UNIT – I: MEANING AND NATURE OF PERSONALITY:

PERSONALITY DEFINITIONS:

A few notable definitions of personality from prominent psychologists:

 Gordon Allport: "Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought."
 Sigmund Freud: "Personality is the result of our efforts to resolve conflicts between our
biological impulses (id) and social restraints (superego), operating mostly on the
unconscious level (ego)."
 Carl Jung: "Personality is a dynamic organization of psychophysical systems that create
the individual's characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings."
 Albert Bandura: "Personality is the result of reciprocal interactions between cognitive,
behavioral, and environmental influences."
 Hans Eysenck: "Personality is determined by biological factors, including genetic
predispositions and physiological processes, which interact with environmental
influences to shape individual differences in behavior and traits."

MEANING:

Personality refers to a combination of characteristics, qualities, and traits that

make up an individual's unique identity and determine their behavior, thoughts, emotions, and
interpersonal interactions. It encompasses various psychological dimensions such as
temperament, attitudes, values, beliefs, and patterns of behavior, which together contribute to
shaping how a person perceives and interacts with the world around them. Personality is often
considered relatively stable over time, yet it can also be influenced by various internal and
external factors, including genetics, upbringing, culture, and life experiences. Understanding
personality helps in predicting and explaining individual differences in behavior and in studying
how individuals adapt to different situations and environments.

The word personality is derived from the Greek word “persona” which means to
“speak through”. Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that forms a
person’s unique identity. It signifies the role which a person plays in public. Personality is
defined as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.
Organizations are concerned with the study of personality and various personality dimensions
because they not only want individuals with right skill and knowledge that is required to perform
the job but also that person should possess some amount of flexibility in his character to meet the
changing situations.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY:

(i) Personality is psychological in nature.

(ii) Personality has both internal and external elements. Internal elements: thoughts, values
and genetic traits. External elements are observable behavior that we notice. e.g.
sociability.
(iii) An individual’s personality is relatively stable. If it changes at all, it is only after a very
long time or as the result of some events.
(iv) An individual’s personality is both inherited as well as shaped by the environment.
(v) Each individual is unique in behavior.
(vi) Personality may be changed under certain circumstances. e.g. An individual’s
personality may be altered by major life events, such as birth of a child, the death of a
loved ones, a divorce etc.

ELEMENTS OF PERSONALITY:

Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, proposed a structural model of

personality that consists of three main elements: the id, ego, and superego. These elements
interact dynamically to shape an individual's behavior and personality development.

 The Id: The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth. This
aspect of personality is entirely unconscious. The id is driven by the pleasure principle,
which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs
are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension. For example, an
increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink. The id
is very important early in life, because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the
infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the id are
satisfied. Because young infants are ruled entirely by the id, there is no reasoning with
them when these needs demand satisfaction. Imagine trying to convince a baby to wait
 until lunchtime to eat his meal. Instead, the id requires immediate satisfaction, and
because the other components of personality are not yet present, the infant will cry until
these needs are fulfilled. Although people eventually learn to control the id, this part of
personality remains the same infantile, primal force all throughout life.
 The Ego: The ego's goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in a safe and socially
acceptable way. For example, imagine that you are stuck in a long meeting at work. You
find yourself growing increasingly hungry as the meeting drags on. While the id might
compel you to jump up from your seat and rush to the break room for a snack, the ego
guides you to sit quietly and wait for the meeting to end. Instead of acting upon the
primal urges of the id. Once the meeting is finally over, you can satisfy the demands of
the id in a realistic and appropriate manner.
 The Superego: The last component of personality to develop is the superego. The
superego develops during early childhood. The superego provides guidelines for making
judgments. There are two parts of the superego:
i) The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for good behaviors. These
behaviors include those which are approved of by parental and other
authority figures. Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride, value, and
accomplishment.
ii) The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad
by parents and society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to
bad consequences, punishments, or feelings of guilt and remorse.
The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all
unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards
rather that upon realistic principles. According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality
is a balance between the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud believed that an imbalance
between these elements would lead to a maladaptive personality. An individual with an
overly dominant id, for example, might become impulsive, uncontrollable, or even
criminal. This individual acts upon his or her most basic urges with no concern for
whether the behavior is appropriate, acceptable, or legal.
An overly dominant superego, on the other hand, might lead to a
personality that is extremely moralistic and possibly judgmental. This person may be
 very unable to accept anything or anyone that he or she perceives as "bad" or "immoral."
An excessively dominant ego can also result in problems. An individual with this type of
personality might be so tied to reality, rules, and appropriateness that they are unable to
engage in any type of spontaneous or unexpected behavior.

