energies

Article
Evaluation of the Integration of the Traditional Architectural
Element Mashrabiya into the Ventilation Strategy for Buildings
in Hot Climates
Abdullah Abdulhameed Bagasi 1,2, *, John Kaiser Calautit 2 and Abdullah Saeed Karban 1

1 Department of Islamic Architecture, Umm Al-Qura University, P.O. Box 715, Makkah, Saudi Arabia;
Askarban@uqu.edu.sa
2 Department of Architecture and Built Environment, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK;
John.calautit1@nottingham.ac.uk
* Correspondence: Aabagasi@uqu.edu.sa; Tel.: +966-5555-63252

Abstract: This paper reviewed related research works and developments on the traditional architec-
tural element “mashrabiya” focusing on its history, design and structure, typology, and functions
in hot climates. Moreover, the paper assessed the effect of the traditional mashrabiya on the indoor
thermal environment and thermal comfort in a selected case study building. For this purpose, two
similar rooms were investigated in a selected historic building with abundant mashrabiyas located
in the Makkah Region, specifically in Old Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The field tests were conducted
during a typical hot summer month with two different configurations. The study demonstrated that
opening the mashrabiya allowed more airflow into the room during the day and reduced the indoor
temperature by up to 2.4 ◦ C as compared to the closed mashrabiya. Besides, the building envelope





 played an important role in preventing the high fluctuation of the indoor air temperature, where the
fluctuation of the rooms air temperature ranged between 2.1 ◦ C and 4.2 ◦ C compared to the outdoor
Citation: Bagasi, A.A.; Calautit, J.K.;
Karban, A.S. Evaluation of the
temperature which recorded a fluctuation between 9.4 ◦ C and 16 ◦ C. The data presented here can
Integration of the Traditional be used for the future development of the mashrabiya concept and the potential incorporation with
Architectural Element Mashrabiya passive cooling methods to improve its design according to the requirements of modern buildings in
into the Ventilation Strategy for hot climates. Moreover, further studies and tests on mashrabiyas under different climatic conditions
Buildings in Hot Climates. Energies are required. Also, the different strategies or materials can be incorporated with mashrabiyas in order
2021, 14, 530. https://doi.org/ to improve its thermal performance.
10.3390/en14030530

Keywords: mashrabiya; roshan; thermal performance; thermal mass; passive ventilation; thermal
Academic Editor: Poul comfort; daylight; indoor thermal environment; Saudi Arabia
Alberg Østergaard
Received: 7 December 2020
Accepted: 14 January 2021
Published: 20 January 2021
1. Introduction
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
The accelerated development of Saudi Arabia during the last decades led to major
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
changes in the economic, social, and buildings fields and experienced a high increase in
published maps and institutional affil- energy demand. The high temperatures throughout the year in Saudi Arabia make cooling
iations. systems a necessity to achieve human comfort [1]. In general, a large portion of energy is
consumed globally to keep the indoor air temperature of buildings within the required
comfort temperature [2].
For a hundred years, several architectural elements were employed effectively and
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
widely on the traditional housing in the Arab Gulf region such as mashrabiyas, courtyards,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and windcatchers that have demonstrated to meet the needs of the population and have
This article is an open access article
strong local climate compatibility.
distributed under the terms and In a number of old cities in the Middle East such as Jeddah, Makkah, Yanbu, Baghdad,
conditions of the Creative Commons Cairo, Damascus, and Tunis, mashrbabiyas still exist as one of the most prominent tradi-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// tional architectural elements [3]. Mashrabiyas have also been found and adopted widely
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ in different countries around the world from the Far East to South America such as India,
4.0/). Japan, China, Portugal, and Spain.

Energies 2021, 14, 530. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030530 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 530 2 of 31

A mashrabiya was described by Fathy [4] as a space covered in cantilevers with

a wooden grid, in which small jars of water were positioned to cool the air through the
apertures by the influence of evaporation. It can also be defined as a wooden frame covering
a window opening and decorating the building façade. Mashrabiyas are traditionally
characterised by their functions, allowing air and daylight to penetrate and providing
privacy beside the aesthetic purpose (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Example of Mashrabiya demonstrating the principal functions. Reproduced from Bagasi
and Calautit [3].

The building’s thermal mass plays an important part in enhancing thermal efficiency
in hot climates alongside the function of the mashrabiya. In warm seasons, walls and
floors absorb heat on their surfaces, conducted internally and emitted as the air gets colder
at night [5,6]. Ventilation at night through a mashrabiya can minimise the cooling load
in buildings [7]. Furthermore, high thermal masses like heavy bricks and stones can
effectively reduce temperature variations within a space over time [8].
In the past decades, many researchers have studied various aspects of mashrabiyas.
As far as we know, most studies tend to focus on either their history or on developing
mashrabiyas without testing or considering the actual performance and influence on the
indoor thermal environment.
Therefore, this study aims to review mashrabiyas and related research work and devel-
opments from the environmental side in residential buildings in hot climates. Also, assess
the effect of traditional mashrabiyas on the indoor thermal environment in a residential
building in hot climates. The work also assesses the effect of thermal mass and evaluates
the effectiveness of the mashrabiya in achieving thermal comfort.
Overall, the paper presents an overview of the mashrabiya; its history, functions,
structure and design, and related research works as well as the most prominent applications
and developments. Furthermore, a case study building with mashrabiyas located in a hot
climate was selected and tested.

2. Traditional Mashrabiya
A mashrabiya can be defined as a wooden frame covering a window opening and
decorating the building facade. Mashrabiyas is known under different names based on the
reign, it is known as shanasheel in Iraq and Iran, mushabak in Iran [9], roshan in Sudan,
takhrima means “full of holes” in Yemen, and moucharabieh in Algeria [10]. While in
Saudi Arabia, mashrabiya is called either mashrabiya or roshan.
The word “mashrabiya” is of Arabic origin, but there are some differences in the
interpretation of its source. Mashrabiya in Arabic is derived from mashrabah, meaning the
place from which to drink [11]. In another interpretation mashrabiya linguistically takes its
origin from “mashrafiya” the noun of the verb “ashrafa” which means the place to look out
or observe from the upper level [12,13]. With time and as a result of the accents and effect
of the non-Arab speakers, mashrafiya became the uttering mashrabiya [10]. On the other
hand, Fathy [4] said that the word mashrabiya originates from the Arabic word ‘sharbah’
meaning “drink” and originally referring to “a drinking place”. He also mentioned that
the word (mashrabiya) came to refer to a wooden grid screen with circular balustrades that
Energies 2021, 14, 530 3 of 31

are partially small and arranged in regular spaces delineated by an intricate decorative
geometric pattern. Mashrabiyas were defined by Kamal [14] as “projecting windows with
wooden latticework for natural ventilation and privacy”.

2.1. History of Mashrabiya

When and where mashrabiyas originated thus cannot be confirmed, due to the conflict-
ing researchers’ opinions. The following is a brief review of some researchers’ statements
about the emergence of the mashrabiya. Khan [15] stated that the origins of mashrabiya
might date back to the ancient castles or forts of the past that were built with distinctive
bay windows that were used for defensive purposes by casting hot water or oil on the
enemies below through small openings in the bottom of the bay [16]. Khan [15] also added
that mashrabiyas were known and dominant in the Islamic world architecture during the
Mamluk and Ottoman eras. Sudy [17] mentioned that the mashrabiya was created in the
thirteenth century AD, where it was developed by Muslim builders during the Mamluk Era
in Cairo. Abdelgelil [18] stated the mashrabiya first appeared in Egypt (1517–1905) during
the Mamluk and Ottoman periods. During the Mamluk rule era (1248–1516), mashrabiya
were a predominant architectural element where maybe the oldest mashrabiya can be
found in the Great Masjid at Qayrawan [19]. Alitany et al. [20] mentioned: “The term
roshan can be traced as far back as 1100 AD and in North Africa, Egypt and Yemen has
come to be known as mashrabiya”. In the Ottoman era, the mashrabiya reached the climax
of its spread and widely used across almost the entirety of Iraq, Syria, Egypt and the
Arabian Peninsula.
In the western region of Saudi Arabia, Jeddah has played a vital and significant role
as a gateway for pilgrims due to its seaport which is near the holiest cities Makkah and
Medina. Thus, these cities benefited from the exchange of cultures with the caravans of the
Hajj pilgrimage, which came from different countries bringing their skills, exchanging ideas
with the domestic people and enriching the architectural art, including the mashrabiyas in
Hijaz [21].
However, the mashrabiya “interlaced wooden screen” is not limited to Arab countries,
but rather exists and has been adopted in numerous regions around the world ranging from
the Far East to South America. As a result, mashrabiya has several names and variations
in spelling (Figure 2). For example, in India, it is called “Jali, Jaali, Jaalis, or Jalis”, which
means the latticework screen.

Figure 2. Traditional Mashrabiya around the world and its local names.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 4 of 31

2.2. Mashrabiya Design and Structure Details

Mashrabiya designs vary from region to region depending on several physical vari-
ables. These variables can be its size, construction material, patterns and ornamentation,
and openings. The most influencing factors affecting the performance of the mashrabiyas
are their shape, apertures and projection.
Moreover, the regular construction material used in the mashrabiya structure is wood.
Many types of wood are used for these structures, but the most common ones used in Saudi
Arabia are teak, ebony, oak and mahogany [16]. Another material historically used in some
countries such as Iran and India for structured latticed screens is so-called “terracotta” [22].
Mostly, the structure of a mashrabiya comprises three major parts: the upper, middle,
and the lower part. Each part has several components that are either functional, aesthetic or
both. Alitany; et al. [23] defined these parts as the head “crown or tajj”, the body “suddir”,
and the base “qaida” (Figure 3). Al-Shareef [16] described the division of the external
details of mashrabiyas into five elements: crown, first horizontal panel, opening sashes,
second horizontal panel and brackets. In addition, there are some other elements that can
be adopted as additions based on the prevailing climate such as wooden screens (sheesh)
and water jars [16].

Figure 3. Main parts of a mashrabiya in Jeddah. Reproduced from Alitany et al. [23].

Typical mashrabiya parts can be divided broadly into three main structural compo-
nents —the head, the body, and the base—each with several elements (Figure 4). The crown
in the upper part work as a canopy for the middle part of the mashrabiya, while the pearl
is in the middle of the crown. The upper belt connects the upper part with the middle part.
Under the upper belt, the sashes are in the middle part of mashrabiya that can be designed
as louvres, shutters, or screens [24]. The sashes are considered the essential part due to
their significant role in most of the mashrabiya’s functions for allowing penetrating air and
daylight and providing privacy.
The sashes cover an aperture and usually divided horizontally into two equal sections.
Vertically, the middle part usually contains three to five sashes. Each sash has several
horizontal sliding slats or “louvre blades” [25]. The primary purpose of movable louvres
is to control the entry of light and air into a room as desired by the occupant [19]. Over
the lower sashes with a overhang of 0.5 m from the external part, a wooden screen locally
named “sheesh” was placed in some mashrabiyas where it provides a place for water jars,
which work to cool the air by evaporation [25]. The bottom part of a mashrabiya consists
of two sections: the lower belt and brackets. The brackets work as the main support of the
whole mashrabiya structure.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 5 of 31

Figure 4. Detailed view of parts and components for a mashrabiya in Jeddah, amended from
Alitany et al. [20].

