The beta-Carboline Hallucinogens

of South Americat

Richard Evans Schultes, f.l.s.*

j3-Carbolines occur widely but haphazardly in the Lauraceae (Nectandra); Leguminosae (Acacia, Ana
Angiospermae. They have been found in at least 64 denanthera, Burkea, Desmodium, Mucuna, Petalostylis,
genera in 28 families of the Angiospermae, in both the Prosopis); Loganiaceae (Strychnos); Malphigiaceae (Ban
Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae; and, in the Di- isteriopsis, Cabi); Myristicaceae (Gymnacranther a,
cotyledonae, in both the Archichlamydeae and the Virola); Ochnaceae (Testulea); Palmae (Plectocomi-
Metachlamydeae. These 64 genera are divided almost opsis)-, Papaveraceae (Meconopsis, Papaver); Passi-
equally between the New World and the Old, and several floraceae (Passiflora); Polygonaceae (Calligonum); Rubi
have ranges in both hemispheres (Allen & Holmstedt aceae (Arariba, Leptactinia, Nauclea, Ophiorrhiza, Pauri-
1980; Rauffauf 1970; Deulofeu 1967). No 0-carbolines diantha, Pavetta, Pogonopus, Psychotria, Simira, Un-
have as yet been reported from the Cryptogamae, except caria); Rutaceae (Araliopsis, Flindersia, Xanthophyl-
in three genera of the Fungi: Amanita, Coriolus and lum); Sapotaceae (Chrysophyllum); Simaroubaceae
Streptomyces (Allen & Holmstedt 1980). With this type (Aeschrion, Alianthus, Parriera, Picrasma); Solanaceae
of chemotaxonomic distribution, it is probable that (Vestia); Symplocarpaceae (Symplocos); Tiliaceae
0-carbolines, relatively simply trypthophan derivatives, (Grewia); Zygophyllaceae (Faonia, Nitraria, Peganum,
will be found in many more families as the result of Tribulus, Zygophyllum) (Allen & Holmstedt 1980;
future studies. Gibbs 1974; Rauffauf 1970).
The angiospermous families and genera known to
have |3-carbolines are the following: Alangiaceae (Alan- Some of the plants containing these biodynamic
gium); Apocynaceae (Amsonia, Apocynum, Aspido- constituents have local medicinal or related uses in
sperma, Ochrosia, Pleiocarpa); Bignoniaceae (New primitive societies in both hemispheres (Schultes &
bouldia); Calycanthaceae (Calycanthus); Chenopodi- Farnsworth 1980; Schultes & Hofmann 1980, 1979).
aceae (Arthrophytum, Hammada, Kochia); Combret-
Perhaps the most widely employed is the Syrian rue,
aceae (Guiera)\ Cyperaceae (Carex); Elaeagnaceae (Elae-
Peganum harmala L., valued over its great extent, from
agnus, Hippophae, Shepherdia); Gramineae (Arundo, the Mediterranean to Mongolia and Manchuria, for a
Pestuca, Lolium, Pkalaris)\ Icacinaceae (Cassinopsis)-, broad spectrum of therapeutic, alleviative or magical
purposes (Holmstedt 1981; Uphof 1968). It has even
t Paper delivered at the meeting of the American College of
been suggested as one of the many identifications of the
Neuropsychopharmacology in San Diego, California, December
1981. 0 enigmatic soma, the god-narcotic of ancient India and
•Jeffrey Professor of Biology; Director and Curator of
Persia (Flattery 1978).
Economic Botany, Harvard Botanical Museum, Cambridge,
Massachusetts 02138. No group of j3-carboline plants, however, has been

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S C H U LT E S HALLUCINOGENS

the subject of such widespread interest among anthro currents of air are the winds pulling the soul along and
pologists, botanists, chemists, pharmacologists, psychol sending it to the Milky Way, where it feels "enclosed by
ogists and other investigators than the species of the floating sheets that move and flutter, as if... in a
room ... of cloth." And all the while "yellow lights
genus Banisteriopsis, which are the source of a hallucino
genic drink used in tropical South America and known appear that become stronger and stronger, representing
the sun, until they give the impression of a mass of
variously as ayahuasca, caapi, natema, pinde or yaje
luminous bodies in movement" (Reichel-Dolmatoff
(Schultes & Hofmann 1980, 1979; Naranjo 1970;
Friedberg 1965; Garcia-Barriga 1958). Nor perhaps has 1978).
any other 0-carboline plant captured so intimately and Probably no other New World hallucinogen — even
irrevocably a place of such all-pervading potency in the peyote — alters consciousness in ways that have been so
life and death of the South American peoples who deeply and completely evaluated and interpreted. Caapi
reverently value it as a medicine, hallucinogen and sacred truly enters into every aspect of living. It reaches into
element that permeates, in their concept, all of Creation prenatal life, influences life after death, operates during
(Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 1975, 1971; Harner 1973; earthly existence, plays roles not only in health and
Dobkin de Rios 1972; Spruce 1908, 1873). sickness, but in relations between individuals, villages
The mind-altering properties of this narcotic drink and tribes, in peace and war, at home and in travel, in
have made it one of the most basically important aspects hunting and in agriculture. In fact, one can name hardly
of Indian life in the western Amazon. The Kofans and any aspect of living or dying, wakefulness or sleep,
Jivaros, for example, talk with the spirits or heavenly where caapi hallucinations do not play a vital, nay,
folk through ayahuasca or yaje, believing that the drug overwhelming, role.
reveals the real world to them and that daily living is a
"lie" an illusion or fantasy; that the "true forces that What are the plants — sacred above all others — and
determine daily events are supernatural and can be seen the chemical constituents that hold such power in native
and manipulated only with the aid of hallucinogenic societies and such interest for modern investigators in
numerous fields of study — anthropology, botany, chem
drugs" (Harner 1973). The Kechwa word ayahuasca
means "vine of the soul," indicating the importance of istry, pharmacology, medicine and psychiatry? Only a
the drug to religious belief in Peruvian Indian systems. It fraction of what is common knowledge about these
may stem from the frequent experience among the plants among the medicine men of aboriginal tribes is
Indians that the soul separates from the body and actually known to modern science. It behooves modern
wanders freely during the intoxication, consorting with investigators to tap this valuable and ready source of
the ancestors and mystically uniting with the divinities. information before the culture that gave it birth dis
This may be why Indians say that to drink ayahuasca is appears through acculturation or extinction. Modern
the equivalent of dying. medical research has already gleaned so much from
studies of so-called primitive societies that endeavors
Recognizing that the individual must pass from one
dimension of existence - or cosmic plane — to another toward the investigation and understanding of the
to communicate with the spiritual or invisible world, the knowledge and medicinal practices of these neglected
Tukanos take caapi to effect this transport. The trip groups should stand in a place of the highest priority in
technical programs of research (Schultes & Farnsworth
represents to them the process of birth and breaking
through the wall that separates the two cosmic planes 1980; Schultes 1967).
and signifies, according to anthropological studies, the
rupture of the placenta. Drinking caapi is often inter When, in 1852, the great English explorer of the
Amazon and Andes, Richard Spruce, discovered Banis
preted as returning to the "cosmic uterus." Since they
insist that they sometimes come to know death while teriopsis caapi (Spr. ex Griseb.) Morton, in the Brazilian
under the influence of the drug, the Tukanos consider Amazon, he wrote plaintively: "This is all I have seen
the return to the cosmic uterus as an anticipation of and learnt of caapi or ayahuasca.... Some traveller
death which permits contact with the divinity or who may follow my steps with greater resources at his
visitation with the source and origin of all things command will, it is hoped, be able to bring away
(Reichel-Dolmatoff 1975). Tukano medicine men, for materials adequate for the complete analysis of this
example, explain the progression of their hallucinations curious plant" (Spruce 1908, 1873). But even today,
in their ceremonies and interpret for the other partici 130 years later, this narcotic preparation remains botani
pants the visual and auditory aspects of the trance. The cally and chemically one of the most poorly understood
commonly experienced sensation of violently rushing of the American hallucinogens. The taxonomy of the

