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Food experience, place attachment, destination image and the role of food-
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DOI: 10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.05.010

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 Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 79–87

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm

Food experience, place attachment, destination image and the role of food- T
related personality traits
Fu Chieh Hsua,∗, Noel Scottb
a
Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau
b
Sustainability Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Food is a necessary part of a trip, but it can also create a memorable experience. This study explores the relations
Food experience between food experiences, place attachment, and destination image, as well as the moderating effects of food
Place attachment neophobia and food involvement. The study was conducted in Macau using a survey of 450 inbound tourists.
Destination image Findings indicated that food experience has a significant correlation with place attachment and destination
Food neophobia
image. This study also found food neophobia has an important moderating effect on the relationship between
Food involvement
food experience and place attachment. Food involvement moderated the relationship between food experience
and destination image. These results indicate that positive food experiences can increase place attachment and
destination image, but its impact is moderated by food-related personality traits.

1. Introduction Huang, 2016). Moreover, even though previous research indicates food
experiences contribute to positive travel outcomes (such as satisfaction
When a person is travelling, meals are essential but the food of a or revisit intention) (Ji, Wong, Eves, & Scarles, 2016; Kim, Duncan, &
destination also can serve as an attraction (Stone & Migacz, 2016). Chung, 2015), they fail to discuss how and why food is related to these
Indeed, destination managers may seek to transform local food from an positive outcomes. We know that tourists tend to revisit a destination
essential functional element of a trip, to part of the region's image and where they have memorable food and drink experiences, but further
the focus of a desired experience (Sanchez-Canizares & Lopez-Guzman, research is needed into the underlying cause of this behaviour (Stone,
2012). There are an increasing number of tourism destinations utilising Soulard, Migacz, & Wolf, 2018). This study addresses this research gap
local foods and food-related activities to attract tourists (Lai, Lattimore, by investigating the antecedents of revisit intention, in particular, place
& Wang, 2018). attachment, destination image and food related personality traits.
There is also a growing number of tourism studies specifically re- The objective of this study then is to empirically examine the re-
lated to food (Robinson & Getz, 2014). This research has examined lationships between tourist food experience, place attachment, and
topics including promotional strategies (Bessière, 2013), food product destination image. In this study, food-related personality traits (food
positioning and branding (Tsai & Wang, 2017), local food experiences neophobia and food involvement) are considered moderators of these
(Kivela & Crotts, 2006), food tourist segmentation (Au & Law, 2002; relationships. In doing so, this study contributes to the analysis of the
Ignatov & Smith, 2006), the role of food in regional development effect of food experience on place attachment and destination image.
(Cohen & Avieli, 2004), food and travel satisfaction (Jung, Ineson, Kim, Hence, this study fills a research gap by examining the relationship
& Yap, 2015), local food consumption behaviour (Hsu, Robinson, & between tourists and travel destinations from a food perspective.
Scott, 2018), and food as a manifestation and expression of regional The study employs quantitative survey data with fieldwork con-
identity (Kim & Ellis, 2015). These studies confirm the important role of ducted in Macau, a destination which is recognised by UNESCO as a
local food as an experience for visitors and a resource for a travel creative city of gastronomy. The major findings show that food ex-
destination. perience has a significant influence on place attachment and destina-
Despite this body of research, there are some claims that the benefits tion image. In addition, the moderating effect of food neophobia is
of food tourism are exaggerated as, for some tourists, food is only a found to weaken the relationship between food experience and place
form of sustenance (Andersson, Mossberg, & Therkelsen, 2017; Chen & attachment. On the other hand, food involvement is shown to

