COURSE

GUIDE

LIS 306
INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

Course Team Prof. Tijjani Abubakar (Course Developer) - ABU

Zaria
Prof. Tijjani Abubakar (Course Writer) - ABU Zaria
Prof. Uloma Doris Onuoha (Course Editor) -
Adeleke University, Osun State

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

LIS 306 COURSE GUIDE

© 2021 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
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University Village
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Lagos Office
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed 2021

ISBN: 978-978-058-275-3

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LIS 306 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction …………………………………………………… iv
What you will Learn in this Course …………………………… iv
Course Aims ………………………………………………….. iv
Course Objectives …………………………………………….. iv
Working through this Course …………………………………. v
Course Materials ……………………………………………… v
Final Examination and Grading ……………………………… v
Study Units …………………………………………………… vi
Presentation Schedule ………………………………………… vii
Final Examination and Grading ………………………………. viii
Course Overview ……………………………………………… viii
How to get the most from this Course ………………………… viii
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials ……………………………… ix
Summary ……………………………………………………… ix

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LIS 306 COURSE GUIDE

INTRODUCTION

INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

This is a first-semester course with 2 credit units which will last for a
minimum duration of one semester. It is a mandatory course for all
undergraduates in the Department of Library and Information Science. It
is also a suitable courseware for students in related fields who need to
have an understanding of how knowledge and information are being
organised.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

Definition of concepts; purpose, forms and types of index and abstracts;

functions of index and abstract in information retrieval; bibliographic
control and types of computerized indexes and abstracts; list of subject
headings and thesaurus construction and uses; indexing languages;
evaluation of indexes and abstracts; technical and practical indexing and
abstracting processes; the use of computers in indexing ad abstracting,
databases and networks of index and abstract; practicum on indexing and
abstracting.

COURSE AIMS

This course aims to introduce students to the general knowledge of the

definition of concepts; purpose, forms and types of index and abstracts;
functions of index and abstract in information retrieval; bibliographic
control and types of computerized indexes and abstracts; list of subject
headings and thesaurus and uses; indexing languages; evaluation of
indexes and abstracts; technical and practical indexing and abstracting
processes; the use of computers in indexing ad abstracting, databases and
networks of index and abstract; practicum on indexing and abstracting.
Knowledge and understanding of these concepts and the functions of
indexing and abstracting will enable you to understand the work and
duties of library or information professionals.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

To achieve the stated aims, each section in this study material has specific
objectives which will guide you in checking on your progress while you
study.

By the end of this course, you should be able to:

• define the term index

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• list and explain the purpose of the index as a retrieval device or

system
• list and explain the forms and types of index
• discuss the functions of an index
• define the term abstract
• list and explain the purpose of abstract in information retrieval
• list and explain the forms and types of abstract
• discuss the functions of abstract as a retrieval device
• explain the concept of bibliographic control
• acquire necessary skills for thesaurus construction and use,
including the use of subject headings
• list and explain indexing languages
• evaluate indexes and abstracts
• carry out the processes involved in indexing and abstracting
• identify the use of computers in indexing and abstracting
• describe the database and networks of index and abstract
• demonstrate practical experience in indexing and abstracting.

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To complete this course successfully, you have to go through the modules,

carefully read the study sections, do all practical exercises and
assessments, and open and read through the links provided by double-
clicking on them. Read the recommended books and other materials
available to you and ensure you attend the practical sessions for this
course. Always participate in the online facilitation going on in your study
centre. Each section of the study has an introduction, objectives you
should achieve at the end of the study, a conclusion, and a summary
informing you in a nutshell what you studied in the section.

COURSE MATERIALS

There is the Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA) to evaluate what you have

learnt. You can download the courseware into your device so that you can
study it whenever you are offline.

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

There are two primary shapes of evaluations, to be specific;

developmental and summative. The developmental appraisals at the
conclusion of each unit will empower you to assess your learning yield.
The summative appraisal which could be a Computer-Based Test (CBT)
is made up of objectives and sub-objective questions. There are three
ceaseless appraisals, 10% each and the last examinations are based on

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LIS 306 COURSE GUIDE

70%. You are required to do all the computer-based tests and the final
examination.

STUDY UNITS

There are 14 study units in this course, separated into five modules. The
modules and units are presented as follows:

Module 1 Introduction to Indexing

Unit 1 Meaning of Indexing and Abstracting

Unit 2 Nature and Purpose of Indexing and Abstracting
Unit 3 Functions of Index and Abstract in Information Retrieval

Module 2 Forms and Types of Indexes, Techniques and

Languages

Unit 1 Forms of Indexes

Unit 2 Indexing Techniques
Unit 3 Indexing Languages
Unit 4 Bibliographic Control Unit 5 Computerized Indexing
Systems

Module 3 Computerized Indexing Systems

Unit 1 Automated Method of Index Production

Unit 2 Computers as Indexing tool
Unit 3 Indexing Using a Computer
Unit 4 Indexing Software
Unit 5 Internet and Indexing

Module 4 Types And Techniques Of Abstracts And Abstracting

Unit 1 Types of Abstract

Unit 2 Evaluation of Abstract And Index
Unit 3 Abstracting Techniques
Unit 4 Computerised Abstracting Systems

Module 5 Practicum On Indexing And Abstracting

Unit 1 Indexing
Unit 2 Abstracts guides and practice
Unit 3 Thesaurus construction and use

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LIS 306 COURSE GUIDE

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

The presentation schedule shows you when you need to finish your
computer-based exams (CBT), participate in the discussion forum, and
attend facilitation. Ensure that you submit your assignments within the
stipulated time frame because delay in submitting assignments will not be
tolerated.

Unit of the Work Duration Assessment (End of

(Weeks) Unit)
Unit 1 Meaning of 1 Assignment 1
Indexing and bstracting
Unit 2 Nature and Purpose 1
of Indexing and
Abstracting
Unit 3 Functions of Index 1 Assignment 2
and Abstract in
Information Retrieval
Unit 4 Forms of Indexes 1
Unit 5 Indexing 1 Assignment 3
Techniques
Unit 6 Bibliographic 1 Assignment 4
Control
Unit 7 Computerized 1
Indexing Systems
Unit 8 Automated Method 1 Assignment 5
of Index Production
Unit 9 Computers as 1
Indexing tool
Unit 10 Indexing Using a 1 Assignment 6
Computer
Unit 11 Indexing Software 1
Unit 12 Internet and 1 Assignment 7
Indexing
Unit 1 3 Types of 1
Abstract
Unit 14 Evaluation of 1
Abstract And Index
Unit 15 Abstracting 1 Assignment 8
Techniques
Unit 16 1
Computerized
Abstracting Systems
Unit 1 7 Types of 1
Abstract

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LIS 306 COURSE GUIDE

Unit 18 Evaluation of 1 Assignment 9

Abstract And Index
Unit 19 Abstracting 1
Techniques
Unit 20 Computerized 1 Assignment 10
Abstracting Systems
Total 20

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

To prepare for this exam, review all of the subjects covered in the course.
It's also a good idea to go over all of the exercises and tutor-marked
assignments again before the exam. You should begin revising after you
have done learning the last unit. This final exam will take three hours to
complete. It accounts for 60% of the overall course grade.

COURSE OVERVIEW

This course intends to introduce you to the indexing and abstracting

system and services. The basic concepts, types, forms, principles and
techniques of constructing indexes and abstracts as well as techniques for
coming evaluating indexes and abstracts. The understanding of indexing
and abstracting processes is essential for the design and implementation
of effective retrieval systems, and the building of thesauri both supports
and enhances this understanding. Besides, the course introduces you to
the concepts underlying the indexing and abstracting processes which are
relevant to the organisation of all databases used for the storage and
retrieval of information, and the course complements the aims of
bibliographic storage and retrieval.

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

To get the most out of the course there is the need for you to have a laptop.
Also, 24 hours Internet connectivity is highly important to all to enable
you to access the internet anywhere anytime. Always attempt marked
tutor examination at the end of every unit. It is imperative to always attend
the online classes in real-time and ask questions on topics that are not
clear. You may wish to play the recorded session of the class session over
and over again to have a full understanding of what has been thought.
Always do not hesitate to contact the librarian for information resources
or any other assistant that will help in ensuring a better understanding of
the course

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LIS 306 COURSE GUIDE

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

You will receive classes online. The online facilitation is designed based
on a learner-centred pedagogical approach in which the student is an
active participant in the learning process. Both asynchronous and
synchronous facilitation will be used.

SUMMARY

This course intends to introduce you to the indexing and abstracting

system and services. The basic concepts, types, forms, principles and
techniques of constructing indexes and abstracts as well as techniques
for coming evaluating indexes and abstracts.

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COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Introduction to Indexing …………………….. 1

Unit 1 Meaning of Indexing and abstracting …………… 1

Unit 2 Nature and Purpose of Indexing and Abstracting.. 12
Unit 3 Functions of Index and Abstract in
Information Retrieval …………………………… 17

Module 2 Forms and Types of Indexes,

Techniques and Languages …………………… 22

Unit 1 Forms of Indexes ……………………………….. 22

Unit 2 Indexing Techniques …………………………… 32
Unit 3 Indexing Languages ……………………………. 36
Unit 4 Bibliographic Control ………………………….. 43

Module 3 Computerised Indexing Systems …………….. 50

Unit 1 Computerised Indexing Systems ………. ……… 50

Module 4 Types and Techniques of Abstracts

and Abstracting ……………………………….. 58

Unit 1 Types of Abstract ……………………………..... 58

Unit 2 Evaluation of Abstract and Index ……………… 67
Unit 3 Abstracting Techniques ………………………... 71
Unit 4 Computerised Abstracting Systems …………… 75

Module 5 Practicum on Indexing and Abstracting ……. 78

Unit 1 Indexing ……………………………………….. 78

Unit 2 Abstracts Guides and Practice …………………. 86
Unit 3 Thesaurus Construction and Use ………………. 92
LIS 306 MODULE 1

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO INDEXING AND

ABSTRACTING

This module introduces you to the meaning of indexing and abstracting,

nature, purpose of indexing and abstracting as well as the nature or goals
of indexing and abstracting

Unit 1 Meaning of Indexing and abstracting

Unit 2 Nature and purpose of Indexing and abstracting
Unit 3 Functions of Index and Abstract in Information Retrieval

UNIT 1 MEANING OF INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Index
3.2 Indexing
3.3 Indexer
3.4 Abstract
3.5 Abstracting
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Libraries and information centres are places where people get information
and learn new things. In a similar spirit, these organisations seek to meet
their users'/clientele's information demands. If the items in their
collections are not processed and organised, it would be difficult to
provide access to their resources. These organisations ensure that
information is stored in paper formats such as books, and non-pape
formats such as electronic, to make information easily accessible to users.
Classification, catalogues, indexes, abstracts, and bibliographies are
examples of tools or systems established by information professionals for
easy retrieval. The purpose of indexing and abstracting information
resources is to bring readers/users closer to information sources and, more
specifically, to help them find or locate their information need or reading
interests within the sources. Indexing and abstracting are critical
processes that ensure that information in documents can be found quickly.