2.3. Mashrabiya Typology

Mashrabiyas differ in their forms from one region to another due to several factors.
These differences were mainly due to the climate type, the skill of the local craftsmen, the
accuracy of the details and the woodwork, and depend on the client’s request and financial
ability. An abundance of inscriptions and an increase in detailing details and the size of
a mashrabiya and the quality of the wood used in its construction are indicative of the
wealth and social status of the owner of the house.
Salloum [26] divided the mashrabiya into three sorts taking into consideration the
size: (1) simple wooden screens or louvres covering the openings; (2) the cantilevered
mashrabiya as an expansion part of the interior spaces; (3) wooden louvres on two or
three sides surrounding a room located on the uppermost floor of a property named “al
mabit” where the occupants sleep during hot days. Aljofi [27] also divided the mashrabiya
into three types: (1) cantilevered, (2) screen panels, (3) louvred timber walls and louvred
windows. In Jeddah, mashrabiya come in many different shapes and sizes; the most
common shapes can be classified into three groups: mashrabiyas, plain mashrabiyas, and
projected mashrabiya, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Different shapes of Mashrabiya in Historic Jeddah.

Energies 2021, 14, 530 6 of 31

2.4. Dimensions
Due to the different shapes and sizes of mashrabiyas, there have no fixed size. How-
ever, some researchers have outlined the typical dimensions of mashrabiyas. Greenlaw [28]
described the main internal dimensions of the traditional mashrabiya by saying: “The size
of a roshan is related to the dimensions of the human body; it is wide enough to lie down
in comfortably, that is just over two meters, 2.40 m usually; high enough to stand in, about
3 m, and projecting about 60 cm into the street”. A typical mashrabiya was described by
Alitany et al. [23] and Adas [29]. Its width is 2.4–2.8 m and its internal height 2.7–3.5 m. It
can protrude externally about 0.4–0.7 m. By adding the thickness of the external wall with
the projection of the Mashrabiya, it may result in a width that ranges up to 1.2 m, and this
can be conveniently used as a seating area. Hariri [30] stated the floor of a mashrabiya was
either an extension of the floor of the room or higher than a floor level by around 0.5 m.
Al-Shareef [16] stated, “The usual dimensions of a single traditional roshan unit are 3 m in
height, 2.3 m in width and 1.1–1.9 m in depth, to allow sufficient space for a sleeping adult.
Some roshans are built with a depth of 1.9 m to accommodate a man and his wife”.

3. Functions of Mashrabiya
Although mashrabiya were widely used in many different countries, they generally
have the same functions. Functionally, a mashrabiya is primarily focused on environmental,
social and architectural factors. Mashrabiya perfectly works as a protection device from
direct sunlight and effectively reduces heat gain, especially during hot seasons. Traditional
mashrabiyas are durabke and do not need frequent maintenance where excellent quality
wood types are used in the mashrabiya, such as teak or mahogany wood, which are durable
and can be used for long periods without damage and resist extreme weather conditions
such as heat and humidity [30]. According to the architect Hassan Fathy “The mashrabiya
interstices both intercept the direct solar radiation and soften the uncomfortable glare. Be-
sides, considering that the mashrabiya is made of out wood, it helps regulate the humidity
inside the space. It is known that wood absorbs, retains and releases water. When air passes
through the interstices of the porous wooden mashrabiya, it vaporises some of the moisture
gathered in the wood and carries it towards the interior” [31]. Sabry and Dwidar [32] stated
that “Mashrabia provide shade within the housing without complete closure of windows
and allow the movement of air, which helps to reduce the temperature in the summer”.
Algburi and Beyhan [33] mentioned that the lattice apertures on mashrabiya surfaces allow
the passage of natural fresh air and hence provide thermal comfort. Mashrabiyas work
perfectly for social life in houses. They provide privacy to room occupants and grants them
freedom in their actions and movements. At the same time, it allows looking outward
without isolation from the surrounding environment.
Aestheticism is another important function of the mashrabiya, as its shapes and
designs adorn houses’ facades. Mashrabiyas generally are characterised by an aesthetic
shape and precision geometric and beauty with ornamental inscriptions of different styles.
Besides, the mashrabiya’s outline and parts are in line with the vertical extension of
the façades, which directly contribute to making the functions of mashrabiya efficient.
Al-Ban [34] noted that the colours, lattice works, motifs and facades of Mashrabiyas
contributed to creating a distinctive visual character in Jeddah. The mashrabiya and its
carved wood openings foster a unique dialogue between the interior and the exterior while
creating a beautiful and pleasant link between privacy and publicity for the home [34].
Moreover, Ashour [35] said: “Regarding psychological needs, one can investigate how the
mashrabiya enhances the feelings of confidence, bliss, and quiet relaxation experienced by
the occupants and how much it arouses and inspires creative energy”.

4. Mashrabiya Status
With the rapid development in the past decades, climate change and increasing hu-
manitarian needs, some issues have emerged in the use of mashrabiya. Due to the perimeter
of adjustable louvres, it is not possible to close Mashrabiya tightly. The louvres need a slid-
Energies 2021, 14, 530 7 of 31

ing path, and as they go down,the friction with the wood increase, and flipping is neither
possible nor difficult. All of that can lead to dust permeability and penetration of insects,
including noise disturbance [30]. In addition, continuous air leakage is not compatible
with one of the essential needs of modern houses in Saudi Arabia (air conditioning), which
depends on the isolation of external air to control the internal air temperature effectively
and economically.
Moreover, the cost of the mashrabiya is several times higher than that of regular
windows made of wood or aluminium. Batterjee [24] mentioned that “Roshan is made
from expensive woods such as teak, ebony, oak, and mahogany. These woods are difficult to
find locally and expensive to import. That raises the cost of construction and maintenance
considerably”. In addition to that, the period required to implement a mashrabiya is long
where the manufacture and installation of one mashrabiya may take up to two months or
more based on the size and design.
Otusanya, et al. [36] stated “New passive cooling technologies are being discovered
every day, but undeniably the internal thermal comfort of buildings cannot be attained
utilising only one passive cooling method”. Also, new technologies such as fans and air
conditioners provide alternative solutions that address the drawbacks of mashrabiyas.
These technologies have replaced the majority of mashrabiyas’ essential functions, such
as natural ventilation and cold air, as faster and more active efficiency to meet thermal
needs in the hot climates. [37]. However, in view of the need to reduce the emissions of
greenhouse gases, passive techniques should be applied in buildings and integrated with
active techniques [38]. Alothman [39] stated that air conditioners have failed in some way
compared to mashrabiyas, due to the fact they require a lot of energy and are expensive
to run.

4.1. Previous Studies on Traditional Mashrabiya

Since several studies have studied different aspects of mashrabiyas, in the following
section we will review and discuss some related studies, especially concerning ventilation,
daylight, and integration with passive evaporative cooling. In 1996, Al-Shareef studied
the mashrabiya as an element to control daylight for energy conservation in tropical
architecture considering the Hejaz architecture used in the west of Saudi Arabia as a case
study. The type of mashrabiya considered consists of movable horizontal louvres in eight
sashes arranged in several columns and rows. The sashes were tested with slat declination
angles of 30◦ , 45◦ and 60◦ . Al-Shareef concluded that the flat mashrabiya produces very
high internal illuminance compared to the projected one, and as the mashrabiya’s size is
increased, the illuminance increases too. Also, adjustment of the slat declination angles
plays a significant role in the level and distribution of illuminance on the work surface [16].
In 2002, Maghrabi [25] studied modulated louver windows with reference to Jeddah’s
mashrabiyas to examine the ventilation efficiency through modeling and simulation. The
study revealed that the main reasons for poor ventilation in the rooms were when the slides
were adjusted in an acute inclination position. Also, the ventilation openings and free
space in the mashrabiya were affected with the slats tilted to ±60◦ resulting in a decrease in
the main pressure. Maghrabi stated that the form of the mashrabiya played an important
role in the flow pattern inside the room since the flat mashrabiya allowed more airflow
in its centre compared to prominent mashrabiyas. In addition, in Jeddah the best option
was to use windows near the roof, which increases airflow near the floor and makes the
atmosphere at home more comfortable.
According to Aljofi [27] “Orientation, times of the day play an important role in the
amount of lighting passing the mashrabiya”. In 2005, Aljofi tested six screen panels of
different regular shapes. The illumination values of rounded screen cells were the lowest in
comparison with other screen panel types.Compared to the dark oak wood screen, the light
oak contributed more light by an average DF of 17%. Besides, it was found as the diameter
of the screen cell increases the reflected light increases too. Al-Hashimi and Semidor [40]
studied mashrabiyas’ effects on daylight values in Jeddah’s residential buildings. The
Energies 2021, 14, 530 8 of 31

study examined a room with a wooden mashrabiya as shown in Figure 6. Three design
cases were examined: a room with main openings closed by Venetian blinds, a room with
open openings, and a room with a single glazed window facing north during daytime [40].
The study found the most massive daylight value during daytime corresponded to a
mashrabiya with a opened Venetian blind. Although the space with a closed Venetian was
dark, some small quantity of daylight (<1%) always enters from the top of mashrabiya.
In 2020, Alwetaishi, et al. [41] investigated the thermal comfort in a historical building
with mashrabiya located in Taif (Saudi Arabia). The study used an evaporative cooling
technique to enhance the thermal comfort by increasing the indoor airspeed. It was found
that the “evaporative cooling technique has a considerable impact on reducing indoor air
temperature with a 4 ◦ C drop, improving the thermal comfort sensation level” [41].

Figure 6. The evaluated room and mashrabiya dimensions. Reproduced from Al-Hashimi and
Semidor [40].

4.2. Contemporary Mashrabiya “Mashrabiya Development”

In the current era, various shapes derived from mashrabiya can be found on the
façades of buildings in various countries around the world. Also, several studies and
applications have submitted new designs or proposals for the development of mashrabiya
either using different materials instead of wood such as aluminium, steel, ceramic, or
glass fibre reinforced concrete (GRC), incorporating interactive techniques for opening
and closing, or with integration of evaporative cooling systems in an attempt to boost the
indoor thermal and energy consumption conditions. In 2010, Batterjee proposed a solution
for a mashrabiya in Jeddah by developing its daylight penetration performance and de-
creasing the energy consumption. Batterjee designed five models with different parameters
Energies 2021, 14, 530 9 of 31

and examined the daylight levels using Ecotect and Radiance software (Figure 7). The
dimensions of the mashrabiya models were 2.4 m (w) × 3 m (h) × 0.4 m (prominent depth).
The best case was a designed 10 cm × 10 cm opening tilted 45◦ upward on the interior side
using stainless steel and double low-E glazing with an aluminium frame. This reduced the
cooling load by up to 49% and proved to be the best overall solution suggested except for
the east orientation due to the low position of the Sun during that period.

Figure 7. Simulation via Radiance for evaluating lighting level. Reproduced from Batterjee [24].