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: fchsu@must.edu.mo (F.C. Hsu), nscott1@usc.edu.au (N. Scott).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.05.010
Received 20 December 2019; Received in revised form 18 April 2020; Accepted 22 May 2020
Available online 20 June 2020
1447-6770/ © 2020 CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. Published by Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
F.C. Hsu and N. Scott Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 79–87

strengthen the relationship between food experience and destination Place attachment has been used to study the effect of food experi-
image. ences in a travel destination. Gross and Brown (2006) found that the
food and wine of a destination contributes to place attachment. Hutson,
2. Literature review Montgomery, and Caneday (2010) found that sensory involvement has
a role in developing place attachment. Direct sensory contact with one's
2.1. The role of food in the travel destination natural surrounding through smell, hear, see, and touch increases en-
gagement and a feeling of closeness with a setting. Food can play a
Food tourism, culinary tourism, or gastronomy tourism are all terms similar role in the experience of a destination, through its experiential,
used to describe the phenomena of tourists pursuing a food-related sensual, symbolic, and ritualistic characteristics (Mitchell & Hall,
experience in a tourism destination. Food provision in a travel desti- 2003). Food can provide visitors with a valuable, and in some cir-
nation is an important topic and has received attention from academics, cumstances, peak experience (Quan & Wang, 2004; Smith & Xiao,
governments, and practitioners (Robinson & Getz, 2014). From the 2008). Place attachment is an emotional bond to a location that may be
supply-side, local food provides new opportunities and resources to created or enhanced by memorable experiences and sensory involve-
enhance tourism attraction and create economic benefits (Andersson ment (Loureiro, 2014), hence, it is possible for a food experience to
et al., 2017). From the demand-side, experiences with novel local food engender place attachment.
can provide tourists with a memorable travel experience (Andersson
et al., 2017).
Some visitors may be considered food tourists, who travel to enjoy 2.3. Destination image
new culinary experiences and to appreciate local and authentic food
(Horng & Tsai, 2010). However, even those who do not see food ex- Beginning in the 1970s, a significant body of tourism literature has
periences as their primary goal, may enjoy dining out and trying local developed examining the concept of destination image. The concept of
cuisine (Henderson, 2009). When travelling, it is hard to avoid local destination image has significant value in explaining behaviour such as
culinary experiences, and although this experience may not be a major destination selection, revisit intention and satisfaction (Stylos,
factor for people to travel, it undoubtedly is an essential part of a trip Vassiliadis, Bellou, & Andronikidis, 2016) as well as developing desti-
and sometimes offers a peak touristic experience (Quan & Wang, 2004; nation marketing strategies (Tasci, Gartner, & Cavusgil, 2007). Desti-
Smith & Xiao, 2008). nation image is defined as “the sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions
One of the major functions of a destination's food service sector, that a person has of a destination” (Crompton, 1979, p. 18). The “image
from a tourism perspective, is to provide the experiences and feelings of destinations are in the ‘mind's eye’ whether these places have been
that tourists desire on their trip (Kivela & Crotts, 2006). Food con- visited or not” (Howie, 2003, p. 101). Destination image is dynamic and
sumption plays an indispensable role in shaping the total tourist ex- is modified when new information is received (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991;
perience. Even though the pursuit of culinary experiences may not be Gilbert & Hancock, 2006).
