Ars Poetica” (“The Art of Poetry” or “On the Nature of Poetry”), sometimes known under
its original title, “Epistula Ad Pisones” (“Letters to the Pisos”), is a treatise or literary
essay on poetics by the Roman poet Horace, published around 18 or 19 BCE.
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Synopsis
The poem takes the form of a letter of advice on the pursuit of literature, addressed to a
father and two sons, known only as the Pisos, whose identity is uncertain. The work is
often split up into sections as follows (although other splits have also been suggested):
Lines 1 - 37: On unity and harmony.
Lines 38 - 72: The writer’s aims.
Lines 73 - 118: What the tradition dictates (decorum).
Lines 119 - 152: Invention vs. imitation (be consistent if you are original).
Lines 153 - 188: On characterization (the four ages of man).
Lines 189 - 219: On the gods, chorus and music (in tragic drama).
Lines 220 - 250: On style (especially in satyr plays).
Lines 251 - 274: On metre and versification.
Lines 275 - 294: Tragedy and comedy, Greek and Roman poets.
Lines 295 - 332: How to be a good poet (talent versus art).
Lines 333 - 365: Combine instruction with pleasure.
Lines 366 - 407: Avoid mediocrity (errors are permissible if there are compensating
pleasures).
Lines 408 - 437: Study and talent are both needed, but beware of the flattery of critics.
Lines 438 - 476: Know your faults and keep your wits.
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Analysis
The actual purpose of the “Ars Poetica” has puzzled critics. As a treatise, it is far from
systematic and, whereas Aristotle’s “Poetics” is analytical and descriptive, Horace is
impressionistic, personal and allusive. The transitions from one subject to another seem
to occur abruptly, and the subjects are arranged quite haphazardly. Its concentration on
the epic and dramatic forms also seems somewhat irrelevant to the contemporary
Roman literary scene of his day. However, the lively autobiographical approach of
the “Ars Poetica” and its expression of personal standards in literature make it unique
as a work of criticism in the ancient world.
A few quotes in particular from the work have passed into common literary parlance,
including: “in medias res” (literally, “in the middle of things”, describing a popular
narrative technique that appears frequently in ancient epics and remains popular to this
day, where the narrative starts in the middle of the story and the characters, setting and
conflict are introduced through a series of flashbacks or through characters relating past
events to each other); “bonus dormitat Homerus” (literally, “the goodHomer nods”, an
indication that even the most skilled poet can make continuity errors); “purpureus
pannus” (literally, “the purple patch”, describing passages, or sometimes entire literary
works, written in prose so overly extravagant, ornate or flowery as to break the flow and
draw attention to itself); and “ut pictura poesis” (literally “as painting, so poetry”),
meaning that poetry merits the same careful interpretation that was reserved for
painting in Horace's day).
Horace lived in the glorious Augustan Era which was the
period of Roman civilization and culture. Poetry flourished in
his age and was considered something good and noble and
not something pernicious and unhealthy. Horace wrote both
creative and critical pieces. He was the greatest exponent of
classicism. He also composed Satires, Epodes, Odes,
Rpistles; and his Ars Poetica, like Pope’s Essay in
Criticism, is in verse. It is a poetic letter written to his friend
Piso and his two sons as a piece of advice on poetic
composition. Horace called it Epistle to the Pisos but it was
Quintilian who names it Ars Poetica.
Because of the admirable conciseness of his critical
observations and the extremely quotable quality of his lines,
Horace was exalted to the position of a lawgiver by Dante,
Vida, Boileau and Pope. Abercrombie rightly says, “Perhaps
no poem of comparable length has provided so many phrases
that have become the common property of international
culture.”
Ars Poetica exercised a tremendous influence during the
Middle Ages and the Neo-classical age. It was the Bible of
classicism in England. The main ideas contained in Ars
Poetica are summarized below :—
Function and Nature of Poetry
Though not a systematic treatise on criticism, this poem
can be divided into three parts : (a) poesis (subject matter);
(b) poema (form), and (c) poeta(the poet). Its main topics of
discussion are poetry, poetic style, and drama. Pope rightly
says about Horace, ‘his precepts teach but what his works
inspire.’ He is deeply influenced by the Greeks. He
recommends: “my friends, study the great originals of
Greece; dream of them by night and ponder them by day.”