Benedetti et al. [42] investigated the evaporative cooling potential of mashrabiya

screens installed in Bolzano Italy, testing two types of local hardwoods (oak and chestnut)
and two softwoods (spruce, and larch) to determine their water release rate. The study
recommended spruce for mashrabiya screens due to its greater cooling potential and a
higher permeability and, consequently, a better evaporative cooling effect. The study
concluded that larch wood could be the most appropriate species for mashrabiya screens
in Bolzano given its cooling efficiency and construction features.
In the Gibson Desert of Australia, Samuels [43] proposed a new concept for a mashra-
biya, which is constructed as a spray device that sprays 0.2 mm diameter water droplets
from the connecting holes. The study indicated that the system established an effective and
sufficient cooling technique for the structure, but no results or measurements of thermal
efficiency and performance were given.
Karamata, et al. [44] proposed a new system inspired by the mashrabiya concept
comprising a shape variable mashrabiya (SVM) and specified Abu Dhabi as a case study.
The SVM was made from three identical perforated opaque shields; the first is fixed while
the second and the third one can singly move along the vertical and lateral axis. The results
of annual daylight performance simulations showed that SVM provides adequate and
well-balanced illumination (most of the time across the whole space). In contrast, the SVM
shields decrease and scatter the amount of diffuse light.
In 2015, the SVM was studied again by Karamata [45] who showed that the SVM
minimised overheating problems and consequently the values of the primary energy
demand for cooling −17.2% and −9.9% compared to selective glazing = 41% and Venetian
blinds, respectively). It also minimised the primary energy required for lighting (−65.7%
and −30.7% compared to reflective glazing = 16% and Venetian blinds, respectively) and
the efficiency of lighting and global primary energy −27% and −16.3% compared to RG16
and V.B., consecutively).
Sabry et al. [46] designed several solar screens in an attempt to achieve visual comfort
and reduce energy use in residential desert environment. The study assumed a residential
living room space of 4.30 m ×5.20 m in Jeddah with different screen designs. It concentrated
on the influence of varying the axial rotation of the solar screen and the aspect ratio of its
openings beneath the clear desert sky. The study concluded that the solar screens could
provide 66–97% daylit areas in the inspected spaces reduce energy consumption to 25% in
comparison with a standard glazed window.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 10 of 31

Khadra and Chalfoun [47] attempted to improve an integrated façade technology

that interacts with and adapts to climate change in hot arid areas, specifically in Tucson
(Arizona, USA). The study aimed to optimise thermal comfort for occupants in mixed-
mode office buildings using passive ventilation and evaporative cooling methods in order
to reduce mechanical cooling energy loads. The case was a typical office space facing south
by 6 m (w) × 7.6 m (d) × 2.7 m (h), and a 33% window to wall ratio. The study tested
three different operating systems: a mechanical cooling system, passive ventilation and
an evaporative cooling system. The proposed model demonstrated that the cooling load
decreased by nearly 70 % throughout the year while the heating load increased slightly in
the winter months.
Batool [48] estimated the impact of a range of perforation ratios (30%, 40% and 50%)
of hexagonal jali screens on energy savings and daylight performance in a modern office
building located in Lahore (Pakistan). The study comprised data collection and analysis
using the IES VE simulation software for the field measurements and energy modelling.
The results indicated the positive impact of jali screens on cooling loads and improved
visual convenience. The 50% void ratio in windows facing south was also found to be a
better way of achieving a balanced cooling and lighting energy strategy.
A new system of wooden lattice openings was proposed by Di Turi and Ruggiero [49],
in order to control the daylight that enters a building. The study was carried out for an
isolated test room using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) as a simulation tool, showing
that this could provide better indoor conditions, increased airspeed and improved air
change rate in the room. Alrashed et al. [50] integrated a mashrabiya with a simulated
building in Saudi Arabia and concluded that it could reduce annual demand for electricity
and maximum power need by 4% and 3%, sequentially. Another study by Algburi and
Beyhan [33] simulated an air-conditioned house in Iraq with a proposed mashrabiya and
demonstrated that the use of a mashrabiya could save 12.56% of the total cooling load.
Taleb and Antony [51] simulated an office building in Dubai to evaluate the performance
of a mashrbiaya and different types of chosen glazing. The proposed mashrabiya had a
hexagonal pattern with 40% coverage of the glazing unit. The study found that the use of
mashrabiya as tinted glazing could reduce the cooling load by 23%.
The integration of evaporative cooling elements with mashrabiyas has been discussed
or investigated in some studies. In 2004, Schiano-Phan [52] proposed an evaporative
cooling system that was derived from the mashrabiya concept using a porous ceramic
medium called “Evapco system” developed by Cain, et al. [53] and the aim was to address
some of the cooling needs of residential buildings in hot-dry regions. In comparison to
the use of air conditioning, the total annual energy savings were about 3.08 MWh for the
selected apartments.
In 2015, an innovative design inspired by a traditional mashrabiya and water-filled
ceramic vessels by was reported by Rael and Fratello [54]. The form consists of 3D im-
pressed porous ceramic bricks, where each brick absorbs water and enables air to pass. The
design used the evaporative cooling principle, where the air passes through the form and
evaporates the water in the pores, refracting air and reducing the internal temperature.
Table 1 summarises most of those studies in some critical criteria for this paper. As a
summary of this section, most of the studies addressed either the daylight or ventilation
aspects of the mashrabiya and a few included evaporative cooling. Although Samuels [43]
considered all aspects, the study did not cover any analysis and measurements or simula-
tion demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed Mashrabiya.
Table 2 briefly highlights some of the applications from the researchers’ viewpoint
based on two aspects: (1) mashrabiya improvements through design and materials; (2)
design of innovative mashrabiyas, which generally have an idea inspired by the design
concept and functions of traditional mashrabiya.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 35
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 35

considered all aspects, the study did not cover any analysis and measurements or simu-
Energies 2021, 14, 530 considered all aspects, the study did not cover any analysis and measurements or 11
simu-
of 31
lation demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed Mashrabiya.
lation demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed Mashrabiya.
Table 1. Review some primary research on mashrabiyas and different aspects.
Table 1. Review some primary research on mashrabiyas and different aspects.
Ref Table 1. Review
Author, Datesome primary research
Design on mashrabiyas
Daylight andEvaporative
Ventilation different aspects.
Cooling Analysis
Ref Author, Date Design Daylight Ventilation Evaporative Cooling Analysis
[24] Batterjee, 2010 T  X X 
Ref [24] Author, Date
Batterjee, 2010 Design T 
Daylight Ventilation
X Evaporative
X Cooling Analysis
[25] Maghrabi, 2000 T X  X 
[24] [25] Batterjee,Maghrabi,
2010 2000 T T X
3  X X X  3
[27] Aljofi, 2005 T  X X 
[27] Aljofi, 2005 T  X X 
[25] [30] Maghrabi, Hariri,
2000 1990 T S.T. 
X  3 X X X 3
[30] Hariri, 1990 S.T.   X X
[27] [30] Hariri,
Aljofi, 2005 1992 T T 3 X X X X  3
[30] Hariri, 1992 T  X X 
[40] Al-Hashimi and Semidor, 2013 T  X X 
[30] [40] Hariri, 1990and Semidor, 2013
Al-Hashimi S.T. T 
3 X 3 X X  X
[43] Samuels, 2011 A    X
[30] [43] Samuels,
Hariri, 1992 2011 T A 3  X  X X 3
[46] Sabry et al., 2014 ST  X X 
[46] Sabry et al., 2014 ST  X X 
[40] Al-Hashimi
[47] and Semidor,
Khadra 2013 2014 T
and Chalfoun, A 3
X  X  X  3
[47] Khadra and Chalfoun, 2014 A X   
[43] [55] Schiano-Phan,
Samuels, 2011 2010 A ST X
3  3  3  X
[55] Schiano-Phan, 2010 ST X   
[56] Karamata et al., 2014 A  X X 
[46] [56] Sabry et al., 2014 et al., 2014
Karamata ST A 3 X X X X  3
[57] Nermine and Nancy, 2014 S.T.   X 
[47] [57]
Khadra andNermine
Chalfoun,and2014
Nancy, 2014 A S.T. X  3 X 3  3
[58] Faggal, 2015 A  X  X
[58] Schiano-Phan, Faggal, 2015 A  X  X
[55] [59] Headley 2010
et al., 2015 ST S.T. X  3 X 3  3
[59] Headley et al., 2015 S.T.   X 
[44] [60] Karamata et Alsharif,
al., 2014 2016 A A X
3  X  X X 3
[60] Alsharif, 2016 A X   X
[61] Elkhatieb and Sharples, 2016 A  X X 
[56] Nermine
[61] and Nancy,
Elkhatieb and2014
Sharples, 2016S.T. A 3 X 3 X X  3
[ Design: T = Traditional] [S.T. = Semi Traditional] [ A = Advance]
[57] [ Design:
Faggal, 2015 T = Traditional] A [S.T.
3 = Semi Traditional]
X [ A =3Advance] X
[58] Headley et al., 2015 Table 2 briefly
S.T. highlights 3some of the applications
3 X researchers’ viewpoint
from the 3
Table 2 briefly highlights some of the applications from the researchers’ viewpoint
[59] based on two aspects:
Alsharif, 2016 A (1) mashrabiya
X improvements
3 through 3design and materials;
X (2)
based on two aspects: (1) mashrabiya improvements through design and materials; (2)
[60] design
Elkhatieb and Sharples, of innovative
2016 A mashrabiyas,
3 which generally
X have an idea
X inspired by the design
design of innovative mashrabiyas, which generally have an idea inspired by the3design
concept and functions of traditional mashrabiya.
concept and
[Design: T =functions
Traditional];of traditional
[S.T. mashrabiya.
= Semi Traditional]; [A = Advance].

Table 2. Different applications of Mashrabiya [42,43].

Table 2. Different
Table 2. Different applications
applications of
of Mashrabiya
Mashrabiya [42,43].
[42,43].
Project|Built|Location Approach
Project|Built|Location
Project|Built|Location Approach
Approach Concept

Each unit in the mashrabiya performs

Arab World Institute as a camera lens. The south facade
ArabWorld
Arab World Institute
Institute -Interactive was covered by a vast mashrabiya of
1987 -Interactive
-Interactive
1987
1987France -Kinetic 30 × 80 m size made up of hundreds
*Paris, -Kinetic
-Kinetic
*Paris,
Paris, France
France of light-sensitive diaphragms that
admit a certain amount of light into
the building and govern cooling.

The building’s façade was inspired by

CH2 Melbourne
CH2 MelbourneCity Council
City Nature, while the micro-ventilation
CH2 Melbourne City Council
House
Council 2
House -Innovative
House 2 2 -Innovative
-Innovative ducts are integrated with daylight
2006
2006 -Kinetic
-Kinetic strategies and the walled concrete
2006 -Kinetic
*Melbourne,
Melbourne, Australia
Australia floor structure plays a central role in
*Melbourne, Australia
heating and cooling the building.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 12 of 31
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Table 2. Cont.

Project|Built|Location Approach Concept

The double skin is designed 4 m away

Pearl Academy of Fashion -New Fixed De-
from the exterior walls, acts as a
Pearl 2008
Academy of Fashion sign Fixed De-
-New
PearlAcademy
Pearl
PearlAcademyAcademy
Academy ofFashion
of Fashion -New
-New Fixed
Fixed De-
De-De- thermal barrier that reduces direct
Pearl ofof Fashion
Fashion
2008
*Jaipur, India -New Fixed
-Improvedsign
2008
2008 -New FixedsignDesign
sign heat gain through the windows. The
2008
2008
*Jaipur, India sign
-Improved
*Jaipur,
*Jaipur, India -Improved
-Improved dripping channels along the jaali
Jaipur,
*Jaipur, IndiaIndia
India -Improved
-Improved
internal face allow passive
evaporative cooling, hence reducing
the airflow temperature.