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this Section, you should be able to:

• explain what indexing and indexes are

• define the terms "abstracting" and "abstracts"
• identify an indexer as well as an abstractor.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Index

An index is a list of entries organized in a systematic way, usually

alphabetically, to help users find information in a document. Indexes are
surrogates, indications, or locators that help you find the information you
need. Indexes are systematic guides to the location of words, concepts,
and other information items in books, magazines, and other publications,
and they do more than merely locate them. Indexes are indicators or
locators that aid in the discovery of information. Indexes are systematic
guides to the placement of words, concepts, and other information items.
An index is a list of entries that appear in alphabetical order to help users
find information. It may also include references or bibliographic
information to show where each item may be found. Any of the following
could be used as an index:

i. A list that is organised in such a way that each item may be

tracked using surrogates, source or page numbers, or other
symbols that indicate its place in a sequence.
ii. An alphabetical list of tables of contents, names of people,
and their specific placements in the volumes, usually by
page number but frequently by entry number.
iii. A list of subjects addressed in a book or document that has
been thoughtfully created with the reader's needs in mind.
iv. A systematic presentation of a document's most important
terms and concepts in all formats, structured so that those
terms and concepts may be found in the source content via
accurate and direct references to their places and locations.
v. An open-ended finding guide to the literature of a given
academic subject area, works of a specific literary genre or
genre, or the content of a serial publication that has been
analysed.

Indexes take the user straight to the information they need, with no
obstacles in the way. It directs the user to the most relevant information
while minimizing the necessity for cross-references. An index aims to
reduce the user's time and effort in finding information while also

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LIS 306 MODULE 1

increasing the user's search success. These are accomplished by selecting

the most appropriate terminology or words for a finder's language and
implementing a system of accurate and comprehensive cross-references
to related material.

Example of a periodical index entry:

ABU see Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria(ABU) resumes for the 2020/2021
academic session. – John Auta. DT 16th Jan. 2021, P.13
APC see All people Congress
APC elect new excos. – Aliyu Hussaini NN July 09, 2021, P.10 (Explain
with illustration. E.g,

3.2 Indexing

The systematic technique of arranging entries to enable information

consumers to locate objects in a document is known as indexing. It's a
method for giving a roadmap to the Information and knowledge contained
in documents. In indexing, subject terms, headings, and descriptors
describing the intellectual body of texts covering the major theme are
carefully selected. In essence, indexing is the act of analyzing the content
of documents to produce entries in an index, revealing the main
characteristics of the document item in a simplified form, and showing
the location of the information; developing information-replacement
items. In essence, indexing is the process of constructing substitutes for
information items by analyzing the content of documents, revealing the
main elements of the document item in a simplified form, and showing
the location of the information.

3.3 Indexing History

Information classification, categorisation, and organisation appear to be

fundamental human activities since the dawn of time. This necessitates
the use of specific talents to retrieve information. The most basic method
is to use indexing. The use of a known set of symbols, such as the
alphabet, is at the heart of an index.

The figurative or applied sense of the phrase, book index, is the earliest,
and its precise usage (like the word itself) dates back to ancient Rome.
When referring to literary works, the term index referred to a little slip
affixed to papyrus scrolls on which the title of the work (and often also
the author's name) was written so that each page could be found.
Due to a lack of precise book and manuscript inventories, locating the
earliest index appears to be a challenging task. A table of contents is
frequently referred to as an index by catalogers of Hebrew and Latin Mss.

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

Many manuscripts are being scanned, but the cataloguing appears to be

lacking, with indexes not being specified.

Masoretes, a group of Hebrew scholars from the 10th century, appear to

have collected a list of Hebrew biblical words in alphabetical order, with
the sentences from which they came matched with them.

Tables (cannon) comparing the verses of the four Gospels preserved in

mss from the dark ages show an early form of indexing. The breaking up
of manuscripts into chapters is the first step in indexing, which is
especially important for the Bible and Justinian's legal code. This was
done for the Bible by Stephan Langdon (1150-1228). In 2nd and 3rd
century Greek New Testament manuscripts, chapters were designated.
With his chapter divisions, he incorporated verse numbers. It was able to
compile Bible concordances as a result of this. The interests of the
institutions, libraries and monastic homes where they were compiled were
reflected in medieval indexing. They were what we'd refer to as "in-
house" goods. In a compendium of treatises, alphabetical lists of moral
issues might be created, but neutral information, such as that found on
rivers, rocks, and flowers, might be ignored. Their utility was frequently
hampered by copyist faults and inconsistencies in leaf numbering.

It was impossible to presume that everyone knew the alphabet. Giovanni

di Genoa in his Catholican (1286) though it essential to explain this: -
‘Amo’ comes before ’bibo’ because ‘a’ is the first letter of the former and
‘b’ is the first letter of the of the latter and ‘a’ comes before ‘b’ … by the
power of God working in me, I have created this order”. Eisenstein
(1979).‘The reader must master the alphabet, to wit: the order of the
letters as they stand,' as noted by Robert Cowdrey in his Table
alphabetical of hard English words in 1604. Eisenstein (1979).

Looking at the first printed index, the commercialization of publishing

was one of the implications of the discovery of printing after 1456. Rather
than stationers and scribes working in university cities or monastic
scriptoria, production was now handled by printers' workshops in
commercial centres. The employment of the alphabet in the arrangement
of the types was crucial.

The earliest printed indexes can be found in two copies of St Augustine's

De arte praedicandi, both issued in the early 1460s by Fust and Schoeffer
(the printers of Gutenberg's Bible) in Mainz and Mentelin in Strassburg.
Fust's primacy has been proven by previous studies, and Mentelin most
likely replicated Fust's edition, including the index. The index is
mentioned in the book's preface, which also describes how to utilize it.
The index features 230 entries for only 29 pages of text, with many cross-
references and several rotated multi-word entries. The locators refer to

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LIS 306 MODULE 1

paragraphs denoted by letters. Schoeffer noted the index to Augustine's

book as a beneficial feature in later marketing for his books. The earliest
dated index appears in 1468 in Sweynhcym and Pannartz's Speculum
vitae, a moral treatise printed in Rome. Other early printers reprinted this
index several times.

There is just one book with an index among all the books and other printed
material from Fust and Schoeffer's shop that came from the joint press
before 1467, namely St Augustine's De arte praedicandi (On the Art of
Preaching), which is the fourth part of his larger work Dedoctrina
Christiana. The first dated index appears in the editio princeps of
Speculum vitae,y3 a moral treatise analysing the advantages and merits
as well as the downsides and risks of many occupations from king to
shepherd, shortly after Augustine's index, whose exact dating is still
uncertain, Written by the Spanish bishop Rodrigo de Zamora (Rodericus
Sancius Zamorensis, 1404-1470), and published in Rome by Sweynheym
and Pannartz in 1468 as their fifth publication. The book is 300 pages long
(287 x 200 mm), with 292 pages devoted to the preface, table of contents,
and text and just six and a half pages (leaves 147a-150b) to the index.

In his catalogues, Mainz printer Peter Schoeffer (ca. 1425-1503)

expressly states that his better-organised books contain complete indexes;
an index is an influential sales factor. According to Colin Clair (1969),
the first dated (kind of) printed list reflecting an index appeared in
Epistolae Hieronymi in 1470, and it was a list of the first words of each
of the gatherings. Ulrich Han published his later that year, with the
catchwords of each double-page specified. Exposito Psalteri is dated 4
October 1470, according to him. Schoeffer did not date all of his early
works, thus there could have been one that was published earlier. Furst
and Schoeffer's editions of Saint Augustine's De Arte praedicandi, which
can be dated to the early 1460s, according to Hans H. Wellisch (1986).

The boundary between the contents page, a register, and an index was not
always evident in the early days of printing. The indice copiosisimo (most
copious index) is put at the beginning of St John Chrysostom's 1554
Commentary on the Epistles of Paul, and there is no contents page. The
words suggest that the publishers hoped the index, which is listed on the
title page, would be a selling point to entice researchers to purchase the
book. The Latin title of the index itself indicates that it is a significant
feature. This translates to "the most comprehensive index of all the topics
covered in this book".

The alphabetical table of contents in Toscanelli's 1568 commentary on

Virgil is as extensive as the previously stated "Indice copiosisimo." The
table's Italian title is "table gathering up the important substance in this
present book of Virgil's remarks."In his 1570 Theatrum Orbis Terrarium,

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

Ortelius begins with an "Index tabularum," which lists the maps

alphabetically. For more specific locations, you must consult the gazetteer
at the end, which does not provide page numbers but rather the name of
the area in which it is located, which is not always related to the maps.

Indexes date all the way back to the 17th century. According to Hilary
Calvert, the Gerardes Herbal from the 1590s included several unique
indexes. The alphabetical listing in the early ones only went as far as the
first letter of the entry, according to Barbara Cohen, and no one thought
to index each entry in either letter-by-letter or word-by-word order at first.
Peter Heylyn's 1652 Cosmographie in Four Books, according to Maja-
Lisa, features a series of tables near the end. "Short Tables may not seem
proportional to such a long Work, especially in an age when there are so
many that pretend to read, who study more the Index than the Book," he
writes before the indexes.

In the 18th century, the index entries from the 18th century are quite
intriguing. For the fair sex, the ladies magazine or entertaining
companion. 1776, Vol. 7. Essays and writing, Poetry, and Births,
Marriages, and Deaths all have their indexes. Alexander Cruden (1699-
1770), with his famous A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures,
was an important indexer during this time (1737). He is said to have been
so engrossed in creating it, working late into the night, that he failed to
realize that his bookshop's stock was depleting and was taken aback by
the consequent drop in sales.

In the 19th century, indexing became more professional, although it began

with more of the same. The ladies monthly museum was another early
nineteenth-century publication. The index for Vol. 6, 1801 is similar to
that of the previous issue. Notes and Queries was a publication aimed at
artists, antiquarians, genealogists, and writers. The title and headings in
the index of Vol. 1, 1849-50 were exactly as they were in the text,
resulting in odd entries. Darwinism and Other Essays, 1893, was written
by John Fiske, a Harvard librarian who may have indexed it.

Mary Petherbridge, 1870-1940, may have been of assistance to these

individuals. In 1894, she established a Secretarial Bureau, which provided
secretarial and library services, as well as training in those professions
and indexing. She wrote a treatise titled "The Technique of Indexing" in
1904. She worked as a freelance indexer for several publishers as well as
government agencies, including the India Office. In 1923, she contributed
an essay to the journal Good Housekeeping titled "Indexing as a Women's
Profession." She went over the process of indexing, as well as the
different types of indexes, books, and periodicals, as well as document
indexing:

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LIS 306 MODULE 1

However, indexes in the modern sense, which provide precise places for
names and subjects in a book, were not created in antiquity, and just a few
appear to have existed until the invention of printing. This is due to a
number of factors. For starters, there were no page or leaf numbers or line
counts as long as books were written in the form of scrolls (as we have
them now for classical texts). Even if there had been such number
markers, it would have been impractical to append an index with accurate
references, because a reader would have to unroll the scroll to the very
end and then reroll to the required page in order to examine the index.
(Anyone who has tried to read a book that is only available on microfilm,
the modern equivalent of the papyrus scroll, knows how difficult and
inconvenient it is to go from the index to the text.) Second, even though
famous works were printed in large quantities (often hundreds), no two
copies were identical, thus an index could only have been established to
chapters or paragraphs, not to specific pages.