the major motive for people to travel, such experiences are crucial to According to Gunn (1972, 1988), a tourist visit to a destination will
tourists' overall trip satisfaction (Smith & Xiao, 2008). Food, accom- lead to a modified image of that place. Similarly, Fakeye and Crompton
modation, and transport are usually viewed as supporting experiences (1991) indicate that tourists develop a more complex image of a place
during a trip; however, the whole travel experience may ‘go sour’ be- during a trip due to their contacts and activities in it. Repeat visitors
cause of dissatisfaction with the available food. By contrast, supporting form a more positive image of a destination than non-visitors (Konecnik
experiences such as enjoyment in eating exotic food, in certain cir- & Ruzzier, 2006). Such destination image modification is an on-going
cumstances, may turn into a peak experience (Quan & Wang, 2004). process and an image will evolve due to incidents that happen during
the trip (Smith, Li, Pan, Witte, & Doherty, 2015). A pleasurable and
2.2. Place attachment memorable tourism experience has a direct impact on the destination
image (Kim, 2018). Touristic activities such as a sports events can also
A place develops meaning because people have an emotional or influence formation of a positive destination image (Kim, Kang, & Kim,
value-based relationship with it (Tuan, 1977), and this emotionality 2014).
connects people and a place (Fournier, 1991). In psychology, the con- As discussed above, food is an essential and often pleasurable ex-
nection between people and a place is referred to as “place attachment”. perience in a travel destination. Local foods often have psychological,
Place attachment is a term used to describe a physical space to which a spiritual, and cultural meaning and can lead to authentic, memorable,
person is attached by a meaningful emotion, feeling, value, or experi- and exotic experiences (Sanchez-Canizares & Lopez-Guzman, 2012;
ence (Williams, Patterson, & Roggenbuck, 1992). People may develop Smith & Costello, 2009). Food experiences can involve a tourist in the
an emotional bond to a house or neighbourhood, but also can develop travel destination, create positive emotions and value, strengthening
an emotional connection to a city or nation (Hidalgo & Hernandez, the bonds between tourists and the place and influencing the visitor's
2001). Place attachment is defined as “an affective bond or link be- destination image (Stajcic, 2013). Food may sometimes provide a peak
tween people and specific places” (Hidalgo & Hernandez, 2001, p. 274). experience in the destination (Quan & Wang, 2004), and modify the
Because of its valuable role in interpreting the relationship between tourists' image of that destination (Hammitt, Backlund, & Bixler, 2006).
human and place, place attachment has been applied in the field of While the concepts of place attachment and destination image are
tourism when studying destination management, marketing and tourist widely used in the tourism and leisure literature (Souiden, Ladhari, &
behaviour (Tsai, 2012). Empirical studies have found place attachment Chiadmi, 2017), no prior study has empirically investigated the effect of
to have an influence on behavioural outcomes such as loyalty, revisit food experience on place attachment and destination image. Conse-
intention, word of mouth and satisfaction (Alexndri, Kouthouris & quently, this work proposes the following hypotheses:
Meligidis, 2006; Brown, Smith, & Assaker, 2016; Lee, Kyle, & Scott,
Hypothesis 1. Food experience is positively related to the place
2012; Prayag & Ryan, 2012). Other studies have examined antecedents
attachment.
to development of an emotional bond to a place such as service quality
(Alexandris, Kouthouris, & Meligdis, 2006), involvement (Lee & Shen, Hypothesis 2. Food experience is positively related to the destination
2013; Prayag & Ryan, 2012), and satisfaction and attractiveness (Xu & image.
Zhang, 2016). Destination attributes such as tourism services, cultural
attractions, events, interpretation, and peripheral attractions are also
related to place attachment (Hou, Lin, & Morais, 2005).