Paul Valery High School -New Fixed De- The wooden louvres on the facade act
Paul Valery High School -New Fixed De-
Paul2009
Paul ValeryHigh
Valery HighSchool
School -New FixedDe-
signFixed
-New De- to let daylight pass and interact with
Paul Valery
Paul*Menton,High
Valery High2009
School
School -New-New Fixedsign
De-
2009
2009
France -Improved
Fixed sign
sign
Design the exterior spaces. The design took
*Menton,
2009
2009 France -Improved
sign
*Menton,
*Menton, France
France -Improved
-Improved
-Improved into consideration visual unity while
Menton, France
*Menton, France -Improved ensuring thermal comfort bound to
solar protection.

The mashrabiya was built to be

Masdar
Masdar city Residential
city Residential Build-
Build- aesthetic and integrated with the
Masdar
Masdar
Masdar city
citycity ResidentialBuild-
Residential
Residential Build-
-New -New
FixedFixed
De- De- surrounding desert by using
ings ings -NewFixed
-New FixedDe-
De-
Buildings
Masdar city ings Build--New Fixed
ings
Residential signsign
Design developed GRC coloured with local
2010 2010
2010 -New Fixedsign
signDe-
-Improved
2010 2010
ings Dhabi, -Improved
-Improved sand in a sustainable way. The
*Abu
*AbuDhabi,
Dhabi, UAE
UAEUAE -Improved
-Improved
Abu *Abu
*Abu UAE
Dhabi,
Dhabi, UAE sign concept of light and shadow
2010
-Improved apertures is based on typical Islamic
*Abu Dhabi, UAE
architecture patterns.

The Q1 Headquarters In response to the Sun’s movment ,

TheQ1
The The
Q1
The Q1Headquarters
Headquarters
Headquarters
Q1
Headquarters -Interactive the kinetic façade consists of about
2010 -Interactive
-Interactive
-Interactive
2010
2010 2010
2010 -Kinetic 400,000 stainless steel lamellas that
The *Essen,
Q1 *Essen, Germany
Headquarters -Kinetic
-Kinetic
-Kinetic
-Kinetic
Essen,
*Essen,Germany
*Essen, Germany
Germany
Germany -Interactive allow light to be redirected without
2010 obstructing the view.
-Kinetic
*Essen, Germany

Private house -New Fixed De-

Privatehouse
Private house -NewFixed
-New FixedDe-
De- -The mashrabiya is structured from
Privatehouse
Private 2011
house -New Fixed sign
De-
2011
2011 sign
sign
2011 Delhi, India -New Fixed
*New
2011
Design
-Improved
sign moulded red brick. The brick acts as a
*New
*New
Private Delhi,India
Delhi,
house India -New -Improved
-Improved
-Improved veil in the screens that shade the west
*NewDelhi,
New Delhi,India
India -ImprovedDe-
Fixed
2011 sign facade of the building.
*New Delhi, India -Improved
Energies 2021, 14, 530 13 of 31

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FOR PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
FOR PEER REVIEW Table 2. Cont. 14
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Project|Built|Location Approach Concept

This This
This adaptive
adaptive
adaptive mashrabiya
mashrabiya
mashrabiya looks looks
looks like like
likeaaatri-a
tri-
This adaptive mashrabiya looks like tri-
angletriangle
This
anglewhen
adaptive
when when
it expands.
it it expands.
mashrabiya
expands. Every Every
six
looks
Every sixunits
like six
unitsa con-
tri-
con-
Al
Al Al Towers
Bahr Bahr Towers
Towers angle when it expands.from aEvery six units con-
AlBahr
Bahr Towers -Interactive
-Interactive
-Interactive nect
units
angle
nect
from
connect
when
from
a a
joint it expands.
joint point
point
joint point
Every
looks
looks six
like
like
looks
units
the
the con-
rhom-
rhom-
Al Bahr
2012
2012 Towers
2012 -Interactive nectlike from a joint
the rhombus pointshape.
looks It like the rhom-
is made
2012 -Interactive
Abu -Kinetic
-Kinetic busnect
-Kinetic bus bus from
shape.
shape. ais
Itjoint point
is made looks
from
from stainless steel supporting steel
shape. It
It is made
made from
from like the
stainless
stainless
stainless rhom-
steel
steel
*AbuDhabi,
*Abu *Abu
Dhabi,
Dhabi,UAE
2012
Dhabi,
UAEUAE
UAE -Kinetic supporting
bus shape.
supporting It is
frames,
frames, made from
dynamic
dynamic stainless
aluminium
aluminium steel
*Abu Dhabi, UAE supporting
frames, frames,
dynamic dynamic
aluminium aluminium
frames
supporting
frames
frames and frames,
fibreglass dynamic
mesh. aluminium
andand
frames and fibreglass
fibreglass
fibreglass mesh.mesh.
mesh.
frames and fibreglass mesh.

Thefacade
The facadeconsists
consistsof of
fourfour
aluminium
The
TheThefacade
facade
aluminium consists
consists of four
ofoffour
“butterfly” aluminium
aluminium
components of
facade consists
“butterfly” components four
of aluminium
various sizes,
“butterfly”
“butterfly”
various components
components
sizes, whichtheof
of various
various
protect sizes,
sizes,
against
Doha Tower “butterfly”
which components
protect against of various
direct sizes,
sunlight.
Doha
Doha Tower
Tower
DohaDoha
Tower -Fixed which
which theprotect
direct
protect against
sunlight.
against the
the direct
direct sunlight.
Tower
2012 -Fixed
-Fixed which
The protect
shape against
varies the
depending onsunlight.
direct sunlight.
the orienta-
2012
2012
2012 -Fixed The
-InteractiveThe shape
The
shape varies
shape
varies depending
varies depending
depending on
on the
on
the orienta-
the
orienta-
2012
*Doha, Qatar -Interactive
-Interactive The
tion shape
and thevaries
solar depending
protection on
thatthe orienta-
individu-
Doha,
*Doha,
*Doha,Qatar
Qatar
QatarQatar -Interactivetion orientation
and
tiontion
and the and
solar
thethe
solar the solar that
protection
protection protection
individu-
*Doha, als and
require: solar
25% protectionthat
northward, thatindividu-
40% individu-
south-
als that individuals
require:
als als
require: 25%
25% require:40%
northward,
northward, 25%south-
40% south-
require:
ward, 25% northward,
60% eastward 40% south-
and westward.
ward, northward,
60% 40% southward,
eastward and westward. 60%
ward,
ward,60% 60%eastward
eastward andandwestward.
westward.
eastward and westward.

The building’s total façade is divided into

The
The The
The
600 mm building’s
building’s
building’s
building’s total
transparent
total total
façade
total façade
façade
panels
façade is
isis is divided
divided
divided
with into
white
divided into
alu-
into
Vishranthi Office -New Fixed De- into 600 mm transparent panels with
600
600 mm
600
minium
mm mm transparent
transparent
mullions that
transparent panels
panels
shape
panels with
withthewhite
with whitealu-
frames.
white alu-
alu-
Vishranthi
Vishranthi
Vishranthi Office
Vishranthi
2014
OfficeOffice
Office -New
-New Fixed
-New De-
Fixed
De-De-
sign
Fixed white aluminium mullions that shape
-New Fixed minium
Design minium
Two
minium mullions
mullions
different
mullions that
types
that shape
that
of skinthe
shape
shape theframes.
between
the frames.
the
frames.
2014
2014
2014 2014
*Chennai, India sign
signsign
-Improved the frames.
-Improved Two Two
mullionsdifferent
differentwere types
typesadded:
of of askin
skin between
lighting
between the
panel
theand
the
*Chennai,
Chennai,
*Chennai, India
India
*Chennai, India India -ImprovedTwoTwo
-Improved
-Improved
different types
different of skin
types between
of skin between
mullions
a
mullionsjali
mullions were
screen
were added:
panel.
added:
were added: a a lighting
lighting panel
panel
panel andand
the mullions were aadded:
lighting a lightingand
a jali
aa jali screen
screen panel.
panel.
jalipanel
screen andpanel.
a jali screen panel.

The facade design allows the view towards

The facade
the sea withdesign allows
respecting thethe view towards
environment
The
Thethefacade
The
facade design
facade allows
design
design allows the
allows view towards
the view
theenvironment
view towards
Community Center -New Fixed De- and sea
thewith respecting
privacy of the
the surrounding build-
the
the towards
sea
sea with
with the sea
respecting
respecting with therespecting
the environment
environmentthe
Community
2015 Center Fixed De- and
-New sign ings.the
Theprivacy of the
ventilated surrounding
facade consists build-
of per-
Community
Community Center
Center -New
-New Fixed
Fixed De- and environment
the
the privacy of and
the the privacy ofbuild-
surrounding the
Community Center
2015
*Roses, Spain signDe- andings.
-Improved foratedprivacy
The ofinthe
ventilated
panels surrounding
thefacade consistsbuild-
same pattern asofthe
per-
2015 -New Fixed
sign Designings. surrounding
The buildings. The
2015
2015
*Roses, Spain sign
-Improved ings. The ventilated
forated
original ventilated
panels in
geometric
facade
facade
the same
mosaic
consists
consists
pattern
of
of
as
per-
per-
the
*Roses, Spain -Improved
-Improved ventilated facade consists of as the old
covering the
Roses,
*Roses,Spain
Spain -Improved forated
forated panels
panels
original in
in the
the same
geometric same pattern
pattern as the
the
floor of the
perforated panelsmosaic
building. in the covering
same patternold
original
original geometric mosaic covering the old
as the original geometric mosaic old
floor geometric
of the mosaic
building. covering the
floor of
of the
the building.
floorcoveringbuilding.
the old floor of the building.

