotericin B
AOH          Alternariol
AR           Autosomal recessive
AST          Aspartate aminotransferase
ATCC         American Type Culture Collection
ATX          Altertoxin
aw           Water activity
BBB          Blood-brain barrier
BEA          Beauvericin
BID          Bis in die (twice in a day)
CA           Californian
CAM          Complementary and alternative system of medicines
CANV         Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii
CARD9        Caspase recruitment domain-containing protein 9
CAPD         Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis
Cd           Cadmium
CDR          Candida drug resistance
CGD          Chronic granulomatous disease
                                                                 xi
xii                                                        Abbreviations
ICT                   Immunochromatography
ID                    Immunodiffusion
IDH                   Isoepoxydon dehydrogenase
IEC                   Intestinal epithelial cell
IFN-γ                 Interferon γ
IGS                   Intergenic spacer
IgE                   Immunoglobulin E
IgG                   Immunoglobulin G
IgM                   Immunoglobulin M
IL                    Interleukin
ITS                   Internal transcribed spacer
IUPAC                 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
kg                    Kilogram
kDa                   Kilodalton
LAD                   Leukocyte adhesion deficiency
LLC-PK1 renal cells   Epithelial cell line originally derived from porcine kidneys
LRS                   Lactated Ringer’s solution
LSD                   Lysergic acid diethylamide
MALDI-TOF             Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight
MDR                   Multidrug resistance
MFC                   Minimum fungicidal concentration
μg                    Microgram
μM                    Micrometre
mg                    Milligram
MIC                   Minimum inhibitory concentration
ml                    Millilitre
Mn                    Manganese
MON                   Moniliformin
MS                    Mass spectrometry
mVOCs                 Microbial volatile organic compounds
MW                    Molecular weight
Na-K-ATPase           Sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase enzyme
Ni                    Nickel
NIH/3T3               3-Day transfer, inoculums 3×105 cells from NIH mouse
                      embryonic fibroblast cells
NIOSH                 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NRPS-PKS              Non-ribosomal peptide synthetase and polyketide synthase
                      hybrid enzyme
OTA                   Ochratoxin A
OTB                   Ochratoxin B
OT-GSH                OTA-glutathione conjugate
OTHQ                  OTA-hydroquinone
OTQ                   OTA-quinone
PA                    Penicillic acid
pKa                   Acid dissociation constant
PAMP                  Pathogen-associated molecular patterns
xiv                                                        Abbreviations
Contributors
                                                                                  xv
xvi                                                         Editors and Contributors
   Abstract
   Pythiosis is a granulomatous disease that affects subcutaneous, vascular, ocular,
   and gastrointestinal tissues of many humans and animals. The disease is caused
   by the fungus-like pathogen Pythium insidiosum, an oomycete found predomi-
   nantly in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Pythiosis in animals (horses
   and dogs) has been more prevalent in the American continent, while the disease
   in humans has been mostly reported from Thailand. Susceptibility according to
   age, sex, and breed of the animals is not considered as determinants for infection.
   Continuous stay in stagnant water with the presence of abundant plant material
   is the most important factor responsible for the infection, since the disease is
   acquired in aquatic environment due to the penetration of motile biflagellate zoo-
   spores into injured skin. Diagnosis of pythiosis is often difficult, delayed, and
   time-consuming due to the lack of clinical experience and diagnostic techniques.
   Treatment of choice is frequently relied upon extensive surgery, which, however,
   is not always possible due to the great extension of the lesions. Frequently, the
   disease has a poor prognosis, leading animals to death or euthanasia. In humans,
   removal of the infected organ or death is the common outcome. Therefore, new
   diagnosis methodologies and treatment approaches against pythiosis and its etio-
   logical agent would be among the most studied fields in the near future.
    Keywords
    Pythiosis · Oomycete · Animal · Human
isolates). However, the tree based on Cox II showed high resolution, and the authors
affirmed that Cox II is better for phylogenetic studies on P. insidiosum. Likewise,
Azevedo et al. (2012) concluded that Cox II tree represented better phylogeny and
could separate Thai isolates from Brazilian isolates [13]. The phylogenetic evalua-
tion based on the sequences of exo-1,3-β-glucanase gene also showed a well-
separated tree, in which Thai isolates clustered in clades I and II and Brazilian
isolates clustered in clade III [14]. The authors also reinforce the genetic variation,
mainly found in Thai isolates, and suggest an ancient population of P. insidiosum
from Asian continent.
1.2 Epidemiology
Pythiosis is most frequently found in tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
Different animal species are affected by disease, such as equines, dogs, cattle and
small ruminants, cats, wild animals, and humans. However, the most affected spe-
cies are horses, dogs, and humans [6].