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2.4. Food related personality traits destinations with food-related activities (Levitt, Zhang, DiPietro, &
Meng, 2019). While during the trip, food involvement guides food se-
Food-related personality traits (FRPT) describe the characteristics or lection. However, there are different types of effects noted. One study
attitudes that humans possess towards to food. When confronted with a found that tourists with high food involvement have less interest in
situation involving food, these traits serve to guide people's eating be- consuming local food (Caber, YilMaz, Kiliçarslan, & Öztü;rk, 2018)
haviour and dietary patterns (Mak, Lumbers, Eves, & Chang, 2017). The whereas another found that restaurant consumers with high food in-
enduring and stable features of FRPTs (Chang, Kivela, & Mak, 2011) volvement have more positive attitudes to, and greater ordering in-
allow them to be used to explain consumer's food selection behaviour in tention for local food on the menu (Lu, Chi, 2018). Another study found
a variety of setting (Mak, Lumbers, Eves, & Chang, 2012). Similarly, an a positive relation between involvement and food variety seeking
understanding of FRPTs can help destination organizers to better un- (Derinalp Çanakçı and Birdir, 2020).
derstand their tourist food choice and provide appropriate culinary The above discussion reveals an inconsistency in the effect of food
experience (Mak et al., 2017). A tourist's FRPTs also affects how they involvement on local food consumption behaviour. Additionally, effect
deal with novel and unfamiliar food during their trip. FRPTs have a of food involvement on destination image and place attachment is
significant effect on the festival satisfaction and loyalty of visitors at- unclear. Prior research indicates that food involvement is strongly
tending a food festival (Kim, Suh, & Eves, 2010). Similarly, FRPTs affect correlated with different types of food buying behaviour and that high
food satisfaction, revisit intention and word of mouth (Ji et al., 2016). food involvement is likely to lead to consumption of more diverse and
These studies indicate that FRPTs have a direct influence on tourist unfamiliar food. Hence, tourists with high food involvement are likely
experience, satisfaction and behaviour. However, the moderating effect to consume a wider variety of food, have more positive experiences
of FRPTs on the relationship between food experience and behavioural with novel food, more positive emotional responses, and more positive
outcomes has not yet been tested. place attachment (Micheal and Hall, 2003). Therefore.
Food neophobia is a FRPTs and defined by Pliner and Hobden
Hypothesis 5. The strength of the relationship between food
(1992, p. 105) as “a reluctance toward and/or an avoidance of novel
experience and place attachment is moderated by tourists' food
food”. Early research using this trait sought to improve consumption of
involvement trait.
nutritious and healthy food among students and children (Edwards,
Hartwell, & Brown, 2010). People with strong food neophobia do not Hypothesis 6. The strength of the relationship between food
eat novel food hence limiting variety in their diet (Eertmans, Victoir, experience and the destination image is moderated by tourists' food
Vansant, & Van den Bergh, 2005) and contributing to malnutrition involvement trait.
(Maiz & Balluerka, 2019). Food neophobia is a threat to consumption of
ethnic food (Altisent, Jaeger, Johnston, & Harker, 2013).
Destination managers commonly employ food as an attraction but 3. Method
should also be aware that some tourists may have reluctance to its
consumption (Derinalp Çanakçı and Birdir, 2020). Cohen and Avieli 3.1. Data collection, sample size, and sampling method
(2004) indicate that the food of a travel destination can be both an
attraction and impediment to a visit. Hence, study of the food experi- This study seeks to gain a better understanding of tourist's food
ence in the travel destination must consider psychological barriers such experiences in a travel destination. For this reason, data collection was
as food neophobia (Caber, YilMaz, Kiliçarslan, & Öztü;rk, 2018). conducted in Macau, recognised by UNESO in 2017 as a Creative City of
Tourists with higher food neophobia are unlikely to try the traditional Gastronomy (Macao Government Tourism Office). Macau has a rich
food of a host country (Ji et al., 2016; Kim, Eves, & Scarles, 2013). Food food culture integrating Chinese and Portuguese food cultures. Dishes
neophobia negatively affects motivation to consume local food (Akyuz, popular among tourist and local residents that are strongly associated
2019). Food neophobia is also a moderator of the relationship between with Macau include Portuguese coconut chicken, Macau African
attitude and purchase intention (Hsu et al., 2018). As a result, it is chicken, and Portuguese Custard Tarts. Macau has a variety of casino
postulated that tourists with high food neophobia will avoid unfamiliar and hotel restaurants and 65 Michelin restaurants (Michelin, 2018) as
food leading to few food experiences and less of an emotional bond to well as cheap and tasty street food.
the travel destination. Consequently. A convenience sample was collected of 500 inbound first-time
tourists visiting Macau who had already been in the destination for
Hypothesis 3. The strength of the relationship between food more than one day. This ensured that respondents had already experi-
experience and the place attachment is moderated by tourists' food enced food in Macau. Data collection was conducted in popular tourist
neophobia trait. spots and border gate (including the Ruins of St Paul's, Senado Square,
Hypothesis 4. The strength of the relationship between food A Ma Temple, Macau Tower, Venetian Macao and Parisian Macao) from
experience and the destination image is moderated by tourists' food early December 2018 to late March 2019. Some 450 useable ques-
neophobia trait. tionnaires remained after removing incomplete questionnaires, with a
response rate of approximately 90%. The sample had slightly more
Food involvement (FI) is a FRPTs, defined as “the level of im- female respondents, with 55.6% females and 44.4% males. The ma-
portance of food in a person's life” (Bell & Marshall, 2003, p. 236). jority of the sample (81.8%) was college educated, with 13.8% having
While food neophobia concerns psychological barriers towards novel graduated or reached a postgraduate educational level. Only 4.4% did
food, food involvement concerns the need, interest and level of im- not have a college degree. The modal age of tourists ranged between 18
portance of food in a person's life (Sparks, 2007). This trait helps to and 40 years, accounting for 92.9% and 76.4% of the sample were
understand and explain why people's attitude towards food varies married (see Table 1).
(Akyuz, 2019). Food involvement is found to guide food buying beha-
viour such as the consumption of vegetables, fruits and organic food.
3.2. Measurement
(Barker, Lawrence, Woadden, Crozier, & Skinner, 2008; Ohly et al.,
2013).
A structured questionnaire was developed by reviewing previous
In the tourism and hospitality literature, food involvement is found
related studies. It was composed of six parts: (1) food experience; (2)
to influence tourists’ behaviour at different stages of travel. Prior to
food involvement; (3) food-neophobia; (4) place attachment; (5) des-
travelling, food involvement functions as a criterion in destination se-
tination image; and (6) general background information about re-
lection. People with high level food involvement trait prefer
spondents. The food experience scale used 12 items validated in