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 SCHULTES
HALLUCINOGENS
Malpighiaceae - the family of the genus Banisteriop narcotic drink in Indian ceremonies, but they failed to
sis-has been in a chaotic state until comparatively
shed any reliable information on the botanical source of
recent times. This state has been due in part to the
the drug. Then in 1883, Crevaux reported the use of
inadequacy of botanical collections and in part to an yaje, an intoxicating drink prepared from the bark of a
actual paucity of taxonomic studies of a monographic
plant, among Indians of Amazonian Colombia, and he
nature. Likewise, knowledge of the chemistry has been
referred to an inebriating drink made from a "root"
equally or even more chaotic as a result primarily of called caapi among the Guahibo Indians of the Rio
both the confused botanical situation and the inexpli
Inirida of the Orinoquia of Colombia, unaware appar
cable failure of chemists to work with critically identi
ently that the two were identical drugs.
fied and vouchered material.
Reports without botanical voucher material con
tinued to appear. In 1886, Simson wrote that Ecuador
There has never been any doubt about the distinc ian Indians "drank ayahuasca mixed with yaje, sameruja
tiveness of Banisteriopsis caapi. Spruce collected flower leaves and guanto wood, an indulgence which usually
ing specimens from the same liana (climbing plant) from results in a broil between at least the partakers of the
which the Tukano Indians in the Rio Uaupes of the
beverage." None of the plant ingredients were identified,
Brazilian Amazon had prepared an intoxicating drink. but this report deserves attention as the earliest indica
He named the species Banisteria caapi Spruce ex tion that there might be a number of species employed
Grisebach. According to modern practice, the correct in the mixture. Then a further complication arose in
generic name is Banisteriopsis. "There were about a 1890, when Magelli, a missionary, confused natema
dozen well grown plants of caapi twining up to the
(later shown to be the name of Banisteriopsis among the
tree-tops along the margin of the roca (cultivated plot) Jivaro of Ecuador) with maiko, the much employed
and several smaller ones. It was fortunately in flower and tree-datura of these Indians.
young fruit, and I saw, not without surprise, that it The reports of narcotic drinks prepared from lianas
belonged to the order Malpighiaceae and genus Banis continued (Tyler 1894), but no botanical material
teria, of which I made it out to be an undescribed
supported the statements. Writing of the Colorado
species and therefore called it Banisteria caapi" (Spruce Indians of Ecuador in 1905, the French anthropologist
1908, 1873). Rivet referred to nepi (nepe) as a febrifuge, a violent
Several years later, Spruce found the same caapi in emetic and an intoxicant, stating that its source was "a
use among the Guahibo Indians of the upper Orinoco in liana" (Rivet 1905). Later, in a glossary, he identified
Colombia and Venezuela — where the natives "not only the Colorado nepe and the Cayapa pinde as Banisteriop
drink an infusion .. . but also chew the dried stem, as sis caapi (Rivet 1907). A much more recent work on
some people do tobacco" (Spruce 1908). Again, while at these Indians has likewise referred the cultivated nepe of
work in Andean Peru in 1857, he found the Zaporo the Colorados to B. caapi (von Hagen 1937). There are,
Indians taking a narcotic which they called ayahuasca,
however, no authenticating botanical specimens to sub
and he wrote that he "again saw caapi planted" and that stantiate these identifications.
"it was the identical species of the Uaupes " (Spruce A variety of vernacular names appeared: nepe, nepi,
1908, 1873). natema, pinde, yaje, among others. Finally, in 1920,
The earliest published report of any malpighiaceous Karsten stated his belief that ayahuasca, natema, pinde
narcotic, however, was that of the Ecuadorian geogra and nepe were all referable to the same species as caapi:
pher Villavicencio who, in 1858, wrote of the use along
Banisteriopsis caapi. Yet, botanical material on which to
the upper Rio Napo of Ecuador of ayahuasca in sorcery, base such a belief still was lacking.
witchcraft, prophecy and divination. Although no botan The German anthropologist Koch-Griinberg(1909),
ical specimen was taken, the full account, including one who worked in the northwest Amazon between 1903
on self-intoxication, left no doubt that (as Spruce and 1905, wrote that "kaapi" was prepared from a
[1908, 18731 himself stated) although "of the plant
"malpighiaceous shrub." He did collect some botanical
itself Villavicencio "could tell no more than that it was
specimens, but since this author has not found any of his
a liana or vine," his "account of its properties"
collections referable to Banisteriopsis one must assume
coincided so "wonderfully with what I had previously that he based his identification on the earlier Spruce
learnt in Brazil" about caapi that it was not difficult to
report for the same region. Furthermore, he stated that
presume that the two were identical. the Karihonas knew the drug and called it "yahe" and
Later explorers of the Amazon, such as von Martius
hi(d)-yati(d) yahe and that the Tukanos distinguished
(1858) and Orton (1871), noted the employment of the two kinds of caapi: the stronger of the two being

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S C H U LT E S HALLUCINOGENS

