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Bio- Technology and Genetic Engineering

1. Introduction to Bio technology-

2. Basics:

a) Cell
b) Chromosomes
c) DNA- RNA
d) Genome
e) Human Genome Project
f) Gene
g) Gene Expression
h) DNA Replication
i) Genetic Engineering
j) Gene Editing
k) CRISPR- Cas9

3. Applications of Biotechnology

4. Applications of GE in Health Sector

a) Stem cell therapy

b) Vaccines
c) Vitamins, Antibodies and enzymes
d) Gene therapy
e) Cloning
f) DNA finger printing
g) Diagnostic techniques
h) Assisted Reproductive Technology
i) Pharmaco Genomics

5. Applications of GE in Agriculture and Animal Husbandry

a) Genetically Modified Organisms

b) Biofertilizer
c) Biopesticides
d) Tissue culture
e) Transgenic animals

6. Applications of GE in Industry

7. Applications of GE in Environmental management and protection

a) Biofuels
b) Bioremediation
c) Bio toilets

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Biotechnology
Introduction to Biotechnology

✓ Made up of two words: ‘bio’ and ‘technology’.

✓ ‘Bio’ means life and ‘technology’ means application or harnessing of science for a specific purpose.
✓ Therefore, the term ‘biotechnology’ refers to modification or use of any living organism for any useful
purpose.
✓ The term was coined by Károly Ereky in 1919
✓ Important tool of biotechnology is GENETIC ENGINEERING also known as recombinant DNA technology.

Basics:

Cell

✓ Cells are the basic building blocks of living things.

✓ The human body is composed of trillions of cells, all with their own specialised function.
✓ Cells group together to form tissues, which in turn group together to form organs, such as the heart and
brain.
✓ The nucleus is based at the centre of the cell and is the ‘control room’ for the cell.
✓ Inside the nucleus we have chromosome.

Fig: Basic Organelles of the cell

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Functions of Cell Organelles:

Chromosomes-

Fig: Genes with in the cells

✓ Chromosomes are bundles of tightly coiled DNA located within the nucleus of almost every cell in our
body.
✓ Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 in total): one set comes from your mother and one set comes
from your father.
✓ 22 non-sex chromosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.
✓ When the number of chromosomes is more or less or the chromosomes gets damaged chromosomal
aberrations occur.
✓ Some of the diseases due to chromosomal diseases are-
▪ Down’s Syndrome
▪ Patau Syndrome

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▪ Klinefelter’s Syndrome
▪ Edward Syndrome, etc

DNA and RNA

Chromosomes consists of DNA. RNA is derived through DNA. Let’s understand the differnces between them.

Comparison DNA RNA

Full Form Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid
Function ✓ Long-term storage of genetic ✓ Used to transfer the genetic code from
information; the nucleus to the ribosomes to make
✓ Transmission of genetic proteins.
information to make other ✓ RNA is used to transmit genetic
cells and new organisms. information in some organisms.
✓ It may have been the molecule used to
store genetic blueprints in primitive
organisms.
Structural ✓ B-form double helix. ✓ A-form helix.
Features ✓ DNA is a double-stranded ✓ RNA usually is a single-strand helix
molecule consisting of a consisting of shorter chains of
long chain of nucleotides. nucleotides.
Composition of deoxyribose sugar ribose sugar
Bases and Sugars phosphate backbone phosphate backbone
adenine, guanine, cytosine, adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil bases
thymine bases
Propagation DNA is self-replicating. RNA is synthesized from DNA on an as-
needed basis.
Base Pairing AT (adenine-thymine) AU (adenine-uracil)
GC (guanine-cytosine) GC (guanine-cytosine)

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Fig: DNA Structure

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Genome

✓ A genome is an organism’s complete set of genes.

✓ Each genome contains all of the information needed to build that organism and allow it to grow and
develop.
✓ Genome Sequencing means each gene in the genome is mapped to a particular function.

Human Genome Project:

The first whole genome to be sequenced was of the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae. The worm
Caenorhabditis elegans was the first animal to have its whole genome sequenced.

The project to sequence whole genome of humans stared in 1985.

Fig: Evolution - Human Genome Project

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Gene

✓ Genes are small sections of DNA within the genome that code for proteins.
✓ They contain the instructions for our individual characteristics – like eye and hair colour.
✓ The purpose of genes is to store information.
✓ The genes that an organism carries for a particular trait is its genotype and the physical manifestation
of the instructions are the organism’s phenotype.

Gene expression

It is the process by which the instructions in our DNA are converted into a functional product, such as a
protein.

✓ Gene expression has two key stages - transcription and translation.

Fig: Transcription and Reverse Transcription

✓ In transcription, the information in the DNA of every cell is converted into small, portable RNA
messages (m-RNA).

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✓ During translation, these messages travel from where the DNA is in the cell nucleus to the ribosomes.
In Ribosomes the RNA is ‘read’ to make specific proteins. These proteins perform the required
function in the body.

DNA replication

✓ DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division.
✓ It means one DNA translates itself into two.
✓ Enzyme helicase helps in the process of separating two DNA strands.
✓ A short piece of RNA called a primer acts as the starting point for DNA synthesis.

Fig: DNA Replication

GENETIC ENGINEERING

✓ It is the direct manipulation of DNA (genotype) to alter an organism’s characteristics (phenotype) in

a particular way.
✓ It is also called as genetic modification.
✓ This means changing one base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a whole region of DNA, or introducing an
additional copy of a gene.
✓ It can be applied to any organism, from a virus to a sheep.

Genome editing

✓ Genome editing is a way of making specific changes to the DNA of a cell or organism.
✓ Genome editing can be used to add, remove, or alter DNA in the genome.
✓ An enzyme cuts the DNA at a specific sequence, and when this is repaired by the cell a change or
‘edit’ is made to the sequence.

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Basics on Genetic Engineering

Fig: Basics on Genetic Engineering

S.No Keyword Meaning and Purpose

1 Restriction Enzyme that cuts the DNA

Enzymes

2 Ligase Enzyme that catalyses joining of two molecules in DNA

3 Vector Vehicle to carry foreign genetic material (of others) into another cell.

4 Plasmids Are type of vector used to introduce foreign DNA into Bacteria

5 Probe Probe is a sample DNA piece to compare the gene in the DNA.

TOOLS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING

Restriction enzymes (endonucleases):

1. An endonuclease is an enzyme (molecular scissor) that can cleave the phosphodiester bond in a nucleic
acid at an internal site (as opposed to cleavage by an exonuclease, which can only remove nucleotides
from one of the ends of a nucleic acid).
2. Restriction endonucleases cut both strands of a double stranded DNA only at specific recognition sites,
called restriction sites.

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3. These sites are palindromic sequences, which reads the same when read in either forward or backward
directions.
4. Restriction enzymes either produce staggered cuts (overlapping ends), resulting in ends with single-
stranded DNA overhangs or they can produce blunt ends.
5. There are several hundreds of different restriction endonucleases; each identifies different sequences in
DNA. Eco R1 is enzyme found in E. coli.

Ligase:

1. Ligase is an enzyme that can join two DNA pieces produced by the action a restriction enzyme.
2. Using ATP as an energy source, ligase catalyzes a reaction in which the phosphate group at the 5’ end
of one DNA strand is linked to the hydroxyl group of the 3’ end of the other.
3. This reaction seals the break between the DNA fragments by producing a phosphodiester bond.

Vectors:

Vectors are vehicles that are used in transferring the foreign genes into host organism.

Features of vectors

1. The vector must contain an origin of replication which allows the DNA to replicate itself and the DNA it
carries independently of the host DNA.
2. The vector must contain "unique" restriction sites that are present only once in the entire circular vector
DNA (Cloning site)
3. Most vectors code for some kind of selectable marker such as antibiotic resistance so that the presence
of the vector can be confirmed by the ability of the host bacteria to grow in the presence of that
antibiotic.
4. Due to the risk of spreading antibiotic resistant genes, chromogenic substances such as Green fluorescent
protein (GFP) are used these days.

Types of vectors

1. Plasmids: Self-replicating, Circular double stranded extrachromosomal DNA of the bacteria are called
plasmids. Plasmids are the most common vectors for carrying the gene in rDNA technology.
2. Vectors for large DNA inserts: plasmid vectors do not work well for DNA inserts longer than about 10
kb in length.
3. The abbreviation "kb" stands for sequence length in kilobases (kilobase pairs for double stranded
DNA). Many different types of vectors have been developed for the cloning of longer DNA inserts.
Here are some examples:
4. Modified bacteriophage lambda, in which the genes that are only needed for lysogeny are replaced
with a cloned insert of 12-20 kb
5. Cosmids, which combine features from plasmids and bacteriophage lambda and can be used for
inserts up to 46 kb;
6. Bacterial artificial chromosomes, which are highly engineered F factors that can carry up to 300 kb of
inserted DNA;
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7. Yeast artificial chromosomes, which have all essential elements of eukaryotic chromosomes, and can
carry up to 500 kb

CRISPR-Cas9

CRISPR- Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats

✓ CRISPR-Cas9 is a genome editing tool.