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F.C. Hsu and N. Scott Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 79–87

Table 1 Table 2
Sample profile (n = 450). Means and standard deviations of scale items.
Variable n % Items Mean S.D Skewness Kurtosis

Gender Male 200 44.4 Food Neophobia 2.144 0.800 1.427 3.326
Female 250 55.6 Q1 1.96 0.949 1.503 3.651
Age 18–30 222 49.3 Q2 2.28 1.224 1.749 3.822
31–40 196 43.6 Q4 1.94 0.963 1.438 2.953
41–50 28 6.2 Q5 2.46 1.331 1.220 1.372
51–60 4 0.9 Q6 2.03 0.963 1.693 4.696
Educational Level High school 6 1.3 Q7 2.30 1.279 1.484 2.290
Diploma 14 3.1 Q10 2.03 1.034 1.558 4.057
Bachelor's degree 368 81.8 Food Involvement 5.259 0.812 −1.096 3.113
Graduate school 62 13.8 Q13 5.59 0.978 −1.035 2.255
Marital Status Single 102 22.7 Q16 4.52 1.506 −0.441 −0.406
Married 344 76.4 Q17 5.53 1.200 −1.179 1.811
Divorced 4 0.9 Q20 4.93 1.417 −0.730 −0.063
Q21 5.58 1.248 −1.288 1.628
Q22 5.41 1.071 −0.779 0.968
Place Attachment 5.488 0.869 −0.709 0.141
previous studies (Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Kruger, Rootenberg, & Ellis,
Q23 5.25 1.028 −0.481 0.164
2013). Minor modifications were made to alter the wording of the scale Q24 5.48 1.172 −0.647 −0.018
items, so as to relate them specifically to the context of food experience Q25 5.56 1.118 −0.727 0.240
in Macau. The food involvement scale applied in the study was devel- Q27 5.63 1.128 −0.796 0.306
oped by the Bell and Marshall (2003) and used 12 items. This scale has Q28 5.36 1.177 −0.705 0.609
Q29 5.36 1.302 −0.734 0.101
been extensively used in various studies and demonstrates good relia-
Q30 5.77 1.372 −1.234 0.865
bility and internal consistency (Kim et al., 2010). Food neophobia was Food Experience 5.798 0.663 −0.856 1.119
measured using a scale developed by Pliner and Hobden (1992). This Q31 5.87 0.809 −0.754 1.167
scale contains 10 items and has been applied in many studies, con- Q32 5.90 1.002 −1.128 2.209
Q33 5.89 0.919 −0.930 1.331
firming its applicability and versatility (Hwang & Lin, 2010; Kim et al.,
Q35 5.98 0.926 −0.848 0.762
2010). To assess respondents' place attachment, eight items were Q36 5.47 1.099 −0.715 0.609
adapted from previous research in the tourism and recreation context Q37 5.66 1.041 −0.776 0.796
(Kyle, Graefe, & Manning, 2005; Lee et al., 2012; Williams & Vaske, Q38 5.89 0.992 −0.757 0.161
2003). Minor modifications were made to alter the wording of the scale Q40 5.72 1.023 −0.688 0.244
Q41 5.79 1.093 −0.781 0.279
items. The fifth section was developed to assess the respondent's des-
Destination Image 5.890 0.616 −0.645 0.459
tination image toward Macau as a travel destination. Items in this scale Q42 6.03 0.809 −0.641 0.333
were extracted from prior studies and contained 15 items (Baloglu & Q43 6.02 0.996 −1.049 1.005
McCleary, 1999; Chen & Tsai, 2007; Stylidis, Shani, & Bellhassen, Q46 5.90 0.960 −0.896 1.425
Q47 6.10 0.964 −1.240 1.962
2017). A seven-point Likert scale (strongly disagree = 1 to strongly
Q49 5.56 1.043 −0.859 0.130
agree = 7) was used to assess all items. Q50 5.86 0.985 −0.859 1.040
The questionnaire was provided in two languages, English and Q51 5.80 1.040 −0.851 0.947