cultivated and not the wild type. He wrote to Rivet that cologist Rouhier (1924) wrote that it seemed that yaje
he believed that yaje of the Karihonas and mihi of the and ayahuasca might be identical plants but that they
Kubeos of Colombia, as well as kali of the Yekwanas of had different effects!
Venezuela, were the same drug and that, although he When, in 1923, the Colombian chemist Fischer
had no botanical evidence to support his belief, all were reported on yaje, he stated that anatomic and histologic
referable to Banisteriopsis caapi. evidence indicated that the liana seemed to be a species
Reports of travelers and explorers continued to of Aristolochia, an "identification" which Rouhier
refer to ayahuasca, caapi and yaje without botanical accepted a year later, but subsequently corrected
material (Hardenberg 1918; Whiffen 1915). Perhaps the (Rouhier 1926, 1924) when he stated his belief that yaje
earliest modern botanical evaluation of the problem of was comparable to ayahuasca in its physiological action
identification of these narcotic preparations was that of and dismissed as "doubtful" the determination of yaje as
Safford (1917) who asserted his belief, based on the Prestonia amazonica. At the same time, two other
literature, that ayahuasca and caapi were identical. But Colombian investigators, Barriga-Villalba (1925) and
again, confusion was compounded when the French Albarracui (1925), investigated yaje, a "climbing shrub"
anthropologist Reinberg (1921), working in Amazonian which the natives did not cultivate because it abounded
Peru, suggested that ayahuasca and yaje might be in the forest.
different plants. On the basis of botanical material, he In 1926, the American traveler MacCreagh wrote
stated that ayahuasca was Banisteriopsis caapi, but with about the intoxicant in the Rio Tikie in Brazil, but he
reservations he referred yaje to an apocynaceous genus failed to identify the source beyond stating that it was
Haemadictyon, possibly H. amazonicum Bentham, now "concocted from the leaves of a vine." And the English
correctly called Prestonia amazonica (Benth.) Macbride. traveler McGovern (1927) encountered caapi in the same
In 1922, White was the first to report the use of region, attributing it to "a root."
Banisteriopsis caapi in Bolivia. White collected material The period of the late 1920's and early 1930's was
for chemical analysis, but a search in the Botanical characterized by unusual activity in botanical, chemical
Museum of Harvard Univerisity, where much of his and pharmacological research on the malpighiaceous
material is preserved, has not turned up a voucher narcotics of South America. In 1927, Perrot and Hamet,
herbarium specimen. It was White who likewise indi French pharmacologists, published an inclusive survey
cated admixtures, signaling the leaves of chacho, a shrub pointing out the state of confusion surrounding the
with small globose red-yellow fruits and possibly also botany and chemistry of the drug. They concluded that
leaves locally known as cagna and guayavoche. The yaje, ayahuasca and caapi referred to the same plant,
identity of chacho is not known. Banisteriopsis caapi, and that no apocynaceous species
The famous botanist-pharmacognosist Rusby (1924, entered the preparation. Replying to these investigators,
1923a, 1923b) wrote mainly on the physiological effects however, the German botanical specialist on the Mal
of caapi, but this author has not found any specimen of pighiaceae, Niedenzu (1928), working with botanical
the basic plant of the drug in Rusby's extensive specimens which, unfortunately, were destroyed in the
collections at the Harvard Botanical Museum. The Berlin Herbarium during the Second World War, indi
Belgian botanist-explorer Claes (1932, 1931) collected in cated that the drug in Ecuador and Peru was made from
the uppermost Rio Caqueta in Amazonian Colombia. He a mixture: leaves of the malpighiaceous Mascagnia
reported that yaje was not, as hitherto reported, a "small psilophylla (Juss.) Grisebach var. antifebrilis (R. et P.)
bush," but was an enormous forest liana. He stated that Niedenzu and the stem of Banisteriopsis quitensis (Ndz.)
the Koreguahes made the intoxicating drink from the Morton and B. caapi.
bark of Banisteriopsis caapi to which they added leaves Another attempt to put order into the botanical
and stems of another plant that the Indians would not confusion was made by the French taxonomist Gagne-
permit him to see. He apparently was able to collect pain (1930) in this same period. He decided that
material of the additive, however, although he offered ayahuasca was "probably" Banisteriopsis caapi, but that
no identification of it; suggesting nevertheless that, yaje was not; that yaje "seemed to be" Prestonia
according to Wildeman (cited by Claes),yaje "might be" amazonica; that fragmentary material showed yaje to be
Prestonia amazonica. This author was unable to locate "an opposite-leaved vine"; that Rivet and Rouhier had
Claes' herbarium material in Brussels. The pharmacolo submitted specimens which seemed to represent the
gists Michaels and Clinquart (1926), who worked on same malpighiaceous plant; and that fertile material
Claes* material of the additive, ventured the belief that it cultivated in Colombia under the name yaje was refer
represented Prestonia amazonica. The French pharma able to B. caapi. These beliefs led Gagnepain to state

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SCHULTES HALLUCINOGENS

that yaje in Colombia was the same plant as caapi in height of 3 to 4 meters and attaches itself to the trunks
Brazil, but different from the yaje of Ecuador, which, he of large trees" or that is "grown in the northwestern
wrote, approached "Banisteria ferrugined." He conse regions of South America." The critical work of Chen
quently expressed the opinion that an exact clarification and Chen identified the previously reported alkaloids
of the identification of yaje was far from realization. telepathine, yaje and banisterine with harmine. The
At about the same time, the Russian botanist outstanding importance of the research of Chen and
Hammerman (1930, 1929) published an evaluation of Chen lies in their chemical study, an analysis apparently
this problem, basing his statements on literature reports for the first time based on vegetal material that seems to
and on specimens gathered in Colombia in 1925-26 by have been identified with voucher botanical specimens.
Voranof and Juzepczuk. He quoted the Colombian For the "twigs, leaves and roots of caapi" and the
newspaper reporter Zerda Bay on (quoted in Perrot & "decoction just as used by the Indians" subjected to
Hamet 1927) who asserted that the Indians of the chemical analysis had been collected by the American
Caqueta mixed four kinds of leaves to make the drink botanist Llewelyn Williams (1936) near Iquitos and were
called yaje and indicated that the material collected by determined as Banisteriopsis caapi.
Voranof and Juzepczuk gave a variety of different For the most part, later investigators have concurred
chemical results when chemically analyzed. Hammerman with the opinions of Hammerman, Gagnepain and Klug
pointed out that there seemed to be several species of that several species of Banisteriopsis — if not of other
Banisteriopsis involved, even though most of his material genera — may be involved. Nonetheless, a variety of
he referred to asB. quitensis. He noted that only Spruce modern writers continue to cloud the issue, mainly
had seen in flower a vine actually known by personal because they do not base their opinions on botanical
experience to have been used in the preparation of the specimens. In a popular and generally unreliable, though
narcotic drink, and he cautiously intimated that the oft-quoted, book, V.A. Reko (1936) reported that
well-recognized variation in preparation, use and effect ayahuasca, caapi, pinde, natema and yaje all refer to
of the hallucinogen called caapi, yaje and ayahuasca Banisteriopsis caapi. In his dictionary of Amazonian
might be due merely to differences in chemical composi plants, LeCointe (1945, 1934) referred ayahuasca and
tion of the vegetal ingredients. In 1929, the pharmacolo caapi to B. caapi but yaje to "another plant that enters
gists Keller and Gottauf studied ayahuasca from Peru into the composition of the caapi-drink as prepared by
and Bolivia and, although their material lacked leaves or some tribes." Pardal (1937, 1936) referred caapi to
flowers, they referred it to "a Banisteria," isolating a Banisteriopsis caapi and yaje to Prestonia amazonica.
harmine-like alkaloid. The great German toxicologist Lewin (1931, 1929,
A major botanical advance came in 1931, when the 1928a, 1928b, 1928c) identified natema, yaje, yahe,
American botanist Morton reported on collections made nepe and pinde as Banisteropsis caapi, but he suggested
in southern Colombia by the eminent Peruvian field- that additives — including Prestonia amazonica — are on
botanist Klug. From Klug's collections, Morton occasion employed.
described a new species of Banisteriopsis: B. inebrians An interesting note on ayahuasca in Peru appeared
Morton, and indicated its use as a hallucinogen. But he in 1943 and included a "recipe" for making the
stated also that at least three species — B. caapi, B. intoxicating beverage (Villarejo 1943). Unfortunately,
inebrians and B. quitensis — were used and that Banis all of the plants employed were identified only with
teria longialata Ruiz ex Niedenzu and Banisteriopsis Indian names. According to Villarejo, the beverage
rusbyana (Ndz.) Morton may enter into the preparation prepared in Iquitos has as its chief ingredient the "death
as additives. vine" (ayahuasca), undoubtedly Banisteriopsis caapi.
Two Brazilian pharmacologists, Costa and Faria, Into this decoction, the leaves of a species called
reported in 1936 that all of the malpighiaceous hallu "muemueti" are put. According to the informant, the
cinogenic preparations were made from Banisteriopsis muemueti is responsible for the visual hallucinations.
caapi, but these investigators undoubtedly failed to base Also entering the preparation is an evil-tasting tuber
their statement on study of authenticating botanical called "katija" and, to sweeten the drink, leaves and
material, so that their contribution scarcely advanced seeds of a plant called "pujana" are added. None of
understanding of the drug. Three years later, however, these plants has to date been botanically described.
Chen and Chen (1939), chemists working in the United The Peruvian botanist Herrera (1941) added still
States, briefly summarized the literature, indicating their another plant to the list of potential sources: he stated
belief that ayahuasca, caapi and yaje all referred to that ayahuasca in the Valle de Lares is made from
Banisteriopsis caapi: "a woody climber that attains a Banisteriopsis metallicolor (A. Juss.) O'Donnell et Lour-