5. The Case Study

5. The Case
The Studyof this study is located in the heart of historic Jeddah “Al-Balad”. His-
building
5.
5. The
toricCase
The Case
The Study
Study
building
Jeddah has of thethis study
most is locatedarea
abundant in theof heart of historic
buildings Jeddah “Al-Balad”.
characterised by traditional His-
The
toric building
The Jeddah
mashrabiyas
building or of
has this
the study
roshans
of this most
in Saudi
study is
is located
abundantArabia.in
located inItthe
area ofheart
should
the heart beof
buildings historic
ofpointed Jeddah
characterised
historic out
Jeddah “Al-Balad”. is His-
by traditional
that “Al-Balad”
“Al-Balad”. one
His-
5. The
toricof theCase
mashrabiyas
Jeddah
most Study
has or roshans
the
important most in Saudi
abundant
historical Arabia.
areas area
that It
theshould
of be
buildings
Saudi pointed
government out that
characterised
has been“Al-Balad”
by
keen is
traditional
to sponsorone
toric Jeddah has the most abundant area of buildings characterised by traditional
of
andthe
The
mashrabiyas
mashrabiyas most
support
buildingimportant
or
or in order
of thisto
roshans
roshans historical
in
in preserve
study
Saudi
Saudi areas
it as that
is located
Arabia.
Arabia. a in
UNESCO
Itthe
It Saudi
heart
should
should begovernment
heritage
of
be historic
pointed
pointed ashas
site,Jeddah
out
out wellbeen
that
that as keen to
being
“Al-Balad”.
“Al-Balad”
“Al-Balad” onesponsor
of
is the
Historic
is one
one
and
Vision
Jeddah
of the support
mosthas2030
the in
most
important order
initiatives to
abundantpreserve
that
historical consider
area
areas it as
of a
suchUNESCO
sites
buildings
that the Saudias heritage
part of
characterised
government
of the most important historical areas that the Saudi government has been keen to sponsor site,
the as
by
haswell
heritage as
andbeing
traditional
been one of
civilisation
keen mashrabiyas
to the
sponsor of
or
and Vision
the
roshans 2030
Kingdom in initiatives
of
Saudi Saudi
Arabia.that
Arabia.consider
It should such
be sites
pointed as part
out of
that the heritage
“Al-Balad” and
is civilisation
one of the of
most
and support
support in in order
order to to preserve
preserve it it as
as aa UNESCO
UNESCO heritage heritage site,site, as
as well
well asas being
being one
one of of the
the
the Kingdom
important “Baeshen ofHouse”
Saudi Arabia.
which is Saudi
thesuch
selected casepartstudy building for
to this work, is shown
Vision
Vision 2030historical
2030 initiatives
initiatives areas
thatthat
that the
consider
consider such government
sites
sites asas part hasof
ofbeen
the keen
the heritage
heritage sponsor
and and
and civilisation support
civilisation of
of
in
the in
order “Baeshen
Figure
Kingdom to 8.ofThe
preserve House”
house
Saudi it as which
was
a
Arabia. UNESCO is the heritage
constructed selected case
by Mohammed
site, study
as well building
Salehas being forone
Ali Abdullahthisofwork,
Baeshen
the is shown
Vision about
2030
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
in
200Figure
years
initiatives 8.
ago
that The house
during
consider was
the
such constructed
Ottoman
sites era by
part[3].
asselected ofTheMohammed
the building
heritage Saleh
was Ali Abdullah
built from Baeshen
approximately about
60–of
“Baeshen
“Baeshen House”
House” which
which is
is the
the selected case
case study and
study civilisation
building
building for
for thisofwork,
this the
work, Kingdom
is
is shown
shown
200
80
Saudi years
cm thick
Arabia. ago during
load-bearing the Ottoman
walls era
containing [3]. The building
three types was
of built
stones: from approximately
limestone, coral, marine60–
in
in Figure
Figure 8.
8. The house
house was
Theload-bearing was constructed
constructed by
by Mohammed
Mohammed Saleh
Saleh Ali
Ali Abdullah
Abdullah Baeshen
Baeshen about
about
80
and cm thick
coral
“Baeshen reef [3]. Aswhich
House” walls
illustrated
is containing
the inselected
Figure9, three types
thestudy
case of stones:
construction
building limestone,
walls
for werework,
this coral,
protected
is marine
shownfromin
200
200andyears
years ago
ago during
during the
the Ottoman
Ottoman era
era [3].
[3]. The
The building
building was
was built
built from
from approximately
approximately 60–
60–
the
Figure coral
humidity,
8. The reef [3].
heat As
and
house waswalls illustrated
salinity
constructed by in Figure9,
covering
by Mohammed the
them construction
with white
Saleh walls
plaster. were
Ali Abdullah protected
Baeshen from
about
80
80 cm
cm thick
thick load-bearing
load-bearing walls containing
containing three
three types
types of
of stones:
stones: limestone,
limestone, coral,
coral, marine
marine
the humidity, heat and salinity by covering them with white plaster.
and
and coral
coral reef
reef [3].
[3]. AsAs illustrated
illustrated in in Figure9,
Figure9, the the construction
construction walls walls werewere protected
protected from from
the humidity, heat and salinity by covering
the humidity, heat and salinity by covering them with white plaster. them with white plaster.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 14 of 31

200 years ago during the Ottoman era [3]. The building was built from approximately
60–80 cm thick load-bearing walls containing three types of stones: limestone, coral, marine
and coral reef [3]. As illustrated in Figure 9, the construction walls were protected from the
humidity, heat and salinity by covering them with white plaster.

Figure 8. The building from outside.

Figure 9. Cross-section view of the external wall.

The building was designed in such a way that allows effective use of natural ventilation
and daylight, while the façade openings are covered with mashrabiyas of different shapes
and sizes that added a distinctive aesthetic character to the building (Figure 10). Based on
several criteria: validity and condition of mashrabiyas, functions and time, the availability
of drawings, experimental possibilities and the access to the building, the building was
selected as a case study. The results of the case study generally provide a clear framework
for the mashrabiya effect and a better understanding of its actual influence on the indoor
thermal comfort of old houses with load-bearing walls in Jeddah in particular and thus
feed the study scope with more realistic data about the performance of the mashrabiya.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 15 of 31

Figure 10. Western façade (left) and a cross section with a general perception of the airflow (right).

5.1. Methods
The fieldwork was carried out in selected historic building with mashrabiyas located
in Old Jeddah in the summer of 2018 from 4 August to 1 September. The experimental
investigations used calibrated digital instruments to monitor air temperature, relative
humidity, air velocity, and globe temperature for two selected rooms and the courtyard
(Table 3). In this study, the courtyard is an open land area adjacent to the building from the
west, as shown in Figure 11.

Table 3. Overview of the building and measurement equipment.

City | Location Jeddah | 21◦ 29’ 12.8” N 39◦ 11’ 11.5” E

Climate zone Hot arid
Building Type Historical Residential Building
Current use Exhibition and Gallery (Ground and 1st floor)
Hot Wire Anemometer 1 min Indoor, Out
WBGT Data logger 1 min Indoor
Instruments (Intervals)
Tinytag Plus 2 Dual Channel 1h Indoor, Out
Tinytag View 2 1h Indoor, Out
Dual Laser Infrared Thermometer 1 h 1h Indoor, Out
Air Temperature, Globe Temperature, Relative Humidity, Air Velocity,
Measurements
Surface Temperature.
Mashrabiya Orientation: West/Mode: open-closed
Wall: calcareous and coral stones
Materials Celling: Stones and Timber
Mashrabiyas: Wood

Figure 11. A 3D perspective of the building and the courtyard.

Energies 2021, 14, 530 16 of 31

All temperatures and relative humidity values were continuously monitored for
28 days from the first to the last day the experiment, while the other measurements;
air velocity, globe temperatures, and surface temperature, were taken in specific days
and periods.
The devices used for monitoring the experiment are detailed in Table 4. During
the entire investigation period, each instrument was placed in a particular position. The
observed rooms and courtyard during the experiment were not occupied, except for
moments of setting the data loggers or carrying out some instantaneous measurements.

Table 4. The equipment used in the field work. Reproduced from Bagasi and Calautit [3].

Number Instrument Parameters and Range Accuracy and Resolution

Hot Wire Anemometer with Real-Time -Air volume and velocity ±(10% + lsd) Full Scale
3
Data Logger #HHF2005HW -Range 0.2 to 20 m/s ±0.8 ◦ C
-Wet Bulb Globe Temperature
WBGT: ± 1 to 1.5 ◦ C
2 WBGT Data Logger PCE-WB 20SD -Black globe temperature (TG)
TG: ± 0.6 ◦ C
-Range 0 to 59 ◦ C
Tinytag Plus 2 Dual Channel -Temperature range −25 to +85 ◦ C
T: 0.01 ◦ C or better.
2 Temperature/Relative Humidity -Relative humidity range 0 to 100%.
RH: ±3.0% at 25 ◦ C
#TGP-4500 -Suitable for outdoor use.
-Temperature range from −25 to +50 ◦ C
Tinytag View 2 Temperature/Relative T: 0.02 ◦ C or better.
1 -Relative humidity range 0 to 100%.
Humidity Logger #TV-4500 RH: Better than 0.3% RH
-Suitable for indoor use.
-Surface Temperature
1 Dual Laser Infrared Thermometer -Rang −50 ◦ C ~ 550 ◦ C temperature ±1% of reading
-Emissivity 0.10 to 1.0.

The selected rooms of this study located in the west part of the building where the
first room (R1) located on the first floor and the second room (R2) in the second, as shown
Figure 12. Both rooms have the same conditions, with the exception of the difference in
height from ground level to each floor. Each room has one mashrabiya on the west wall and
overlooks the courtyard, exposed to the prevalent wind and the Red Sea breeze. Besides,
each room has three openings in each wall that were blocked to isolate and prevent the
influence from adjacent rooms.

Figure 12. First and second-floor plans with the data loggers locations.

The room dimensions are 4 m long, 3.6 m wide, and 3.9 m high, and the mashrabiya
is 2.4 m wide × 3.1 m high. Four data loggers were used in each room for monitoring
Energies 2021, 14, 530 17 of 31

the air temperature, velocity, relative humidity, and the globe temperature. In addition
to that, a dual laser thermometer was used to measure the surface temperature of the
mashrabiya and the adjacent walls. In order to measure the surface temperature, grid
points were placed in specific spots on the mashrabiya and its adjacent walls of R1, as
shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. The mashrabiya and grids in Room 1.

The data loggers for the air and globe temperatures in both rooms were at 0.6 m in
height and 2 m away from mashrabiya on the basis of ASHRAE suggestions [62]. At the
internal edge of each mashrabiya at a level of about 1.1 m, airflow velocity data loggers
were placed. During the test period, each room was monitored for air and relative humidity
and the global data loggers and anemometers recorded during certain times of the day.
Three meters apart from the exterior wall in the courtyard, two types of data loggers
have been installed: Tinytag Plus and a anemometer. The Tinytag was recording outdoor
Ta and RH from 4 August to 1 September 2018 at a level of around 1.7 m based on one of
the levels recommended by the 2010 ASHRAE standards. The anemometer was recording
specific periods of days and was placed at 0.1 m height and was shaded by a table. On
specific days and periods of the fieldwork, a dual laser infrared thermometer was used
to measure the surface temperatures of the open mash and closed mash from inside and
outside including the adjacent wall of the mashrabiyas.
Figure 14 presents the timeline of the experiment indicating the days of measurements
from the first day “Set up” to the last day. The chart shows that the experiments monitored
the outdoor and indoor air temperature” Ta” and relative humidity “RH” for the entire
period. Also, the graph displays the monitoring days for the other measurements; air
velocity “AV”, globe temperature “Tg”, and surface temperature “Ts”.

Figure 14. Timeline of the experiment.

Energies 2021, 14, 530 18 of 31

5.2. Results and Discussion

This section presents the indoor and outdoor measurements data collected in this
work. The results of the air temperature, air velocity, humidity, and surface temperatures
will be presented and analysed in detail.

5.2.1. Indoor Air Temperature and Relative Humidity Results

Figure 15 presents the measurements of indoor and outdoor air temperature from 5 to
31 August. As observed, the thermal mass and the mashrabiya played a an important role
in regulating the indoor temperature during the high fluctuations where the temperature
of Room 1 ranged between 32.2 and 38.5 ◦ C, Room 2 from 32.5 to 38.4 ◦ C, whilst there was
a recorded high variation in the courtyard temperatures between 30.9 and 48.7 ◦ C. The
thermal mass and closed mashrabiya delayed the heat flux into Room 2 up to three hours
per day while the open mashrabiya in Room 1 reduced the time lag to one hour as shown in
Figure 16. However, the open mashrabiya allowed more airflow, which mostly lowered the
Room 1 temperature, especially during the afternoon by up to 2.4 ◦ C compared to Room 2.
As observed in Figure 16, both rooms were able to keep the temperature below 38 ◦ C when
the outdoor temperature peaked at 43.6–45.4 ◦ C. This effect is again mainly attributed to
the role of the building’s total thermal mass. It can also be observed that night ventilation
effect decreased the indoor air temperature up to 34 ◦ C and contributed to lowering the
excess heat and cool the building fabric. Also, it helped to reduce and delay the peak time
of the indoor temperatures.

Figure 15. Indoor and outdoor air temperature from 5 to 31 August 2018.