Chinese. The questionnaire was firstly translated from English to Q53 5.76 1.031 −0.913 1.428
Chinese by the author (a native Chinese speaker). To assure the accu- Q55 5.68 1.109 −0.906 1.177
Q56 6.17 0.922 −1.150 1.298
racy of translation, five scholars in the tourism field proficient in both
languages were asked to back translate the Chinese version into English
and as a result a number of minor modifications made. Additionally,
4. Results
prior to the final data collection, a pre-test involving 100 respondents
was conducted to confirm the reliability and validity of the ques-
4.1. Measurement model
tionnaire. Data collection process for pilot survey used the same stan-
dards as the formal data collection. Respondents need to be the first-
Before conducting measurement model analysis, multivariate
time visiting Macau and have stayed more than one day to ensure the
normal distribution was fist examined through skewness and kurtosis to
food experience. Consequently, 110 data were collected from inbound
fit basic assumptions when conducting SEM. It has been suggested a
tourists with 100 useable questionnaires (response rate of approxi-
normal distribution is assumed when the absolute value of the skew
mately 91%). Data was subsequently subjected to the reliability as-
index is less than 3, and the absolute value of the kurtosis is less than 10
sessment. As a result of the pilot-test, one items form food involvement,
(Kline, 2011). All the skewness and kurtosis statistics were within ac-
two items from food experience, one item from destination image were
ceptable ranges, suggesting that the data of this study was normally
deleted where the total correlation less than 0.3. Additionally, three
distributed (see Table 2). This study subsequently applied the partial
items from food neophobia scales were deleted as it has been criticised
least squares (PLS) approach to estimate the measurement and struc-
incapable to properly distinguish from people who are vegetarian and
tural parameters of the structural equation model. PLS-SEM is suitable
have food allergy by previous research (Margherita, Carraro, Cavazza,
for predict-orientation research and encouraged to apply it in the
& Roccato, 2018). The final questionnaire contained a total of 49.
tourism and hospitality study (Ali, Rasoolimanesh, Sarstedt, Ringle, &
Cronbach's alpha was used to test for inter-item reliability. The results
Ryu, 2018). Reliability of the individual measures and the discriminant
demonstrate good internal consistency with the Cronbach's alpha .904
validity of the constructs were employed to assess the measurement
for the food neophobia scale, 0.867 for the food involvement scale,
model adequacy (Hulland, 1999). Individual item of factor loading
0.907 for place attachment, 0.861 for the food experience scale, and
under 0.5 should consider to be removed (Hair, Black, Anderson, 2010).
0.842 for destination image.
Construct reliability was measured by the composite reliability (CR)
with an acceptable level of 0.6 or above. The average variance ex-
tracted (AVE) was used to confirm convergent validity. An appropriate
AVE is expected to be 0.5 or higher. On the other hand, Fornell and