The Origins of Alphabetical Indexing

According to Rouse & Rouse, subject indexing was invented in the
thirteenth century in Paris. (This is hilarious given the lack of indexes in
many contemporary French books.) The fact that Gaster's citation index
was created in the same century as the first subject indexes, and in the
same nation — Avignon — is an interesting coincidence.

According to Wellisch (1994), subject indexing began in the 4th century

with the Apothegmata, a collection of Greek Church Fathers' sayings.
This is an alphabetically sorted tool, rather than a subject index to a
narrative text, according to Witty (1973, p. 196). According to Richardson
(1939, p. 844), Eusebius' Onomasticon (264-340 C.E.) was the first
biblical dictionary, though it was not in alphabetical order according to
Bacher (1912), Philo Judaeus, who lived in Alexandria from 20 B.C.E. to
40 C.E., compiled a Greek dictionary of Biblical proper names.

3.4 Indexer

An indexer is a person who indexes or prepares indexes. Indexers are

known for their meticulousness and orderliness; they are usually orderly
oriented with the ability to take pains, have a clear thought process, and
are fastidious. An indexer examines a document and assigns subject and
other descriptors depending on his or her perception of what a user may
look for. They aim to meet the user's needs and work as if their users are
present. Indexers are specialists who create indexes based on ethical and
professional criteria. Some indexers work full-time, while others work
part-time. Some work for companies or organisations, while others
operate as freelancers or consultants. Others work at institutions such as
libraries, publishing houses, research institutes, and universities. Indexers

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

are known for their self-discipline and attention to detail, as well as a good
memory.

Indexers, regardless of their educational background, should be educated

on indexing activities, well-read, patient, and analytical. They should also
have inquisitive to learn new ideas and imaginative minds because
indexing entails addressing obvious questions regardless of the presence
of the indexer, the user should be able to retrieve relevant information
needed.

3.5 Abstract

The word “Abstrac”t is derived from the Latin abstractum, which denotes
a shortened version of a longer piece of text. An abstract is a concise
intellectual overview of a research piece, thesis, dissertation review,
conference proceeding, or other in-depth investigation of a certain subject
or discipline, as defined by Wikipedia, and is frequently used to help the
reader immediately determine the paper's aim. An abstract is always at
the beginning of a manuscript or typescript when it is utilised, serving as
the entry point for any academic article or patent application. An abstract,
according to Encyclopedia Britannica (1964), is a thorough citation,
distillation, and summary of essential facts and figures of theories and
viewpoints offered in an article or book's content.

An abstract is a brief overview of the contents of a document such as a

research paper, journal, article, thesis, review, conference proceeding, or
other academic or legal documents, usually between 50 and 250 words
long, depending on the size of the document. An abstract is a formal
summary of completed works written by writers or abstractors. They are
critical tools for information users, particularly as they try to keep up with
the proliferation of data. It's a quick objective summary of a book, essay,
speech, report, dissertation, or other work's important material that
presents the key ideas in the same sequence as the original but has little
literary merit on its own. The key elements of a piece of writing should
be covered in an abstract, as with other summaries, utilising the same
level of language and skill as the article or document being abstracted. It's
also a condensed version of a lengthier piece of writing that emphasises
the major point covered; it should succinctly convey the writing's topic
and scope, as well as provide a summary of the documents' substance.

“Users of abstracts can identify the basic content of a document quickly

and accurately, to determine its relevance to their interests, and thus be
able to decide whether they need to read the document in its entirety or
not,” according to the International Standard Organisation (ISO) (1976),
cited in Aina (2004). Abstracts are tools for finding information; they
represent the substance of an object using words that are specific to its

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searches. They're formal summaries created by abstractors for finished

works or papers. Abstracts are crucial tools for consumers and readers
because they keep them up to date with today's information boom.

The abstract is the first to appear in the substance of a complete work, yet
it is the last to be written. Abstracts are formal summaries of completed
works written by writers or abstractors. They are critical tools for
information users, particularly as they try to keep up with the proliferation
of data.

3.6 History of Abstract

The history of abstracting may be traced back to the need to summarise

the contents of documents in order to make the information contained
within them more accessible Clay envelopes used to protect contained
cuneiform texts from tampering in Mesopotamia around the early second
millennium BCE were inscribed with either the whole text of the
document or a summary. Many texts were abstracted in the Greco-Roman
world: epitomes were summaries of non-fiction writings, and in many
cases, the only information on works that have not survived to modernity
comes from their epitomes that have survived. Similarly, many ancient
Greek and Roman plays began with a premise that summarised the story
of the play. Non-literary papers were abstracted as well: the Tebtunis
papyri, discovered in the Ancient Egyptian town of Tebtunis, contain
legal document abstracts. The pages of scholarly publications, as well as
some manuscripts of the Code of Justinian, featured summaries of their
contents as marginalia during the Middle Ages.

The Royal Society would print 'summaries' summarising the delivered

papers at meetings in the early 1800s, which may be the earliest usage of
abstracts to disseminate research. Three decades later, the Royal Society
produced Abstracts of the Works Printed in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, a collection of abstracts of
earlier papers published in the society's magazine Philosophical
Transactions from 1800 to 1837. This approach caught on, and other
journals soon followed suit. The 1919 paper On the Irregularities of
Motion of the Foucault Pendulum published in the Physical Review, the
oldest journal published by the American Physical Society (Musa, Musa
& Musa, 2014) may be the earliest example of an abstract bound to the
same article, and the journal frequently published abstracts in its volumes
thereafter.

3.7 Abstracting

Abstracting is a procedure for guaranteeing that users may access

information. It is the process of creating a concise and objective

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

description of a document's content that allows consumers to swiftly

decide whether or not to read the complete text in order to meet their
information needs. It entails summarizing or analyzing a document's
content and highlighting the key elements so that the user can determine
whether or not to consult the text. In essence, aside from providing a
summary and bibliographic detail, the abstracting process adds value to
texts.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Users do not need to use the original document once they have found an
abstract because it will most likely give all of the information needed by
the reader. They are summaries of the original document and serve as a
replacement for it. Abstracts' purposes and uses all revolve around
supporting and letting users save time and obtain information. Abstracting
is defined as the process of compiling or developing a system, whether
for monetary gain or not.

5.0 SUMMARY

Indexers and abstractors are the facilitators of the indexing and

abstracting processes, which produce indexes and abstracts. This is the
section's main focus. Abstracts describe information material as briefly as
possible while capturing the vital elements, whereas indexes provide
entries that function as information locators. The Section has covered
indexing and abstracting, indexes and abstracts, indexes and the need for
indexes, and the necessity for indexes.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define indexing and abstracting in unambiguous terms.

2. What are the differences between indexes and abstracts?
3. In a literate society, why do we need abstracts?
4. What are the characteristics of an abstractor?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of

indexing accessed retrieved from https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ on 25/5/2021.

Cleveland, D. B & Cleveland, A. D (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.

10
LIS 306 MODULE 1

Lancaster, F. W (1991). Indexing and Abstracting: Theory and Practice.

London: Library Association.

Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of

Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8,

Osarome, O. (2017). History and Types of Indexes retrieved from

https://osarome.blogspot.com/ on
25/2021

Reitz, J, M (2004) Dictionary of Library and Information Science,

London: Libraries Unlimited.

Rowley, J. E. (1988). Indexing and Abstracting, London: Clive Bingley.

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

UNIT 2 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF INDEXING AND

ABSTRACTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nature of Indexes
3.2 Purpose of Indexing
3.3 Nature of Abstract
3.4 Purpose of Abstract
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Indexes and abstracts are information retrieval devices that allow users to
access information contained in documents or in an online database. The
description or bibliographic details of each document are specified in
detail, using the most precise terminology possible. The job of an
information professional includes not just indexing and abstracting
documents, but also interpreting, evaluating their quality.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this Section, you should be able to:

i. Explain the nature of indexes and abstracts

ii. Identify and explain the goals of indexing and abstracting

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Nature of Indexes

Indexes are typically constructed from the text of primary publications to

introduce the goal of the publication to the user or reader who desires to
read the rest of the text. Indexes are examples of tools used to organise
literature in specific disciplines, hence facilitating communication and
information flow among users such as scientists and researchers. One of
the ways that disciplinary literature is organized is by indexing.

In discussing the nature of indexes, Cleveland and Cleveland (2000)

suggested that to understand indexes, one should think of abstract
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LIS 306 MODULE 1

informational spaces, which means that one should think of information

items in an abstract space and then indexes in that space. Document space
is transformed into index space through indexes. There is a significant
reduction in the number of words in the papers themselves for indexing
space while constructing indexes. This is to ensure that both spaces are
contained within the same topic space. Indexed materials reflect two basic
states or dispositions that indexers determine. What items are included in
the index, and what items are excluded? Both scenarios may have
captured both the meaningful and the insignificant. It's possible that
information was left out of indexes. As a result, when critical information
is missing, we can deduce that the indexing procedure may have
misplaced Information.

An index is more than just an alphabetical list of nouns, words, and

phrases. It's not a reorganized table of contents, either. The indexing
process entails more than just creating words or concepts and assigning
locators to them. It is important to note that this is a separate record with
its own validity and consistency. Indexes occur in a variety of shapes and
sizes, and they can be used for a variety of purposes such as Name
indexes, subject indexes, map indexes, and so on, (Cleveland and
Cleveland, 2004). Books, journals, photographs, databases, and other
items all have indexes, some of which are prepared manually or
electronically. Good indexes are the result of an indexer's knowledge and
know-how, regardless of the form, format, or technique of production.

3.2 Purpose of Indexing

The major goal of performing indexing operations is to help users/readers

find information in documents or from an information source;
specifically, indexes are built for the following purposes, among others:

• Assisting people in becoming familiar with a text or document so

that those who wish to use it can do so effortlessly.
• To serve as a selection guide for the content by acting as a
summary of the text or document.
• To be used as a document analysis tool.
• To act as a critical link between the source of information or
text/document writers and the final users or consumers.
• To assist users in saving time and effort when accessing or locating
a topic of interest within a document or set of documents kept in a
collection. To maximize the searching success of the user of a
document.
• To construct terminology or descriptors for the purpose of
describing the intellectual content of a document.
• To be used by libraries, archives, information centres, and
documentation centres as information retrieval tools.
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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

• To aid users in selecting the most appropriate terms or words for

their language.
• To encourage more people to use the document

3.3 Nature of Abstract

Abstracts, like indexes, allow access to information and documents, but

they also provide a succinct and accurate overview of the details of a
document. Abstracts are generated to act as a surrogate for the actual
material by capturing the essential information and functioning as a
representation of it. With abstractions, the user may not need to see or
utilise the actual material because the abstract will most likely give him
adequate information or act as a substitute for it. Abstracts are used to
save time for users who need to read multiple documents.