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teig, but herbarium voucher material was not cited. In narcotic and that yageine was a different alkaloid from
the same year, Caller (1941) published in Peru a review harmine. There is no indication that voucher specimens
of the literature, concluding that ayahuasca was pre were available in their study. In 1955, Fabre published a
pared from Banisteriopsis caapi and that B. inebrians was historical review, again without the support of botanical
merely a synonym. Other writers on Peru (von Hagen material, expressing his belief that the narcotic prepara
1957; Szyszlo 1955) have similarly attributed ayahuasca tion was made basically from a single species, Banis
exclusively to B. caapi. teriopsis caapi, but pointed out that occasionally other
Nontechnical writers on this topic have continued plants might be used as additives.
their own attempts at identification. Padre Placido (de In 1954, Schultes reported the use in Amazonian
Calella 1944), a Capuchin missionary in southern Colom Brazil of a new species of the malpighiaceous genus
bia, reported that the Siona Indians often add to their Tetrapteris — T. methystica R.E. Schultes — in the
hallucinogenic drink called yaje a plant called peji or preparation, without admixture, of the drink called
yako-borrachero or floripondio of Mocoa, undoubtedly caapi. Personal experimentation substantiated its bio-
a species of Brugmansia. The British plant collector dynamic effects, but no chemical examination of the
Sandeman (1947) attributed yaje to Prestonia ama species has as yet been possible, since material collected
zonica. And, in his book on alkaloids, Henry (1949) for chemical study was lost when the canoes overturned
identified ayahuasca, caapi and yaje as B. caapi, Banis in rapids. Subsequently, Schultes (1975a) noted another
teria metallicolor A. Jussieu or Banisteria lutea Ruiz ex species — T. mucronata Cav. — as the source of yaje
Grisebach; while the chemists Manske and Holmes among the Karaparana tribe in the Vaupes of Colombia.
(1952) considered that all three drinks were prepared This was not the first time that Tetrapteris had
from Banisteriopsis caapi. The popular writers Taylor entered the picture. In the Museum of Economic Botany
(1949), Hesse (1946) and Moller (1951) all similarly at Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, there are several samples
attribute ayahuasca and yaje to the same species. One of of leaves and twigs sent in from Colombia in 1913 under
the most chaotic references (Leuenberger 1969) not the name "yaje plant." Sprague (Schultes 1957) wrote
only attributes the source of the South American on the speciments that they "may be referable to
malpighiaceous drugs to "Banisteria caapi" but states Tetrapterys (sic)." This is the first time that a malpighi
that eight subspecies occur in Mexico! Only a few aceous genus other than Banisteriopsis had been men
tioned as a source of the narcotic.
popular writers have even attempted to consult the
scientific literature (e.g., Aaronson & Osmond 1970). Following a number of years of field work in the
The American botanist Allen (1947), in a descrip northwest Amazon, Schultes (1957) published a detailed
tion of the Yurupan ceremony of the Kubeo Indians of survey of what had up to that time been reported on the
the Rio Vaupes in Colombia, indicated that the source identification of the malpighiaceous narcotics of South
of caapi was Banisteriopsis caapi, although this author America, indicating that the most widely employed
has not been able to locate specimens of the source plant species appeared to be Banisteriopsis caapi, but that B.
which he may have collected in the early 1940,s. The inebrians, B. quitensis and B. rusbyana were likewise
American botanist Macbride (1950) pointed to Banis locally employed; that Tetrapteris methystica was
teriopsis caapi, B. inebrians and B. quitensis as the employed in Brazil; and that Mascagnia psilophylla (A.
principal source of the 0-carboline alkaloids in Peru and Juss.) Grisebach var. antifebrilis Niedenzu had been
quoted Morton that Banisteriopsis rusbyana and Banis reported as a possible source but that the reliability of
teria longilata, known as oco-yaje and chagro panga, the report was open to serious doubt.
were employed as admixtures, although Morton (1931) In 1958 and later in 1975, the Colombian botanist
failed to mention the latter species. Garcia-Barriga, who had also carried out extensive field
Apparently, the second of the rare chemical studies work in the Colombian Amazonia, reached the conclu
on vouchered material was carried out on Banisteriopsis sion that the hallucinogenic drink might be prepared
inebrians by the American pharmacologists O'Connell from Banisteriopsis caapi, B. inebrians, B. rusbyana or
and Lynn in 1953. The material was collected by Tetrapteris methystica. In 1959, the Colombian ethno-
Schultes in the Colombian Putumayo and identified by botanist Uscatequi likewise suggested that the evidence
voucher herbarium collections. pointed to four species: Banisteriopsis caapi, B. inebri
The Brazilian chemists Mors and Zaltzman ex ans, B. rusbyana and Tetrapteris methystica. Emboden,
pressed the opinion in 1954 that chemical examination in 1972 and again in 1979, attributed the source of the
convinced them that ayahuasca and caapi both repre drink to four species of Banisteriopsis: B. caapi, B.
sented Banisteriopsis caapi, that yaje was not the same inebrians, B. quitensis and B. rusbyana; and to Tetrap-

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teris methystica. Spruce ex Grisebach. When Morton (1931) accepted the