✓ CRISPR-Cas9 is a unique technology that enables geneticists and medical researchers to edit parts of
the genome by removing, adding or altering sections of the DNA sequence.
✓ It is faster, cheaper and more accurate than previous techniques of editing DNA.
✓ It has a wide range of potential applications.
✓ CRISPR uses an enzyme called Cas9 to cut strands of DNA at precisely targeted locations and insert
new genetic material into the gap.

Fig: Working of CRISPR Cas9 tool

1ST GENE-EDITED BABIES: LULU AND NANA

✓ In 2018 a Chinese doctor for the 1st time performed gene editing on the embryonic stem
cell using CrispR technique.
✓ The CRISPR technique was used to modify the CCR5 gene on the embryonic cells of the
couples to make them resistant to the HIV virus.
✓ One of the couples subsequently gave birth to twins – Lulu and Nana.

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History of Biotechnology

1. In ancient world, before the invention of actual concept of biotechnology there were some useful
processes/products were invented.
2. Cheese can be considered as one of the first direct products (or by-product) of biotechnology,
because it was prepared by adding rennet (an enzyme found in the stomach of calves) to sour milk,
which is possible only by exposing milk to microbes (although this understanding was not there, at
that time).
3. Yeast is one of the oldest microbes that have been exploited by humans for their benefit.
4. Yeast has been widely used to make bread, vinegar production, and other fermentation products,
which include production of alcoholic beverages like wine, beer, etc.
5. One of the oldest examples of crossbreeding for the benefit of humans is mule. Mule is an offspring
of a male donkey and a female horse.
6. People started using mules for transportation, carrying loads, and farming, when there were no
tractors or trucks.

Classical era of biotechnology: (1800s – mid 20th century)

Observations and scientific evidences are hallmarks of this era, which laid foundations to biotechnology.
Major list of events are as follows-

1866: Mendel’s pioneering work on genetic principles based on his studies pea plant (Pisum sativum)

1900: Rediscovery of Mendel work

1909: Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word “Gene”, carriers of heredity; coined ‘genotype’ & ‘phenotype’

1924: Eugenics movement in USA

1926: Morgan – inheritance principles redefined in Drosophila

1928: Alexander Fleming - Discovery of first antibiotic – penicillin

Era of Modern biotechnology (Since 1950)

1953: Watson & Crick (and Rosalind Franklin)– Discovery of DNA structure

1961: Jacob & Monad – Concept of operon

1970: Restriction enzymes were discovered in a bacterium

1966: Nirenberg, Leder, Har Gobind Khorana interpreted the genetic code

1972: Cohen and Boyer – Successful construction of recombinant DNA and its introduction in to bacteria
using a plasmid

1972: First sequencing of a gene (gene for MS2 coat protein from bacteriophage)

1975: Kohler and Milestein – Cytoplasmic hybridization - Monoclonal antibody production

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1977: Boyer & Itakura – expression of a mammalian protein in bacteria—somatostatin

1977: Sanger, Gilbert & Maxam –First DNA sequencing (Sequence of entire genome of bacteriophage)

1978: First commercial scale production of recombinant human insulin

1983: Kary Mullis – invention of polymerase chain reaction

1990: First approval of gene therapy to treat an immune disorder in USA

1994: First GM crop is approved – Flavr Savr – tomato

1996: First mammal cloned – Dolly

Advanced era started in 21st century, following modern era, with a several applications built on the grounds
of discoveries (such as human genome project) made in the past along with new discoveries (CRISPR RNA
gene editing etc.), also brought new debates.

Applications of Bio Technology / Genetic Engineering:

Biotechnology has wider applications in range of fields including energy, agriculture, industry etc.

Applications of Biotechnology- Heal the world, fuel the world and feed the world

S. No Area Applications

1 Health a) Stem cell technology- Organ replacement

b) Vaccines- Hepatitis B
c) Drugs- Anti-biotics
d) Vitamins
e) Enzymes- Insulin Production
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f) Gene Therapy
g) Diagnostics methods- PCR, RT-PCR, etc
h) Artificial Reproduction Technologies- 3-Parent Baby,
Surrogacy
i) Designer Babies
j) DNA Fingerprinting
k) Pharmacogenomics, DNA Finger printing- Forensics

2 Agriculture and a) GM Crops- Bt Cotton, GM Mustard, etc

Animal Husbandry b) Transgenic Animals
c) Tissue Culture
d) Bio-Pesticides
e) Bio-Fertilisers
f) Marine products- Marine Biotech

3 Industry a) Industrial Products through fermentation

b) Food Processing
c) Beverages
d) Pharma Industry, etc

4 Environment a) Bio remediation

b) Drought Resistance crops
c) Forestry – Tissue Culture

5 Energy a) Biofuels

Applications of GE in Health Sector:

1. Stem cell Therapy

✓ Stem cells are the raw materials for other body cells.
✓ They are considered raw materials, because all other cells with specialised functions are generated from
these cells.
✓ Two important properties
✓ Ability of self-renewal into numerous cells.
✓ Ability to specialise into various body cells types such as blood cells, brain cells, heart muscle.

Potency of Cells:

Bases on the ability to transform into one type to another type, cells are divided into –

1. Totipotent Cells- One cell can differentiate into all types of cells

2. Pluripotent cells- One cell can differentiate into most types of cells

3. Multipotent cells- One cell can differentiate into many types of cells

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Stem Cells are of three types.

1. Embryonic Stem cells

2. Somatic Stem Cells

3. Induced Pluripotent cells

Embryonic stem cells Somatic stem cells Induced Pluripotent stem

cells
✓ Embryonic stem cells are ✓ Somatic stem cells or ✓ These are Pluripotent
derived from embryos. adult stem cells. cells.
✓ They are totipotent in that ✓ These are ✓ Obtained through
they can be differentiated undifferentiated cells reprogramming of
into most of the cell types. present in somatic cell.
✓ They can produce a clone of differentiated cells in a ✓ Low rate of
the entire organism. tissue or organ. reprogramming
✓ Use is ethically questionable ✓ They help in repair and ✓ No ethical problems.
in many countries maintenance of specific ✓ Personal regenerative
✓ Due to the lack of complete tissue or organ where medicine.
immune-compatibility, they are present. ✓ Low risk of immune
organs and tissues ✓ No risk of rejection rejection
generated from them, will during auto-
likely be immune-rejected transplantation
✓ Less/no risk of tumour
formation.
✓ Limitation: Limited
number in tissue

Fig: Stem Cells

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Applications of Stem Cells:

Re-Generative Therapy- Cell replacement, development of new human organs using stems cells is one of
the important applications of Stem cells.

Ex: Development of new neuron cells in case of brain damage.

Fig: Human Stem Cell Applications

Other applications of Stem Cells include-

Fig: Applications of Stem cells

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2. Vaccines-

Genetic Engineering is used to manufacture Recombinant DNA vaccines. These are also called modern
vaccines.

Vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease.

These are categorised into 3 generations:

I. First Generation Vaccines-

✓ These vaccines consist of infectious organisms, either in mild or dead form.

✓ The first-generation vaccines are still widely used today. Eg. Polio vaccine.
✓ There are chances that mild viruses get into dangerous form.

II. Second Generation Vaccines- (Sub Unit Vaccines)

✓ These vaccines were created in order to minimise the risks of having the pathogen revert to a dangerous
form.
Eg. DTP vaccine
✓ The way these vaccines work is that they do not contain the whole organism, but rather contain only
subunits.

III. Third Generation Vaccines- (DNA Vaccine)

DNA vaccines are called as third generation vaccines. These vaccines are made up of a small, circular piece
of bacterial DNA (called a plasmid) that has been genetically engineered to produce one or two specific
proteins (antigens) from a pathogen.

So far, no DNA vaccine has been licensed for use in humans.

Advantages -

1. Require short time span for development

2. DNA vaccines are easy to transport and store
3. Less risk to those who are making the vaccine

Ex: Hepatitis B Vaccine

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Fig: Hepatitis B Vaccine through GE

3. Vitamins, Antibiotics and Enzymes-

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Vitamins; anti-biotics; and enzymes like insulin are produced using fermentation method.

In this method, genetically modified and cultured microorganisms are used to produce the required
products.

4. Gene therapy-

Gene therapy is when DNA is introduced into a patient to treat a genetic disease.

The new DNA usually contains a functioning gene to correct the effects of a disease-causing mutation.

There are two different types

Somatic gene therapy:

✓ Transfer of a section of DNA to any cell of the body that doesn’t produce sperm or eggs.
✓ Changes are not passed to subsequent generations.

Germline gene therapy:

✓ Transfer of a section of DNA to cells that produce eggs or sperm.

✓ Effects of gene therapy will be passed onto subsequent generations.

National Guidelines for Gene Therapy

Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) published “National Guidelines for Gene Therapy
Product Development and Clinical Trials”
✓ It aims to ensure that the gene therapies can be introduced in India and their clinical trials
can be performed in an ethical, scientific and safe manner.
✓ Also, spur innovation and accelerate research for rare diseases.
✓ It explains the responsibilities of investigators, sponsors, institutions. It also lists the
considerations like quality assurance, manufacturing and control.
✓ The guide also explains on the principles to hold while signing international collaboration
and procurement of Genetic Therapeutic Products (GTP).
✓ The GTP are entities that deliver nucleic acid by various means for therapeutic benefit to
patients.