1   Pythiosis                                                                                 7
   Age, sex, and breed of the animal are not considered as determinants of infec-
tion. The most important factor in this respect is the continuous stay in stagnant
water with abundant plant material, where the zoospores can penetrate into injured
skin [1, 8]. Human pythiosis has been strongly associated to thalassemic patients
from Thailand [15–19].
   Historically, pythiosis was supposed to be firstly recognized by British veterinar-
ians in horses from Indonesia presenting skin lesions; however, at that time, the
disease was named hyphomycosis destruens equi [20]. The etiological agent was
isolated in the early 1900s by Dutch scientists working with horses in Indonesia.
The authors recognized the hyphal nature of the agent, but no identification was
given to the etiological agent, since no sporulation of the fungus was observed [21,
22]. Equine pythiosis had different synonyms over time, such as hyphomycosis
destruens equi (Indonesia), granular dermatitidis (Japan), equine phycomycosis,
swamp cancer (Australia, United States), leeches (United States), espundia (Latin
America), and summer sores (Australia, Latin America, United States) [6].
   Equine pythiosis is mainly found in American continent, highlighting the
Midwest region of Brazil, in Pantanal of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul
states [23, 24]. Owing to the great amount and variety of plant material, high tem-
peratures, and abundance of water, Brazilian Pantanal promotes the maintenance of
the pathogens in the environment. This geographic region of Brazil is economically
important for cattle pasture, and the population of the animals here is estimated
around eight million. During the rainy season (November to March), this region
observes several flooded areas in which cattle are raised extensively in pastures.
Horses are employed as work animals to assist in the removal of livestock from
flooded areas to land (Fig. 1.4). Besides Brazil [23–25], equine pythiosis is also
reported in Costa Rica [9], Venezuela [26], the United States [27–29], India [20],
Egypt [30], and Australia [31, 32], and recently, the first case was reported in
Thailand [33]. Pythiosis has also been reported in donkeys [34, 35].
   Canine pythiosis is reported mainly in the United States [36–38] and Brazil [39–
41]. A single case of pythiosis in dog was reported in Africa [42] and Venezuela
[43]. Pythiosis in cats was reported in the United States [44, 45].
Fig. 1.4 Pantanal region of Mato Grosso do Sul state, Brazil, showing (a) cattle in flooded area
and the (b) importance of equine for removing livestock from flooded areas to land
8                                                      S. de Moraes Gimenes Bosco et al.
    Pythiosis in ruminants has been reported in cattle, sheep, and goats. Among
ruminants, bovines are undoubtedly the most affected species, especially calves [46,
47]. Outbreaks of cattle pythiosis have been reported in Venezuela and Brazil. Pérez
et al. (2005) showed 63 Brahman beef calves, of both sexes, with subcutaneous and
cutaneous lesions in the lower extremities of limbs [48]. In Brazil, Gabriel et al.
(2008) reported lesions in 76 mixed breed cattle of both sexes and ages ranging
from few months to 3 years old in the west region of Rio Grande do Sul state, during
the months of January and February (rainy season) [49]. All animals showed nodu-
lar and ulcerated skin lesions, mainly in lower extremity of limbs, with different
sizes, and some of them drained purulent exudate. Konradt et al. (2016) reported 23
calves with skin lesions, which began after 15 days of animals being exposed to
extensive marshy regions [50]. The time of evolution of the lesions was around
20–30 days. It is important to emphasize that in these outbreaks the disease had a
good prognosis, by the observation of remission of the lesions, a fact not observed
in other species. Besides cattle, pythiosis has also been reported in goats [51] and
sheep [52–54]. In wild animals, pythiosis has been reported in camel [55, 56], tiger
[57], jaguar [58], and a single case in birds [59].
    Human pythiosis was firstly reported in Thailand in the middle of the 1980s [60,
61]. Apart from the majority of cases of human pythiosis observed in the Thai
patients, some human cases have also been reported in other countries, such as the
United States [62, 63], Brazil [64, 65], Israel [66], and India [67]. Some imported
cases of severe keratitis have been reported in patients after swimming in regions
where pythiosis occurs, such as in Canada [68], France [69], and Spain [70]. These
patients were reported to swim in Costa Rica, Thailand, Brazil, or Colombia,
respectively.