Horace nowhere calls poetry a process of imitation like
Plato and Aristotle. Mere imitation, according to him, is not
enough for a poet often uses fiction and mingles facts with
fancy. To him the function of poetry was both to delight and
instruct : ‘Poets desire either to improve or to please, or to
unite the agreeable and the profitabl ; and that ‘it is not
enough for poems to have beauty; they must also be pleasing
and lead the listener’s soul whither they will.’
The subject-matter of Poetryh
The subject-matter of poetry should be simple, i.e., from
familiar material, and uniform, that is full of wholeness. He
says that he who chooses his subject wisely, will find that
neither words nor lucid arrangement will fail him, for sound
judgment is the basis and source of good writing.
Poetic Diction
Horace will always be remembered for his theory of
poetic diction. Poetic diction, he says, can never be
altogether established and stationary affair. The function of
language in poetry is to express; but man’s experience,
which poetry exists to express, is continually changing, since
it is continually adding to itself. With the growth of
experience, the language of poetry must keep pace, if it is to
be truly expressive. Language is like a tree; and its words
are like leaves. As the years go on, the old leaves fall, and
new leaves take their place; but the tree remains the same.
Horace’s observations on poetic diction are like those of
Aristotle. Following Aristotle, he also emphasises the right
choice of words and their effective arrangement in
composition. A poet is free to use both familiar and new
words. New words continually go on coming to the poet like
new leaves to the tree. The poet must not rely wholly on the
vocabulary of his predecessors; he must coin new words
too. His Observations on Style
Horace wished that the writer should observe the settled
forms and shades of style in poetry. He pointed out some of
the shortcomings of style. ‘I endeavour to be brief and
become obscure; sinew and spirit desert the searcher after
polish : one striving for grandeur becomes bombastic;
whosoever is excessively cautious and fearful of the tempest
crawls along the ground; and he who yearns after too
prodigal a variety in his theme— he paints a dolphin in the
forest, or a wild boar amid the waves. If the poet does not
have genuine artistry, the effort to avoid an imperfection
leads him into graver butchery.
Metres and their appropriateness
‘Homer has shown us in what metre may best be written
the deeds of kings and great captains, and sombre war.
Verses of unequal length were first used for laments, later
also for the sentiment that attends granted beseechings. The
Muse has given to the lyre the celebration of the gods and
their offspring, the victorious boxer, the horse, first in the
race, the amorous yearnings of youth, and the unrestrained
pleasures of wine. If one does not know and cannot observe
the conventions and forms of poems, he does not deserve to
be called a poet. Comic material, for instance, is not to be
treated in the verses of tragedy ; similarly, it would be
outrageous to narrate the feast of Thyestes in verse proper
to common daily life and almost to comedy.’ Sincerity of
Emotion
‘It is not enough for poems to have beauty; they must also
be pleasing and lead the listener’s soul whither they will. If
you would have me weep, you must first express grief
yourself Views on Drama
In Ars Poetica the treatment of drama is desultory. No
systematic theory of drama is presented on a larger basis.
Only fragmentary and casual views are expressed, e.g.
‘Either follow tradition or invent a story which is consistent.
But the conventional features of traditional characters
should be preserved.’ ‘If in your tale you represent the
renowned Achilles, let him appear restless, passionate,
inexorable and dauntless.’ ‘If you commit a new theme on
the stage and venture to create a new character, ct the first
impression be preserved to the end, and let his nature be
consistent. ‘Let not Medea murder her children in front of
the audience nor impious Atreus cook human flesh in the
public nor Procne be changed into bird. Let a play be neither
shorter nor longer than five acts and let no god intervene
unless some problem arises that demands to be solved. The
number of actors should not be more than three and the
chorus should form an integral part of the action and its
songs should advance and subserve the interest of the plot.’
‘Let it support the good and give them kindly counsel,
restrain the wrathful and favour those who fear to sin; let it
praise the fare of a simple table, salutary justice and Law
and Peace with open gates’.
