Reference is the words we use to identify things are in some direct to
those things.
It is an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a
listener, or reader, to identify something ( Yule)
Those linguistic forms are referring expressions.
Referring expressions is any expression used in utterance to reder to
something or someone
The choice of expression depends on what the speaker assumes the
listener already knows (Yule)
Reference is clearly tied to the speaker’s goals and beliefs in the use of
language.
The categories of referring expressions
-Proper noun Jennifer, Paris, Google, Amazon…./ Name that uniquely
identify specific individuals, places, orr entities/
-Definate noun phrases the cat, the man, the teacher / phrases that refer
to a specific assuming the listener knows what is being referred to/
-Indefinite noun phrases a woman , an apple, a place/ Phrase that
introduce new or unspecified entities to the listener. Ofent includes a or
an.
-Pronouns He, she,her,it,they / short words that replace nouns to refer
entities already mentioned or understand from the contex/
We can also refer to thing when we not sure what to call them .
There is an old man in the park who always feeds the birds. No one knows
his name , so everyone call him “ Birdman”
Explanation:
When we don’t know someone’s real name, we can give them a nickname
based on what they do, what they look like, or something that makes
them stand out. In this case, “Birdman” is used to describe the old man
because of his habit of feeding birds. This makes it easier to talk about
him even without knowing his real name.
Referential and attribute uses
Names and referents
The role of co-text
Anaphoric reference
-Attributive use Whoever/ whatever fits the description
There was no sign of the killer
Ex: The killer= Whoever did the killing
( a reporter is reporting a mysterious death) ‘the’ is assumed to exist, but
can not be ensure yet
Ex: The tall man is brother
The tall man= any tall man
/ the tall man does not refer to a specific person but any man with tall
characteristics/
-Referential use : definite person or thing in the mind
A specific person is referred to, although his/her name or some other
description is not used / definite person or thing in the mind/
Ex: There was no sign of killer
( in a news , a person ‘s idebtified to murder, chase into a building , but
escaped)
Ex: the book on the table is mine.
The book is used to refer to a specific that is know to both the speaker and
the listener.
-Names and referents
Convention between all members of a community who share common
language/culture which needs collaboration of ‘intention-to-identify’ and’
recognition-of-intention’
Ex: Ha Noi is the capital of Viet Nam
Name : Ha Noi
Referent: the city of Ha Noi , the capital of Viet Nam
The role of co-tex
Co-text is the linguistic material accompanying the referring expressions .
Example: Brazil wins World Cup
Brazil is the referring expression
Wins World Cup is co-text
Anaphoric reference
It is subsequent reference to already introduced referents.
It needs not be exactly identical to attencedent
Beatrice grows carrots and salads in her garden and shares the vegetables
with her siblings.
The vegetables= carrots + salads.
Saying them instead of the vegetables can also be applied here and still
be an anaphoric reference.
Inference
1. Definition
In the context of pragmatics, inference refers to the process by which
listeners or readers derive meaning that goes beyond the literal
interpretation of an utterance.
2. Types of Inference:
Conventional Inference: This involves standard meanings
associated with certain expressions or phrases (e.g., idioms).
Examples:
Idioms: The phrase “kick the bucket” conventionally means to
die. If someone says, “He kicked the bucket last year,” the
conventional inference is that he passed away.
Metaphors: Saying “time is money” implies that time is
valuable, similar to money. The conventional understanding
here reflects societal views on time management.
Set Phrases: The greeting “How do you do?” doesn’t literally
ask for one’s state of being; it’s a conventional way to say
hello. A conventional inference to this phrase would mean the
speaker is being polite rather than genuinely inquiring about
someone’s well-being.
Conversational Inference: This relies on context, common
knowledge, and the principle of cooperation (Grice’s maxims)
to deduce meaning. For example, if someone asks if you’d like
tea and you respond, “I’m not thirsty,” it implies you don’t
want tea, even though it’s not directly stated.
Examples:
Cooperative Principle: If a friend asks, “Are you going to the
party tonight?” and you respond, “I have a lot of work to do,”
the conversational inference might be that you are not
planning to go to the party. Your response implies your
priorities, even if you don’t explicitly say, “No, I’m not going.”
Grice’s Maxims: If someone says, “It’s getting late,” during a
gathering, you might infer that they want to leave without
them stating it directly. Here, you recognize that their
statement is relevant to the context of the social situation.
Contextual Knowledge: If a parent says to their child, “Would
you like to clean your room or do your homework?” the
inference might be that cleaning the room is not optional—it’s
an expectation. The child understands from past experiences
that both tasks are required, but the framing suggests one
might be chosen over the other.