1.3 Pathogeny
as described by Lerksuthirat et al. in 2015 [7]. Chechi et al. (2018) reported some
putative virulence factors for P. insidiosum, such as enolase, heat-shock protein
(Hsp) 70, and glucan 1,3-beta-glucosidase [74]. Enolase may be involved in degra-
dation of extracellular matrix and adhesion; Hsp 70 helps during the process of heat
stimulation and may also play a role in adhesion; glucan 1,3-beta-glucosidase is a
hydrolytic enzyme that may favor the hyphal branching and cell wall extension,
favoring the growth of hyphae in tissues. Krajaejun et al. (2006) demonstrated that
human patients from different regions of Thailand recognized a protein of 74 KDa
that was later identified as putative exo-1,3-beta-glucanase [19, 75, 76].
    As hyphae grow on animal tissue, they release exo-antigens that act as chemotac-
tic factors for antigen-presenting cells, especially dendritic cells. These cells secrete
interleukin 4 (IL-4) that leads to immune response type 2, which in turn secretes
more IL-4 and IL-5. The secretion of IL-4 stimulates B cells to produce IgM, IgG,
and IgE. IL-5 and IgE mobilize eosinophils and mast cells to the site of infection,
forming an eosinophilic granulomatous reaction leading to the development of a
Splendore-Hoeppli-like material around hyphae, which is found in the center of
eosinophilic micro-abscesses. The pathogenic process of pythiosis has been associ-
ated with the degranulation of eosinophils and mast cells (inflammatory cells)
around the hyphae, and this fact contributes to tissue damage, leading to extensive
lesions. In equines, the reaction is so pronounced that the eosinophils strongly
degranulate around the hyphae of P. insidiosum forming the firm concretions called
“kunkers.” It is interesting to highlight that the pathogen is camouflaged inside the
eosinophilic material, a fact that represents an evolutionary strategy that protects P.
insidiosum to be fully presented to host defenses [77].
    Experimental pythiosis can be established by inoculating zoospores subcutane-
ously into rabbits [78]. It has been observed that pythiosis in rabbits may behave
differently from natural infection in animals, while naturally infected horses, for
example, develop an extensive ulcerative lesion and rabbits form a well-encapsulated
and fibrous abscess [79] (Fig. 1.5). Efforts for searching new experimental models
for pythiosis have been undertaken in the recent years. Zanette et al. (2013) have
developed a new model for pythiosis infection in a Toll-deficient (Tl) Drosophila
melanogaster (fruit fly) [80]. It was observed that the infected Tl mutant flies had
Undoubtedly, horses are the most affected animals of pythiosis. In general, the
lesions are characterized by pyogranulomatous irregular ulcerative wounds, which
drain a serosanguinolent exudate with fetid odor, and the animal exhibits an intense
pruritus. Inside the granulomatous tissue, irregular and yellowish-colored mass
called “kunkers” only found in equines are noticed [77]. In most cases, it is observed
as a single lesion in the ventral portion of the thoracic and abdominal walls and face.
The great majority of lesions are found in the distal extremities of the limbs. The
more distal is the lesion in the limbs, the worse is the prognosis in horses, as dem-
onstrated by Watanabe et al. (2015) by observing a series of 28 cases of equine
pythiosis in the central region of southeastern Brazil, São Paulo state [83]. In nine
animals with lesions in the metacarpophalangeal joint, three of them were eutha-
nized without therapy, five died after therapy (surgery and antifungal), and only one
had remission of lesion after surgical debridement, potassium iodine, and ampho-
tericin B therapy [83].
    Besides cutaneous/subcutaneous lesions, intestinal pythiosis has also been
observed in horses. These animals have a history of colic as a result of large tissue
masses that obstruct the intestinal lumen [84, 85]. Although the pathogenesis of
intestinal pythiosis has not been completely understood, it is suggested that previ-
ous injury to intestinal mucosa, caused by vegetal material or pathogenic agents,
may facilitate the penetration of P. insidiosum in intestines. Another hypothesis is
the active penetration of the agent [84]. Reis Jr. and coworkers in 2003 reported
three cases of systemic pythiosis in equines through dissemination of P. insidiosum
1   Pythiosis                                                                      11
from chronic lesion in mammary glands, nasal cavity, and limbs. The pathogen was
detected in the liver and lungs by immunohistochemistry and molecular methods
[86]. Nasal pythiosis was also reported in two horses from semiarid region of Brazil.
Both animals showed swelling in the rhinofacial region with a serosanguineous
nasal discharge. The surface of granuloma had a yellow-gray granular aspect and
cavitations of different sizes containing masses of necrotic tissue, “kunkers.” One of
the animals had dissemination of the disease to lungs [25]. Bone lesions have also
been described in horses and are located mainly in limbs, probably by dissemination
or contiguity of the pathogen from chronic subcutaneous lesions. Occasionally,
equine pythiosis has also been reported affecting ligaments and tendons of limbs,
joints, and bones, resulting in edema of the affected limb and laminitis [87].