Horace studies drama under three heads : plot,
characterization and style. Plot should be borrowed from
familiar material; the chorus should be an integral part of
the plot; characters should behave consistently and
naturally; iambic metre was most suitable for drama.
Dramatic speech should observe propriety : it should suit the
character, its sex, its age; its station in life, its
circumstances, its moods. A god will speak differently from a
mortal, a man from a woman, an aged man from a heated
youth, a prosperous merchant from a poor farmer, a man in
grief from a man in joy, an angry-fellow from a playful one. if
you utter words ill-suited to your part, I shall either doze or
smile.’ In all this Horace closely follows Aristotle.
The aim of the poet is to inform or delight, or to combine
together, in what he says, both pleasure and applicability to life.
In instructing, be brief in what you say in order that your readers
may grasp it quickly and retain it faithfully. Superfluous words
simply spill out when the mind is already full. Fiction invented in
order to please should remain close to reality.”
Longinus’s concept of
Literary Criticism
sublime and its sources.
Q Write a note on the contribution of Longinus. Or Discuss Longinus’s concept of sublime and its sources.
Introduction:-
Eulogizing Longinus (1th or 3th Century Anno Domini) George Sainsbury states aptly “So then
there abide (stand) these three, Aristotle, Longinus and Coleridge.”
R.A. Scott- James addresses him as ‘The first Romantic critic’.
He is also considered as ‘The pioneer in the field of aesthetic appreciation of literature.
Longinus is a Graceo-Roman critic. The literary critics have disputes among themselves about his name,
time and birth place. According to them, he is either Cassius Longinus or Dionysius Longinus.
“On the Sublime – A treatise by Longinus”-
Longinus’s ‘On the Sublime’ is a critical document of great world and significance. It is the most
precious legacy to the literary criticism. “There are things in its place than can never grow old, while
its freshness and light will continue to charm all age.”
It has a tremendous impact on literary critics all these years. The treatise offers a new approach
to art, a new interpretation to literature. It is addressed to some Posthumius Terentianus, a friend or a
pupil of Longinus.
What is Sublime?
Before Longinus the critics believed that the function of poetry was to instruct or to delight or both
and if it is prose, its function was to persuade also. But Longinus was not satisfied wit this formula. He
said that the epics of Homer, the lyrics of Sappho and Pindar, and the tragedies of Aeschylus and
Sophoclea were great not only account of these elements only ,but also one account of their sublimity.
The aim of a great work of art to transport the reader out of himself. It is has a capacity to move the
reader to divine joy. This is the quality of sublime. So a great work of art does not only please or instruct,
but it also moves, transports, elevates. It pleases all and it pleases all the time. He believed
“Nothing is poetry unless it transports.”
According to him the work of art become excellent, only when it has power to sublimate, By
sublimity Longinus means
‘elevation’ or ‘loftiness or ‘a certain distinction and excellence in composition.
Charactersitics of Sublime:-
1. It pleases.
2. It pleases immediately.
3. It pleases all.
4. It pleases all the time the places.
5. It pleases forever.
Thus it appeals at a universal rage.
Faults of Sublime:-
There are some defects of style, which spoils the loftiness of language. These are bombast,
puerility and frigidity. All these fault arises from the craze for novelty of thought.
True and False Sublime:-
To explain the nature of sublime and to avoid the obstacles and hindrances that come on the way
to achieve the true sublime, Longinus makes a distinction false and the true sublime.
The true sublime uplifts our soul. “It arise from lofty ideas clothed in lofty language.” It gives
us joy and exalts our spirit. The more we read, the more we enjoy it. Every times it suggest new ideas and
feelings. It never grows scale.
There are four obstacles in achieving the true sublime.
1. Turgidity, 2. Puerility 3. Frigidity. 3. False emotion.
Turgidity is the use of bombastic language. It is as great an evil as swelling in the body. According
to Longinus ‘It is dries than dropsy.” While turgidity is an endeavor to go above the sublime. Puerility is
the sheer opposite it. It is a thoroughly low , means and ignoble vice. It is a pedantic thought, so ever
works that it ends in frigidity. Another kinds of fault corresponds to these in the felid of emotion. It consists
of untimely or meaningless emotion where none in place.