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Table 3 Table 4a
Measurement results. Discriminant validity.
Latent variables Indicators Loading Composite Average Variance DI FE FI FN PA
reliability (CR) extracted (AVE)
DI 0.626
Food neophobia Q1 0.774 0.881 0.515 FE 0.781 0.676
Q2 0.714 FI 0.195 0.206 0.643
Q4 0.723 FN −0.436 −0.514 −0.122 0.718
Q5 0.678 PA 0.687 0.785 0.217 −0.373 0.736
Q6 0.733
Q7 0.655 Note: FE—Food experience; PA—Place attachment; DI—Destination image;
Q10 0.739 FN—Food neophobia; FI—Food involvement.
Food involvement Q13 0.555 0.808 0.413
Q16 0.649
Q17 0.629 Table 4b
Q20 0.696 Discriminant validity.
Q21 0.668
Parameter Estimate Bias-corrected Percentile
Q22 0.651
Place attachment Q23 0.741 0.892 0.542
Lower Upper Lower Upper
Q24 0.765
Q25 0.747
FN < → FI -.087 -.256 .038 -.236 .047
Q27 0.765
FN < → FE -.582 -.696 -.449 -.698 -.454
Q28 0.758
FN < → PA -.414 -.533 -.285 -.542 -.293
Q29 0.755
FN < → DI -.503 -.625 -.360 -.627 -.362
Q30 0.612
FI < → FE .200 .077 .328 .075 .319
Food experience Q31 0.742 0.882 0.457
FI < → PA .228 .111 .347 .108 .339
Q32 0.532
FI < → DI .205 .092 .319 .089 .314
Q33 0.714
PA < → FE .908 .868 .945 .870 .947
Q35 0.753
FE < → DI .924 .852 .979 .856 .982
Q36 0.617
PA < → DI .814 .747 .873 .750 .875
Q37 0.717
Q38 0.647
Note: FE—Food experience; PA—Place attachment; DI—Destination Image;
Q40 0.743
Q41 0.579
FN—Food neophobia; FI—Food involvement.
Destination image Q41 0.669 0.865 0.392
Q42 0.604 include 1.0. Therefore, it can be concluded that constructs in this study
Q45 0.559 have discriminant validity.
Q46 0.667
Q48 0.605
Q49 0.608 4.2. Structural model
Q51 0.605
Q53 0.677
Q55 0.561
The structural model in PLS-SEM is used to evaluate the significance
Q56 0.689 of the path coefficients. In order to obtain the path coefficients, stan-
dard errors, and t-statistics for path coefficients, a nonparametric
bootstrapping procedure with 5000 resamples were performed (Chin,
Larcker (1981) also indicate that if AVE is less than 0.5 but composite 1998; Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Fig. 1 shows the structural model re-
reliability is higher than 0.6, the convergent validity of the construct is sults. The results indicate that all the hypothesised paths were sig-
still adequate. Also, according to Hair, Black, Babin, and Anderson nificant and positive, at a significance level of 0.05. Therefore,
(2010), loading above 0.6 is acceptable while AVE is the sum of the Hypotheses 1 and 2 of this study are supported. In other words, ‘food
loading squares (SMC). In this case, the AVE higher than 0.36 is ac- experience’ is directly, positively, and significantly related to ‘place
ceptable. Results of PLS-SEM Measurement model analysis for this attachment’ (β = 0.785, t = 42.908, p < .001) and destination image
study are shown in Table 3. (β = 0.781, t = 28.739, p < .001). The model also indicated high
According to the criteria mentioned above, this study deleted the level of predicative power (R2) where the construct of food experience
items with factor loading less than 0.5. Results indicate the items re- explained 62.1% of the variance in place attachment and 61.3% of the
mained were all with factor loadings above 0.6 with only few items in variance in destination image.
the range of 0.5. The composite reliability of all constructs was over 0.8.
The evaluation of AVE for each measurement in this study are in the
4.3. Testing for the moderating effect of food neophobia and food
range of 0.392–0.542. Three of the measurements (food involvement,
involvement
food experience, and destination image) in this study were lower than
the ideal level. Nevertheless, according to the criteria discussed above,
PLS Product-Indicator Approach proposed by Chin, Marcolin, &
the AVE in this study can still be considered appropriate.
Newsted (2003) is applied in this study to examine the moderating
This study applied two different methods to examine discriminant
effects of food neophobia and food involvement. It has been proved to
validity. Firstly, Fornell and Larcker (1981) suggest that the square root
be more accurate in interaction effect estimation and employed in the
of the average variance extracted (AVE) is compared with the correla-
tourism and hospitality-related studies (Ali, Kim, & Ryu, 2016; Martinez
tion of latent constructs. The construct's AVE is expected to be greater
Garcia de Leaniz, Herrero Crespo, & Gómez López, 2018). Following the
than the variance shared between the construct and other constructs in
procedure suggested by Chin, Marcolin, & Newsted (2003), predictor of
the model. Second, Anderson and Gerbing (1988) used the confidence
this study (food experience) and moderators (food involvement and
interval to test the correlation estimate. If the correlation estimate be-
food neophobia) were multiplied to create an interaction construct to
tween two constructs not includes 1.0 then the discriminant validity is
predict place attachment and destination image.
supported. Results of the discriminant validity are presented in Tables
Results show that the moderating effect of food neophobia on the
4.1 and 4.2. Although some correlations are greater than the root of
relationship between food experience and place attachment was sig-
variances extracted, all correlation estimates between constructs do not
nificant (β = −0.064, t = 2.210, p < .05) as demonstrated in Fig. 2.