Users of abstracts are able to identify the basic content of a document

quickly and accurately, to determine its relevance to their interests, and
thus be able to decide whether they need to read the document in its
entirety or not (International Standard Organisation (ISO) 1976), cited in
(Aina, 2004). Abstracts are tools for finding information; they represent
the substance of an object using words that are specific to its searches.
They're formal summaries created by abstractors for finished works or
papers. Abstracts are crucial tools for consumers and readers of
information because they keep them up to date with today's information
flood.

3.5 Purpose of Abstract

Abstracting activities are carried out by information professionals with

the primary goal of assisting users/readers in finding information in a
document or from an information source, particularly abstracts are
supplied for the following reasons:

• Assist readers in deciding whether or not to read the complete

article as readers use abstracts to assess if a piece of writing arouses
their attention or relates to a project they're working on. Rather
than sifting through hundreds of papers, readers rely on abstracts
to swiftly determine whether or not an article is relevant.
• Abstracts are also used by readers to determine the sophistication
or complexity of a piece of literature. If the abstract is overly
technical or simplistic, readers will assume that the article will be
similarly overly technical or simplistic.
• Abstracts provide users with a kind of pre-knowledge of the
original text or document, allowing them to understand a write-up
serving as a pre-read. This will assist readers in anticipating or
judging the document's content. When abstracts give users a sneak
14
LIS 306 MODULE 1

peek at the real thing, it not only makes reading the document
easier, but it also helps the reader/users read more efficiently.
• Assist readers in deciding whether or not to read the complete
document. Abstracts are used by information consumers to judge
whether a piece of writing interests them or is relevant to a topic
they are familiar with. Readers use abstractions to determine if a
document or a write-up is required as quickly as feasible. It should
also be mentioned that readers use abstracts to assess the
completeness or complexity of a piece of writing or document. In
other words, when consumers interact with abstracts, they can tell
if a write-up or paper is too technical or advanced and if it is too
simple.
• Assist information users in recalling key findings on a topic.
Readers frequently keep abstracts after reviewing a document or
write-up to remind them of the summary and other details. Because
abstracts frequently include entire bibliographical citations, they
are required when readers begin writing their own articles or
research papers and citing sources of information.
• Allow readers/decision-makers to make quick decisions without
getting bogged down in the details.
Highly knowledgeable abstract users, such as scholars and
policymakers, are known to read only a small portion of the actual
text or write-up. They prefer to check report summaries rather than
reading the entire document because abstracts give them a clear
picture of the content while highlighting the most important facts.
This, of course, saves time, allowing them to complete their task
or make sound decisions.
• Allow supervisors to go over technical work without becoming
caught down in detail. Although many managers and supervisors
will prefer the executive summary that is less technical, some
managers must stay up with technical tasks. According to research,
just 15% of managers read the entire content of papers or articles.
As a result, most managers rely on the executive summary or
abstract as the most concise explanation of their employees' work.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Document description and information retrieval would be a fantasy

without indexing and abstracting. It has elevated these activities in no
small measure such that information users find it easy to access
information sources or papers. As can be seen from the foregoing,
abstracts and indexes aid in the installation of order and the attainment of
correctly structured knowledge. Abstracts and indexes are not the original
content, but rather a pointer and substitute for the true data. Because we
will continue to live in a world where there is an abundance of

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

information, effective and efficient use of abstracts and indexes will

become increasingly important for discovering information.

5.0 SUMMARY

As you can see, indexing and abstracting are by nature intellectual

exercises that prioritise flexibility in order to serve as a pointer and proxy
for the information contained in texts. The nature of indexes and abstracts,
as well as the major reasons why we have these two key retrieval methods,
were the subject of this section. Users do not need to use the original
document after finding an abstract because it will most likely give all of
the information needed, and indexes serve as a pointer to the original
content. This has been the main point of this section thus far.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is the nature of indexes, and how would you explain it?
2. Provide a summary of the purpose of abstracts in one paragraph.
3. How do indexing and abstracting differ from one another?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.
Ibadan: Third World.
Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of
indexing accessed retrieved from https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ on 25/5/2021
Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001) Introduction to Indexing and
Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.
Lancaster, F. W. (1991). Indexing and Abstracting: Theory and Practice.
London: Library Association.
Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of
Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8,
Osarome, O. (2017). “History and Types of Indexes.” Retrieved from
https://osarome.blogspot.com/ on 25/2021
Reitz, J, M. (2004) Dictionary of Library and Information Science.
London: Libraries Unlimited.

Rowley, J. E. (1988). Indexing and Abstracting. London: Clive Bingley.

16
LIS 306 MODULE 1

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

17
LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

UNIT 3 FUNCTIONS OF INDEX AND ABSTRACT IN

INFORMATION RETRIEVAL

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Information Retrieval
3.2 Functions of Index in Information Retrieval
3.3 Functions of Abstracts in Information Retrieval
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

For scholars and researchers worldwide, indexes and abstracts have

functioned as aids for finding information and managing information
overload. In academic environments, indexes and abstracts play a critical
role in the information retrieval process. They provide quick and easy
access to information resources, saving the library user time and directing
them to appropriate and timely sources of information.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the meaning of information retrieval

• identify and explain briefly the functions of each index and
abstract as information retrieval devices.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Information Retrieval

Finding material (typically documents) of an unstructured nature

(typically text) that satisfies an information demand from vast collections
is known as information retrieval (IR) (usually stored on computers or
documents). Information retrieval (IR) is concerned with the
representation, storage, organisation, and retrieval of data. The
information elements should be shown and organized in such a way that
the user can easily find the information that he is looking for.

18
LIS 306 MODULE 1

Unfortunately, determining the user's information needs is not an easy

task.

The goal of information retrieval is to find materials that are likely to be

relevant to a user's information demand as represented in his request. A
request is an incomplete description of a user's information demand; only
the user can judge if a document provides the information he's looking
for. This means that documents are irrelevant to a request; in other words,
two users with the same request can be served in different ways. One user
may find a document useful while another does not. Relevance is
inextricably linked to the concept of "aboutness." The colour or shape of
a document has no bearing on its usefulness. It's important since it's about
the information you're looking for (Fordjour, Badu, and Adjei, 2010).

Information Retrieval (IR) is concerned with the representation, storage,

organization, and retrieval of data. The depiction and structure of
information items should make it easy for the user to find the information
that he is looking for. The study of searching for documents and
information within documents is known as information retrieval.
Computer science, mathematics, library science, information science,
information architecture, cognitive psychology, linguistics, statistics, and
physics are all used in information retrieval. Understanding the
information devices for retrieval and provision of information in the
proper format and level is required to maximize the value and usability of
information resources (Fordjour, Badu, and Adjei,2010).

3.2 Functions of Index in Information Retrieval

According to Nnadozie (2007), an index can serve as a guide to the

contents of a certain library, such as in the case of a library catalogue,
which is also known as an index to the library's contents. In general, an
index acts as a pointer to the location of an object or document in an
information system. It also acts as a reference to what literature exists in
a specific topic or by a specific author, and so on, as in a bibliography,
which is an index to what publications exist. According to Nnadozie
(2007), the most common use of an index is as a reference to the
intellectual content of publications or reading materials, which are given
as a list of significant phrases, concepts, subjects, topics, and names
ordered in a specific order. In libraries and information retrieval systems,
indexing serves to indicate the presence or absence of items relevant to a
request. It's basically a time-saving device. The following functions of
indexing were formally listed by the International Conference on
Scientific Information (ICSI) in 1958.

• To keep researchers and information users up to date on current

research in their fields.

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

• To locate information in the subject fields' literature as and when

required.
• Librarians and information workers rely on indexing and
abstracting journals for day-to-day reference and bibliographical
work, but research students also use them extensively.
• If the goal of the indexing and abstracting services is
comprehensive coverage, this can be referred to as a retrospective
search function; and to enable bibliographical control of literature
production either by country, by subject, or by type of materials.
• To obtain correct and complete bibliographical details of particular
items of literature when there is any doubt;
• To look for information on a topic that may not have been well
covered by books, encyclopedias, etc.;
• To publicize the work of individual scientists or scholars;

3.3 Functions of Abstracts in Information Retrieval

According to Nnadozie (2007), abstracts have the following functions:

i. The Abstracts add to the worth of the document you're looking for.
It will not only provide the paper's bibliographic information but
will also provide a summary of the content. This allows the user to
assess whether or not the document will be valuable to him or her
when it is finally retrieved, saving time.

ii. Abstracts are current awareness tools because they keep scholars
and researchers up to date on the most recent advancements in their
fields of research areas, as evidenced by the inclusion of current
articles in informative abstracts.
iii. Abstracts are true bibliographic control tools. They assist
researchers in preventing or at least reducing plagiarism by alerting
them to the availability of identical works done elsewhere. It also
aids in avoiding the needless duplication of already completed
work.
iv. Abstracts allow people who are looking for information to read
summaries of papers that they may never have seen the originals
of. This service is extremely useful when conducting a literature
review in a specific discipline or topic.
v. The user is directed to the original material by the abstracts. This
is accomplished by using the main work's bibliographic details and
the reference number, which, if properly read, can lead to the
original text.
vi. Abstracts help to speed up indexing.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

This section makes it clear that indexing and abstracting are there to help
users find information that is otherwise distributed among multiple
sources, all with the goal of ensuring that users have access to
information. Indexes and abstracts are information finders that librarians
and information workers use on a daily basis for reference and
bibliographical work, while they are also used extensively by research
researchers.

5.0 SUMMARY

Information retrieval is concerned with retrieving documents that are

likely to be relevant to a user's information need as expressed by his
request, and this can only be accomplished with the help of retrieval
devices such as indexes and abstracts, which serve as correct and
complete bibliographical details of specific pieces of literature. The
functions of the index and abstract as crucial retrieval techniques were the
emphasis of this section. Users do not need to use the original document
once they have found an abstract because it will most likely give all of the
information they need, and indexes serve as a pointer to the original
content.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. In your own understanding, explain information retrieval.

2. In one paragraph provide a summary of the functions of indexes.
3. In one paragraph provide a summary of the functions of abstracts.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). “Types of

indexing accessed.” Retrieved from https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ on 25/5/2021.

Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing

and Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.

Lancaster, F. W. (1991). Indexing and Abstracting: Theory and

Practice. London: Library Association.

21
LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of

Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8,

Osarome, O. (2017). “History and Types of Indexes.” Retrieved from

https://osarome.blogspot.com/ on 25/2021

Reitz, J, M. (2004). Dictionary of Library and Information Science.

London: Libraries Unlimited.

Rowley, J. E. (1988). Indexing and Abstracting. London: Clive Bingley.