Figure 16. Hourly indoor and outdoor air temperature on 11, 12 & 13 August 2018.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 19 of 31

The average air temperature and relative humidity results from the fieldwork mea-
surements for the outdoor and selected rooms are shown in Table 5. The measurements
were carried out from 4 August until 1 September 2018 for each space. All air temperature
and relative humidity data were recorded for 24 h in all dates except the first and last
day due to the data loggers’ setup. As shown in Table, 5 August recorded the highest
average air temperature in both rooms when the outdoor recorded the hottest by 37.62 ◦ C.
In contrast, the lowest indoor air temperature averages were recorded on 29 August when
the average outdoor air temperature reaches the lowest by 37.62 ◦ C. As occurred to the
indoor air temperature from the influence of the outdoor air temperature, the rooms were
clearly affected by the outdoor relative humidity. The highest relative humidity in all
spaces was on 31 August and the lowest on 23 August with variation rates less than 3%.

Table 5. Daily average air temperature (Ta) and relative humidity (RH) for the selected spaces.

Room1 Room2 Outdoor

Date
Ta RH Ta RH Ta RH
4 AUG 36.76 39.91 36.72 38.07 41.68 33.59
5 AUG 36.11 48.21 36.41 46.88 37.62 47.12
6 AUG 35.18 55.01 35.58 53.05 36.51 53.73
7 AUG 34.71 61.68 35.31 56.66 36.13 58.12
8 AUG 34.56 63.42 35.01 60.78 36.05 60.84
9 AUG 35.23 48.96 35.31 47.82 36.60 47.40
10 AUG 35.53 47.72 35.60 48.59 37.05 48.73
11 AUG 35.47 53.58 35.96 49.36 37.06 49.48
12 AUG 35.08 58.99 35.65 55.28 36.68 56.83
13 AUG 34.96 56.63 35.19 55.98 35.93 56.79
14 AUG 35.04 51.91 35.18 49.75 36.88 48.80
15 AUG 34.43 53.02 34.81 50.21 34.82 53.49
16 AUG 34.90 52.71 35.15 50.44 36.48 49.79
17 AUG 34.95 48.90 35.10 48.42 35.55 50.68
18 AUG 34.50 57.04 35.02 53.94 35.51 54.90
19 AUG 34.64 59.51 35.03 56.43 36.50 55.63
20 AUG 35.35 49.92 35.61 49.92 36.37 48.91
21 AUG 35.61 48.96 35.78 47.60 37.46 46.07
22 AUG 35.38 46.19 35.58 45.18 36.66 46.06
23 AUG 35.01 43.53 35.07 42.87 36.26 43.02
24 AUG 34.76 45.34 34.87 44.01 35.84 44.85
25 AUG 34.55 54.93 34.84 52.70 35.93 53.13
26 AUG 34.11 62.43 34.53 59.14 35.06 61.65
27 AUG 34.20 55.75 34.34 54.40 35.44 54.77
28 AUG 33.92 53.80 34.09 52.42 35.06 53.23
29 AUG 33.54 56.04 33.68 53.63 34.41 55.17
30 AUG 33.77 63.50 34.04 60.91 35.19 61.36
31 AUG 33.66 67.42 33.91 64.97 34.71 65.95
1 SEP 34.29 63.17 34.33 61.54 35.84 60.07
Bule: Maximum Average Relative Humidity; Pink: Maximum Average Air Temperature; Orange:
Minimum Average Relative Humidity; Green: Minimum Average Air Temperature.

Figure 17a shows the relationship between average air temperature (Ta) and relative
humidity (RH) in Room 1, Room 2 and the courtyard between 5 and 31 August 2018. As
expected, the relative humidity decreases as the air temperature in both rooms increases
and vice versa. The highest relative humidity was recorded on 31 August with a range of
about 65 and 67.4% while the lowest was 43% on 23 August. Due to airflow into the Room
1 through the open mashrabiya, Room 1 reduced more heat and allowed more relative
humidity than Room 2.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 20 of 31

Figure 17. (a). Average air temperature and relative humidity for R1 and R2 from 5 to 31 August
2018; (b). The daily Absolute humidity for each room and courtyard from 5 to 31 August 2018.

The average daily indoor and outdoor absolute humidity from 5 to 31 August 2018 are
presented in Figure 17b. The graph demonstrates that the absolute humidity rates in the
rooms were affected by the outdoor absolute humidity. The rooms’ averages of absolute
humidity ranged between 16.8 and 25 g of moisture per cubic meter of air (g/m3 ) and in
the courtyard from 18 to 25.5 g/m3 .

5.2.2. Indoor Air Velocity Results

Table 6 demonstrates the frequency percentages and maximum indoor and outdoor
air velocity during a specific period of days. The monitoring days included 4–5,11–12,
18, 26 August and 1 September during the afternoon hours. It should be pointed out
that the rooms airflow velocities were measured at a specific point at each mashrabiya,
as mentioned earlier in the method part. Moreover, the mashrabiya for Room 2 was
not completely closed due to the difficulty of moving the tilting rods, which caused the
amount of natural daylight to pass and the airflow through the openings of the semi-open
mashrabiya slats. As for the courtyard air velocity, readings maybe were influenced by
several factors such as the anemometers position, proximity to ground level, and some
surrounding obstacles.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 21 of 31

Table 6. Frequency of indoor and outdoor air velocity measurements.

Courtyard Room1 Room2

Bin Freq % Bin Freq % Bin Freq %
0 24.65 0 1.32 0 90.44
0.5 28.90 0.5 7.64 0.1 1.97
1 25.76 1 15.69 0.2 2.02
1.5 12.15 1.5 17.56 0.3 1.92
2 4.35 2 18.27 0.4 1.27
2.5 1.77 2.5 14.37 0.5 0.81
3 0.66 3 9.41 0.6 0.76
3.5 0.46 3.5 6.98 0.7 0.30
4 0.40 4 4.71 0.8 0.25
4.5 0.20 4.5 2.28 0.9 0.15
5 0.05 5 0.96 1 0.05
04-Aug-18
5.5 0.20 5.5 0.35 Max 1.1 0.05
2:53pm
6 0.10 6 0.30
6.5 0.10 6.5 0.10
11-Aug-18
7 0.05 Max 6.9 0.05
1:07pm
7.5 0.05
8 0.10
12-Aug-18
Max 8.1 0.05
3:12am

The table displays the ranges of indoor and outdoor air velocity that are varying from
0 to 8.1 m/s in courtyard, 0 to 6.9 m/s in Room 1, and 0 to 1.1 m/s in Room 2. According
to the table, the highest frequency value of air velocity was in Room 1 with speed 2 m/s
(18.27%), courtyard 0.5 m/s (28.9%) and in Room 2 by 0 m/s (90.44%). In general, the air
velocity rates through the mashrabiya of Room 1 was greater than courtyard and Room 2
due to the opening the mashrabiya, which admitted more airflow without being affected
by obstacles as in the courtyard or when been closed as the mashrabiya of Room 2.

5.2.3. Statistical Analysis of Indoor and Outdoor Measurements

Table 7 presents a brief of statistical comparisons between the air velocity (Av) and
air temperature (Ta) for; the open mashrabiya in R1, the closed mashrabiya in R2, and
courtyard. Dates included in this table were only restricted to days that covered the
same period for monitoring both air temperature and velocity. The measurement times
of each day covered the period from noon to 3:30 p.m. The maximum air velocity values
of the R1 range from 4.50 to 6.90 m/s, courtyard from 1.60 to 5.20 m/s, and R2 from 0 to
1.10 m/s. This indicates that the room with open mashrabiya has higher air velocity than
the courtyard which is the benchmark and the room with closed mashrabiya. The lowest
standard deviation values were calculated in R2 and the highest in R1, which mean that
there is inconsistency in R1 in air velocity compared to R2 and the courtyard. This may be
due to the low air velocity in R2 and the courtyard, which equivalent to zero some periods.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 22 of 31

Table 7. Statistical comparisons between indoor and outdoor air velocity and temperature.

Air Velocity (m/s) Air Temperature (◦ C)

Space Date
MAX AVG MIN S.D. MAX AVG MIN S.D.
04-Aug-18 5.20 2.37 0.30 0.97 39.3 37.0 35 1.0
05-Aug-18 4.50 2.03 0.00 0.89 38.1 37.0 35.8 0.5
11-Aug-18 6.90 1.71 0.00 1.14 38.4 35.4 33.1 0.8
Room1
18-Aug-18 6.40 2.63 0.10 1.13 36.6 34.1 32.7 0.7
26-Aug-18 5.30 2.08 0.20 0.76 36.1 34.6 33.1 0.6
01-Sep-18 4.80 2.17 0.00 1.03 36.7 34.8 33.1 0.8
04-Aug-18 1.10 0.27 0.00 0.26 41.8 39.3 36.9 1.6
05-Aug-18 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.01 43.4 40.9 38.4 1.1
11-Aug-18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 41.6 38.1 35.8 1.7
Room2
18-Aug-18 0.20 0.01 0.00 0.03 40.2 37.0 34.6 1.5
26-Aug-18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 40 37.5 35.0 1.3
01-Sep-18 0.70 0.06 0.00 0.12 40 37.8 36.3 1.0
04-Aug-18 2.80 0.78 0.00 0.63 48.3 41.8 36.8 2.2
05-Aug-18 3.20 0.71 0.00 0.58 46 40.7 37.7 1.4
11-Aug-18 3.70 0.45 0.00 0.50 43.2 37.0 34.3 1.6
Courtyard
18-Aug-18 3.40 0.80 0.00 0.63 46.4 38.9 34.9 2.4
26-Aug-18 1.60 0.51 0.00 0.38 46.1 39.6 35.9 1.8
01-Sep-18 5.20 1.02 0.00 1.06 45 38.4 33.4 2.5

The maximum Room 1 air temperature ranges from 36.1 to 39.3 ◦ C, R2 from 40 to
43.4 ◦ C, and the courtyard from 43.2 to 48.3 ◦ C. The average air temperature measurements
of the R1 range from 33.8 to 37 ◦ C, R2 from 37 to 40.9 ◦ C, and courtyard from 37 to 41.8 ◦ C.
The lowest value of minimum air temperature was monitored in R1 32.7 ◦ C. From this;
it can elicit that the higher air velocity can improve the air temperature. For example,
the lowest standard deviation values have been calculated in R1 and the highest in the
courtyard. The lowest standard deviation values have been calculated in R1 and the highest
in the courtyard. This means R1 have more consistency in air temperature and lowest in
the fluctuations. However, the room with open mashrabiya shows better air velocity and
air temperature than the courtyard and Room 2.
Table 8 presents the air temperature (Ta) and air velocity (Av) correlation coefficient
for Room 1 and the courtyard of specific dates during the same period, from 12 p.m. to
3:30 p.m. It can be noticed from the table that the relationships between the variables
Av and Ta in both spaces are negative correlation. In Room 1, the correlation coefficient
ranges from −0.19 to −0.54, which can be evaluated as weak to moderate correlation. In
comparison, the correlation coefficient in the courtyard ranges from −0.10 to −0.68, which
can be evaluated as weak to strong correlation. It may be concluded from this table that as
air velocity increases, the indoor air temperature may decrease.

Table 8. The air temperature and velocity correlation coefficient for Room 1 and the courtyard.