Figure 1.6 shows some clinical aspects of equine pythiosis in Brazil. Pythiosis in
dogs may be observed in two presentations: gastrointestinal and cutaneous/subcuta-
neous. The gastrointestinal form is most prevalent, and frequently, the diagnosis is
only postmortem [36, 40]. Dogs become infected by drinking water, in lagoons or
rivers, contaminated with zoospores. The main clinical sign is chronic anorexia,
weight loss, vomiting, bloody diarrhea, and the presence of a firm nodular mass on
the stomach or intestine that is easily palpable on physical examination. Besides the
stomach and intestines, lesions in the oropharynx and cranial portion of the esopha-
gus and colon infection with metastasis to the prostate have also been reported in
dogs, resulting in prostatic hypertrophy and tenesmus [88]. Cutaneous/subcutane-
ous lesions in dogs may be found as granulomatous and ulcerated wounds with
reactive and irregular borders in limbs and the ventral region of the neck, face,
perineum, and thorax, as well as regional lymphadenopathy [37, 40, 89]. Other
anatomical sites are the dorsal lumbar and tail base region or lumbosacral region
[39]. Normally, dogs with cutaneous lesions in the lumbosacral region have a previ-
ous history of flea allergy dermatitis (FAD) that represents the entrance of zoo-
spores into injured skin while these dogs swim in lagoons or rivers [37, 39, 42]. A
rare and unique condition in which intestinal and cutaneous pythiosis occurred
simultaneously in a dog was reported by Pereira et al. (2010) in Brazil [40]. The
animal had an ulcerative lesion in the right thoracic region for 12 months of unre-
sponsiveness to antifungal therapy. Two months prior to death and concurrent with
skin lesion, the dog became anorexic with frequent vomiting and bloody stools.
During necropsy, it was observed that the large intestine contained two lesions that
caused luminal narrowing [40]. Coinfection with pythiosis in dog was reported by
Connolly et al. (2012) in a male dog from the United States presenting anorexia,
weight loss, and vomiting for 1 month. Prognosis was considered bad and the dog
was euthanized [90]. During necropsy, the stomach and duodenum were found to be
diffusely dark red with marked thickenings. Further gastric lymph nodes were found
to be enlarged. The lungs of this animal showed some granulomatous lesions, and
histopathology revealed the presence of yeasts that were identified as Blastomyces
dermatitidis by immunohistochemistry and serology [90]. There is also a report of
a primary pulmonary pythiosis in a dog, which presented enlarged cervical lymph
node and nonproductive cough, which was unresponsive to antibiotic therapy.
Pulmonary auscultation revealed harsh lung sounds more prominent in the right
12                                                          S. de Moraes Gimenes Bosco et al.
Fig. 1.6 Clinical manifestations of equine pythiosis in Brazil. (a) Granulomatous lesion in the
anterior left limb showing large edema in the scapular region. (b) Same animal exposed in (a)
presenting blood on the lips due to biting the lesion in an attempt to relieve the itching. (c)
Granulation tissue and exudation of serosanguinolent viscous liquid. (d) Granulomatous lesion
sectioned evidencing several “kunkers” (arrow). “Copyright of Gen National Publishing Group
(Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), Book: DoençasInfecciosasemanimais de Produção e Companhia, Chapter
of Pitiose (page 951) reprinted with permission”
Fig. 1.7 Clinical manifestations of canine pythiosis in Brazil. (a) Intestinal pythiosis in a dog of
Teckel breed. Note the swelling of the perianal region, with edema and exposure of the mucosa of
the rectum. (b) Cutaneous/subcutaneous pythiosis in dog of German shepherd breed. Note ulcer-
ated lesion with necrotic areas in the lumbosacral region. “Copyright of Gen National Publishing
Group (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), Book: Doenças Infecciosas Em Animais de Produção e Companhia,
Chapter of Pitiose (page 952), reprinted with permission”
were anorexia and vomiting [44]. Fortin and coworkers in 2017 reported an unusual
presentation of pythiosis in oral cavity in a cat which had multilobulated, sublin-
gual mass since 3 months [45]. Nondomestic felids, such as jaguar (Panthera onca)
and Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), have been reported with pulmonary and
cutaneous pythiosis, respectively. The jaguar presented dyspnea and leukocytosis
which was unresponsive to antibacterial therapy. By an exploratory thoracotomy, it
was observed that multilobular masses with extensive fibrosis and numerous case-
onecrotic foci were present in the left lung, which were removed and submitted to
immunohistochemistry, confirming the diagnosis of pythiosis [58]. The Bengal
tiger presented vomiting, diarrhea, and weight loss. Radiographic examination
revealed the presence of an abdominal mass, which was removed during necropsy
and was found to be presumptive for pythiosis. The diagnosis was confirmed by
immunoblotting [57].