Most recently, intensive taxonomic studies on the related genus Banisteriopsis as distinct, he made the
Malpighiaceae have been published, and these have shed appropriate nomenclatural transfer: Banisteriopsis caapi.
a significant light on the problem of the identity of the There is still, unfortunately, a tendency towards the use
drug. Cuatrecasas (1958), in his summary of the Mal of Banisteria in reference to species employed in
pighiaceae of Colombia, attributed the basic sources of preparing the narcotic malpighiaceous drinks of South
the drug to two species of Banisteriopsis: principally to America, even (it is to be regretted) in botanical
B. caapi and to B. inebrians as a less important source. publications (Heywood 1978; Cardenas 1969; Mors &
Banisteriopsis rusbyana, he stated, was included by some Rizzini 1966; Ducke 1946). An increasing number of
Indians as an additive. "There is no doubt," he wrote, technical writers, however, are employing the correct
"that other species of the genus and even of other genera generic epithet.
of the family may have the same or similar narcotic There is no reason, in this article, to enter into the
properties as B. caapi. Niedenzu cited a variety (v. highly technical arguments for the change. Morton
antifebrilis) of Mascagnia psilophylla identified as aya (1931) convincingly set forth the reasons why the
huasca. R.E. Schultes discovered the use of Tetrapteris epithet Banisteria is not available for these species and
methystica by the Maku Indians and personally experi why, in accord with the lucid arguments of Robinson
enced its strong hypnotic potency." He accepted B. (1910), the generic epithet must be Banisteriopsis.
inebrians as a distinct species, pointing out that it Furthermore, the most recent and thorough taxonomic
differed from B. caapi "only in its thicker leaf which is studies of the Malpighiaceae (Gates In press; Anderson
ovate and more shortly attenuate and in its samaras. 1981a; Cuatrecasas 1958) have followed Morton in
These constitute in reality the only character of a recognizing the generic epithet Banisteriopsis.
positive nature to distinguish the species; the samaras
have the wing semiobovate and very dilated at the end, Richard Spruce, who in 1852 collected the type
with the lower margin strongly contracted towards the material of the plant from which the Indians of the Rio
base. The size of the stipules (described for this species Uaupes in Amazonian Brazil prepared caapi, was far
as larger) seem to be variable, and it is not easy to verify ahead of botanists of his period (Schultes, Holmstedt &
this character without abundant material." Lindgren 1969). Along with the herbarium specimens,
There are several herbarium collections from Peru which permitted him to ascertain that the plant was new
referable to Banisteriopsis muricata (Cav.) Cuatr. to to science, he collected stems for chemical analysis. "At
which the vernacular name ayahuasca has been assigned the feast of Urubu-coara, I learnt that caapi was
(Herrera 672, Woytkowski 5588), suggesting the possi cultivated in some quantity at a roca a few hours
bility that this species may likewise be used in preparing journey down the river," he wrote (Spruce 1908) after
the intoxicating drink (Bristol 1966). The most recent having witnessed a ceremony at Urubu-coara, "and I
taxonomic studies on South American Malpighiaceae are went there one day to get specimens of the plant and (if
those of Anderson (1981) and of Gates (1979). Ander possible) to purchase a sufficient quantity of the stems
son investigated the species of this family found on the to be sent to England for analysis; in both of which
Venezuela-Guiana land mass. He included Banisteriopsis objects I was successful . . . there were about a dozen
caapi, which is cultivated by some of the lowland well growing plants.. . twining up to the tree-
Indians of the uppermost Orinoco. Gates, in her mono tops . .. and several smaller ones. Fortunately, it was in
graphic work, treated B. inebrians as a synonym of B. flower and young fruit.... My surprise arose from the
caapi, a concept which this author is not ready to accept fact that there was no narcotic Malpighiad on record,
until more complete specimens are available for study. nor indeed any species of that order, with strong
medicinal properties of any kind."
Specialists in fields outside of botany are frequently As long ago as 130 years, Spruce's thinking was !$

I
confounded — and often rightly so — by nomenclatural chemotaxonomic. In those years, there was little liaison
changes occasionally made by taxonomists. In non- between botanical explorers and laboratory chemists.
botanical circles, confusion has surrounded the use of Botanists seldom bothered to collect material for phyto
the generic epithet Banisteriopsis for certain species once chemical study and, unfortunately, this is too often true
assigned to Banisteria. When Spruce drew up his descrip even today. In Spruce's case, with the great distance and
tion of the plant from which caapi was prepared in the isolation of the area of his field work and the primitive-
Uaupes, he named it Banisteria caapi, and the binomial ness and absence of normal communications, to fail to
was published by Grisebach (1958): Banisteria caapi gather material for chemists might have been sympa-

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i1 • l?

mi
S C H U LT E S HALLUCINOGENS

thetically understood. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, purported to be "yaje" yielded an alkaloid which Zerda
Spruce did make the majestic effort; but, like so many Bayon (quoted in Perrot & Hamet 1927) had called
modern botanical collectors, he was frustrated in his telepathine. Voucher botanical material apparently did
attempt. not exist. The first serious chemical analysis, however,
I obtained a good many pieces of stem, dried again suffered from the absence of reliable botanical
them carefully, and packed them in a large box material. The Colombian chemist Fischer Cardenas
which contained the botanical specimens and (Fischer C. 1923) isolated and studied an alkaloid which
despatched them down river for England in March he felt was responsible for the activity of the drug; he
1853. The man who took that box and four reserved for it the name telepathine. At about the same
others on freight in a large new boat he had built time, the Colombian chemist Barriga-Villalba (1925) and
on the Vaupes was seized for debt when about pharmacologist Albarracm called the alkaloid yageine.
half-way down the Rio Negro, and his boat and all Barriga-Villalba assigned it the formula Ci4H8N303 and
its contents confiscated. My boxes were thrown a melting point of 206°, but it is believed to have been
aside in a hut, with only the damp earth for floor, impure, since it does not conform to an aromatic
and remained there many months, when my 0-carboline structure (Deulofeu 1967). The vine with
friend Senhor Henrique Antonij of Mananos . . . which Barriga-Villalba worked had been "identified" as
succeeded in redeeming them and getting them Prestonia amazonica, but he later abandonded this
sent to . . . Para. When Mr. Bentham came upon identification in favor of Banisteriopsis caapi.
them in England, he found the contents somewhat In 1926, Michaels and Clinquart isolated, again from
injured by damp and mould, and the sheets of unvouchered material, an alkaloid which they called
specimens near the bottom of the box quite yageine. Shortly thereafter, in 1927, Perrot and Hamet
ruined. The bundle of the caapi would presumably isolated a pure substance with a melting point of 258°,
have quite lost its virtue from the same cause, and calling the alkaloid telepathine and suggesting that
I do not know that it was ever analyzed chemi telepathine and yageine were identical. A year later,
cally .... Lewin (1928b) isolated an alkaloid which he named
It was not analyzed until 117 years later! Perhaps with banisterine. This alkaloid was shown to be identical with
the state of analytical alkaloid chemistry in the middle harmine, known from the Syrian rue, Peganum harmala
of the last century, it was just as well that this critical of the Zygophyllaceae (a family closely related to the
material was not studied at that time. Malpighiaceae) by chemists from E. Merck: Elger (1928)
With the assistance of the officials at the Royal and Wolfes and Rumpf (1928). Elger worked on material
Botanic Gardens at Kew, the material was located and that he received from Hamet, which had been identified
submitted to analysis in 1969 (Holmstedt 1981; Schul at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew as Banisteriopsis
tes, Holmstedt & Lindgren 1969). Five pieces weighing caapi.
in all 26.7 g were available and 11.5 g were worked up Employing ample material collected in the Peruvian
for gas chromatography, mass spectrometry and other Amazon and properly vouchered by Williams, Chen and
methods of analysis. The yield of alkaloids was 0.4%. Chen (1939) isolated harmine from the stem, leaves and
When compared with a recently collected specimen, the roots of Banisteriopsis caapi in 1939 and, as has been
percentage was 0.5. The newer material contained, as indicated, confirmed the identification of harmine with
frequently described, the main alkaloids harmine, harma banisterine. In 1957, Hochstein and Pardies analyzed
line and tetrahydroharmaline. Two minor components material of ayahuasca collected in the Peruvian Amazon
were likewise found. By contrast, the Spruce material in the vicinity of Iquitos. Harmine, harmaline and
contained exclusively harmine. It is possible that harma tetrahydroharmine, the latter two in large concentra
line and tetrahydoharmaline have with time been trans tions, were isolated.
formed into the chemically more stable aromatic Working on vouchered material of Banisteriopsis
0-carboline, harmine. inebrians collected by Schultes in the Colombian Putu-
It is really extraordinary, however, that it took 117 mayo, O'Connell and Lynn (1953) found that the stems
years to answer Spruce's query concerning bioactive contained harmine and the leaves "an alkaloid which was
constituents in the Malpighiaceae. Would that modern, partly identified as harmine," thus confirming Chen and
sophisticated chemical techniques could be applied to Chen's conclusions. Less attention has been paid to
other equally significant early collections of biodynamic Banisteriopsis inebrians than to B. caapi. Harmaline and
plants! harmalol were not encountered. Several years later,
Early chemical examination in 1905 on material Poisson (1965) studied material from Peru called