4 Aug 5 Aug 11 Aug 18 Aug 26 Aug 1 Sep

Room 1 −0.19 −0.45 −0.5 −0.05 −0.19 −0.54
Courtyard −0.59 −0.68 −0.62 −0.69 −0.1 −0.67

Table 9 provides a statistical summary of indoor and outdoor averages and ranges
of air temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, and the indoor globe temperatures.
The range (RNG) values in the table refer to the difference between the maximum and
minimum readings of each space for a day. The table only displays the days when all
thermal measurements were taken for all observed spaces. It should be noted that globe
temperature (Tg) readings in R2 on 4&5 August were not listed due to an issue in the
inserted SD card memory.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 23 of 31

Table 9. Summary of thermal conditions during different days of the experiment.

T (◦ C) Globe Temperature (◦ C) RH (%) Av (m/s)

Date DESC
R1 R2 Out R1 R2 R1 R2 Out R1 R2 Out
AVG 36.8 36.7 41.7 37.0 n/a 39.9 38.1 33.6 2.4 0.3 0.8
4 AUG
RNG 3.8 3.9 19.6 3.9 n/a 27.7 13.8 29.1 4.9 1.1 2.8
AVG 36.1 36.4 37.6 36.8 n/a 48.2 46.9 47.1 2.0 0 0.7
5 AUG
RNG 2.3 3 11.3 2.9 n/a 23.1 17.5 29.3 4.5 0.1 3.2
AVG 35.5 36.0 37.1 35.0 35.9 53.6 49.4 49.5 1.7 0 0.4
11 AUG
RNG 2.8 2.6 10.3 3.6 3.2 31.3 28.3 37 6.9 0 3.7
AVG 35.1 35.7 36.7 34.9 35.7 59.0 55.3 56.8 0.8 0 0.9
12 AUG
RNG 2.9 3 12.2 3.4 3.2 23.9 19.6 45 2.7 0 8.1
AVG 34.5 35.0 35.5 34.4 35.5 57.0 53.9 54.9 2.6 0 0.8
18 AUG
RNG 3.2 3.3 14.6 7.3 2.2 34.7 30.9 37.4 6.3 0.2 3.4
AVG 34.1 34.5 35.1 34.7 35.3 62.4 59.1 61.7 2.1 0 0.5
26 AUG
RNG 2.6 2.6 9.7 1.7 1.6 28.3 28.8 35.1 5.1 0 1.6
AVG 34.3 34.3 35.8 35.0 35.4 63.2 61.5 60.1 2.2 0.1 1.0
1 SEP
RNG 3.4 2.8 9.4 1.2 1.6 16.2 9.4 25.5 4.8 0.7 5.2

The highest average of the outdoor temperature was recorded 41.7 ◦ C on 4 August
with a range of 19.6 degrees as can be observed from the table. It is worth noting that some
of the readings may have been affected somewhat because the data logger was not shaded
properly during some periods of the day. However, the outdoor temperature range for
4 August was reflected on the indoor values as both rooms recorded the highest average
and range on the same day. On the averages of indoor air temperature, Room 1 was lower
by 0.5 than Room 2.
The average globe temperature values (Tg) for both rooms were close to the average air
temperature, indicating the absence or low thermal radiation. Furthermore, the variations
between indoor air temperature and globe temperature measurements have not exceeded
two degrees.
The highest range of relative humidity was 45% in the courtyard on 12 August, while
the highest average relative humidity was recorded on the last day of the experiment by
63.2% in Room 1, 61.5% in Room 2, and 60.1% in the courtyard. Despite the higher relative
humidity ranges in the courtyard, the rooms on averages were wetter than the courtyard,
which is beneficial for thermal comfort. This behaviour was attributed to the building
envelope that reduced temperature fluctuations, thus leading to more moisture stability
inside the building.
The highest averages and ranges for air velocity were mostly recorded in Room 1 due
to the open mashrabiya facing air directly without being affected by obstacles or closure.
Surface temperature values were measured for the open mashrabiya and closed
mashrabiya from inside and outside, and the courtyard, as shown in the next tables.
All averages of measuring points at various positions, days and times are displayed
in Tables 10–12. The points represent the averages of measurement areas for the open
mashrabiya (Mash1), closed mashrabiya (Mash2) and walls beside each mashrabiya from
inside and outside (Figures 18 and 19).
Energies 2021, 14, 530 24 of 31
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 35

Table 10. Surface temperature measurements of Room 1, Room 2, and the courtyard on 4 and 5 August 2018.
Table 10. Surface temperature measurements of Room 1, Room 2, and the courtyard on 4 and 5 August 2018.
4 August 5 August
4 August 5 August
Time 1:00 p.m. 2:00 p.m.
Time 1:003:00
p.m.p.m. 12:00 p.m.
2:00 p.m. 3:00 p.m. 1:00 p.m.
12:00 2:00 p.m.
p.m. 1:00 3:00 p.m.
p.m. 2:00 p.m. 3:00 p.m.
A M1 38.0
Above Mash1 38.9
A M1 38.039.8 38.9 38.2 39.8 38.2
38.2 38.1
38.2 38.1 38.6 38.6
B M1 Middle38.1 39.2 38.140.2 39.2 39.2 40.2 38.4 38.8 38.8 39.8 39.8
Energies 2021, 14, x FORMash1 B M1 39.2 38.4
C M1 37.3 PEER REVIEW
37.5 38.8 37.8 37.7 38.0 38.4 27 of 35
Bottom Mash1 C M1 37.3 37.5 38.8 37.8 37.7 38.0 38.4
WA M1 36.9 36.7 38.3 38.4 37.7 37.3 37.9
Right Wall Mash1 WA M1 36.9 36.7 38.3 38.4 37.7 37.3 37.9
WB M1 Left Wall 36.7 Mash1 WB 36.7M1 36.738.1 36.7 38.3 38.1 37.8
38.3 37.2
37.8 37.2 37.7 37.7
A M2 Above 39.0
Mash2 39.4
A M2 39.041.0 39.4 42.0 41.0 41.0
42.0 40.6
41.0 40.6 41.5 41.5
B M2 40.0 41.5 44.0 43.0 41.5 42.0 43.8
Middle Mash2 B M2 40.0 41.5 44.0 43.0 41.5 42.0 43.8
C M2 37.0
Bottom Mash2 39.0
C M2 37.045.8 39.0 42.0 45.8 40.5
42.0 40.2
40.5 40.2 41.2 41.2
WR M2 Right Wall Mash2 WR M2
WL M2 Left Wall Mash2 WL M2
OWR M1 Out Right Wall OWR
Mash1 M1
OWL M1
OWL
A O Out Left47.0 Wall Mash1 49.0
M1 51.0 49.0 47.0 49.5 53.0
BO 49.0 50.0 55.0 47.0 49.0 47.0 50.0
O Above Mash1 AO 47.0 49.0 51.0 49.0 47.0 49.5 53.0
CO 43.0 43.0 45.0 46.0 47.0 49.0 49.0
O Middle Mash1 BO 49.0 50.0 55.0 47.0 49.0 47.0 50.0
WO 43.0 42.0 44.0 44.0 45.0
O Bottom Mash1 CO 43.0 43.0 45.0 46.0 47.0 49.0 49.0
O Below Mash1 WO 43.0 42.0 44.0 44.0 45.0
Table 11. Surface temperatures of Room 1, Room 2, and the courtyard on 11, 13 and 18 August 2018.

13 Au-
11 August
Figure 19. Measurement zonesgust 18 August
and abbreviated on the Mash1 from outside.
12:00 12:00
Time 1:00Surface
Table 11. p.m. temperatures
2:00 p.m. of
3:00 p.m.1, Room
Room 6:00p.m. 1:00
2, and the courtyard onp.m. 2:0018p.m.
11, 13 and August3:00 p.m.
2018.
p.m. p.m.
A M1 36.5 36.1 11 August
35.4 35.9 1336.9
August 35.0 35.1 18 August35.2 36.3
Time
B M1 12:00 p.m. 35.9
36.4 1:00 p.m. 35.7
2:00 p.m. 3:00 36.5p.m. 6:00p.m.
35.9 12:00 p.m. 35.11:00 p.m. 36.3
34.4 2:00 p.m. 3:00
37.1 p.m.
C M1
A M1 33.7 36.5 36.6 36.1 37.135.4 36.2
35.9 37.2
36.9 35.4 35.0 35.5 35.1 35.7 35.2 36.0
36.3
WA M1B M1 36.5 36.4 36.0 35.9 36.435.7 35.2
36.5 36.0
35.9 35.5 34.4 35.4 35.1 35.6 36.3 35.6
37.1
C M1
WB M1 36.5 33.7 36.2 36.6 36.537.1 36.2
35.2 37.2
36.0 35.6 35.4 35.5 35.5 35.6 35.7 36.0
35.6
WA M1
A M2 38.0 36.5 37.3 36.0 41.336.4 35.2
41.4 36.0
35.9 36.0 35.5 36.0 35.4 39.0 35.6 35.6
40.4
WB M1
B M2 38.4 36.5 37.5 36.2 40.8 36.5 35.2
43.4 36.0
40.0 36.0 35.6 36.3 35.5 40.0 35.6 35.6
42.0
A M2
C M2 37.7 38.0 37.1 37.3 40.5 41.3 41.4
40.8 35.9
39.2 35.8 36.0 35.8 36.0 38.4 39.0 40.4
39.3
B M2 38.4 37.5 40.8 43.4 40.0 36.0 36.3 40.0 42.0
WR M2 40.0 39.2 38.0 36.2 35.9 37.8 38.0
C M2 37.7 37.1 40.5 40.8 39.2 35.8 35.8 38.4 39.3
WL M2 40.0 39.2 38.0 36.1 35.8 37.7 37.9
WR M2 40.0 39.2 38.0 36.2 35.9 37.8 38.0
OWR
WL M2 38.75 39.9 43.7540.0 39.2
44.35 38.0
37.65 38.6536.1 39.7 35.8 41.9537.7 4437.9
M1
OWR M1 38.75 39.9 43.75 44.35 37.65 38.65 39.7 41.95 44
OWL
OWL M1 39.4 39.4 39.3539.35 43 43 44.25
44.25 37.6
37.6 38.5 38.5 39.8 39.8 41.9541.95 43.8
43.8
M1
AO 42.0 43.0 49.0 52.0 41.0 39.5 46.0 49.0 57.0
A OB O 42.0 40.0 43.0 43.5 Figure 18. Interior
49.046.5 measurement
52.0
50.0 41.0 zones on
38.0
the mashrabiya
39.5 40.8
and abbreviated
46.0 47.0 49.0 47.0 names.
57.0
50.0
B OC O 40.0 38.0 43.5 41.0 46.544.0 50.0
46.0 38.0
40.0 40.8 41.0 47.0 44.0 47.0 43.0 50.0
52.0
C OW O 38.0 37.0 41.0 39.9 44.042.5 46.0
43.0 40.0
38.0 41.0 39.0 44.0 41.0 43.0 41.0 52.0
42.0
WO 37.0 39.9 42.5 43.0 38.0 39.0 41.0 41.0 42.0
Energies 2021, 14, 530 25 of 31

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 35

Table 12. Surface temperatures of Room 1, Room 2, and the courtyard on 26 August and 1 September 2018.