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F.C. Hsu and N. Scott Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 79–87

Fig. 1. Structural result.

Note: FE—Food experience; PA—Place attachment; DI—Destination image; FN—Food neophobia; FI—Food involvement.

On the other hand, the moderating effect of food neophobia on the Folgado-Fernández, Hernández-Mogollón, & Duarte, 2017; Stylos,
relationship between food experience and destination image found no Bellou, Andronikidis & Vassiliadis, 2016; Tsai, 2016).
significance (β = −0.005, t = 0.147, p > .05). Similarly, another This study also examined the moderating effects of food related
moderator, food involvement, had a moderating effecting on the re- traits (food neophobia and food involvement) on the relationships
lationship between food experience and destination image (β = 0.066, among the constructs in this study. Results indicate that FRPTs have a
t = 2.021, p < .05) as seen in Fig. 3. However, the moderating effect moderating effect. Specifically, this study finds that high food neo-
of place attachment on the relationship between food experience and phobia affects tourist's food experience and their emotional connection
place attachment was not significant (β = 0.016, t = 0.047, p > .05). to the travel destination. On the other hand, high food involvement
In summary, food neophobia moderates the relationship between food leads better food experiences and improved destination image. Thus,
experience and place attachment, while food involvement moderates these two moderators play opposite roles: food neophobia exerts a ne-
the relationship between food experience and destination image. gative influence while food involvement has a positive effect. This
Therefore, the Hypothesis 3 and 6 were supported, whereas Hypothesis supports previous research suggesting food related personality traits are
4 and 5 were not. important factors in influencing tourists' food related experience and
behaviour (Hsu et al., 2018; Mak et al., 2017).
5. Discussion and implications Food neophobia did not moderate the relationship between food
experience and destination image. One possible explanation for this
This study explored how food experiences can lead to the revisit result is that destination image is experience-orientated (Gunn, 1988)
intention and other positive travel outcomes. Results confirm that food and it is their actual food experience that affect their image. In this case,
experiences have an influential role in developing a positive destination even though tourists with high food neophobia may have fewer food
image and emotional connection to the visited place. Both these posi- experiences and limited food choices, a quality dining experience will
tive effects contribute to place attachment and destination image then change their destination image. A prior study by Baloglu and McCleary
further influence tourists’ revisit intention and other positive travel (1999) found a similar positive relationship between quality experi-
outcomes as has been found in previous studies (Choe & Kim, 2018; ences and image.

Fig. 2. Food neophobia moderating effect.

Note: FE—Food experience; PA—Place attachment; DI—Destination image; FN—Food neophobia; *** < 0.001; * < 0.05.

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F.C. Hsu and N. Scott Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 79–87

Fig. 3. Food involvement moderating effect.

Note: FE—Food experience; PA—Place attachment; DI—Destination image; FI—Food involvement; *** < 0.001; * < 0.05.

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