TYPES OF PERSONALITY:

1. HIPPOCRATES THEORY OF TEMPERAMENTS: Hippocrates proposed a model of

personality based on the theory of the four temperaments. This model suggests that
individuals can be classified into four primary personality types, or temperaments, based
on the balance of bodily fluids (humors) within their bodies. These temperaments are
believed to influence an individual's behavior, emotions, and overall disposition. The four
temperaments proposed by Hippocrates are:
 Sanguine: People with a sanguine temperament are described as sociable,
outgoing, and optimistic. They are often enthusiastic, energetic, and enjoy being
around others. Sanguine individuals tend to have a positive outlook on life and are
skilled at making friends.
 Choleric: Choleric individuals are characterized as ambitious, determined, and
assertive. They are natural leaders who are driven to achieve their goals and often
exhibit a competitive and decisive nature. Cholerics are typically passionate and
may be prone to outbursts of anger or impatience.
 Melancholic: People with a melancholic temperament are introspective, sensitive,
and analytical. They tend to be deep thinkers who are introspective and prone to
introspection. Melancholics may have a tendency towards perfectionism and may
be more reserved or shy in social situations.
 Phlegmatic: Phlegmatic individuals are described as calm, easygoing, and
reliable. They are typically even-tempered, patient, and diplomatic in their
interactions with others. Phlegmatics value harmony and stability and may be
perceived as good listeners and peacemakers.
2. SHELDON MODEL OF PERSONALITY: This theory of personality proposed was by
The Sheldon Model classifies individuals into three somatotypes or body types, each
 associated with distinct personality characteristics. The three somatotypes identified by
Sheldon are:
 Endomorphs: Endomorphs are characterized by a round or soft body shape, with
higher levels of body fat and a tendency to store excess fat around the abdomen
and thighs. Sheldon described endomorphs as having a relaxed and sociable
temperament, with traits such as friendliness, tolerance, and a love for comfort
and relaxation.
 Mesomorphs: Mesomorphs are characterized by a muscular and athletic body
type, with a relatively low level of body fat and a more prominent musculature.
Sheldon described mesomorphs as being assertive, competitive, and dominant,
with traits such as ambition, confidence, and a strong desire for physical activity
and achievement.
 Ectomorphs: Ectomorphs are characterized by a lean and slender body type, with
low levels of body fat and little muscle mass. Sheldon described ectomorphs as
being introverted, sensitive, and intellectual, with traits such as shyness,
introspection, and a preference for solitary activities.
3. THE BIG FIVE MODEL: The Big Five Model, also known as the Five-Factor Model
(FFM) or OCEAN model, is one of the most widely accepted and studied frameworks for
understanding personality. It proposes that personality can be described and categorized
based on five broad dimensions, each representing a spectrum along which individuals
vary in their levels of specific traits. These dimensions are:
 Openness to Experience: This dimension reflects the extent to which individuals are
open-minded, curious, imaginative, and receptive to new ideas, experiences, and
perspectives. People high in openness tend to be creative, adventurous, and intellectually
curious, while those low in openness may be more conventional, traditional, and resistant
to change.
 Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness refers to the degree of organization,
responsibility, dependability, and self-discipline exhibited by individuals. Those high in
conscientiousness are typically organized, reliable, goal-oriented, and diligent in their
work and responsibilities, while those low in conscientiousness may be more impulsive,
disorganized, and prone to procrastination.
  Extraversion: Extraversion represents the extent to which individuals are outgoing,
sociable, assertive, and energetic in their interactions with others and their environment.
Extraverts tend to be talkative, sociable, and seek out social stimulation, while introverts
are more reserved, reflective, and prefer solitary activities or smaller social gatherings.
 Agreeableness: This dimension reflects the degree of warmth, empathy, cooperation, and
compassion exhibited by individuals in their interpersonal relationships. Those high in
agreeableness are generally trusting, empathetic, and cooperative, with a tendency to
prioritize harmony and maintain positive social relationships. Conversely, individuals
low in agreeableness may be more skeptical, competitive, and less concerned with the
feelings of others.
 Neuroticism (or Emotional Stability): Neuroticism refers to the tendency to experience
negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, anger, and vulnerability to stress.
Individuals high in neuroticism are more prone to mood swings, worry, and emotional
instability, whereas those low in neuroticism tend to be emotionally resilient, calm, and
composed even in challenging situations.
4. JUNGIAN PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES:

Carl Jung's model of personality, often referred to as Jungian Psychological

Types, provides a framework for understanding how individuals perceive and interact with the
world based on their cognitive functions. Jung proposed that individuals possess innate
psychological preferences that shape their perceptions, decision-making processes, and
interpersonal relationships. His model includes several key concepts:

 Attitudes: Jung identified two fundamental attitudes that characterize how individuals
orient themselves toward the world: Extraversion (E): Individuals with an extraverted
attitude are primarily oriented toward the external world of people, objects, and events.
They tend to be outgoing, sociable, and energized by interactions with others.
Introversion (I): In contrast, individuals with an introverted attitude are primarily
oriented toward their inner world of thoughts, feelings, and ideas. They tend to be
reflective, introspective, and recharge by spending time alone.
 Psychological Functions: Jung proposed four psychological functions through which
individuals perceive information and make decisions. These functions are: Thinking (T):
 Thinking involves the rational analysis and logical evaluation of information. Individuals
who rely on thinking prefer to make decisions based on objective criteria and logical
reasoning. Feeling (F): Feeling involves the subjective evaluation of information based
on personal values, emotions, and interpersonal considerations. Individuals who rely on
feeling prefer to make decisions that align with their personal values and emotional
responses. Sensing (S): Sensing involves the perception of concrete, tangible details and
sensory information from the immediate environment. Individuals who rely on sensing
prefer to focus on observable facts and practical realities. Intuition (N): Intuition
involves the perception of abstract patterns, underlying meanings, and future possibilities
beyond the immediate sensory experience. Individuals who rely on intuition prefer to
explore connections, insights, and potential outcomes.
5. PSYCHOSEXUAL MODEL:

The Psychosexual Model is a theory of personality development proposed by

Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. According to this model, individuals progress
through a series of psychosexual stages during childhood, each characterized by a focus on
different erogenous zones and corresponding conflicts. Successful resolution of these conflicts is
believed to shape personality and behavior in adulthood. The key components of the
psychosexual model include:

 Oral Stage (0-1 years): The mouth is the primary focus of pleasure, and infants derive
pleasure from sucking, biting, and tasting. The primary conflict in this stage is weaning,
which involves the transition from breast or bottle feeding to solid food. Fixation at this
stage can lead to oral fixation behaviors in adulthood, such as smoking, overeating, or
excessive talking.
 Anal Stage (1-3 years): The anus becomes the primary focus of pleasure, and children
derive pleasure from the act of expelling or withholding feces. The primary conflict in
this stage is toilet training, where children learn to control their bowel movements.
Fixation at this stage can lead to anal-retentive or anal-expulsive personality traits in
adulthood, characterized by traits such as orderliness, stinginess, or messiness.
 Phallic Stage (3-6 years): The genitals become the primary focus of pleasure, and
children develop unconscious sexual desires for the opposite-sex parent (Oedipus
 complex in boys, Electra complex in girls). The primary conflict in this stage is the
resolution of these desires and identification with the same-sex parent. Fixation at this
stage can lead to various personality traits and behaviors, including vanity, flirtatiousness,
or competitiveness.
 Latency Stage (6-11 years): Sexual impulses are suppressed, and children focus on
developing social and cognitive skills through interactions with peers and same-sex
friendships. This stage is characterized by a temporary decrease in sexual energy and
conflicts.
 Genital Stage (adolescence to adulthood): The onset of puberty reawakens sexual
impulses, and individuals seek out sexual gratification through intimate relationships with
others. Successful resolution of previous conflicts leads to the ability to form mature,
intimate relationships.

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY:

Every person has a different personality and there are a lot of factors which
contribute to that personality. We call them the determinants of personality or the factors of
personality.
(i) Heredity:
Heredity means the transmission of characteristics from forefather to
present generations through genes. Heredity factors not only affect the physical
features of a person, but the intelligence level, attentiveness, gender, temperament,
various inherited diseases and energy level, all get affected by them. Facial
attractiveness, muscle composition, complexion etc. are the characteristics which are
imported from one’s parents. The example of how heredity factors determine such a
huge and significant part of an individual‘s personality can easily be observed in
children. Many children behave exactly how their parents do. Similarly, twin siblings
also have a lot of things in common.
(ii) Environment:
Here, environment refers to the culture of the family that is passed along
from one generation to another. For example, the individual’s behavior is affected by
 his family culture. If the family culture is well, then the individual will have good
personality and vice-versa under normal situation.
(iii) Family:
The family has considerable influence on personality development of an
individual, particularly in the early stages. For example, children raised in orphanage
are much more socially and emotionally maladjusted than their counterparts raised by
parents in a warm and loving environment. Parents have more effects on the
personality development of their children as compared to other members of the
family.
(iv) Socialization process:
The continuous impact of different social groups is called socialization
process. Socialization process also affects the personality of an individual. This
process starts with the initial contact between a mother and her infant. After infancy,
other members of the immediate family, followed by social groups play influential
role in shaping the personality of an individual.
(v) Situation:
The personality of an individual changes depending on the situation. For
example, the same person while facing an employment interview and while enjoying
picnic with his friends in a park behaves quiet differently depending on two different
situations. Situations exercise important pressure on the individual to behave in a
particular manner. For example, a worker working in a highly bureaucratized work
situation may feel frustrated and behave violently.