26 August 1 September
Table 12. Surface temperatures of Room 1, Room 2, and the courtyard on 26 August and 1 September 2018.
Time 12:00 p.m. 1:00 p.m. 2:00 p.m. 3:00 p.m. 12:00 p.m. 1:00 p.m. 2:00 p.m. 3:00 p.m.
A M1 34.8 35.9 26 August
36.4 36.0 36.7 35.7 1 September
34.7 35.8
Time 12:00 p.m. 1:00 p.m. 2:00 p.m. 3:00 p.m. 12:00 p.m. 1:00 p.m. 2:00 p.m. 3:00 p.m.
B M1 34.7 36.4 36.7 37.3 37.6 36.0 35.9 37.5
A M1 34.8 35.9 36.4 36.0 36.7 35.7 34.7 35.8
C M1 35.1 35.7 36.1 35.5 36.1 35.2 35.4 36.3
B M1 34.7 36.4 36.7 37.3 37.6 36.0 35.9 37.5
WA M1 35.3 35.4 35.7 35.1 35.9 34.8 35.6 36.1
C M1 35.1 35.7 36.1 35.5 36.1 35.2 35.4 36.3
WB M1
WA M1 35.2 35.3 35.5 35.4 35.8 35.7 35.135.1 36.035.9 34.9 34.8 35.335.6 36.1
36.1
A M2
WB M1 35.5 35.2 36.3 35.5 37.3 35.8 39.235.1 37.236.0 36.9 34.9 39.935.3 40.5
36.1
B M2A M2 36.0 35.5 37.0 36.3 39.7 37.3 41.039.2 37.937.2 37.5 36.9 40.839.9 42.8
40.5
C M2B M2 35.4 36.0 36.1 37.0 37.1 39.7 38.541.0 36.737.9 36.5 37.5 39.040.8 42.8
39.7
WR M2C M2 35.8 35.4 35.8 36.1 36.2 37.1 37.238.5 36.336.7 35.7 36.5 38.639.0 39.7
38.3
WR
WL M2 M2 35.5 35.8 35.7 35.8 36.3 36.2 37.137.2 36.236.3 35.8 35.7 38.638.6 38.3
38.1
WL M2 35.5 35.7 36.3 37.1 36.2 35.8 38.6 38.1
OWR M1 39.5 39.5 41 42 40.2 40.7 42 42.5
OWR M1 39.5 39.5 41 42 40.2 40.7 42 42.5
OWL M1 39.5 39.3 41 41.8 40.6 41 41.7 41.5
OWL M1 39.5 39.3 41 41.8 40.6 41 41.7 41.5
AOAO 42.7 42.7 43.5 43.5 49.0 49.0 52.052.0 43.943.9 45.5 45.5 49.849.8 51.0
51.0
BO BO 41.0 41.0 42.0 42.0 44.0 44.0 50.050.0 42.042.0 43.8 43.8 47.047.0 48.0
48.0
COCO 40.0 40.0 45.0 45.0 49.0 49.0 53.053.0 43.043.0 46.0 46.0 48.548.5 52.0
52.0
W OW O 39.0 39.0 39.5 39.5 39.3 39.3 41.041.0 38.538.5 39.0 39.0 41.041.0 40.7
40.7

Moreover, Figure 20 shows the inside and outside average surface temperature in the
middle area of the open mashrabiya and adjacent sidewalls during different days. It is
important to clarify that western facade, which includes the exterior frames of the tested
mashrabiyas, is not exposed to direct sunlight during the measurement times until about
12.30 p.m. 55 °C the maximum value was recorded on the external surface of the open
mashrabiya at 3:00 p.m. on 4 August while the minimum was 34.3 °C on the internal sur-
face of mashrabiya at noon on 18 August. It can be noticed that surface temperatures of
the exterior wall around the open mashrabiya absorbed less heat than the exterior surface
of the mashrabiya indicating the benefit of the properties and colour of the plaster. Alt-
hough the outside wall surface temperature was between 37 °C to 45 °C, the heat gain into
the rooms reduced by the building’s thermal mass, where the temperatures range from
34.8 to 38.4 °C on the internal surface of the wall. From Figure 20, it can be noticed that
outside surface temperature of the wall and the mashrabiyas’ external surface become
equal during the sunset with a temperature around 38 °C.

Figure 18. Interior measurement zones on the mashrabiya and abbreviated names.
The measurements were monitored on 4 August at about 1:00, 2:00, 3:00 p.m. also
at noon on 5, 11, 18, 26 August and 1 September while monitored at about 6:00 p.m.
on 13 August 2018. As shown in tables, surface temperature measurements increased
and reach the highest values, usually at 3 p.m. while the entire facade was exposed to
direct sunlight.
Figure 20. The surface temperatures of the open mashrabiya and wall surface inside and outside.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 26 of 31

Figure 19. Measurement zones and abbreviated on the Mash1 from outside.

Moreover, Figure 20 shows the inside and outside average surface temperature in the
middle area of the open mashrabiya and adjacent sidewalls during different days. It is
important to clarify that western facade, which includes the exterior frames of the tested
mashrabiyas, is not exposed to direct sunlight during the measurement times until about
12.30 p.m. 55 ◦ C the maximum value was recorded on the external surface of the open
mashrabiya at 3:00 p.m. on 4 August while the minimum was 34.3 ◦ C on the internal
surface of mashrabiya at noon on 18 August. It can be noticed that surface temperatures of
the exterior wall around the open mashrabiya absorbed less heat than the exterior surface of
the mashrabiya indicating the benefit of the properties and colour of the plaster. Although
the outside wall surface temperature was between 37 ◦ C to 45 ◦ C, the heat gain into the
rooms reduced by the building’s thermal mass, where the temperatures range from 34.8 to
38.4 ◦ C on the internal surface of the wall. From Figure 20, it can be noticed that outside
surface temperature of the wall and the mashrabiyas’ external surface become equal during
the sunset with a temperature around 38 ◦ C.

Figure 20. The surface temperatures of the open mashrabiya and wall surface inside and outside.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 27 of 31

5.3. Thermal Comfort Assessment

As part of the study of the performance of the mashrabiya, it was important to assess
the impact of the mashrabiya on the indoor thermal comfort. Multiple methods and
equations can be used to calculate the temperature of indoor comfort. Although ASHRAE
55 is considered as a master guide, the outdoor temperature averages of less than 10 ◦ C
or higher than 33.5 ◦ C are not taken into account. As the average outdoor temperature
of this building was above this range, another method was used to evaluate the comfort
temperature for passive buildings with the equation of Nicol and Humphreys [62] for
estimate comfort temperature in free-running buildings as described below:

Tc = 13.5 + 0.54To

where Tc is the comfort temperature, and To is the monthly outdoor air temperature
average. This study considered the average outdoor temperature measured during the
experiment only, which was 36.2 ◦ C. Therefore, the comfort temperature for this case is
33 ◦ C, depending on the equation. It is worth pointing out that Pakistani participants felt
comfortable at indoor temperatures around 33 ◦ C in the Nicol and Humphrey field study.
The paper also stated that during the tests, the workers changed their clothing and used
fans of air movement.
Figure 21 shows the rooms’ level of comfort based on the calculated comfort tempera-
tures and total measurements for both rooms. Each bar represents measurements of the
complete room temperature for each day and the required degree to achieve comfort. The
left-axis 0 value in the graph is equivalent to the calculated comfort temperature of 33 ◦ C,
means the values equal or above 0 considered within the comfort zone while the values
below 0 have not achieved this.

Figure 21. Rooms temperatures as compared to comfort temperature over the experiment days.

It is clear from the chart that the temperatures inside the R1 typically were closer to
the level of comfort and better than R2 by 0.3 degrees on average. In any case, the decrease
in outdoor temperatures to below 33 ◦ C, contributed to improving the indoor temperatures
and reaching the moderate temperature in some of the experiment days.
As shown in Figure 22, when the outdoor air temperature in Courtyard was below
32 ◦ C, both rooms achieved comfort between 4 and 8:30 a.m. on 29 August. Overall, the
rooms were able to achieve comfort between 3 and 7 a.m. during experiment days with the
effect of night ventilation and the lower outdoor temperatures. It is important to note that
the experiment was conducted in the worst climate situations, where August represents
the highest temperature average of the year. Consequently, the effect of opening up the
mashrabiya or applying other passive cooling methods will often provide better impacts in
the mild seasons.
Energies 2021, 14, 530 28 of 31

Figure 22. The hourly outdoor temperature and room temperature profiles of 29 August compared
to the comfort level.

6. Conclusions and Future Works

This paper reviewed the mashrabiya through several aspects: definitions, history,
design and structure, typology, and functions focusing on related research work and devel-
opments in hot climates. In a selected building in a hot climate, the impact of traditional
mashrabiyas on the thermal indoor environment was evaluated. As reviewed, most studies
tend to focus on either the history or development of mashrabiyas without testing or
considering their actual performance and influence on the indoor thermal environment.
A case study was selected in the most plentiful region with mashrabiyas in Saudi
Arabia “Historic Jeddah” to investigate and evaluate the efficiency of mashrabiyas on the
indoor environment and comfort. The study demonstrated that open mashrabiyas allow
daytime airflow, and thus enhance air movement and circulation in the room and reduce
the indoor temperature by up to 2.4 ◦ C in comparison with the closed mashrabiya. The
evaluation of the indoor thermal comfort demonstrated that Room 1 typically were closer
to the temperature comfort 33 ◦ C and better than Room 2 by 0.3 degrees on average. The
open mashrabiya had positive effects on Room 1, but during such this warm outdoor
weather, adding some passive cooling methods were being needed. The building envelope
played an important role in delaying the heat flow into the rooms and maintaining the
low fluctuating indoor air temperature ranging from 2.1 ◦ C to 4.2 ◦ C compared to the high
fluctuating temperatures of the air outdoor ranging from 9.4 ◦ C to 16 ◦ C.
It is also noteworthy that this field work has some limitations. The study assessed
thermal comfort based only on the environmental factors without covering the personal
factors. That was because no inhabitants were in the house during the tests, and the
difficulty involving people in this type of experiment under such climatic and spatial
conditions. The presented result of the indoor air velocity was measured at a specific point
at each mashrabiya, and future work will be investigating more measurement points inside
the rooms. For the outdoor air velocity, readings may be influenced by several factors
such as the position of the anemometer, its elevation from the ground level, and some
surrounding obstacles.
This study provides a review of existing studies on the traditional mashrabiya device
and provides data on its performance in hot climates. Moreover, this knowledge can be
applied to modern buildings by combining the mashrabiya concept with new solutions or
improving its design according to the users’ needs and modern building systems in hot
climates. Additionally, it can be more effective to use this method in temperate climates
and can lead to more thermal comfort periods. Furthermore, more studies and tests on
mashrabiyas under different climatic conditions are required. In addition, the different
Energies 2021, 14, 530 29 of 31

strategies or materials can be incorporated with mashrabiyas with the aim of improving
their thermal performance.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.A.B.; methodology, A.A.B. and J.K.C.; software, A.A.B.;
validation, A.A.B. and J.K.C.; formal analysis, A.A.B. and J.K.C.; investigation, A.A.B.; data curation,
A.A.B.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A.B.; writing—review and editing, A.A.B., J.K.C. and
A.S.K.; visualization, A.A.B. and J.K.C.; supervision, J.K.C.; funding acquisition, A.S.K. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Deanship of Scientific Research and Prince Khalid Al-Faisal
Chair for Developing Makkah Al-Mukarramah and the Holy Places at Umm Al-Qura University
grant number [DSRUQU.PKC-42-6].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Deanship of Scientific Research and Prince
Khalid Al-Faisal Chair for Developing Makkah Al-Mukarramah and the Holy Places at Umm Al-Qura
University for the financial support. The authors gratefully acknowledge to Maha Oboud Baeshen,
as one of the Baeshen house representatives, for allowing us to conduct the field experiment in the
building. We are also grateful to Hanan Al Khatri for assistance and support with the equipment.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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