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

MODULE 2 FORMS OF INDEX, TECHNIQUES AND

LANGUAGES

Section 1 Forms of Index

Section 2 Indexing Languages
Section 3 Indexing Techniques
Section 4 Bibliographic Control and Computerised Indexing Systems

UNIT 1 FORMS OF INDEX

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Forms of Index
3.2 Indexing system
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

An index is a list of entries organized in a systematic way to help people

find information in a document. Indexing is the process of building an
index, and an indexer is the person who does it. Indexes come in a variety
of shapes and sizes. The indexing process begins with an examination of
the document's subject. The indexer must then find terms that accurately
identify the subject, either by extracting words directly from the document
or assigning words from a controlled vocabulary. The terms in the index
are then presented in a logical sequence. The number of terms to include
and how specific the phrases should be are decisions that indexers must
make. This adds up to a lot of indexing depth. As a result, the types of
indexes and indexing systems will be discussed in this section.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

identify the different types of indexes

describe the various types of indexing systems.

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LIS 306 MODULE 2

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Forms of Indexes

According to the Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers

(ANZSI) (2021), there are many distinct forms of indexes, some of which
require particular expertise from indexers.
Bibliographic and database indexing (the space between the lines is
much)

1. Genealogical indexing
2. Geographical indexing
3. Book indexing
4. Legal indexing
5. Indexing of periodicals and newspapers
6. Indexing of photographs
7. Subject gateways
8. Indexing of websites and metadata

Journal articles, for example, are catalogued by bibliographic database

indexers. After then, the database enables online access to a large corpus
of material (eg medical journal articles). Citation and subject information
are described according to database-specific criteria.

• The goal of a database indexer is to:

• Identify and offer facts on journal articles and other objects,
including subject words, usually within a broad subject area, and
which may entail the usage of a thesaurus
• Describe a document and include citation details and other
information in accordance with database requirements.
• In a written summary, explain the contents of a document
succinctly (called an abstract)
Create a database record for an item that allows users to search a
corpus of literature online.

Genealogical indexing
Users can look up people's names and learn about their personal and
family links using genealogical indexes. They frequently do away with
the necessity to consult original source materials (eg cemetery
inscriptions). Genealogical indexers are experts at gathering and
recording information about historical figures and locations.

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Geographical indexing
Geographic indexers work with maps, atlases, and other cartographic
materials to build indexes. Place names, subjects, historical details,
mathematical attributes (e.g. scale and coordinates) and artistic aspects
may all be included in geographic indexes. Geographic indexers
frequently have specialized knowledge or experience in cartography or
geography.

Book indexing
Book indexers create indexes in order to provide access to detailed
information about the contents of books. All types of nonfiction books,
including textbooks, multi-volume works, technical reports, and annual
reports, have back-of-book indexes. Indexes are also required for online
books, PDF books, and ebooks.

Legal indexing
Legal indexing is categorising legal information based on its form and
content. Legal indexers are knowledgeable about legal principles and
classification, and they can transform the classification into a searchable
index. Legal indexers specialise in consolidating and updating existing
indexes, as well as preparing cases and tables of legislation.

Periodical and newspaper indexing

Indexes to individual articles and other items in serialised publications
can be found in periodicals and newspapers. Many periodical and
newspaper indexes use a regulated vocabulary to ensure that terms are
used consistently year after year. Periodical and newspaper indexers
ensure that readers can get a quick overview of the issues mentioned
during the index's lifespan. Annual and cumulative newspaper and
periodical indexes are available.

Pictorial indexing
Users can find relevant images in collections of photographs, artworks,
videos, and films using image indexes. Pictorial indexers are experts at
recognizing and describing images in collections.

Subject Gateways
Indexers are also active in innovative electronic indexing techniques.
Online information is one area where indexing is becoming increasingly
important. On the internet, indexers develop subject gateways that
classify links to relevant web pages.

Website and metadata indexing

Despite the proliferation of automated search engines, human indexers
are still required in a number of ways to improve access to content on the
Internet. Website indexes can be constructed in the style of back-of-book

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indexes or as hierarchical pages that both link directly to the essential

information. They work in conjunction with other navigational tools like
site maps and search engines. Metadata indexers use standard elements
similar to those found in database indexes and library catalogues to
improve the precision of access to web articles via search engines.

In general, indexes have been classified according to their arrangement,

purpose, or even specific subject area. Author indexes, alphabetical
indexes, categorised indexes, cumulative indexes, faceted indexes, and
other types of indexes are available.

3.1.1 Author Indexes

Author indexes are usually alphabetical indexes with the names of the
individuals or corporations responsible for the works or documents
indexed as headings. Persons, organisations, government agencies, and
universities are primarily accountable for the intellectual content of the
documents, according to the entry. These entries give users a quick
reference to the document or work's title and subject. Author indexes, in
effect, serve as a guide to the titles and subjects of papers. Users, as we
all know, typically approach literature from the perspective of the authors.
This is the information they have about the document that needs to be
retrieved. It's worth noting that author indexes should be developed
according to some clearly defined guidelines so that key decisions about
authorship are made consistently. The number of names allowed per entry
in the case of multiple authors, the alphabet titles to be used, and the form
of author names (full names or initials, authors' usage of pseudonyms,
etc.) are all examples of such decisions.

3.1.2 Periodical Indexes (you have treated this under periodical

and newspaper indexing)

Periodical indexes are listings of periodical articles in which citations are

entered by subject or in a categorised manner, and sometimes separately
or in a single alphabetical order under the author's names. They can be
broad, focused on a single academic topic or group of disciplines, or
limited to a certain type of publishing. Periodical indexes are tied to
journals, as the name implies, and there are two sorts of periodical
indexes: individual and broad indexes. Individual indexes are for
individual journals, and are prepared by the journal publisher, usually
under the direction of the journal editor; broad indexes are for a collection
of journals.

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3.1.3 Alphabetical Indexes

The single alphabetical index, in which names and subject entries are
placed together, is one of the most well-known indexing strategies. Many
individuals are familiar with this type of general-purpose and easy index
form. The most popular index style is alphabetical indexing, and many
index types follow this structure not only because it is straightforward to
design but also because it follows a well-known pattern that people are
familiar with. According to Cleveland & Cleveland (2001), alphabetical
indexes are based on the ordered principle of the letters of the alphabet
and are used to organise subject headings, cross-references, qualifying
phrases, and primary headings. All of the entries are alphabetised and
include subject words, author names, and location names. In order to
ensure its successful use, alphabetical index configurations frequently
include some aspect of classified order and vice versa.

3.1.4 Classified Indexes

This is an index with items organised into headings that indicate hierarchy
divisions and sub-divisions, as well as classes based on the subject matter
being indexed. It is not organised in the traditional alphabetical order;
instead, it is organized hierarchically, starting with connected themes and
working down to the particular. It's a method of organising information
by classes or subject titles. Users who are accustomed to using
alphabetical indexes find categorised indexes difficult to utilise because
the technique arrangement is unfamiliar to them. It is crucial to highlight,
however, that for readers who comprehend the hierarchical breakdown of
vocabulary provided by classified indexes, searching is easier and more
straightforward if users want to conduct general searches because the
breakdown of terms is frequently displayed.

3.1.5 Faceted Indexes

A set of sub-classes is created for a major class or subject using faceted

indexing based on a single attribute that they all share. For example, the
major class or subject area "People" can contain sub-classes based on age,
such as "children," "adults," and "elderly." Faceted indexing, in essence,
accentuates one side of something that has numerous other sides.
According to Cleveland & Cleveland (2001), every subject is not a single
Section in faceted indexing, but rather a collection of aspects;
consequently, a faceted index attempts to discover all of the individual
aspects of a subject and then synthesis them in a way that best describes
the subject.

A faceted indexing system is a type of controlled analysis in which

concepts are organized into categories by connecting them to other related

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fundamental concepts. This means that during indexing, faceted indexes

are pre-coordinated. It's a synthesized system that allows for the
accumulation of terms.

3.1.6 Internet and Multi-Media Indexes

Although it may be difficult to locate or identify an internet index, they

do exist in electronic form, allowing users to search in a non-linear
manner. They exist in automatic and implicit forms, rather than in the
precise form that we are familiar with. They aren't commonly called
indexes, but they perform indexing functions that allow users to go to
what they want utilising electronic nodes and links between nodes; online
indexes must be further improved due to the vast abundance of internet
resources, which is a difficulty. Librarians and indexers have advocated
for the structuring of internet resources beyond metadata. Images, audio,
and textual elements are all included in the multi-media index. The task
of indexing this multi-media information seems insurmountable,
however, there is a need to create and refine these media's indexing. The
information format of the 21th century is becoming increasingly multi-
media, and it is becoming increasingly important in all types of
communication systems.

3.1.7 Word Indexes

Word and name indexes, also known as concordances, are indexes to the
specific names and words used by the author, and they closely represent
the information and concepts that the author had in mind when writing
the book (Cleveland and Cleveland, 2001).

The terms employed in word indexes are the specific terms or words that
point the user to the subject and its location within the context of a
publication. A word index is a collection of terms and names that appear
in a work or document, organised alphabetically and with a reference to
the page number(s) on which each word or name appears in the text. Aside
from the general index or the subject index, not all books or documents
have a distinct word index. The word index is part of the back matter of a
single volume book, but it is normally found at the conclusion of the last
volume in a multi-volume work.

3.1.8 Cumulative Indexes

This refers to indexes that aggregate the entries from two or more
previously produced indexes into a single sequence, saving users time
when looking for information. A cumulative index is a collection of
indices that reflects the essence and impact of gathered data. Over time,
it combines set indexes. Journals, as well as big yet essential publications

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in discrete volumes, typically use cumulative indexes. Produced by a

group of indexers who came together due to the complexity of creating
cumulative indexes and the possibility of merging indexes from
established works spanning decades.

You have done a lot of work here, but it can still be simplified if you break
them down according to:

Type of material indexed, e.g, book, periodical and so on

By physical form e;g, printed, computerised
By arrangement e.g alphabetical and classified.

3.2 Indexing System

There are two different types of indexing systems available, pre-

coordinated and post-coordinate indexing. It's worth noting that when
concepts are joined or coordinated to generate complicated subjects, the
searcher may be the one to do so.

3.2.1 Pre-Coordinate Indexing System

Pre-Coordinate indexing is a method of indexing in which the indexer

combines several ideas to construct subject headings or descriptors
allocated to documents to aid the retrieval of information on compound
subjects. The coordination of entries is done while the index is being
created. It is a method of indexing in which an indexer breaks down a
complex subject into its constituent parts and then assembles these parts
in a predetermined sequence, such as entries in traditional classified and
alphabetical subject catalogues. A subject descriptor is chosen to
represent a document in pre-coordinated indexing, and it acts as the
document's principal term among other terms. One of the terms serves as
the lead term, with the others working in tandem with it. Before searching,
the user does this coordination; as a result, the user is able to locate
materials that are available on a specific subject. It's also a good idea to
look for additional topics that are relevant to the one you're studying.
The user is given the entire context of a subject in pre-coordinated
indexes. The classified catalogue, for example, is an example of pre-
coordinate indexing in the field of transportation, motor vehicles, and
buses. It's normally arranged in the manner of the scheme used for the
Library's shelf organisation strategy.

You can enrich this section by being more practical. E.g, give examples
of compound subjects and discuss how the indexer can select a lead
among the terms. Boost it up with examples from a subject heading list.