5. CLONING

✓ It is a process of asexual reproduction in which the offspring or the progeny is an exact replica of the
single parent donor who has contributed the genetic material.
✓ each cell is equipped with genetic information of an organism, which has the ability to develop into full
organism.
✓ First successfully cloned animal was a sheep called Dolly in the year 1997 at Roslin Institute of
Technology, Scotland.

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Fig: Cloning of Sheep Dolly

India’s achievements in animal cloning:

✓ Samrupa: In 2009, the world’s first cloned buffalo calf at National Dairy Research Institute
(NDRI)
✓ Garima: It was the world’s second cloned buffalo at NDRI
✓ Cirb Gaurav: In 2016, the scientists at the Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB),
cloned a buffalo offspring named ‘Cirb Gaurav’.

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6. DNA FINGERPRINTING / DNA profiling

✓ DNA fingerprinting refers to identifying complete (or partial) set of genetic information of a particular
individual.
✓ A sample of blood, saliva, semen, vaginal lubrication or other appropriate fluid or tissue from
personal items can be used for DNA fingerprinting.
✓ Every human has unique DNA.

Fig: DNA Finger Printing

Applications of DNA Finger printing-

✓ Forensic tests
✓ Paternity tests
✓ Twin studies
✓ Evolutionary studies – to understand the genetic drift of populations

7. Diagnostic Tests:

A. PCR- Polymerase Chain Reaction Test

PCR amplifies a specific region of a DNA strand (the DNA target).

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Fig: PCR Test Process

How PCR Test is used to test COVID Patients?

As Corona Virus is RNA virus, initially RNA is transformed into DNA through Reverse transcription process.

This test is known as RT-PCR.

Fig: RT PCR for testing COVID-19

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Applications of PCR

✓ Drug discovery
✓ Genetic matching
✓ Genetic engineering
✓ Pre-natal diagnosis
✓ Classification of organisms
✓ Genotyping
✓ Molecular archaeology
✓ Mutation detection
✓ Sequencing
✓ Cancer research
✓ Bioinformatics
✓ DNA finger printing
✓ Human Genome project

B. ELISA Test: Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA)

ELISA is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction. Infection by pathogen can be detected by
the presence of antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by detecting the antibodies synthesised against
the pathogen.

8. Assisted Reproduction Technologies-

1. IVF

Assisted reproductive technology (ART) includes medical procedures used primarily to address infertility.
ART may also be used in surrogacy arrangements, although not all surrogacy arrangements involve ART.

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Fig: IVF Technique

Three parent Baby and Mitochondrial DNA

✓ In addition to DNA in the nucleus, some DNA is also present in the mitochondria.
✓ Mitochondrial DNA only has one chromosome and it codes for only specific proteins responsible for
metabolism.
✓ Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother and thus it is more effective to trace human
ancestry.
✓ Three parent Baby technique is resorted to when the actual mother is suffering from an incurable
mitochondrial disease.

Fig: Three Parent Baby

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Surrogacy in India:

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10. Pharmacogenomics

✓ Pharma- Related to drugs, Genomics- Study of Genes

✓ It is the study of how genes affect a person’s response to drugs.
✓ This relatively new field combines pharmacology (the science of drugs) and genomics (the study of genes
and their functions)
✓ Aims to develop effective, safe medications and doses that will be tailored to a person’s genetic makeup.

Application of GE in Agriculture-

1. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

GMOs are organisms whose genetic materials have been altered using genetic engineering techniques to
provide the organisms with certain special characteristics.

GMOs can include plants, animals and even microorganisms.

E.g. golden rice, BT cotton etc

GM Crops:

Fig: Genetic Engineering in Plant Breeding

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GM plants have been useful in many ways. Genetic modification has:

(i) made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat).

(ii) reduced reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).

(iii) helped to reduce post-harvest losses.

(iv) increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early exhaustion of fertility of soil).

(v) enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g., Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice

GMO crops in India

BT COTTON

✓ BT cotton is the only genetically modified crop that is commercially allowed in India from 2002.
✓ BT cotton grown in India is genetically modified for developing resistance to the pink bollworm pest
in the crop.
✓ This is done by inserting ‘Cry1Ab’ and ‘Cry2Bc’ genes from the soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt), into the cotton seed.

Fig: Bt Cotton Production using Genetic Engineering

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HTBT COTTON

✓ Short for Herbicide Resistant Bt Cotton

✓ The cotton seed is inserted with ‘Cp4-Epsps’ gene from soil bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
This produces a modified protein glyphosate which makes it herbicide resistant.
✓ It is not allowed to be cultivated in India.

GM Mustard (DMH-11)

✓ DMH-11 yields about 30% more than the traditional reference mustard variety.
✓ It helps in boosting edible mustard oil production thus, reducing huge import bill for edible oil.
✓ GM mustard is resistant to herbicides.
✓ Supreme Court has stayed permission to develop GM mustard.

Bt BRINJAL

✓ Bt brinjal is genetically engineered by inserting a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
for its insecticidal property.
✓ The gene disrupts the digestive system of the insect that feeds on the crop, thus killing the insect.
✓ Since 2010 there is an indefinite moratorium on commercial cultivation of Bt Brinjal in India.

Golden Rice

✓ International Rice Research Institute along with its partners has successfully cultivated Golden Rice
in a controlled environment.
✓ Golden Rice is a new type of rice that contains beta-carotene (provitamin A), which is converted into
vitamin A as needed by the body and gives the grain its golden color.
✓ It can provide up to 50% of the daily requirement of an adult for vitamin A. It is intended to fight
against vitamin A deficiency (VAD)
✓ It reduces water use by up to 30 per cent without any yield loss.
✓ But it has a low shelf life of not more than 3 months. It loses nutrients after that.

Biofortification – breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals, or higher protein and
healthier fats – is the most practical means to improve public health.
Breeding for improved nutritional quality is undertaken with the objectives of improving –
(i) Protein content and quality;
(ii) Oil content and quality;
(iii) Vitamin content; and
(iv) Micronutrient and mineral content.

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Transgenic plants
Transgenic plants are those plants that have been genetically altered or carry a foreign gene(s) to provide
new properties. They are GMOs.
These new properties may benefit plant growth or provide resistance to diseases or allow the plant to
synthesize products beneficial to humans.

Methods used in production of transgenic plants -

Initial steps in generating a recombinant molecule is same as in bacteria, but the method of transferring
rDNA into plant cells are different.

Methods of transferring foreign genes into plants can be broadly divided in to 2 categories; Direct gene
transfer using physical methods and vector mediated gene transfer using bacteria/virus.

1. Gene gun method:

1. This method was developed in 1987 by Prof. Sanford and co-workers at Cornell University (USA). As
the title denotes, it shoots foreign DNA into plant cells or tissue at a very high speed.
2. This technique has several names, some of which include particle bombardment and biolistic process.
3. This technique is suitable for those plants do not show sufficient response to gene transfer
through other methods such as Agrobacterium mediated transfer.
4. These crops include rice, wheat, corn, sorghum, and chickpea.
5. The apparatus consists of a chamber connected to an outlet to create vacuum.
6. At the top, a cylinder is temporarily sealed off from the rest of chamber with a plastic rupture disk.
Helium gas flows into the cylinder.
7. A plastic micro carrier is placed close to rupture disk. It contains DNA coated tungsten/gold particle
(chemically unreactive) referred to as coated micro projectiles.
8. The target cells/tissue are placed in the apparatus. A stopping screen is put between the target cells
and micro carrier assembly.
9. Helium gas is flown in the cylinder at high velocity. When pressure of cylinder exceeds the bursting
point of plastic disk, it gets ruptured.
10. Helium shock waves propel the plastic micro carrier containing DNA coated micro pellets. The
stopping screen allows the micro pellets to pass through and deliver DNA into target cells.
11. The transformed cells are regenerated onto nutrient medium.
12. The regenerated plant tissues are selected over culture media containing either antibiotics or another
selectable marker.
13. The selected plants are then analysed for expression of foreign DNA.

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Figure: Gene gun

2. Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer-

This is a vector mediated method similar to the approach used in the production of insulin in E. coli.
Agrobacterium tumifaciens is a soil bacterium that causes crown gall disease in plants.

It is a natural infectious agent of plants that evolved a way to infect plants, which can be exploited to transfer
foreign genes in to plants.

Plasmids called Ti plasmids (tumor inducing plasmids) from this bacterium are used in this method, but they
are modified to allow the transfer of gene of interest without producing the disease.

Following figure summarizes the steps used in this method.

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This method of gene transfer can be used in transferring the large fragments of DNA into different parts of
the plant and produces stable recombinant molecules.

Transformed plants can be effectively regenerated upon successful transfer of the genes.

Although there are several advantages of this method, major limitation is that not all important food crops
can be infected by this bacterium such as monocotyledons like cereals.

2. Bio Fertilisers:

Chemical fertilizers have been used to increase output in high yielding varieties of crop plants.

However, chemical fertilizers cause pollution of soil and ground water, besides getting stored in crop plants.
Bio fertilizers are better alternatives to chemical fertilizers.

A “bio fertilizer” contains living microorganisms which, when applied to plants or soil, promote growth of
the plant by increasing the availability of primary nutrients.

Bio-fertilizers add nutrients through the natural processes of nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphorus or
sulphur, and stimulate plant growth through the synthesis of growth-promoting substances.