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S C H U LT E S HALLUCINOGENS

"natema" and critically identified by Cuatrecasas as vouchered material collected by Pinkley among the
Banisteriopsis inebrians with similar results: the stems Kofan Indians of Ecuador, Der Marderosian made the
contained harmine and small amounts of what seemed to corroborative discovery that this additive had N,N-
be harmaline. dimethyltryptamine, but no 0-carboline alkaloids (Pink
The most recent analytical work on Banisteriopsis ley 1969; Der Marderosian, Pinkley & Dobbins 1968).
caapi was that of the Japanese chemists Hashimoto and The natives in this area, as elsewhere in the Amazon, use
Kawanishi (1976, 1975). The Instituto Agronomico do this additive "to heighten and lengthen the intoxica
Norte in Belem do Para was the source of their tion." This discovery is significant because it represents
authentically determined botanical material. Several new the first time that a tryptamine has been found in the
organic bases were reported by these workers: harmine Malpighiaceae.
N-oxide, harmic acid methyl ester (methyl 7-methoxy- More recent work has indicated that this species is
0-carboline 1-carboxylate); harmalinic acid (7-methoxy- cultivated or gathered from the wild over a large area of
3,4-dihydro-p-carboline 1-carboxylic acid); harmic amide the western Amazon for use as an admixture, but that it
(l-carbamoxyl-7-methoxy-/3-carboline); acetyl norhar- is never used alone in the preparation of an intoxicating
mine (l-acetyl-7-methoxy-/3-carboline); and ketotetra- drink. Diplopterys Cabrerana is now the correct name,
hydronorharmine (7-methoxy-l,2,3,4-tetrahydro-l-oxo- according to Gates (1979), not only for Banisteriopsis
0-carboline). Whether or not some of these bases may be rusbyana but for B. Cabrerana Cuatr.1 The species has
artifacts is open to serious question. Nevertheless, what hitherto been reported in the literature under the
little is now known of the chemistry of the family and binomial Banisteriopsis Cabrerana.
the ethnobotanical data for biodynamic uses of numer The great difference in chemistry between this
ous species in several genera both indicate that the species and B. caapi — the former with a tryptamine, the
Malpighiaceae deserves much more chemical investi latter with 0-carbolines - led to the suggestion in 1973
gation, since it is obviously much richer in active by Schultes and Hofmann that further studies be made:
compounds than presently realized (Schultes 1975a). "An incompletely understood species, reported from the
Amazon of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and possibly
It is known that Amazonian Indians employ many Peru. The extraordinary chemical differences between
plants as additives to the narcotic drink prepared this species and B. caapi and B. inebrians suggests that
basically from Banisteriopsis caapi or B. inebrians (Rivier thorough chemotaxonomic studies might cast doubt
& Lindgren 1972; Schultes 1972; Der Marderosian, even on its generic relationships." Current taxonomic
Pinkley & Dobbins 1968; Schultes 1957). Only two of studies indicate indeed that Diplopterys Cabrerana is not
the many additives will be considered in this discussion: even closely related to that section of the genus
Diplopterys Cabrerana (Cuatr.) Gates (Banisteriopsis Banisteriopsis to which B. caapi belongs (Anderson
rusbyana) and Psychotria viridis Ruiz et Pavon. A 1981b).
complete survey of additives has been published by In several far distant parts of the Amazon Valley,
Rivier and Lindgren (1972). the leaves of at least one species of Psychotria - P.
Throughout the course of the botanical and chemi viridis Ruiz et Pavon - are added to the beverage made
cal studies of the malpighiaceous narcotics of South from Banisteriopsis (Der Marderosian et al. 1970; Schul
America, the use of a plant, which until recently has tes 1967b). Several other species-P. horizontalis
been known as Banisteriopsis rusbyana, is encountered. Swartz, P. cartharginensis Jacquin and others - have
It was apparently Morton (1930) who, on the basis of likewise been suggested as additives. The Kofan Indians
Klug's collections, first indicated that this species might of Amazonian Colombia and Ecuador use the leaves of
enter the preparation as an additive. The plant is called P. viridis to strengthen and lengthen the visions induced
oco-yaje or cbagro-panga in the Colombian Putumayo by the intoxicating drink. In the Acre of Brazil, the
and adjacent areas of Peru. The name of this plant has leaves of P. viridis are valued as an additive. The
subsequently appeared in a number of papers as either Kashinahua of eastern Peru and adjacent Brazil employ
the sole source of the narcotic preparation or as one of the leaves of two different species of Psychotria, known i ij, s

the ingredients (Schultes & Hofmann 1980, 1979; by their native names "nai-kawa" and "matsi-kawa" I Ira
Agurell et al. 1968; Der Marderosian, Pinkley & Dobbins (Der Marderosian et al. 1970). The same custom has |'iV.