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3.2.2 Post-Coordinate Indexing System

Post-Coordinate indexing is a style of indexing in which the subject

headings or descriptors supplied to documents represent simple notions
that the user must integrate while searching for information on compound
subjects. It is an indexing system in which the indexer breaks down a
complex subject into its core concepts, but these concepts are not joined
until the search step. Out of the constituent concepts, post-coordinate
indexes are offered. The user or searcher must do the combination or
coordination procedure in accordance with his or her demands at the time.
Multiple concepts in a subject are split down into single concepts, which
the user or searcher subsequently combines to form the page. In essence,
there is no main or lead term because each term stands alone and can be
mixed based on the user's or searcher's interests. As a result, coordination
occurs at the time of searching.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The extent to which indexes follow this procedure from familiarisation

through content analysis and translation could well influence the index's
quality. Indexing strategies follow a process that necessitates indexers'
professional competence. It is a highly planned process that necessitates
the organisation and orderly skills of indexers. The indexing system, on
the other hand, refers to the process of assigning subject headings or
descriptors to documents. The purpose of a prepared index, whether it
uses the pre or post coordinate system, is to ensure that documents are
simply accessible and that user frustrations are minimised.

5.0 SUMMARY

The manner of organizing for many types of indexes is alphabetical.

Alphabetical indexes are the most popular sort of index, and they provide
consumers with an appropriate tidy layout. The alphabetical format is
used in books, word and author indexes, and so on. Classified indexes,
cumulative indexes, faceted indexes, and periodical indexes, as well as
our indexing system, were also described in this section. It's critical that
you can tell the difference between the types of indexes that are used.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Give a thorough description of Classified Indexes.

2. What is the relationship between author and word indexes?
3. Give an explanation for each of the following:
a. Alphabetical indexes
b. Internet and Multi-media Indexes
c. Faceted Indexes

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d. Periodical Indexes
e. Briefly explain the types of indexing systems

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

Bonura, L. S. (1994). The art of indexing. New York: John Wiley.

Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.

Cox, J. (2013). As I See It!--Abstracting and Indexing Services--The

Ostriches of Information. Against the Grain, 20(5), 32.

Hjørland, B. (1992). “The Concept of "Subject" in Information Science.”

Journal of Documentation. 48(2), 172- 200.

Hjørland, B. (2007). “Semantics and knowledge organisation.” Annual

Review of Information Science and Technology, 41, 367-405.

Lancaster, F. W. (2003). Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and

Practice. Illinois: University of Illinois.

Paolilli, J. C. (2010). “Linguistic and the Information Science”. In M. J.

Bates & M. N. Maack (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Library and
Information Science. (3rd ed.). CRC Press.

Rowley, J. E. & Farrow, J. (2000). Organising Knowledge: An

Introduction to Managing Access to Information. (3rd. ed.).
Alderstot: Gower Publishing Company.

Splenda, R. (2014). “Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting.”

Technical Services Quarterly, 31(3), 307-308.

Wellisch, H. H. 1995). Indexing A to Z. New York: H. W. Wilson.

Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of

Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8.

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

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Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of

Indexing Accessed. Retrieved from https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ 25/5/2021.

Osarome, O. (2017). History and Types of Indexes. Retrieved from

https://osarome.blogspot.com/

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UNIT 2 INDEXING LANGUAGES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Nature of Indexing Languages
3.2 Free indexing Language
3.3 Natural Indexing Language
3.4 Controlled Indexing Language
3.5 Purpose of controlled Vocabulary
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Indexing Language is a set of words used to describe the content of

documents or books in order for information users to find documents in a
library. Because both the indexer and the user are familiar with the
language, they both use it to describe documents. Retrieval becomes
easier as a result of this. It is the terminology used in an index to define
the subject or another part of the information or document. It's a method
of identifying or designating the subjects in a document.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the meaning and nature of indexing language

• explain the following sorts of indexing languages
• natural language indexing
• indexing language for free
• indexing language with constraints
• explain why regulated vocabulary is important.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Nature of Indexing Language

Indexing Language is a set of words or a set of words used to describe the

content of documents or books in order for information users to find
documents in a library. It is the terminology used in an index to define the
subject or another part of the information or document. There are three
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types of indexing languages: free, natural, and regulated indexing. An

Indexing Language is more than simply a collection of index phrases or
descriptors that information users may understand; it also includes ways
for organising and using terms. The use of standalone vocabulary terms
might lead to linguistic ambiguity. Language indexing allows users to
distinguish between terms, eliminating ambiguity in the language. When
the indexer and the user are familiar with the language of the index, it is
easier for the user to utilise and manipulate the retrieval system.

3.2 Free Indexing Language

Any word or term that fits the subject of the document can be used as an
indexing term in free Indexing Language. The indexer or the computer
may assign the term. It's more common when it comes to computers. The
words that can be used as index terms are not limited. The indexer can
choose the terms to use from the text being indexed, or the computer can
choose the terms in an automatic method. In free indexing, the indexer
starts from the beginning and builds up the terms. They choose the terms;
they have complete freedom to use whatever words they think are
required to express the intended meaning and subject content of
documents. In terms of the meaning of the words in the text, the indexer's
knowledge and background are crucial.

3.3 Natural Indexing Language

The wording of the document is closely followed during indexing. It's a

sort of open-source indexing language. The terms are assigned by the
indexer/computer depending on the language or title, abstracts, or other
information provided to it. The indexer uses the exact words or phrases
used by the document's author. This method of indexing, according to
Aina (2004), tends to disperse papers on the same subject, especially
when the authors use different terminology. The terms are chosen or
retrieved from the text with the assumption that the writers used words
that are relevant to the subject field; interacting with consumers in a
common language.

3.4 Controlled Indexing Language

The indexer is in charge of picking terms and exercising control over the
use of words or phrases designated as indexed terms in this form of
indexing language. He accomplishes this by attaching accepted index
words to terms that have been listed. The terms used are permitted for use
in controlled language indexes, as noted in the list. The indexer chooses
and assigns terms to documents based on this pre-determined list of terms.
These terms are subject descriptors drawn from a pre-determined and
standardised collection of terms. To verify that the terms used are

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consistent, the indexer reviews this standard list of terms. The topic
heading lists and thesauri, which are alphabetical listings and
classification schemes that assign notation to subject names, make up the
list sometimes referred to as the "Authority List." Indexers select
appropriate phrases from the vocabulary store or authority list to establish
the topic matter of documents. He chose the subject descriptors from a
controlled vocabulary that defined the document's author's concepts.

3.5 Purpose of controlled Vocabulary

Natural or free indexing language allows for a depth of expression that

allows for excellent communication, but it also has a semantic complexity
that allows for faulty comprehension. The unrestricted use of language
creates problems that are not immediately apparent. Because of the wide
range of word possibilities, readers may struggle to find what they're
looking for. As a result, a variety of controlled vocabularies, such as
classification schemes, topic authority files, and thesaurus, have been
developed. Controlled vocabulary solves a number of semantic issues and
allows for the identification of generic links. It groups related concepts
into a single index phrase so that they aren't scattered over the index under
several synonyms. According to Cleveland and Cleveland (2001), the
controlled vocabulary has the following characteristics since it takes both
the indexer and the user to the same location in the system:

• It gives a guide to the index user by re-presenting the general

conceptual structure of a subject area.
• The terms are obtained as precisely as feasible from the user's own
technical usage, and they closely reflect the literature vocabulary.
• It provides a standard vocabulary by restricting synonyms and
near-synonyms to promote consistency, and it uses a large number
of pre-coordinated phrases to prevent false drops.
• It clarifies unclear terminology when necessary.
• It enables horizontal and vertical relationships between terms
using cross-references.

4.0 CONCLUSION

As a result of the above, you should appreciate the value of free/natural

language over controlled indexing language. Both the indexer and the user
benefit from indexing languages because both are expected to be fluent in
the language. Controlled vocabulary and thesaurus aid in ensuring that
indexed terms are constantly consistent and adhere to standardisation.

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5.0 SUMMARY

The features of indexing languages, the realities of free indexing, and

natural indexing languages were all clearly addressed in this section. The
importance of controlled vocabulary, which emphasises control over
terms chosen as indexed terms, as well as its purpose and qualities, were
discussed. Thesaurus construction, its features, and the construction
technique were all thoroughly detailed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Examine the characteristics of indexing languages.

2. Compare and contrast the characteristics of controlled and natural
indexing languages.
3. What are controlled indexing languages and how do you use them?
4. What distinguishes controlled vocabulary from other types of
vocabulary?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). “Types of

Indexing Accessed.” Retrieved from https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ on 25/5/2021.

Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.

Lancaster, F. W. (1991). Indexing and Abstracting: Theory and Practice.

London: Library Association.
Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of
Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8.
Osarome, O. (2017). “History and Types of Indexes.” Retrieved from
https://osarome.blogspot.com/ on 25/2021.
Reitz, J, M. (2004). Dictionary of Library and Information Science.
London: Libraries Unlimited.

Rowley, J. E. (1988). Indexing and Abstracting. London: Clive Bingley.

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World
Heritage Encyclopedia.

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UNIT 3 INDEXING TECHNIQUES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Indexing Process
3.2 Familiarisation
3.3 Content Analysis
3.4 Translation
3.5 Depth of Indexing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The indexing techniques are integrated into the stages leading up to the
construction of the index, which acts as a pointer to the contents of the
documents. When used effectively, the strategies provide index terms or
descriptors of topic intent, decreasing the effort or time required by a user
to locate information of interest in a document or set of documents.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the significant details of the indexing process

• identify and explain the stages of the indexing process
• explain the exhaustiveness and specificity in the indexing
processes.

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 The Indexing Process

The indexing process aims to detect data recorded in a record and organise
the links to that data into a searchable file. The indexing process is
meticulous and demands time. The process yields an index that lists
subjects and their applications for documents. Finally, the index serves as
a link to the information in the document. A good index is the result of a
professional activity performed by indexers with the necessary training
and expertise. It is not a job for the faint of heart. The indexing process

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entails processes and techniques that have been fine-tuned and perfected
over decades and that can be mastered.

A professional indexer analyses or scans the text of each document to

assess its content, after which he selects appropriate headers, such as
persons, places, or subjects, to enable retrieval. Synonyms are then used
to create cross-references, and the entries are organized alphabetically,
numerically, or categorically. This had evolved over time in an open-end
index design.

Indexing can be done by a person, a machine, or both. The following is

how Cleveland and Cleveland (2001) described the general process or
techniques of indexing:

• Determine which themes in the item are relevant to the document's

intended audience.
• Determine which subjects best capture the document's
information.
• Choose terms that are as close to the terminology used in the paper
as feasible.
• Organize references to material that is spread throughout the
document's text.
• Create related headings by combining headings and subheadings.
• Use see references to direct users looking for information under
terms that aren't being used to terms that are being used, as well as
to similar terms with see also references.
• Organize the index into a logical sequence.

Indexing information packages entails a number of procedures. However,

Hjorland (1992, 1997, 2007) described some of the mechanisms that are
involved in indexing.