   Among ruminants, bovine is the most affected species. Gabriel et al. (2008)
described an outbreak in Pantanal region of Brazil in which 76 bovines were
affected, and the animals showed some multifocal, nodular, and ulcerated lesions,
lacking the presence of “kunkers,” in the medial and lateral portions of the ante-
rior and posterior limbs [49]. In this outbreak, a spontaneous healing of lesions
was observed which reinforces the aspect of resistance of bovines to pythiosis
[47]. Two other outbreaks of pythiosis have also been reported in sheep in the
semiarid northeastern region of Brazil. The main clinical signs were local swell-
ings with ulcerative lesions in the limbs, ventral abdomen, and prescapular
regions. Limb ulcerated lesions were dry or wet and had a dark red or brown to
black surface. Three sheep were necropsied, and two of them revealed dissemi-
nation to lungs, several multifocal nodules. One showed dissemination to pres-
capular lymph node, and another animal displayed cutaneous lesion that extended
to the sesamoid bone [52, 53]. Two cases reported of gastroenteric pythiosis in
14                                                   S. de Moraes Gimenes Bosco et al.
lambs from different farms in northeast Brazil. One animal showed food regurgi-
tation, lethargy, and anorexia and died 5 days after the first symptoms. The sec-
ond lamb showed no clinical sign of gastrointestinal disorders before death. Both
lambs, at necropsy, showed ulceration, covered by yellowish caseous granular
exudate, in the mucosa of the esophagus, reticulum, rumen, omasum, and aboma-
sum. Adhesions were observed between the serosa of the forestomach and
abomasum to the liver and diaphragm [53]. Pythiosis has been reported in one
goat that presented lameness and weight loss associated with an extensive, ulcer-
ative, exudative, and pruriginous cutaneous lesion in the metatarsal-phalangeal
region of the left hind limb with 1 month of evolution. The animal was clinically
cured after two weeks of surgery [51].
    P. insidiosum also causes pythiosis in humans [19, 93, 94]. The disease in
humans has been reported mostly from Thailand [75], although some cases
have been diagnosed in other countries as well [6, 19, 64]. Unlike the clinical
features observed in the animals, human patients with pythiosis usually present
with symptoms and signs associated with the P. insidiosum infection of eye
(so-called ocular pythiosis) and arterial tissue of the upper or lower extremities
(so-called vascular pythiosis) [19, 93]. Patients with the ocular infection seek
for medical care due to the presence of corneal ulcer, keratitis, ocular pain,
conjunctivitis, impaired visual acuity, tissue swelling, and hypopyon [75, 93].
Patients with the vascular infection seek for medical attention because they
suffer from intermittent claudication or gangrenous ulcer of an arm or a leg
(due to arterial insufficiency), alongside with some other clinical features, such
as fever, itching, cellulitis, tissue swelling, unpalpable arterial pulse, and groin
or abdominal mass [75, 94]. Average duration of the clinical symptoms of the
patients with vascular pythiosis from first notice to seeking medical care (~2
months) is markedly longer than that of patients with ocular pythiosis (~2
weeks) [75]. This can be attributed to the eye being a highly concerned organ,
and ocular tissue is an immune privilege site, which could promote the infec-
tion caused by P. insidiosum.
    The P. insidiosum infection of other organs is relatively rare, compared to the
ocular and vascular infections. Infection of the gastrointestinal tract has been
reported in one Thai patient who presented with upper gastrointestinal bleeding
and bloody mucous stool [75]. Seven reported cases suffered from the P. insidio-
sum infection of the head and neck region [95]. Their clinical presentations (i.e.,
severe headache, cellulitis, sinusitis, facial palsy, toothache, and seizure) are
associated with internal and external carotid arteritis and inflammation of head
and neck soft tissues along with brain abscess. Although the skin is a common
site of pythiosis in animals (i.e., horses, dogs, cattle, sheep, and goats), only
some human patients had the P. insidiosum infection of cutaneous/subcutaneous
tissues. These patients presented with prolonged (up to several months) painful
subcutaneous nodule and ulcer, or with acute onset (up to several days) of cel-
lulitis, on the arm or leg [75].