1968; Deulofeu 1967; Poisson 1965). been reported from Amazonian Brazil (Prance 1970;
In 1965, Poisson reported finding N,N-dimethyl- Prance & Prance 1970). The chemical constitution of the
tryptamine in material identified by Cuatrecasas as leaves of Psychotria viridis explains the use of this plant
Banisteriopsis rusbyana. In 1968, on the basis of as an additive: they contain N,N-dimethyltryptamine,

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ML
S C H U LT E S HALLUCINOGENS

the first evidence of tryptamines in the family Rubiaceae who analyzed what, without any voucher botanical
(Der Marderosian et al. 1970). material, they received as "yaje." These chemists assert
in a footnote that the "identification" was made by the
The literature — both botanical and chemical — has Peruvian botanist Ferreyra (1959) who informed this
been plagued with the "identification" of the narcotic author that he never saw botanical specimens.
preparations known as ayahuasca, caapi or yaje as a As a result of this apparently serious report, the
derivative of the apocynaceous Prestonia amazonica, literature has continued to insist that Prestonia ama
better known by its former name Haemadictyon ama- zonica has a major or minor part in the preparation of
zonicum. A number of technical and popular writers ayahuasca, caapi or yajk. In 1960, however, in a review
have identified the narcotic as this apocynaceous plant of the alkaloids of the Apocynaceae, Raffauf and Flagler
or have presumed that the species was employed as one (1960) stated that "the reported occurrence of only one
of the additives. Prestonia amazonica has unfortunately, simple indole in the Apocynaceae to date is of sufficient
for this belief, been collected only once — in 1859 — and interest to warrant some speculation. The structure
in a locality on the lower Amazon, 1,200 miles in a looks enough out of place to suggest that the sample
straight line from the localities where the drug caapi is studied was not Prestonia ...."
employed. In 120 years, the plant has never been Eventually, Schultes and Raffauf (1960) published a
re-collected by botanists, so it is obviously a rare historical, botanical and chemical review of the problem
element of the flora of a far distant area, not likely to which concluded that: (1) There is no botanical sup
have been economically employed in preparing a com port, nor any reliable support in the literature for the
monly used drug in the western Amazon. assumption that Prestonia (least of all P. amazonica)
It was apparently Spruce (1908, 1873) who first enters the preparation; (2) There is no reliable reference
suggested that Prestonia amazonica might enter into the except Spruce's suggestion that any apocynaceous
caapi picture. He said that caapi pinima ("painted species are used; and (3) There is no evidence that
caapi") is "an apocynaceous twiner of the genus N,N-dimethyltryptamine — the active constituent of the
Haemadictyon, of which I saw only young shoots, additive presumed by so many to be Prestonia ama
without any flowers. The leaves are of a shining green, zonica — occurs in this genus.
painted with strong blood-red veins. It is possibly the
same species... distributed by M. Bentham under the While /3-carboline alkaloids in South American nar
name Haemadictyon amazonicum n. sp. It may be the cotics are usually associated with Banisteriopsis prepara
caapi-pinima which gives its nauseous taste to the tions, they have also been found in other hallucino-
caapi... and it is probably poisonous ... but it is not genically employed plants. The presence of /3-carbolines
essential to the narcotic effects of the Banisteria, which in certain snuffs prepared from species of the myristica-
(so far as I could make out) is used without any ceous Virola and the leguminous Anadenanthera (Schul
admixture by the Guahibos, Zaparos and other nations tes 6c Hofmann 1980), which owe their psychoactivity
out the Uaupes." mainly to tryptamines, was first indicated by Holmstedt
This confusion has resulted from a careless interpre and Lindgren in 1967. Six snuffs of uncertain origin
tation of Spruce's field notes by the French anthro were examined. One had small concentrations of
pologist Reinberg (1921). One must bear in mind that 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltxyptamine and, in addition to
Spruce, great botanist though he was, was working in the simple indoles, contained harmine; one contained only
Amazon without any herbarium and months from /3-carbolines.
correspondence with central botanical institutions. He At that time, these investigators wrote:
presumed that an additive, which in those far-off wilds ... it is evident that tryptamines, both un-
reminded him of a new species of Prestonia (Haema substituted and substituted in the ring (5-OH and
dictyon) that he had collected months before, might 5-Me-O-) occur, and that both secondary and
"possibly" represent the same species. This casual note tertiary amines are present. In addition to this,
of a field botanist, for years isolated from laboratory some snuffs contain /3-carbolines, either in combi
and herbarium facilities, has been taken as a dictum by nation with the simple tryptamines or solely. In
later uncritical investigators, and especially by investi South American botany, /3-carbolines (harmine,
gators totally devoid of botanical training. harmaline and tetrahydroharmine) are usually
The most extraordinary error resulting from this associated with the species of Banisteriopsis,
misinterpretation was the identification of an aqueous wherefore it is very likely that this is their origin
solution by the chemists Hochstein and Paradies(1957) in the snuffs. Very likely this is an admixture to

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the snuff, although definite botanical proof for it The presence of /3-carboline alkaloids in preparations
is lacking at the moment. To the knowledge of the made from Virola is biochemically significant. The
authors, simple indoles and /3-carbolines have not /3-carbolines are monoamine oxidase inhibitors which
yet been isolated from the same plant .... Fur may potentiate the activity of simple indoles. It is
ther botanical and chemical studies are obviously difficult to admit that the presence of /3-carbolines, even
needed to see if the two groups of compounds in in trace amounts, with tryptamines is "pharmacologi
the snuff are derived from one plant or a mixture cally of no importance" (Holmstedt & Lindgren 1967).
of plants. The Bora and Witoto Indians of Amazonian Colom
Shortly thereafter, the presence of two new /3-carbo- bia and Peru do not utilize Virola as a snuff; they
line alkaloids in South American snuffs, prepared from prepare pellets from the resin-like bark exudate and
plants of which the major active constituents were ingest them. The species used are V. elongata, V. Pavonis
known to be tryptamines (Holmstedt & Lindgren 1967), (DC) A.C. Smith and V. theiodora; and possibly V.
was reported (Agurell et al. 1968). The compound surinamensis (Rol.) Warburg and V. loretensis A.C.
2-methyl-6-methoxy-l,2,3,4-tetrahydro-/3-carboline was Smith. Hallucinogenic tryptamines have been found in
isolated from Virola theiodora (Spr. ex Benth.) War all, except in the last two named species.
burg2 and the snuff prepared from it, from V. rufula The tryptamines are believed to be inactive when
(ADC.) Warburg2 (not known to be used as a hallu taken orally, unless they are in the presence of a
cinogen) and from Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Spegaz- monoamine oxidase inhibitor. They are experimentally
zini. This latter hallucinogenic plant had in addition the known to be exceedingly psychoactive. No other organic
0-carboline, l,2-dimethyl-6-methoxy-l ,2,3,4-tetrahydro- material is added to the Virola-exudate during the
j3-carboline. A year later, this discovery was reported for preparation of these pellets. The very primitive Maku
a second time (Agurell et al. 1969). Indians of the Rio Piraparana in Colombia simply ingest
In the decade following these announcements, the raw "resin" from the bark of Virola with no
chemical studies of Virola have been intensified, thanks admixture (Schultes & Swain 1976; Schultes 1973,
especially to the fully equipped chemical laboratory 1969). In this form, it is psychoactive. Consequently, it
aboard the R/V Alpha-Helix which, in its Phase VII of appears that possibly the trace amounts of /3-carbolines
1977-78 Amazon Expedition, made possible the analysis present in these species of Virola must act as the
of freshly collected material of a number of species of inhibitor potentiating the activity of the tryptamines.
Virola and related species with the most modern Quite unlike the situation with the botanical sources
equipment, including an LKB mass spectrometer. The of the malpighiaceous narcotics, there has been no
results of these investigations combined with previous confusion concerning the species of Virola used as
analyses are now in publication (Holmstedt 1982; hallucinogens; for almost all research concerning these
Holmstedt et al. 1982). They set forth the indole narcotics, since 1954, has relied on voucher material. In
alkaloid composition of some 15 species of Virola, all 1954, V. calophylla and V. calphylloidea Markgr., and
with voucher specimens, as well as the analyses of possibly V. elongata were signaled as the species most
species of the myristicaceous genera Compsoneura, employed in the Colombian Amazon (Schultes 1954a).
Iryanthera and Osteophloem. Species employed in In 1968, V. theiodora was indicated (Schultes &
preparing hallucinogenic snuffs, as well as those for Holmstedt 1968) as a major source. Later studies
which no use is known, were analyzed and reported. (Schultes, Swain & Plowman 1978; Schultes & Swain
This author knows of no tropical American group of 1976; Schultes 1973, 1969) have greatly enriched the
plants of interest for its use for hallucinogenic or knowledge of the botany of the myristicaceous nar
otherwise psychoactive effects that has been so thor cotics.
oughly investigated with botanically vouchered material The only confusion encountered in the botanical
and with the use of the most modern chemical tech studies of the Virola narcotics has resulted from the
niques. writings of the Italian anthropologist Biocca (Biocca
It is of interest to the present discussion that trace 1966, 1965; Biocca et al. 1964) who has indicated that
amounts of /3-carbolines have been found in V. calo the Waika snuff "epena" is prepared from V. cuspidata,
phylla Warburg, V. elongata and V. theiodora — all three "V. punctata"1 and V. rufula. But no voucher specimens
the sources of a hallucinogenic snuff. One species not are cited nor are they available. Biocca credits the
known to be employed in preparing a snuff— V. Brazilian botanist William Rodrigues with the identifi
cuspidata (Spr. ex Benth.) Warburg2 - has /3-carbolines cation of his material, but Rodrigues (1980a) states that
as the principal alkaloids (Holmstedt et al. 1982). he did not determine any specimens from Biocca's