Sources of Sublimity:-
There are five most productive source of sublimity
1. Grandeur of thought
2. Capacity for strong emotions
3. Certain kinds of figures of speech
4. Nobility of diction
5. Dignity of composition
The first tow source belongs to the domain of nature and remaining three to that of art.
Grandeur of thought
Grander of thought is the first essential element because noble and lofty thought find their natural
expression in lofty language. According to Longinus, the desire for the noble or sublime thought is unborn
or natural. For him, “Sublimity is the echo of greatness of soul.”
According to him,
“It is impossible for those whose while live are full of mean and servile ideas and habit to
produce an thing that is admirable and worthy and an immortal life. “
It is only natural that great speeches should fall form the lips of those whose thought has always
been deep and full of majesty. Stately thought belongs to the loftiest mind. Mostly they are innate but they
can also be acquired by proper disciple. They can be acquired by thinking constantly on whatever is noble
and sublime. They can not be gained by imitating the example of the great master. Fox example, an artist
should contemplate on how Plato might have expressed the same thought that he himself wants to
express. Therefore ‘grandeur of thought’ is very importance source of sublimity.
Capacity for strong emotions
The second source of sublimity is the capacity for strong emotions. Longinus believes that only an
artist who is intoxicated by passion and imagination can transfer the same passion in his reader. This way
he can arouse in them an emotional transport. He asserts that nothing contributes more loftiness or tone
in written than genuine emotion. However the topic has not been deal wit in detail. The author declares
his intention of dealing with in the second treatise which unfortunately has not comes down to use. Here
he agrees wit Plato who says that a poet compasses poetry when he is inspired and possessed. But at
the he challenged play to who says that emotions are not ma’s proper guides. Aristotle justified emotions
off their cathartic affect. Longinus values them for their capacity for aesthetic transport has a moral effect.
In a short, the artist’s function is to arouse ‘emotional transport’.
Appropriate Use of Figures of Speech:-
The third source of attaining excellence of style is the use of figures of speech. He knew that
technical sources of sublimity are not mere ornaments. They appeal to our passions and provide us
a pleasant surprise. Therefore he believes that figures of speech adds grandeur to the work. They should,
however be used with definite purpose and not artificially impose. Proper use of figure of speech appeal
to our passion. In this connection he says, “A figure is more effective when the fat that it is a figure is
happily concealed and it is concealed by spendeor of style.
Nobility of Diction:-
Being a great rhetorician Longinus gives great importance to diction, which includes proper choice
of word as ornament of language. Suitable words have a moving effect on readers. They add to the
grandeur, beauty, force, dignity and charm to expression. They breathe voice into dead things. Diction
should differ as occasion differs. All characters should not speaks the same language. Proper use of
metaphor and hyperbole produces sublimity more effectively than other figure. With the help of proper
diction the reader experiences an idea emotionally. It has a moving affect upon the reader.
Dignity of composition:-
Finally, Longinus comes to the fifth and final source of sublimity. This is the combination of all the
four source. It emphasized on the dignity composition that is the proper arrangement of word. It combines
thought, emotion, figures and words into an organic whole. According to him, “Sublimity means a certain
destination and excellence in composition. And them he warns that great thought which lack composition
and themselves wasted and wasted the total sublime effect. On in this view excellence in composition can
please, instruct, persuade and also set the read’s heart on to an emotion transport.
Measurement of sublime:-
Longinus then gives three following criteria to measure sublimity of a work.
1. It is good to imagine how home would have aid the same things or how Plato or Demosthenes
would have invested it with sublimity.
2. It Homer and Demosthenes would have been alive, how would they react against it? Their feeling
about the work is a measurement.
3. The last condition to be any work sublime is : How will posterity take it. ?
Conclusion
Thus Longinus makes a balance between Plato and Aristotle, Homer and Shelley, classicism and
Romanticism down to Eliot’s modernism. As a critic he display a rare breath and universality of outlook.
Moreover his mind is free from any prejudice. His judgments are essentially apt. They have been
supported by posterity. Atkins says,
“There are in short, many respect in which Longinus stands high as a judicial critic.”.