Based on type of microorganism, the bio-fertilizer can also be classified as follows:

1. Bacterial Biofertilizers: e.g. Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Phosphobacteria.

2. Fungal Biofertilizers: e.g. Mycorrhiza
3. Algal Biofertilizers: e.g. Blue Green Algae (BGA) and Azolla.
4. Actinomycetes Biofertilizer: e.g. Frankia.

Other classification-

Nitrogen Solublising Bactria

a. Rhizobium Bacteria

b. Azotobacter

c. Azospirillium bacteria

d. Cynobacteria

5. Phospate Solublizing microorganisms- M fungi

6. Silicate Solublising Bactria

7. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria

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Fig: Working of Bio-fertiliser

Biofertilizer categories based on their contribution -

Nitrogen fixing microorganisms

1. Biofertilizers fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil and root nodules in the form it available to the plant.
Rhizobium inoculant is used for leguminous crops. Azotobacter can be used with crops like wheat,
maize, mustard, cotton, potato and other vegetable crops. While, Azospirillum inoculations are
recommended mainly for sorghum, millets, maize, sugarcane and wheat.
2. Blue green algae belonging to a general cyanobacteria genus, Nostoc or Anabaena fix atmospheric
nitrogen and are used as inoculations for paddy crop grown both under upland and low-land
conditions.
3. Anabaena in association with water fern Azolla contributes nitrogen up to 60 kg/ha/season and also
enriches soils with organic matter.

Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms

1. Due to immobilization of phosphate by mineral ions such as Fe, Al and Ca or organic acids, the rate
of available phosphate (Pi) in soil is well below plant needs. I
2. n addition, chemical Pi fertilizers are also immobilized in the soil, immediately, so that less than 20%
of added fertilizer is absorbed by plants. T
3. herefore phosphate-solubilizing bacteria or phosphate bio-fertilizers are an effective alternative.
4. Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, such as Pantoea agglomerans (strain P5) or Pseudomonas putida
(strain P13) can solubilize the insoluble phosphate from organic and inorganic phosphate sources.

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Plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria

These microorganisms restore soil's natural nutrient cycle and build soil organic matter.

They benefit plants in multiple different ways, by releasing phytohormones such as Indole acetic acid (IAA),
or by repressing soil pathogens through antibiotic production, mineral nutrient solubilization etc.

Bacteria in the genera Bacillus, Streptomyces, Pseudomonas, and Agrobacterium are some examples of such
bacteria.

Root endophytic fungi such as Trichoderma also plays a similar role in plant growth promotion.

Benefits

• Since a bio-fertilizer is technically living, it can symbiotically associate with plant roots.
• Involved microorganisms could readily and safely convert complex organic material in simple
compounds, so that plants are easily taken up.
• Microorganism function establish a long-term relationship, causing improvement of the soil fertility.
• They maintain the natural habitat of the soil.
• They can increase crop yield by 20-30%, replace chemical nitrogen and phosphorus by 25%, and
stimulates plant growth
• They can also provide protection against drought and some soil-borne diseases.
• Bio-fertilizers are cost-effective relative to chemical fertilizers. They have lower manufacturing costs,
especially regarding nitrogen and phosphorus use.

3. Bio Pesticides:

Biopesticides are materials with pesticidal properties that originate from natural living organisms, including
microorganisms, plants, and animals.

Genetic engineering is used to produce these bio pesticides on a larger scale with the required qualities.

Biopesticides are derived from natural materials such as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. For
example, Neem.

Biopesticides can be used in seed treatments or as soil amendments. Fungicidal and biofungicidal seed
treatments are used to control soil borne fungal pathogens that cause seed rots, damping-off, root rot and
seedling blights.

Classes of biopesticides:

1. Biochemical pesticides:

• Naturally occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms

• As opposed to chemical pesticides, which are generally synthetic materials that directly kill or
inactivate the pest, biochemical pesticides include substances that interfere with mating, such as
insect sex pheromones, as well as various scented plant extracts that attract insect pests to traps.
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2. Microbial pesticides:

They consist of a microorganism (e.g., a bacterium, fungus, virus or protozoan) as the active
ingredient. Microbial pesticides can control many kinds of pests, although each separate active ingredient is
relatively specific for its target pest[s].

Trichoderma (Biofungicide) is a fungus itself that attacks the other fungal pathogens. Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt) ingredients control moth larvae found on plants, other Bt ingredients are specific for larvae of flies and
mosquitoes.

3. Plant-Incorporated-Protectants (PIPs) are pesticidal substances that plants produce from genetic material
that has been added to the plant. For example, scientists can take the gene for the Bt pesticidal protein and
introduce the gene into the plant's own genetic material.

4. Biocontrol agents: These are natural enemies of insect pests

Examples:

• Trichogramma, which is an egg parasite that lays eggs in the common rice pest - Rice moth (Corcyra
cephalonica) is also an attractive biopesticide.
• Parasitic wasps are used in controlling aphids which cause huge damages to plants

Advantages

• Biopesticides are inherently less toxic than conventional pesticides.

• Biopesticides generally affect only the target pest and closely related organisms, in contrast to
broad spectrum, conventional pesticides that may affect organisms as different as birds,
insects and mammals.
• Biopesticides often are effective in very small quantities and often decompose quickly, resulting in
lower exposures and largely avoiding the pollution problems caused by conventional pesticides.
• When used as a component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs, biopesticides can
greatly reduce the use of conventional pesticides, while crop yields remain high.
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Disadvantages

• High specificity: which may require an exact identification of the pest/pathogen and the use of
multiple products to be used
• Often slow speed of action (thus making them unsuitable if a pest outbreak is an immediate threat
to a crop)
• Often variable efficacy due to the influences of various biotic and abiotic factors (since biopesticides
are usually living organisms, which bring about pest/pathogen control by multiplying within the
target insect pest/pathogen)
• Living organisms evolve and increase their resistance to biological, chemical, physical or any other
form of control. If the target population is not rendered incapable of reproduction, the surviving
population can acquire a tolerance of whatever pressures are created, resulting in an evolutionary
adaptation.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
IPM is a pest management program where eco-friendly approaches (such as biopesticides) and other
sensible methods are employed to keep pests under control and chemical pesticides are only used as last
resort when economic losses are severe.

4. Tissue Culture-

Tissue culture is the growth of tissues or cells in an artificial medium separate from the organism.

✓ This is typically facilitated via use of a liquid, semi-solid, or solid growth medium, such as broth or
agar.
✓ It was learnt by scientists, during 1950s, that whole plants could be regenerated from explants, i.e.,
any part of a plant taken out and grown in a test tube, under sterile conditions in special nutrient
media.
✓ This capacity to generate a whole plant from any cell/explant is called totipotency.
✓ It is important to stress here that the nutrient medium must provide a carbon source such as sucrose
and also inorganic salts, vitamins, amino acids and growth regulators like auxins, cytokinins etc.
✓ By application of these methods it is possible to achieve propagation of a large number of plants in
very short durations.
✓ This method of producing thousands of plants through tissue culture is called micro-propagation.
✓ Each of these plants will be genetically identical to the original plant from which they were grown,
i.e., they are soma clones.
✓ Many important food plants like tomato, banana, apple, etc., have been produced on commercial
scale using this method.

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Fig: Tissue Culture in Plants

Plant Tissue Culture

Plant tissue culture is a technique that involves using plant parts to generate either plant cells, tissues, or
organs on a defined medium and under controlled environmental conditions.

Plant tissue culture makes use of parts of a plant to generate multiple copies of the plant in a very short
duration.

The technique exploits the property of “totipotency” of plant cell which means that any cell from any part
of the plant can be used to generate a whole new plant.

General method of plant tissue culture

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Nutrients in the tissue culture media

1. Plant tissue culture media generally contains inorganic nutrients (macronutrients & micronutrients),
organic nutrients (carbon sources, vitamins, amino acids,), growth regulators and solidifying agents.
2. The essential macroelements in plant tissue culture media include, carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulphur (S) for supporting
plant growth and morphogenesis.
3. The essential micronutrients for plant cell and tissue growth include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn),
boron (B), copper (Cu) and molybdenum (Mo).
4. In plant cell culture media, sucrose and glucose are frequently used as carbon sources. Although less
effective, other carbohydrate sources such as lactose, galactose, maltose and starch can also be used.
5. Although some plants can synthesize vitamins that they need, some vitamins are required for normal
growth and development of plants. They act as catalysts in metabolic processes and as limiting factors
for cell growth and differentiation.
6. The vitamins most used in the cell and tissue culture media include: thiamin (B1), nicotinic acid (B3), and
pyridoxine (B6). Often, sugar cane molasses, banana extract and coconut water are supplemented to
basal media to not only provide vitamins, inorganic ions and sugars and to reduce the costs of medium.
7. In addition, plant tissue culture media also contains amino acids, which provide plant cells with a source
of nitrogen that is easily assimilated by tissues and cells faster than inorganic nitrogen sources.
8. Plant growth regulators such as auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins and abscisic acid are also important
components in plant tissue culture since they play vital roles in stem elongation, tropism, and apical
dominance.
9. Moreover, proportion of auxins to cytokinins determines the type and extent of organogenesis in plant
cell cultures. As hardness of the culture medium greatly influences the growth of cultured tissues,
solidifying agents like agar are added to the medium.
10. Once the tissue culture media is prepared with all the ingredients, pH is set to as appropriate for plant
growth (usually between 5.2 & 5.8) and is subjected to sterilization, often through autoclaving
(sterilization at 121oC) and through microfiltration for those that are heat sensitive.