    In general, human pythiosis is commonly observed in patients aged 20–60 years
and male workers with an agriculture-related occupation (i.e., farmer and
Other documents randomly have
       different content
kerken scholen.
 Maar die zijn weggewaaid met den wind. Slechts de zon, de maan
en de sterren kunnen ze weten, want die hebben alle geslachten
voorgelicht op de levensreis, zoo te nacht als bij dag. Doch keeren
we terug tot de geschiedenis van Steven de Laat.
 Steven ging nog een geruimen tijd op zijn sluipende manier voort.
Het was duidelijk, dat hij zich hier op deze eenzame plek alles
behalve veilig achtte. Hij begreep dat een enkel schot voldoende
was om zijn hond te dooden en dan zou hij niet alleen hier, doch op
al zijn verdere tochten alleen staan. En de jachtopziener van
Heiterloo was in de heele streek bekend als een ruw persoon, die
voor geen klein gerucht vervaard was. Vroeger was hij een gevreesd
wildstrooper geweest en dus met de kunstgrepen van dit vak
uitstekend op de hoogte. Juist om die reden had men hem voor deze
betrekking gekozen.
 Terwijl Steven over een en ander liep te peinzen, schrikte hij
eensklaps op. Fannie toch kwam plotseling uit het hout loopen en
sprong tegen hem op, terwijl hij een kwaadaardig gebrom liet
hooren.
 Maar op 't zelfde oogenblik vloog Fannie hem als een wolf naar de
keel.
 Het trouwe dier gehoorzaamde terstond. Het ging voor zijn meester
staan en bleef den aanrander nijdig grommend met een
kwaadaardig geknipoog aanzien.
  "Blijf daar staan, als je leven je lief is en houd vooral jouw handen
thuis," vermaande Steven. "En," — dus ging hij voort, "vertel mij
eens, waarom je mij hier op dit publiek pad, waar iedereen op elk uur
van den dag of in den nacht vrij mag loopen, zoo hardhandig hebt bij
den schouder gepakt?"
"Ja."
 "Ja, hij houdt jou in de gaten! Maar zeg: waarom heb je mij zoo
brutaal aangerand?"
 "Je weet zelf wel, dat je dat doet en 't ook al lang gedaan hebt.
Geef af het wild, dat je vannacht weer gevangen hebt!"
 "Houd je bedaard!" zei Steven weer. "En zorg er voor, dat je geen
hand naar mij uitsteekt!"
  De jachtopziener zag angstig naar 't ruige beest. Het lette scherp
op al zijn bewegingen en stond blijkbaar gereed om zich bij de
minste aanleiding weer op hem te werpen. 't Scheen hem in de
donkerheid veel grooter en gevaarlijker dan 't in werkelijkheid was.
Hoe gaarne hij ook door overmacht of dreigementen Steven tot een
bekentenis zou hebben gedwongen, iets wat hem bij andere
wildstroopers meer dan eens gelukt was, hij begreep nu maar al te
goed dat dit jonge mensch door middel van zijn hond hem volkomen
in de macht had.
  Toen dan ook de jachtopziener voor goed uit het gezicht was, riep
hij Fannie weer tot zich en liet hem verder weer achter zich aan
loopen.
                               XVIII.
                         Een Paardenspel.
  Dat bouwen van 't circus was op zich zelf al een feest voor de
dorpsjeugd. Zelfs de kruidenier Verbeek en nog eenige andere
burgers, die overvloed van leegen tijd hadden en voor wie een
weinig afwisseling hoogst welkom was, stonden belangstellend toe
te zien.
 Maar hier was 't een gansch andere zaak. Hier verrees voor aller
oog op een stuk gewonen tuingrond een tempel, aan de kunst
gewijd.
 Aan den opbouw er van werkten ze naar hun vermogen mee. Als
ze dien over eenige dagen weer even snel zien sloopen en de spade
van den daglooner Teunissen zelfs de laatste sporen van zijn
bestaan zal doen verdwijnen, wordt het ons jong, levenslustig volkje
voor een wijl bang om 't hart en ze leeren plotseling den diepen zin
verstaan van de versregels:
 Toen de stoet weer bij 't circus aankwam, was hij door een dichte
menigte omstuwd.
 Hij, die "de baas van 't spul" was, nam nu in hoogst eigen-
persoonlijkheid het woord.
 Zijn houding was echt-koninklijk.
 Jammer was 't daarom, dat ook hij erg schor was en er een taal op
zijn eigen hand op nahield.