• Subject Analysis
The initial stage in indexing is to determine the document's
contents. The indexer would assess the subject matter in terms of
answers to a set of questions such as "Does the document deal with
a specific product, condition, or phenomenon?" when manually
indexing. Because the indexer's knowledge and experience
influence the analysis, two indexers may examine the content
differently and hence come up with various index words. This will
have an impact on retrieval success.

• Term selection
The subject analysis is translated into a collection of index terms
in the second stage of indexing. Extracting from the document or
assigning from a controlled vocabulary are two options. With the
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capacity to conduct a full-text search being widely available, many

people have learned to rely on their own expertise in conducting
information searches, and full-text search has grown in popularity.
The importance of subject indexing and its experts, professional
indexers, catalogers, and librarians, in the organisation and
retrieval of information remains undeniable. These experts are
familiar with controlled vocabularies and can locate information
that cannot be found by a full-text search. Expert analysis to
develop subject indexing is difficult to compare to the expense of
technology, software, and manpower to produce a comparable set
of full-text, fully searchable documents. Social tagging has grown
in popularity, particularly on the web, thanks to innovative web
tools that allow anybody to annotate content. Despite the
information revolution, one indexing application, the book index,
has remained mostly intact.

• Convert the Key Terms into Thesaurus

At this stage keywords are converted in thesaurus indicating a
relationship among terms:

This might include: Broader Term (BT), Narrower Term (NT),

Related Term (RT), Used For (UF). Converting key terms into
thesaurus terms is very important in index construction as it allows
easy identification and retrieval of terms.

• Extraction indexing
The topic of linguistics, according to Paolillo (2010), includes the
study of the meaning embedded in natural language expression, as
well as the belief that common expressions are often not reflected
in their literal meaning. Extraction indexing is the process of
extracting words from a document. It makes use of natural
language and lends itself well to automated procedures such as
calculating word frequencies and using those that exceed a pre-
determined threshold as index words. A stop-list with common
words like and would be referred to, and such stop words would
be excluded as index terms. By indexing single words rather than
phrases, automated extraction indexing may result in the loss of
meaning of terms. Although it is easy to extract frequently
occurring phrases, it becomes more challenging when significant
concepts are expressed in words that are inconsistently phrased.
Even with the usage of a stop-list to eliminate common terms like
"the," automated extraction indexing faces the issue that some
frequently used words may not be effective for discriminating
between documents. The phrase glucose, for example, is likely to
appear frequently in any paper relating to diabetes. As a result,
using this phrase will likely yield the majority, if not all, of the

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documents in the database. Post-coordinate indexing, in which

terms are merged at the time of searching, would lessen this effect,
but the searcher, rather than the information professional, would
be responsible for linking acceptable terms. Furthermore, concepts
that are used infrequently may be quite important. For example, a
new medicine may be discussed infrequently, but the novelty of
the issue makes any citation essential. A relative frequency
approach, in which the frequency of a word in a document is
compared to the frequency of the database as a whole, is one
method for allowing rarer terms to be included and common words
to be rejected by automated processes. As a result, an index term
could be a term that appears more frequently in a document than
would be predicted based on the rest of the database, whereas
phrases that appear equally frequently throughout will be
eliminated. Another issue with automated extraction is that it
misses when an idea is mentioned but not specified in the text by
an indexable term.
• Index Presentation
The final step in the indexing process is to arrange the entries in a
logical order. It's possible that this will entail linking entries. In a
pre-coordinated index, the indexer considers how a user would
frame their search when determining the order in which terms are
linked in an entry. The entries in a post-coordinated index are
given independently, and the user can link them together via
searches, which are most typically carried out using computer
software. In comparison to pre-coordination, post-coordination
results in a loss of precision.

3.2 Familiarisation

The indexer must have a general understanding of the document. Indexers

familiarize themselves with the material by reading the title, preface,
forward, content paper, and so on. They may also choose to browse
through the chapters. In the same manner that an abstractor immerses
himself in the text, the indexer must be familiar with the topic material of
documents. The indexer is curious about the content of the document, and
he examines the texts with great care. When he does this, he must also
consider the user; he must put himself in the shoes of the users.

Indexers must learn to assess the general purpose, scope, and intended
users of documents in addition to generating keywords from the text.
Familiarisation entails cognitive processes involving the indexer who
generates information and the applications of that information, in addition
to understanding the text coverage of surface material.

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3.3 Content Analysis

The indexer employs his expertise and judgment to identify the topics
covered in the book or document during the analysis step. The stage is
mostly determined by the indexer's intuition and experience, as well as
the index's anticipated application. The topics chosen should reflect how
the index will be used, as well as the document's core focus. The indexer
must choose whether or not to index minor or secondary items.

At this point, the indexer is examining the subject. The chosen index
terms are thought to be reflective of the original article or work. It is
important to note that the amount of time spent on the analysis will be
determined by the type of the book or document as well as the indexer's
experience. The index adheres to guidelines set forth by the indexer or the
organization for which he or she works. These rules outline which content
descriptors should be used and which should be avoided. The content
examination is made easier by an indexer's familiarity with the discipline
in question. In a circumstance where terminology usage is restricted, the
indexer will not use the words directly or as a point of access. Rather, the
phrases will be converted into the system's indexing language, which is
the same language that the indexer and information searcher utilize. The
Library of Congress Subject Heading List (LCSH) and the Sears List of
Subject Headings are two examples of controlled vocabularies (SLSH).

3.4 Translation

The indexer selects terms from an indexing vocabulary that fit the
concepts to be indexed during the translation step. He assigns subject
descriptors from a controlled vocabulary or language with which the
field's users are familiar. However, if there is no requirement for
vocabulary control, such as in book indexing or electronic indexes, the
translation stage may not be required. The subject analysis is transformed
into a list of index terms. Extracting from the document or assigning from
a controlled vocabulary are two options. With the capacity to conduct a
full-text search being widely available, many people have learned to rely
on their own expertise in conducting information searches, and full-text
search has grown in popularity. The importance of subject indexing and
its experts, professional indexers, catalogers, and librarians, in the
organisation and retrieval of information remains undeniable.

3.5 Depth of Indexing

The two aspects of indexing that are connected to depth are

exhaustiveness and specificity. The depth of indexing is a result of these
two factors. The phrase "exhaustively" refers to the indexer's use of all
possible terms for a given document. Several index words will almost

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certainly be assigned to such papers, but it is crucial to note that this does
not necessarily imply exhaustiveness. It is widely assumed that if a
document is fully indexed, it will be easier to find because it contains a
larger number of terms. Index exhaustivity can be affected by a variety of
factors, including corporate policy, money, time, and the user's needs.

The term "specificity" refers to how precisely indexers have described

documents. The degree to which a topic is pinpointed in a hierarchical
tree of terms by a particular term. The more precise a term, the more
precise the search result. To put it another way, more of the things
returned will closely match the user's query keywords.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The phases or processes of indexing are referred to as techniques. This

Section looked at indexing, which was described as a time-consuming
process requiring orderliness and patience on the indexer's part. In the
familiarisation stage, the indexer must be acquainted with the document.
While content analysis focuses on assigning relevant terms to documents
and picking terms that match concepts to be indexed from a regulated
language, translation focuses on assigning relevant terms to documents
and selecting terms that match concepts to be indexed.

5.0 SUMMARY

The Section has demonstrated that indexing strategies follow a process

that necessitates indexers' professional competence. It is a highly planned
process that necessitates the organization and orderly skills of indexers.
The extent to which indexes follow this procedure from familiarization
through content analysis and translation could well influence the index's
quality. Overall, it is critical that the process of indexing documents
results in exhaustivity and specificity.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Give a thorough description of the indexing procedure.

2. List the general indexing processes to be followed.
3. Discuss the stages of indexing.
• Familiarisation
• Analysis of Content
• Translation
4. Explain the terms "exhaustivity" and "specificity" as they relate to
indexing.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of

Indexing. Accessed via https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ 25/5/2021.

Capacity Building in Classification, Indexing, and Abstracting Skills.

Library Philosophy and Practice. (e-journal) 601

Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). “Introduction to Indexing

and Abstracting.” Clinical Neuroradiology, 20(2), 7S9-80.

Falkowski, G., & Guthöhrlein, H. (2010). Indexing, Abstracting. New

Look of our Journal.

Gemmins, E.T. (1982) The Art of Abstracting. Philadelphia: ISI Press.

Greenwood: Libraries Unlimited.

Imo, N. T., & Igbo, U. H. (2011). Providing Access to Knowledge in

Africa.

Lancaster, F.W. (2003). Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practice.

(3rd ed.). Illinois: Libraries Unlimited.

Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of

Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8.

Osarome, O. (2017). History and Types of Indexes accessed via

https://osarome.blogspot.com/

Splenda, R. (2014). “Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting.”

Technical Services Quarterly.

Taylor, A. G., & Joudrey, D. N. (2004). The organisation of Information.

Westport, CT: University of Illinois (p. 77).

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

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LIS 306 MODULE 2

UNIT 4 BIBLIOGRAPHIC CONTROL

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Bibliographic Control
3.2 Functions of Bibliographic Control
3.3 Types of Bibliographic Control
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A bibliography is a list of reference materials (including any type of

information; text, music, paintings, video, etc.) that elucidates the type,
nature, and other detailed information based on the materials' name, date,
location, and genre. The process of creating, exchanging, preserving, and
using data on information resources is known as bibliographic control.
The organizing of library items to enable discovery, management,
identification, and access is known as bibliographic control.
Bibliographic management is as old as libraries, and our contemporary
practices are direct successors of 19th-century librarianship. Formal
bibliographic control has existed for thousands of years, but it was
only in the 19th and 20th centuries that modern approaches were
established and implemented. This time was defined by a set of
cataloguing codes. These codes governed the construction of library
catalogues, which were first printed in books, then on cards, and lastly
in electronic formats, such as Machine-Readable Cataloging (MARC).
The introduction of shared cataloguing programs during this time
allowed for the development of resource-saving copy cataloguing
processes. Cataloguing networks such as OCLC and RLG facilitated
the growth of such programs. The notion of bibliographic control
advanced during the 20th century, culminating in the early 21th
century Statement of International Cataloguing Principles and IFLA's
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records, which included
the 1961 Paris Principles (FRBR). Bibliographic control began to be
applied to newly invented electronic media as "metadata" toward the
conclusion of the century. The current trend is for collaborative and
multinational approaches to bibliographic control to continue to grow.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the meaning of bibliographic control

• identify and explain the areas of concern for bibliographic control
• explain the functions of bibliographic control.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Bibliographic Control

A bibliography is a list of reference materials (including any type of

content; text, music, paintings, video, etc.) that elucidates the type, nature,
and other detailed information based on the materials' name, date,
location, and genre. Bibliographic control comes in a variety of forms.
The organising of library items to enable discovery, management,
identification, and access is known as bibliographic control.
Bibliographical control is a broad phrase that encompasses a variety of
bibliographic tasks, such as standardising bibliographic descriptions and
distributing union catalogues (Keenan, 2000). It is the process of
identifying, describing, analysing, and classifying books and other
communication materials so that they may be efficiently organised, kept,
retrieved, and used as needed (Infoplease, 2009). Bibliographic control,
on a national level, is a system that allows for the identification and
placement of information sources within a country's borders (Snyman,
2000; Retha, 2000).