Types of Plant tissue culture

Part of a plant that is grown in a test tube under sterile conditions in special nutrient media is called
“explant”. With proper conditions, any plant part can be used as explant to initiate the growth.

There are several types of plant tissue cultures depending on either the type of explant used or the product
that is resulted from the given method. Following figure lists some of them.

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Callus culture:

Cell division in explant results what is called “callus”. Callus is irregular unorganized and
undifferentiated mass of actively dividing cells.

The whole plant can be regenerated from callus tissue through manipulation of the nutrient and hormonal
constituents in the culture medium which is called as organogenesis or morphogenesis.

Callus culture is very useful to obtain commercially important secondary metabolites.

For example, a small tissue from a medicinal plant can be grown in vitro to produce callus culture, and
medicinally important metabolites can be directly extracted from the callus tissues without sacrificing the
whole plant.

Callus is also a good source of genetic variability; hence it is used in producing new varieties of plants.

Meristem Culture:

Meristems of plants are undifferentiated parts such as shoot tips and root tips, which promote the active
growth of the plant.

Although when the plant is infected with a virus, yet the meristems are usually free of virus.

Therefore, meristem can be removed and grown in vitro to obtain virus free plants. This technique has been
used in the production of virus-free plants in sugarcane, banana, potato etc.

Anther culture:

Anthers are part of the flower that contains pollens. Anther culture is the process of using anthers to culture
haploid plantlets. Haploids have only copy of each chromosome.

This technique can be used in several hundreds of species, including tomato, rice, tobacco, and barley. It is
a simple technique and is easy to induce cell division in the immature pollen cells.

This method can be used to produce large number of haploid plants in a very short duration.

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Protoplast culture:

Protoplast refers to the cells without the cell wall like naked plant cell. It can be described as living
matter enclosed by a plant cell membrane.

Enzymes such as cellulases can be used to degrade the cell wall. Protoplasts from different plant species can
be fused to obtain hybrid varieties which otherwise may not be possible using traditional breeding
techniques.

The ability of isolated protoplasts to undergo fusion and take up macromolecules and cell organelles lead to
several applications in genetic engineering and crop improvement.

Endosperm Culture:

The endosperm is the tissue found in the seeds of the flowering plants surrounding embryo, which provides
nutrition to the embryo. Tissue culture methods are also used for culturing endosperm.

It is triploid in its chromosome constitution and triploid plants are used to produce seedless fruits (e.g., apple,
banana etc.).

Applications of Plant Tissue Culture

1. Tissue culture is used to develop thousands of genetically identical plants from one single parent plant
are called “soma clones”, and this process is known as “micropropagation”. This method can be used for
rapid vegetative multiplication of ornamental plants and fruit trees from small explants.
2. Stress tolerant varieties and other mutant varieties can be generated using mutagens in plant tissue
culture
3. The crossing of distantly related species by protoplast isolation and somatic fusion increases the
possibility for the transfer and expression of novel variation in domestic crops
4. Production of disease free plants
5. Large scale growth of plant cells can be achieved in liquid culture in bioreactors to commercially produce
valuable plant products like secondary metabolites and biopharmaceuticals
6. Preservation of endangered and valuable plants can be attained in the form of plants produced using
tissue culture and through cryopreservation (i.e storing them under cold conditions, eg. -196 oC using
liquid nitrogen)
7. Tissue culture also allows scientists to study the biochemical and physiological roles of plants
8. When new genes are introduced in to plant cells, plant tissue culture can be used to propagate the
transgenic plants

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Fig: Applications of Tissue Culture

5. Transgenic Animals:

Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess and express an extra (foreign) gene are known as
transgenic animals.

Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish have been produced, although over 95 per cent of all
existing transgenic animals are mice.

There are two types of Transgenics:

1. Embryo-mediated Transgenics

2. Cell- medicated Transgenics

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Fig: Embryo mediated Transgenesis

Fig: Cell mediated Transgenesis

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Transgenic animals

A transgenic animal is one that carries a foreign gene that has been introduced into its genome.

As with the plants, in creation of transgenic animals, the final steps of rDNA transfer require different
methods.

Most common methods used for transgenic animals are microinjection and viral mediated gene transfer.

Microinjection

Microinjection or pronuclear microinjection, a routinely used method in introducing foreign genes in to

animal cells.

It is a physical method, wherein a fine glass needle is used to inject recombinant DNA constructs containing
the desired gene along with other required elements in to a cell, while watching under a microscope.

The best stage to perform this method is when two nuclei is about to fuse following fertilization (called
pronuclei).

Following the microinjection, the ovum is transferred in to a recipient female (pseudopregnant) for further
development.

This way foreign gene will be introduced at very early stages in the cells and will be produced in all the cells.

Further analysis is conducted either using PCR or other suitable methods to detect the presence of foreign
gene in the target cells.

Retroviral method

As seen in bacterial mediated method in transgenic plants, this is a way of exploiting the natural infection
process that happens in animals.

Retroviruses and adeno viruses are some of the few viruses that are used in this process.

Viral vectors are modified to remove any virulent genes while keeping the elements required for the gene
transfer.

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Steps in retroviral method of gene transfer

Applications of Transgenic Animals:

(i) Normal physiology and development:

✓ Transgenic animals can be specifically designed to allow the study of how genes are regulated, and
how they affect the normal functions of the body and its development, e.g., study of complex factors
involved in growth such as insulin-like growth factor.
✓ By introducing genes from other species that alter the formation of this factor and studying the
biological effects that result, information is obtained about the biological role of the factor in the
body.

(ii) Study of disease:

✓ Many transgenic animals are designed to increase our understanding of how genes contribute to the
development of disease.
✓ These are specially made to serve as models for human diseases so that investigation of new
treatments for diseases is made possible.
✓ Today transgenic models exist for many human diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid
arthritis and Alzheimer’s.

(iii) Biological products:

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✓ Medicines required to treat certain human diseases can contain biological products, but such
products are often expensive to make.
✓ Transgenic animals that produce useful biological products can be created by the introduction of the
portion of DNA (or genes) which codes for a particular product such as human protein (α-1-
antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema.
✓ Similar attempts are being made for treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU) and cystic fibrosis.
✓ In 1997, the first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced human protein-enriched milk (2.4 grams per litre).
✓ The milk contained the human alpha-lactalbumin and was nutritionally a more balanced product for
human babies than natural cow-milk.

(iv) Vaccine safety:

✓ Transgenic mice are being developed for use in testing the safety of vaccines before they are used
on humans.
✓ Transgenic mice are being used to test the safety of the polio vaccine.
✓ If successful and found to be reliable, they could replace the use of monkeys to test the safety of
batches of the vaccine.

(v) Chemical safety testing:

✓ This is known as toxicity/safety testing.

✓ The procedure is the same as that used for testing toxicity of drugs.
✓ Transgenic animals are made that carry genes which make them more sensitive to toxic substances
than non-transgenic animals.
✓ They are then exposed to the toxic substances and the effects studied. Toxicity testing in such animals
will allow us to obtain results in less time.

Applications of BT in Industrial Sector: (White Bio Technology)

✓ White biotechnology – also meaning Industrial Biotechnology uses microorganisms and their
enzymes to manufacture the goods for industry, such as chemicals, plastics, pharmaceuticals, food,
and energy carriers.
✓ These renewable raw materials and the waste from forestry and agriculture are used for
manufacturing industrial goods.
✓ White biotechnology is solely applied to the industry to replace polluting technologies for clean ones.

The Applications of White Biotechnology-

Applications:

1. Metabolite Production

Microorganisms produce different metabolites during their growth stages by using cheap substrates.
Acetone-butanol, Organic acids Alcohol. Antibiotics, Enzymes, and Vitamins can be created.

2. Waste Treatment

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Reducing pollution by proper waste treatment through bio remediation.

3. Bio-Based Fuel & Energy

Cellulose enzyme technology benefits the conversion of crop residues to ethanol.

The techniques also allow reduced CO2 emissions by 90% (compared to oil). Further, it produces greater
domestic energy and uses renewable feedstock.

4. Recovery of Metals

Microbes are employed to recover valuable metals from the metals of a low grade for which the conventional
metallurgical processes are polluting.

Applications of Genetic Engineering in Environmental Protection-

✓ Reducing the use of and reliance on petrochemicals.

✓ Using biofuels to cut greenhouse gas emissions.
✓ Decreasing water usage and waste generation.
✓ Tapping into the full potential of traditional biomass waste products.

1. Biofuel: Biotechnology is used in producing bio fuel using algae.

Fig: Biodiesel through Algae

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Biofuels are non-fossil fuels produced directly or indirectly from organic material (biomass) including plant
materials and animal waste.

Traditional unprocessed biomass such as fuelwood, charcoal and animal dung accounts for the main source
of energy for many people in developing countries who use it mainly for cooking and heating.

Bioethanol

Bioethanol is a type of alcohol that can be produced using any feedstock containing significant amounts of
sugar, such as sugar cane or sugar beet, or starch, such as maize and wheat.