 Toen werden de paarden weer in den stal der schuur van 't
dorpslogement gebracht en de lieden, die van buiten gekomen
waren, verdrongen zich in de gelagkamer en vulden zelfs de
naburige vertrekken, om zich door 't gebruik van "een hartsterking"
voor te bereiden op de dingen, die komen zouden.
 Het was kwartier voor zeven, toen één der dames van "'t spul",
zeer licht gekleed, met een kleurigen mantel los om 't slanke lichaam
geslagen, met vlugge hand het tentdoek bij den ingang opende en
gelegenheid gaf om een kaart te koopen en binnen te gaan.
 De wachtende schare stond in 't donker en zij stond in 't volle licht,
dat door één der lampen werd uitgestraald. Zóó leek ze den
eenvoudigen landbewoners een hoogst bekoorlijk wezen. Wie nog
weifelden tusschen 't Circus, de Spaarbank of iets anders, werden
door haar verschijning oogenblikkelijk tot het koopen van een kaartje
gedrongen.
  Buiten was 't nu donker en vrij koud; hier daarentegen was het
licht, warm en uiterst gezellig.
De bodem van 't circus was met zaagsel en wit zand dik bestrooid.
  Pas had de klok zeven geslagen, of daar had men 't lieve leven
gaande! De trom begon te roffelen; de muzikanten deden weer hun
horens schallen en een paar kunstenmakers kwamen, op de gewone
manier uitgedost, met komieke deftigheid elk van een
tegenovergestelden kant het circus met een echten pauwentred
binnen stappen. Ze schenen elkaar niet op te merken, buitelden
eenige malen over 't hoofd, keken toen, aldoor achteruit loopend,
naar de toeschouwers en toonden zich over de aanwezigheid van
zulk een menigte menschen uiterst verrast en verbaasd. Op die
wijze kwamen ze, steeds achteruit loopend, zoo hevig met elkander
in botsing, dat ze met een plof neervielen, op hun rug heen en weer
rolden en allererbarmelijkst schreeuwden en huilden, alsof ze zich
heel erg bezeerd hadden. De toeschouwers, groot en klein, moesten
't uitschateren, omdat twee zulke groote kerels zich zoo kinderachtig
aanstelden. 't Geval werd nog grappiger toen de twee hansworsten,
na met huilend gebrul te zijn overeind gekrabbeld, plotseling als dol
op elkander toevlogen en elkaar op een half dozijn luid klinkende
oorvegen trakteerden, waarna ze 't hoofd met beide handen
omvatten en weer in een allerjammerlijkst gehuil uitbarstten.
 't Uitbundig geschater, dat hiervan 't gevolg was, verstomde echter
oogenblikkelijk, want één der kunstrijders, slank en lenig, kwam op
een schimmel 't circus binnendraven. Eerst reed hij stapvoets den
kring rond en beantwoordde de toejuichingen, waarmee hij
verwelkomd werd, door heel deftig naar alle kanten buigend, het
"geëerde publiek" te groeten. Toen reed hij in galop en vervolgens in
een wilden ren rond, en ondertusschen stond hij heel bedaard op
den rug van zijn schimmel gymnastische toeren te maken, over zijn
hoofd te buitelen, door hoepels te springen en dergelijke meer. Boer
Reinders, een liefhebber van paarden, verzekerde zijn vrouw dan
ook, dat hij zoo iets nooit te voren gezien had en boer Scholte, die
ook voor deze gelegenheid was overgekomen, was een en al
verbazing. Hij knikte herhaaldelijk goedkeurend met het hoofd en
mompelde telkens weer: "Je zou zeggen: hoe is zoo iets nu
mogelijk!"
 Immers: kon hij niet, even goed als zij, verscheidene malen
achtereen over zijn hoofd buitelen?
  "Toch lijdt het geen twijfel," dacht Steven verder, "of ik zou even
goed, zoo niet beter, voor clown geschikt zijn dan de twee, die daar
telkens zoo uitbundig worden toegejuicht."
De ruiter wipte van 't paard en reikte den clown de leidsels over.
 "Och toe, help me even een handje!" verzocht deze. "'t Is zoo'n toer
om er alleen op te komen!"
 "Kom aan! Opgepast dan! Huup-la!" zei de ruiter. Hij gaf daarop zijn
makker een duw, zoodat deze over 't paard heenvloog en met een
smak aan den anderen kant neerplofte.
 Het paard bleef onder die bedrijven tot aller verwondering staan als
een paal.
 De clown gaf het echter niet op. En zie! een volgende poging om 't
makke ros te bestijgen, gelukte boven verwachting.