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expedition, and this author found no voucher specimens Negro of Brazil. According to Bernhauer, the snuff was
in the herbarium at the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas known as parica, yopo and ebena — names applied in the
da Amaz6nia in Manaos where Rodrigues is based. If region usually to snuffs prepared from Anadenanthera or
these identifications prove to be correct, the information "Virola. Again, botanical vouchers are unfortunately
is highly significant: for the principal alkaloids of V. lacking.
cuspidata are harmine bases, not tryptamines; and the
bark of V. rufula is extraordinarily rich in 5-methoxy- The whole fascinating, if somewhat exasperating,
N,N-dimethyltryptamine, while the roots and leaves are story of the identification and chemical constitution of
equally rich in tryptamines (Holmstedt et al. 1982). the /3-carboline narcotics of South America serves to
emphasize how little is known about some of the most
The genus Cabi, closely allied to Banisteriopsis, was widely used and most culturally significant hallucinogens
described by Ducke in 1943. From the stems and leaves of the American Indians. It further serves to support the
of Cabi paraensis Ducke, native to the eastern Amazon statement of Holmstedt and Lindgren (1967): "Once
of Brazil, Mors and Zaltzman isolated harmine (Si- again, one cannot but marvel at the ingenuity of the
queira-Jaccoud 1959; Mors & Zalzman 1955). Although South American Indians who relentlessly seem to be able
included in the folk medicine of the region, this species to find their way to the right herb containing the most
apparently never has been employed as a hallucinogen active component." And one must harken back to the
(Ducke 1946). wish of Spruce in 1852: "This is all I have seen and
learnt of caapi or ayahuasca .... Some traveller who
There are several reports concerning the use of may follow my steps with greater resources at his
Banisteriopsis in other ways than as a drink. Recent command will, it is hoped, be able to bring away
indirect evidence from the northwest Amazon opens up materials adequate for the complete analysis of this
the possibility that it may also be used as a snuff. curious plant." Would that the perspicacity of today's
Harmala alkaloids have been reported from snuff botanists and chemists were equally keen in solving the
powders prepared from a "vine" said to also be the complex problems surrounding these extraordinary
source of an intoxicating drink, but voucher botanical mind-altering plants and the preparations made from
specimens are lacking (Holmstedt & Lindgren 1967). them.
Since neither Anadenanthera nor Virola are vines, the
possibility-that Banisteriopsis is involved is somewhat NOTES
enhanced. 1. Diplopterys Cabrerana (Cuatr.) Gates in Brit-
In his field notes, Spruce (1908) stated, for exam tonia 31(1979)109; Banisteriopsis Cabrerana Cuatrecases
ple, that "when I was at the cataracts of the Orinoco in in Webbia 13(1958)493; Banisteriopsis rusbyana (Ndz.)
June 1854, I again came upon caapi, under the same Morton in Journal of the Washington Academy of
name, at an encampment of the wild Guahibos, on the Science 21(1931)487; Banisteria rusbyana Niedenzu,
savannas of Maypures. These Indians not only drink the Ind. Lect. Lye. Brunsberg 1901 19(1901). Malpigh.
infusion, like those of the Uaupes, but also chew the (1928)445.
dried stem, as some people do tobacco. From them, I 2. The most recent monograph on Virola (Rodri
learnt that all the native dwellers on the rivers Meta, gues 1980b) treats V. theiodora provisionally as a
Vichada, Guaviare, Sipapo, and the intervening smaller synonym of the very variable and "very complex" V.
rivers, possess caapi and use it in precisely the same elongata (Benth.) Warburg; but, since the two look very
way." different in the field and are widely recognized as
Biocca et al. (1964) reported the isolation of distinct by the Indians who use them, this author prefers
harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine from a snuff to consider the two as separate, although related,
called "parica" and collected from the Tukano and species. The same monograph places V. rufula as a
Tariana Indians along the Rio Uaupes in Brazil. These synonym of V. elongata. Similarly, it puts the binomial
are the same alkaloids found in Banisteriopsis caapi. V. cuspidata into synonym under V. elongata. The
There is again no botanical material on which any chemical differences of V. rufula and V. cuspidata,
identification might be made, and this report is, conse however, cast doubt on the disposition of both as
quently, equally as unreliable as others in Biocca's synonyms of V. elongata.
writings. Bernhauer (1964) isolated harmine and tetra 3. The binomial "Virola punctata" has never been
hydroharmine from a snuff prepared by the Waika validly published and is botanically a nomen nudum.
Indians along the Rio Demini, an affluent of the Rio Biocca undoubtedly meant to indicate a concept origi-

Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 216 Vol. 14(3) Jul-Sep, 1982

SCHULTES HALLUCINOGENS

nally described under the name Myristica punctata Spr. Warburg var. punctata (Spr. ex Benth.) Warburg. Accord
ex Benth., also known as Palala punctata (Spr. ex ing to Rodrigues (1980b), this concept is referable to V.
Benth.) Kuntze, nom. illegit. and V. elongata (Benth.) elongata.

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