Sugar can be directly fermented to alcohol, while starch first needs to be converted to sugar.
The fermentation process is like that used to make wine or beer, and pure ethanol is obtained by distillation.
The main producers are Brazil and the USA.

Ethanol can be blended with petrol or burned in nearly pure form in slightly modified spark-ignition engines.
A liter of ethanol contains approximately two thirds of the energy provided by a liter of petrol.

However, when mixed with petrol, it improves the combustion performance and lowers the emissions of
carbon monoxide and sulphur oxide.

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a clean burning, eco-friendly natural fuel obtained from vegetable oils by a chemical process
called “transesterification”.

It is produced, mainly in the European Union, by combining vegetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol.
Biodiesel can be blended with traditional diesel fuel or burned in its pure form in compression ignition
engines.

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Its energy content is somewhat less than that of diesel (88 to 95%).

Biodiesel can be derived from a wide range of oils, including rapeseed, soybean, palm, coconut or jatropha
oils and therefore the resulting fuels can display a greater variety of physical properties than ethanol.

Biogas

Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes.
It can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into
anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields.
The solid byproduct, digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer.

Second generation or cellulosic ethanol is produced from agricultural residues containing cellulosic
biomass– such as the stalks, leaves, bagasse, and husks of rice, wheat, wood chips, sawdust or energy crops
(Sorghum, Jatropa)

Most plant matter is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin; the first two can be converted
into alcohol after they have first been converted into sugar, but the process is more difficult than the one
for starch.

Today, there is virtually no commercial production of ethanol from cellulosic biomass, but substantial
research continues in this area.

Third Generation biofuels:

Algae

The term “algae” refers to a great diversity of organisms—from microscopic cyanobacteria to giant kelp
(Seaweed) — which convert sunlight and CO2 into energy using photosynthesis, like plants. It grows in
stagnant ponds in the natural world. There are over 100,000 genetically diverse strains of algae. Researchers
are working on harnessing algal strains’ numerous unique properties to develop promising algal biofuels and
bioproducts.

Current Potential for Use as a Biofuel

Algal biomass contains three main components: carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids/natural oils.

Because the bulk of the natural oil made by microalgae is in the form of triacylglycerol, which is the right
kind of oil for producing biodiesel, microalgae are the exclusive focus in the algae-to-biodiesel arena.

In addition to biodiesel, microalgae can also be used to generate energy in several other ways. Some algal
species can produce hydrogen gas under specialized growth conditions.

The biomass from algae can also be burned similar to wood or anaerobically digested to produce methane
biogas to generate heat and electricity.

Algal biomass can also be treated by pyrolysis to generate crude bio-oil.

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(“Pyrolysis” a process of chemically decomposing organic materials at elevated temperatures in the absence
of oxygen. (Temp ~ 450 deg C and high pressure)

Advantage of algae:

Microalgae grow very quickly compared to terrestrial crops; the practice of algal mass culture can be
performed on non-arable lands using non-potable saline water and waste water.

Oil content can amount to 50 percent of the cell weight, making the overall yield of oil form algae much
higher (10-100 times) when compared to competing energy crops.

Through the process of producing oils, algae can simultaneously help us reduce our greenhouse gases making
algal fuel carbon neutral.

Among other uses, algae have been used experimentally as a new form of green jet fuel designed for
commercial travel.

Cultivation of Algae

• Open ponds – These are the simplest systems in which algae is grown in a pond in the open air. They
are simple and have low capital costs, but are less efficient than other systems. They are also of
concern because other organisms can contaminate the pond and potentially damage or kill the algae.
• Closed-loop systems – These are similar to open ponds, but they are not exposed to the atmosphere
and use a sterile source of carbon dioxide. Such systems have potential because they may be able to
be directly connected to carbon dioxide sources (such as smokestacks) and thus use the gas before
it is released into the atmosphere.
• Photobioreactors – These are the most advanced and thus most difficult systems to implement,
resulting in high capital costs. Their advantages in terms of yield and control, however, are
unparalleled. They are closed systems.
Biodiesel content of glycerine can be in the form of free glycerine or bound glycerine in the form of
glycerides. Severe consequences may result due to the high content of free and total glycerine, such as
buildup in fuel tanks, clogged fuel systems, injector fouling and valve deposits.

Advantages of biofuels:

1. Best alternatives for fossil fuels, (Fossil fuels cannot satisfy the current demand with the increased
population rate and their use is discouraged due to the damage they are causing to the environment)
2. Less gas emissions, less particulates, hence less pollution and less respiratory problems
3. Better solution to global warming: Biofuels are cleaner than petrol & diesel. Especially, biodiesel is found
to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions close to zero.
4. Bioethanol, when mixed with petrol, improves the combustion performance and lowers the emissions
of carbon monoxide and sulphur oxide
5. Biofuels have enormous potential for farmers, they can create newer market for agriculture industry
which is struggling with losses and promote rural development.

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Drawbacks of biofuels:

1. Less efficient: Ethanol has a smaller energy density than that of gasoline; this means it takes more fuel
(volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work.
2. A liter of ethanol contains approximately two thirds of the energy provided by a liter of petrol.
3. Risk of diverting food crops to fuel production (such as wheat, sugarcane etc.), while India is struggling
to produce enough food to reach the demands for growing population
4. Production of some of these compounds require new infrastructure and modification of motor engines
for their use

National Policy on Biofuel (2018)

In order to promote biofuels in the country, a National Policy on Biofuels was made by Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy during the year 2009.

Globally, biofuels have caught the attention in last decade and it is imperative to keep up with the pace of
developments in the field of biofuels.

Biofuels in India are of strategic importance as it augers well with the ongoing initiatives of the Government
such as Make in India, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Skill Development and offers great opportunity to integrate
with the ambitious targets of doubling of Farmers Income, Import Reduction, Employment Generation,
Waste to Wealth Creation.

Biofuels programme in India has been largely impacted due to the sustained and quantum non-availability
of domestic feedstock for biofuel production which needs to be addressed.

The Union Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi has approved National Policy on
Biofuels – 2018.

Salient Features:

i. The Policy categorises biofuels as "Basic Biofuels" viz. First Generation (1G) bioethanol & biodiesel and
"Advanced Biofuels" - Second Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to drop-in
fuels, Third Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG etc. to enable extension of appropriate financial and
fiscal incentives under each category.
ii. The Policy expands the scope of raw material for ethanol production by allowing use of Sugarcane
Juice, Sugar containing materials like Sugar Beet, Sweet Sorghum, Starch containing materials like
Corn, Cassava, Damaged food grains like wheat, broken rice, Rotten Potatoes, unfit for human
consumption for ethanol production.
iii. Farmers are at a risk of not getting appropriate price for their produce during the surplus production
phase. Taking this into account, the Policy allows use of surplus food grains for production of ethanol
for blending with petrol with the approval of National Biofuel Coordination Committee.
iv. With a thrust on Advanced Biofuels, the Policy indicates a viability gap funding scheme for 2G ethanol
Bio refineries of Rs.5000 crore in 6 years in addition to additional tax incentives, higher purchase
price as compared to 1G biofuels.

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v. The Policy encourages setting up of supply chain mechanisms for biodiesel production from non-edible
oilseeds, Used Cooking Oil, short gestation crops.
vi. Roles and responsibilities of all the concerned Ministries/Departments with respect to biofuels has
been captured in the Policy document to synergise efforts.
Expected Benefits:

1. Reduce Import Dependency: One crore lit of E10 saves Rs.28 crore of forex at current rates. The ethanol
supply year 2017-18 is likely to see a supply of around 150 crore litres of ethanol which will result in
savings of over Rs.4000 crore of forex.
2. Cleaner Environment: One crore lit of E-10 saves around 20,000 ton of CO2 emissions. For the ethanol
supply year 2017-18, there will be lesser emissions of CO2 to the tune of 30 lakh ton. By reducing crop
burning & conversion of agricultural residues/wastes to biofuels there will be further reduction in Green
House Gas emissions.
3. Health benefits: Prolonged reuse of Cooking Oil for preparing food, particularly in deep-frying is a
potential health hazard and can lead to many diseases. Used Cooking Oil is a potential feedstock for
biodiesel and its use for making biodiesel will prevent diversion of used cooking oil in the food industry.
4. MSW Management: It is estimated that, annually 62 MMT of Municipal Solid Waste gets generated in
India. There are technologies available which can convert waste/plastic, MSW to drop in fuels. One ton
of such waste has the potential to provide around 20% of drop in fuels.
5. Infrastructural Investment in Rural Areas: It is estimated that, one 100klpd bio refinery will require
around Rs.800 crore capital investment. At present Oil Marketing Companies are in the process of setting
up twelve 2G bio refineries with an investment of around Rs.10,000 crore. Further addition of 2G bio
refineries across the Country will spur infrastructural investment in the rural areas.
6. Employment Generation: One 100klpd 2G bio refinery can contribute 1200 jobs in Plant Operations,
Village Level Entrepreneurs and Supply Chain Management.
7. Additional Income to Farmers: By adopting 2G technologies, agricultural residues/waste which
otherwise are burnt by the farmers can be converted to ethanol and can fetch a price for these waste if
a market is developed for the same. Also, farmers are at a risk of not getting appropriate price for their
produce during the surplus production phase. Thus conversion of surplus grains and agricultural biomass
can help in price stabilization.

2. BIOTECHNOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENT CLEANUP

“Application of Biotechnology that deals with environmental problems such as pollution removal and
sustainable methods for energy generation by exploiting biological processes”.

Bioremediation

Cleaning up of hazardous substances by converting them into non-toxic compounds with the help of various
microorganisms or plants.

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• These techniques have been successfully used to remediate soils/sludges &
groundwater contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, wood preservatives,
and other organic chemicals.
• Oxygen, water & nutrients are added, and the temperature and pH are controlled.
• The rate microorganisms degrade the contaminants is influenced by: the specific contaminants
present, their concentrations, the oxygen supply, moisture, temperature, pH, nutrient supply, bio-
augmentation, and co-metabolism.
• Micro-organisms can be adapted to degrade specific contaminants or enhance the process.
• Microorganisms possess enzymes that allow them to use environmental contaminants as food.

Bioremediation can be performed in two ways

i) In situ Bio remediation

ii) Ex situ Bio remediation

i) In Situ bioremediation

• Clean up approach that takes place on-site

• the location of the bioremediation has occurred at the site of contamination without the
translocation of the polluted materials.
Bioremediation can help clean up the environment in two ways

Bio stimulation

Promotion of microbial growth in situ can be achieved with the addition of nutrients. These microbes
acclimatize to the toxic wastes and over a period of time they degrade pollutants.

Bio augmentation

Introducing genetically engineered microorganisms which can degrade organic pollutant molecules.

Examples:

• Pseudomonas strains (P. putida) are capable of degrading petroleum hydrocarbons and aromatic
hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene etc.
• GS-15, a genetically engineered microbe discovered by American scientists, can convert uranium in
water into insoluble particles that precipitate and settle at the bottom.
• Alga-SORB (immobilized algae) can absorb heavy metal ions from the waste water or ground water
helping in controlling the pollution.
Advantages:

1. Low cost solution

2. Only causes minimal disruption of treatment site

3. Contaminated water and soil can be simultaneously treated

4. Minimal exposure of public and site personnel to toxic waste

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Ex Situ Bioremediation

Ex situ conservation means “off-site conservation”. It includes removal of waste from the site of
contamination, and its transfer to a facilitaty where biodegradation can be performed.

Methods of clean-up

1. Land farming
• Contaminated soil is excavated and spread over land
• Soil is periodically tilled to improve aeration
• Remediation due to indigenous microorganisms, as well as chemical and physical processes
• Generally limited to the superficial 10-35 cm of soil
• Can reduce monitoring and maintenance costs
2. Composting:
Combines contaminated soil with nonhazardous organic amendants (e.g. manure or agricultural
wastes)

3. Biopiles:
• Combination of landfarming and composting
• Control physical losses of contaminants
4. Bioreactors:
• Soil and water pumped up from a contaminated plume and processed through an engineered
containment system.
• Degradation in a bioreactor is generally greater than in situ because the contained environment
is more controllable and predictable

Phytoremediation

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Examples: Brassica Juncea can phytoextract lead and selenium. Some species of Hibiscus and Lotus can
phytovolatalize Boron and Healinthus can rhizofiltrate Uranium.

Advantages of Bioremediation

1. Bioremediation is a natural process, it is widely accepted as a effective way to remove hydrocarbon

waste.
2. The biodegraded compounds are harmless and can be incorporated in the environment (carbon
dioxide, water and biomass.)
3. Bioremediation helps to degrade the pollutants on the site without causing additional hazard (in case
of in situ).
4. It is relatively inexpensive than other techniques used for clean-up of hazardous waste produsts.
Disadvantages of Bioremediation

1. Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that are biodegradable. Not all compounds are
susceptible to rapid and complete degradation.
2. There are some concerns that the products of biodegradation may be more persistent or toxic than
the parent compound.
3. Biological processes are often highly specific. It requires knwldege about microbial populations,
suitable environmental growth conditions, and appropriate levels of nutrients and contaminants.
4. It is difficult to extrapolate (deduce) from bench and pilot-scale studies to fullscale field operations.
5. Bioremediation often takes longer than other tratment options.
6. Some techniques tend to be more expensive due to additional costs attributed to excavation and
transportation, as with ex situ bioremediation.

Bio remediation though Oil Zapper:

✓ Oil Zapper is a combination of five different bacterial strains that are immobilized and mixed with a
carrier material like powdered corncob.
✓ Oil zapper feeds on hydrocarbon compounds present in crude oil and the hazardous hydrocarbon
waste generated by oil refineries, known as ‘Oil Sludge’.
✓ The bacteria convert this sludge into harmless CO2 and water.

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Fig: Genetic Engineering for bio remediation

Biomining: -

Biomining is the process of using microorganisms to extract metals of economic interest from rock ores or
mine waste.

Biomining techniques may also be used to clean up sites that have been polluted with metals. Modern
biotechnology is used to improve the environment surrounding mining areas through various
microorganisms.

E.g. Thiobacillus ferooxidans is used in recovering copper from mining residue. This bacterium converts
inorganic copper compounds into insoluble particles by a process of oxidation.

Bio Sensors

These are the biological devices that can detect and measure the quantities of specific substances in a
varieties of environments.

Enzymes, antibodies and even microorganisms can be used as biosensors.

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E.g. Mercury sensing DNA sequence can be linked to a reporter gene that produces bioluminescence with in
the living bacteria cell when increased mercury levels are detected.

Biosensors can be designed to detect other pollutants as well.

Applications of biosensors

1. Biosensors are used for the detection of pathogens in food. Presence of Escherichia coli in vegetables, is
a bio indicator of faecal contamination in food.

2. Biosensors are used in detecting environmental pollutants and monitoring of Mines, Industries and toxic
gases.

3. Biosensors are used in the BOD (biological oxygen demand) measurement during waste water treatment.

4. Biosensors are used in the detection of poly aromatic hydrocarbons present in water.

5. Environmental applications e.g. the detection of pesticides and river water contaminants such as heavy
metal ions.

6. Detection and determination of organophosphates.

3. Bio- Toilet- Sustainable Sanitation

Bio-toilet is a decomposition mechanized toilet system which decomposes human excretory waste in the
digester tank using specific high graded bacteria (aerobic or anaerobic).

It converts the excreta into methane gas, Carbon dioxide gas and water.

Fig: Working of Bio toilets

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Advantages of Bio Toilets:

✓ No bad smell in toilets from the tanks

✓ Faecal matter in the tank not visible
✓ No bugs infestation
✓ No clogging of bio digester
✓ Effluent is free from off odour and solid waste
✓ Reduction in pathogens by 99%
✓ Reduction in organic matter by 90%
✓ No maintenance required
✓ No requirement of re-adding of bacteria / enzyme
✓ No need of removal of solid waste
✓ Hygienic and Non –Polluting
✓ No manual scavenging required (sludge free disposal)
✓ Relatively low cost
✓ Can do with low water requirement
✓ Suitable for all terrains
✓ Useful by-products: Bio gas (only Methane and water)
✓ Alleviates the effort involved in relocating composting toilets every year.

Important Acts-

Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act 2021

Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) is defined as “all techniques that attempt to obtain a pregnancy by
handling the sperm or the oocyte outside the human body and transferring the gamete or the embryo into
the reproductive system of a woman.”

ART clinics and banks in India have been providing services including gamete donation, intrauterine
insemination, in vitro fertilisation, and intracytoplasmic sperm injections, among others.

Highlights

1. Establishment of National and State Boards for the regulation of ART services in the country.
2. The Act to set the minimum standards of physical infrastructure, laboratory and diagnostic equipment
and expert manpower to be employed by clinics and banks (those store eggs/sperms).
3. It proposes to set up an ART bank to regulate/ensure the supply of sperm or semen, oocytes, or oocyte
donors to ART clinics for their patients.
4. Pre-Genetic Implantation Testing mandatory, which allows doctors to test embryos for any possible
abnormal chromosomes before they are transferred to the uterus to avoid any genetic diseases in the
population born through these technologies.
5. It prohibits the determination of the sex of the child to be born through the process of ART.
6. It proposes for a stringent punishment for those practising sex selection, sale of human embryos or
gametes, running agencies/rackets/organisations for such unlawful practices. Punishable with fines
between Rs 5 lakh to 10 lakh at first instance and in subsequent instances the person could be imprisoned
from 8 - 12 years and a fine between 10 – 20 lakhs.
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Surrogacy (Regulation) Act 2021

‘Surrogacy’ is an arrangement whereby an intending couple commissions a surrogate mother to carry their
child. In 2005, the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) laid out guidelines for surrogacy, which made
the practice legal, but did not give it legislative backing.

This led to a booming surrogacy industry.

Repeated reports of exploitation of women who were confined to hostels, not provided adequate post-
pregnancy medical care and were paid a pittance for repeatedly becoming surrogate mothers to supplement
family income.

In light of commercial surrogacy business, the Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill was enacted on 25 th December,
2021.

The number one proposition of the bill is “to completely abolish commercial surrogacy” in India.