PERSONALITY SWOT ANALYSIS:

A SWOT analysis is a strategic planning tool used to identify an individual's

strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. The SWOT analysis was first introduced as a
strategic planning tool in the 1960s by Albert Humphrey, a management consultant at the
Stanford Research Institute. Originally developed for business analysis, the SWOT framework
has since been adapted and applied to various contexts, including personal development and
career planning. It provides a structured approach for individuals to assess their internal strengths
and weaknesses, as well as external opportunities and threats, in order to make informed
decisions and maximize their potential for success.

1. STRENGTHS:
Identify positive traits or characteristics that contribute to your success, well-
being, and positive relationships. Examples could include being empathetic, adaptable,
creative, resilient, or having strong communication skills. Consider how these strengths
have helped you in various aspects of your life, such as work, relationships, and personal
growth.
 Identifying Positive Traits: Take stock of the positive qualities and attributes that
define your personality. These might include traits like honesty, creativity, resilience, or
a strong work ethic.
 Recognizing Accomplishments: Consider past achievements and successes that reflect
your strengths. These could be academic achievements, professional accomplishments,
or personal milestones.
 Understanding Core Values: Reflect on the values that guide your behavior and
decisions. Identifying your core values can help you understand your strengths and
what motivates you.
 Self-Reflection and Feedback: Engage in introspection to recognize strengths that
others may have pointed out to you. Soliciting feedback from friends, family, or
colleagues can also provide valuable insights into your strengths.
2. WEAKNESSES:
Recognize areas for improvement or traits that may be holding you back
from reaching your full potential. These could include traits such as procrastination,
perfectionism, difficulty managing stress, or struggles with assertiveness. Reflect on how
these weaknesses impact your life and relationships, and consider strategies for
addressing or mitigating them.
 Identifying Areas for Improvement: Acknowledge aspects of your personality that
you struggle with or areas where you consistently face challenges. This could include
traits like impatience, indecisiveness, or difficulty managing emotions.
  Understanding Limiting Beliefs: Consider any beliefs or attitudes that may be holding
you back from realizing your full potential. These could be self-limiting beliefs about
your abilities or worthiness.
 Reflecting on Past Mistakes: Think about past mistakes or failures and identify
patterns or tendencies that contributed to these outcomes. Recognizing these
weaknesses can be the first step toward addressing them.
 Seeking Feedback: Be open to receiving constructive criticism from others. Others
may provide insights into areas where you can improve that you may not have
considered on your own.

3. OPPORTUNITIES:
Identify external factors or opportunities that you can leverage to enhance
your personality and personal growth. This might include opportunities for learning and
skill development, networking and building relationships, or pursuing new experiences
and challenges. Consider how you can capitalize on these opportunities to further develop
your strengths and address your weaknesses.
 Learning and Development: Identify opportunities for personal and professional
growth that align with your interests and goals. This could include pursuing further
education, skill development, or training.
 Networking and Relationships: Consider how building new relationships or
expanding your social network could create opportunities for personal growth and
development.
 New Experiences: Look for opportunities to step outside of your comfort zone and
engage in new experiences. These experiences can broaden your perspective, build
resilience, and develop new skills.
 Setting Goals: Identify specific goals that align with your strengths and values. Setting
clear goals can create opportunities for personal growth and development.
4. THREATS:
Recognize potential obstacles or threats that could hinder your personal
development or negatively impact your personality. These could include external factors
such as negative influences, toxic relationships, or challenging life circumstances.
 Consider how you can mitigate these threats or navigate them in a way that minimizes
their impact on your personality and well-being.
 Negative Influences: Be aware of negative influences in your environment that could
hinder your personal development. This could include toxic relationships,
environments, or situations that undermine your well-being.
 Challenges and Obstacles: Recognize potential challenges or obstacles that may
impede your progress. This could include external factors like financial constraints,
health issues, or societal barriers.
 Self-Sabotaging Behaviors: Be mindful of self-sabotaging behaviors or patterns that
undermine your success and well-being. These could include procrastination, self-
doubt, or fear of failure.
 External Pressures: Consider external pressures or expectations that may conflict with
your values or goals. This could include societal norms, cultural expectations, or peer
pressure.

When conducting a SWOT analysis on personality, it's important to approach it

with self-awareness, honesty, and a growth mindset. Use the insights gained from the analysis to
set goals, develop strategies for personal development, and enhance your overall well-being and
effectiveness in various aspects of your life. Additionally, seeking feedback from others who
know you well can provide valuable insights and perspectives to complement your own self-
reflection.