 Ja, daar zat hij er op! Maar hoe? Met zijn rug naar den kop van 't
paard gekeerd! Dat scheen hij echter volstrekt niet te merken;
althans: hij trok het geduldige beest aan den staart en riep: "Maar
directeur, dat paard heeft in 't geheel geen kop! Hoe gek toch!"
 En och! hij had zoo gehoopt, zich bij deze menschen te kunnen
aansluiten en bij hen niet alleen een werkkring maar zelfs een
prachtige toekomst te zullen vinden.
 Nu begonnen ook bij afwisseling "de dames van 't spul" blijken van
hun kunstvaardigheid te geven.
                               XIX.
                            Een crisis.
  Toen Steven eenige dagen later tegen den avond nog eens de
plaats bezocht; waar de tent gestaan had, was de daglooner
Teunissen al bezig met er den grond om te spitten en in gereedheid
te brengen voor 't poten van de staak- of snijboonen.
 Steven doolde dien avond nog laat door 't dorp en den omtrek
rond. Hij had rust noch duur. Het leven, dat hem vroeger zoo
bekoorlijk had geschenen, had nu alle aantrekkelijkheid voor hem
verloren.
 Toen hij voorbij de woning van den nachtwacht ging, herinnerde hij
zich zijn laatste gesprek met zijn vriendin Tonia. Evenals gewoonlijk
was ze ook nu vriendelijk jegens hem geweest, maar hij had een
droeven trek op haar lief gelaat bespeurd en ze had hem zeer
ernstig onder 't oog gebracht, dat hij den kostbaren tijd met
straatslijpen verkwistte, terwijl zijn goede vader zijn hulp zoozeer
behoefde.
 Uit haar geheele gedrag jegens hem was hem duidelijk gebleken,
dat ze in de toekomst al heel weinig van hem hoopte. Dit had hem te
meer gegriefd, daar hij wist dat de zoon van den smid, een
algemeen geacht, werkzaam jongmensch, haar tot vrouw wenschte.
 Beter dan ooit te voren begreep hij nu, dat zijn leven op mislukking
zou uitloopen.
 Zoo bereikte hij weer het ouderlijk huis. Hij drukte 't hoofd tegen de
koude steenen om 't zoo te verkoelen. Toen werd hij zóó duizelig,
dat hij met de hand tastte naar eenig voorwerp om zich aan vast te
houden. Doch hij vond geen houvast en viel schavend langs den
muur. Daar lag hij, als dood.
  Wat later bevond hij zich in 't circus, onder de kunstrijders. Hij deed
ongeloofelijke toeren en werd door 't verbaasde publiek uitbundig
toegejuicht.
Hoe langzaam vorderde hij en wat leunde hij zwaar op zijn stok!
 Steven kon het niet aanzien, dat hij zich zoo moest inspannen en
poogde op te staan, bij hem te komen en 't pak van hem over te
nemen, doch dit was hem geheel onmogelijk. Het was hem juist zoo,
of hij door sterke armen werd vastgehouden.
  Hij was plotseling zwaar ziek geworden en toen hij aan den hoek
der ouderlijke woning was neergestort, hadden zijn vader en Tonia,
die er 't huiswerk verrichtte, dit gehoord; ze waren ijlings
toegeschoten en hadden hem te bed gebracht.
 Dag en nacht moest er bij hem gewaakt worden. Zijn toestand was
uiterst bedenkelijk en 't stond te vreezen, dat hij er nooit weer van
zou opkomen.
                                 XX.
                               Besluit.
Alles werkt.
 De paden die om 't kasteel en door 't bosch slingeren, zijn weer
netjes geharkt, evenals in vervlogen tijden, toen daarover de
schoone, levenslustige kinderen der adelijke bewoners in witte of wel
kleurige sierlijke kleedjes, "als door feeënhand geknipt", zweefden
en streefden.
 Toch is ook hun Zondagspak heel netjes; 't getuigt van een goeden
smaak en zit hun als aan 't lijf gegoten.
  "Kijk nu eens door 't blauwe glas!" zegt haar man, blijde dat zijn
lieve vrouw zoo buitengewoon veel genot smaakt bij dit uitstapje.
 Daar dicht bij op een hoogte staat een koepel, tot boven toe als
omlijst met bloeiende rozen. De lucht is vervuld van de geuren der
bloemen. In 't hoog geboomte daar achter zingen de vogels als om
strijd.
 "Het mooiste komt nog!" zegt haar man. "Kom, gaan we den
rozendoolhof eens zien!"
 Op een bank zetten zij zich neer, arm in arm, gelukkig in elkanders
bezit.
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