Highlights of the regulation

1. The intending couple must be

a) Married Indian citizens, at least one of them being infertile.
b) Age restrictions: Women: 23 – 50/Men: 26 – 55
c) Should not have any surviving child (biological, adopted or surrogate); excluding a child who is
mentally or physically challenged or suffers from life threatening disorder or fatal illness
d) Indian woman who is a widow and divorcee can also avail the surrogacy.
2. The surrogate mother has to be married and has had a child of her own. (Age restriction: 25-35 years)
3. Allowed to act like a surrogate only once.
4. No payment other than medical expenses and medical insurance can be made to the surrogate mother.
5. The surrogate child will be deemed to be the biological child of the intending couple. Child shall be
entitled to all the rights and privileges as per law.
6. Central and state governments will appoint National and State Surrogacy Boards to grant eligibility
certificates to the intending couple and the surrogate mother. These authorities will also regulate
surrogacy clinics.
7. An abortion of the surrogate child requires the written consent of the surrogate mother and the
authorisation of the appropriate authority. This authorisation must be compliant with the Medical
Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971. Further, the surrogate mother will have an option to withdraw
from surrogacy before the embryo is implanted in her womb.
8. Undertaking surrogacy for a fee, advertising it or exploiting the surrogate mother will be punishable with
imprisonment for up to 10 years and a fine of up to Rs 10 lakh.
Key Issues and Analysis of surrogacy bill

1. The Bill permits surrogacy only for couples who cannot conceive a child. This procedure is not allowed
in case of any other medical conditions which could prevent a woman from giving birth to a child.
2. The law bans singles and homosexuals from having surrogate children.

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3. The altruistic model expects a woman to go through the physical and emotional tolls of surrogacy free
of cost and only out of compassion. Such an expectation is paternalistic, unrealistic, and patriarchal in its
approach.
4. The Bill specifies eligibility conditions that need to be fulfilled by the intending couple in order to
commission surrogacy. Further, it allows additional conditions to be prescribed by regulations. This may
be excessive delegation of legislative powers.
5. For an abortion, in addition to complying with the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971, the
approval of the appropriate authority and the consent of the surrogate mother is required. The Bill does
not specify a time limit for granting such an approval. Further, the intending couple has no say in the
consent to abort.

Current Issues:
1. DNA TECHNOLOGY (USE & APPLICATION) REGULATION BILL 2019
Introduced for the regulation of use and application of DNA technology for the purpose of establishing
identity of missing persons, victims, offenders, under trials and unknown deceased persons

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key provisions of the bill
Use of DNA Data: DNA testing is allowed only in respect of matters listed in the Schedule to the Bill.
✓ These include offences under the Indian Penal Code, 1860, and for civil matters such as paternity
suits.
✓ Further, the Schedule includes DNA testing for matters related to establishment of individual identity.
Consent for the collection of DNA for some cases like arrested person having punishment of up to 7 years.
If the punishment is beyond 7 years then consent is not required.
DNA Data Bank: establishment of a National DNA Data Bank and Regional DNA Data Banks, for every state,
or two or more states.
Bill provides for removal of the DNA profiles of the following persons:
✓ Of a suspect if a police report is filed or court order given,
✓ Of an undertrial if a court order is given, and
✓ On written request, for persons who are not suspect, offender or undertrial, from the crime scene or
missing persons’ index
DNA Regulatory Board: The Bill also provides for the establishment of a DNA Regulatory Board, which will
supervise the DNA Data Banks and DNA laboratories.
Functions of the Board:
1. Advising governments on all issues related to establishing DNA laboratories or Data Banks, and
2. Granting accreditation to DNA laboratories.
3. Further, the Board is required to ensure that all information relating to DNA profiles with the Data
Banks, laboratories, and other persons are kept confidential

2. EARTH BIO-GENOME PROJECT

✓ International collaboration to sequence and digitize the genomes of every eukaryotic biodiversity on
Earth over a period of 10 years.
✓ It will map the genomes of roughly 1.5 million species, i.e., all the complex life forms known to man.
✓ It will map the genomes of roughly 1.5 million species, i.e., all the complex life forms known to man.
✓ It is an open-source DNA database.
✓ The initiative was inspired by Human Genome Project which ended in 2003
✓ provides a platform for scientific research and supports environmental and conservation initiatives.
✓ ISSUE- May lead to digital bio-piracy (because it is open-source) which is against the principle of
Nagoya protocol to convention of Biodiversity that requires sharing of benefits with the local
communities

3. MANAV: HUMAN ATLAS INITIATIVE

✓ Launched by Department of Biotechnology

✓ It is a project to construct a comprehensive map of every tissue of the human body.
✓ It seeks to capture human physiology at the tissue level in natural and diseased state.

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OBJECTIVES

o To provide better biological insights of human physiology

o To understand the roles of tissues and cells linked to various diseases.
o Develop disease models through predictive computing
o Drug discovery

4. IndiGen Project- GENOME INDIA PROJECT

✓ It is a project to carry out whole-genome sequencing of Indians.

✓ Also called ‘Bioscience Mission for Precision Health and Optimal Well-being’
✓ It is aimed at studying the diversity of Indians and its impact on lifestyle, environment and genes that
is inherited.
✓ It will help in development of personalized medicines.
✓ The initiative will involve large number of India from various geographies, caste, tribal and linguistic
groups.
✓ The Genome Sequencing will be a combined initiative of Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Department of Health Research, Department of Biotechnology
✓ The initiative will include sequencing genomes and link it to human health disease as a research
initiative.

5. National Genomic Grid (NGG)

✓ The grid will be formed in line with the National Cancer Tissue Biobank (NCTB) which is set up at the
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras.
✓ It will collect samples from cancer patients to study genomic factors influencing cancer and
identifying the right treatment modalities for the Indian population.
✓ The grid will have four parts, with the country divided into east, west, north and south
✓ Significance- The genomic samples will help researches to have India specific studies on cancers.

6. INDIA’S BRAIN MAP

✓ National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) is preparing an Indian Brain Template (IBT).
✓ It is one-of-its-kind database of brain templates.
✓ Brain templates are MRI images that provide anatomical information of human brains.
✓ The IBT is funded by the Department of Science and Technology.

International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB)

✓ Intergovernmental organisation established as a special project of United Nations Industrial

Development Organization, in 1983
✓ The Organisation has three Component laboratories in Trieste Italy, New Delhi, India and Cape Town,
South Africa
✓ Became fully autonomous since 1994

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7. Arogyapacha (Trichopuszeylanicus)

✓ Scientists decoded genome

✓ ‘Miracle plant’
✓ Known for its medicinal properties
✓ Endemic to the Agastya hills in the southern Western Ghats
✓ Known for its traditional use by the Kani tribal community to combat fatigue
✓ Studies have also proven its anti-oxidant, aphrodisiac, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory anti-tumour,
anti-ulcer, hepatoprotective and anti-diabetic properties.
8. Parthenogenesis

✓ A reproductive strategy that involves development of a female (rarely a male) gamete (sex cell)
without fertilisation or development of an embryo from an unfertilised egg cell
✓ It is an adaptive strategy when sexual reproduction is not possible due to environmental conditions.
9. Genetically Modified Mosquitoes

✓ A new initiative aims at reducing the population of Aedes aegypti mosquito by introducing
genetically modified version of mosquitoes
✓ Genetically modified mosquitoes involve producing transgenic male Aedes aegypti mosquito, which
carries a new gene fatal only to female mosquitoes
✓ GM male mosquitoes will then breed with normal females in the wild.
✓ In the next generation, only the males would survive, and these would breed again, with normal
females.
✓ After a few generations, the female population will be drastically reduced and eventually whole
mosquito population

10. National Biopharma Mission

✓ The National Biopharma Mission (NBM) is an industry-academia collaborative mission for

accelerating biopharmaceutical development in the country.
✓ It was launched in 2017 at a total cost of Rs 1500 crore and is 50% co-funded by World Bank loan.
✓ It is being implemented by the Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC).
✓ BIRAC is a Public Sector Enterprise, set up by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
✓ The oversight to the mission activities is provided by the inter-ministerial Steering Committee chaired
by the Secretary-DBT (Ministry of Science & Technology).
✓ The Technical Advisory Group (TAG) chaired by an eminent scientist provides scientific leadership to
the mission drawing upon global expertise.
✓ Under this Mission, the Government has launched Innovate in India (i3) programme to create an
enabling ecosystem to promote entrepreneurship and indigenous manufacturing in the biopharma
sector.

It has a focus on following four verticals:

✓ Development of product leads for Vaccines, Biosimilars and Medical Devices that are relevant to the
public health need by focussing on managed partnerships.

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✓ Upgradation of shared infrastructure facilities and establishing them as centres of product
discovery/discovery validations and manufacturing.
✓ Developing human capital by providing specific training.
✓ Developing technology transfer offices to help enhance industry academia inter-linkages.

Note: Diseases and Vaccines will be covered separately.

11. Cultured Meat

✓ Lab-grown meat is called with many names- cultured meat, in vitro meat, synthetic meat, artificial
meat.
✓ It is made by growing muscle cells in a nutrient serum and encouraging them into muscle-like fibres.
✓ Simpler animal products, such as artificial milk or hen-free egg whites, can be created by yeast that
has been genetically altered to produce the proteins found in milk or eggs.
✓ These are then extracted and blended in the right amounts.

Fig: Cultured meat

Alternative to animal meat can be - Plant meat- that looks and tastes similar to meat.

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