If we can quickly locate complete and correct information on all the items
that may be requested for any distinctive body of printed literature of
theme, or a physical or literary form - we say that the bibliographic control
for that collection of documents is good. However, even when applied to
a subject with a limited extended range, bibliographical control is rarely
perfect in reality. It would be tough enough to maintain bibliographic
control if it just applied to writings that were printed as separate entities.
It also applies to articles in journals and chapters or sections of books with
many contributors that are released as distinct publications. These hidden
contributions to knowledge may thus be really valuable, but they may be
disregarded when they would be especially useful if bibliographers did
not take the initiative and work so hard. The mastery of written or
published records, which is and for the offered by purpose bibliography,
is referred to as bibliographical control. The term "bibliographical" refers
to the use of bibliographies to gain access to information. Bibliographical
control is concerned with the location of information sources or items, as
well as the speed with which they can be found. As a result, librarians

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should have access to comprehensive records of human civilisation and

culture, as well as the ability to efficiently organise them for use. In order
for national bibliographic control to be effective, the following
requirements must be met:

1. A depositing rule.
2. Supporting committees and investigations
3. A regulatory, controlling, and advisory body
4. Supporting committees and investigations
5. A diverse set of bibliographic resources addressing many aspects
of the nation's recorded heritage
6. Adherence to national and international regulations, as well as
technical advancements (example, computerization, use of the
internet)
7. Institutions, consortia, professional organizations, interest groups,
and competent and devoted individuals at a national level
8. Research initiatives and programs
9. National bibliographic control literature reporting

If we can find comprehensive and complete knowledge about a country,

a subject, or a physical or literary form in any distinctive body of printed
materials, we can claim that the bibliographical control of that set of
papers is very good. However, bibliographical control of all forms of
materials is quite difficult in practice, as we are dealing with not only
published or printed materials, but also parts of materials, journal articles,
and any other type of published or unpublished material. Only after World
War II did bibliographical control become effective or apparent, thanks
to UNESCO's efforts to encourage all countries around the world to
publish national bibliographies. The formal event that is regarded as a
watershed moment occurred in 1974 when the International Federation of
Library Associations (IFLA) declared Universal Bibliographic Control as
one of its key programs. Some of the constraints of bibliographical control
have been overcome in the last decade or two thanks to the usage of online
computerised bibliographic records. Subject, form (physical and literary),
place, period, breadth (a bibliography can be selective or thorough), and
the quantity of data provided in individual entries are all important aspects
in bibliographic control. If all of the subject areas are taken into
consideration, the number of bibliographies will be enormous. However,
in fact, this must have some restrictions because otherwise, its usage
would be impossible. As a result, concise bibliographies on a wide range
of topics are generated for use purposes, making the publications more
accessible.

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3.2 Functions of Bibliography

Rogler (1983) stressed that bibliographic control has six major functions:

1. Recognising the existence of a variety of information resources as

they become available. Before an information resource can be
found, its presence and identity must be known.
2. Identifying the works that are contained within or as part of such
information resources. Multiple works may be stored in a single
package, or one work may span multiple packages, depending on
the level of granularity necessary.
3. Collecting these knowledge resources in libraries, archives,
museums, and internet communication files, among other
repositories, in a systematic manner. In other words, putting these
items into collections so that they can be useful to the user.
4. Creating a list of various information resources that follows
standard citation guidelines. Library catalogues, indexes, and
archival finding aids are examples of retrieval aids.
5. Providing access to various information resources by name, title,
subject, and other relevant information. There should be several
access points if there are different methods to find an item. There
must be sufficient metadata in the surrogate record for users to
locate the information resource they want. The consistency of
these access points can be achieved by authority control.
6. Providing a mechanism for locating or copying each information
resource. The Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) at libraries
can direct users to information (such as a call number) and indicate
whether such an item is available.

3.3 Types of Bibliographic Control Tools, Include Databases,

Indexes and Catalogues

3.3.1 Bibliography of Bibliographies

These are bibliography lists that assist users in selecting bibliographies.

They assist with the tracing of bibliographies. Bibliographic control of
bibliographies is problematic for a variety of reasons. The key reason is
that there are a large number of usable bibliographies. Aside from that, it
can be difficult to determine whether a bibliography on a given topic
exists and is appropriate for a specific user, as well as whether it is
worthwhile to obtain it if it is not in stock. The final factor is the expense,
as major bibliographies are costly to purchase and store. As a result,
bibliographic management of bibliographies is spotty. A well-known
publication The World Bibliography of Bibliographies by Besterman is
currently out of date. As a result, the user's only option is H.W. Wilson's
half-yearly Bibliographic Index 1937. Walford's Guide to Reference
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Materials and Sheehy's Guide to Reference Books contain many of the

main bibliographies now in use. Many of our bibliographical queries may
be fully supplied by internet databases in the near future.

3.3.2 Universal Bibliographic Control

At the worldwide level, document bibliographic control has always been

a challenge. Librarians have been concerned about this problem, which
has gotten worse over the previous five decades as the volume and variety
of publications has increased dramatically. The initiative to compile a
Universal Bibliography was previously noted. As a result, there are no
known universal bibliographies. However, following WWII, UNESCO
took the initiative and underlined that if all countries maintained their
current national bibliographies, it may lead to globally effective control
of publications. Despite the passage of time, nothing solid has resulted
from this. The IFLA-sponsored Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC)
program, which began in 1979, emerged to be far more authentic because
it was based on the recognition that efficient bibliographic control must
begin within individual nations and that the transfer of bibliographic
information on them is fostered by treaty on bibliographical depiction.

3.3.3 History of Bibliographic Control

The concept of bibliographic control as we know it now is quite new.

Libraries in the Middle Ages retained records of their holdings, and
ancient civilisations inscribed lists of books onto tablets. Multiple copies
of a single book could be printed fast after the printing press was invented
in the 15th century. A German librarian named Johann Tritheim was the
first to construct a chronological bibliography with an alphabetical author
index. In the next century, Konrad Gesner followed in his footsteps by
publishing an author bibliography and subject index. He added an
alphabetical list of authors with inverted names to his bibliography, which
was a novel method. He also mentioned different spellings of author's
names, which was a predecessor of authority control. Andrew Maunsell
further changed bibliographic control by proposing that a book be
searchable by the author's surname, the book's subject, and the translator.
Sir Thomas Bodley was interested in a catalogue organised alphabetically
by the author's last name as well as subject listings in the 17th century. In
1697, Frederic Rostgaard proposed subject divisions based on both
chronology and size (whereas previously, titles were sorted just by their
size), as well as a subject and author index by last name, and the
preservation of word order in titles based on the title page.

France's government was the first to issue a national code giving rules for
classifying library collections following the French Revolution. Anthony
Panizzi produced his "Ninety-One Cataloging Standards" (1841) at the

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British Museum Library, which effectively served as the foundation for

cataloguing rules in the 19th and 20th centuries. ISBD and Dublin Core
are both based on Panizzi's "91 Rules." Charles C. Jewett employed
Panizzi's "91 Rules" at the Smithsonian Institution, bringing Americans
into the field of cataloguing, which had previously been dominated by
Europeans.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Bibliographies are useful tools for tracking down and identifying diverse
publications. They also aid in the discovery of data in publications.
Bibliographies are expensive because they need a significant amount of
effort, time, and money to prepare. This has additional impact because,
by their very nature, they tend to attract primarily institutional buyers.

5.0 SUMMARY

The Section has demonstrated that bibliographic control is critical for

library work and for research scholars to complete their studies. They can
also be used to identify papers, determine their presence, and choose
content for libraries. As a result, they must be comprehensive and
available in a variety of formats, including universal, national, trade, and
subject bibliographies.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Give a detailed account of the bibliographic control.

2. Describe the six most important roles of bibliographic control.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Davinson, D. (1981). Bibliographic Control. (2nd ed.). London: Clive

Bingley.

Guha, B. (1983). Documentation and Information: Services, Techniques

and Systems. (2nd ed.). Calcutta: The World Press Robinson.

Flourie I, Burger M (2007). “Bibliographic Control in South Africa.”

World Library and Information Congress: 73rd IFLA General
Conference and Council IFLA (International Federation of Library
Associations and Institutions) (1979). International Office for
UBC.

Infoplease (2009). “Encyclopedia, Almanac, Atlas, Biographic,

Dictionary, Thesaurus.” Retrieved from www.infoplease.com on
20th April, 2021.

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Keenan, S. (2000). Concise Dictionary of Library and Information

Science. London.

Bowker-Saur Lewin. A.M. (1979). Systematic Bibliography. (4th ed.).

London: Clive Bingley.

Ronald, H. (1983). The Bibliographic Record and Information

Technology via https://www.goodreads. com/author/show/604795

Snyman, R. (2000). “Bibliographic Control-Is the current training still

relevant?” In IFLA Council and General Conference: Conference
Proceedings 66th Jerusalem, Israel, August, 13-18.

Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of

Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8.

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). “Types of

Indexing.” Accessed via https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ 25/5/2021

Osarome, O. (2017). “History and Types of Indexes.” Accessed via

https://osarome.blogspot.com/

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MODULE 3 COMPUTERISED INDEXING SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Computerised Indexing
3.2 Automated Method of Index Production
3.3 Computers as Indexing Tool
3.4 Indexing Using a Computer
3.5 Indexing Software
3.6 Internet and Indexing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Computerised indexing is the process of indexing information resources

using electronic equipment, specifically computers. Computers are being
used for indexing more and more these days. Today's indexers are well-
versed in the most up-to-date software and gear. The relevance of
computers and other technology in the indexing process is now
recognised by indexers. This section covers automated indexing methods,
computer use as a tool for indexing, various indexing software, and the
impact of technology on indexing.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify and describe automated indexing methods

• discuss the use of computers as an indexing tool
• develop skills for computerised indexing
• identify indexing software
• describe how the internet affects indexing.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Computerised Indexing

Automated indexing is the use of computer other related technology in

indexing activities. Computerised indexing is the process of using a

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computer to process natural language text extraction that is already in

machine-readable form in order to assign indexing terms to its content
without the need for direct human interaction. This development has
brought a lot of transformation into indexing activities and practice.

3.2 Automated Method of Index Production

Automated indexing is the use of computer other related technology in

indexing activities. This development has brought a lot of transformation
into indexing activities and practice. There are computerised indexes for
keywords in context (KWIC) and keywords out of context (KWOC)
under the automated indexing method. Permuted indexes are another
name for them. These are non-traditional indexing techniques; the more
common ones include classification schemes and subject headings. The
concept behind keyword indexing is that specific keyword are good tools
for accessing information. The essential assumption is that indexing can
be done using words rather than concepts. It also operates on the concept
that keywords can be created from abstracts or taken from book or
document titles. The substance of a keyword aids in defining or
explaining its application in order to direct searchers to the correct article
or paper. The KWIC index is most commonly used with titles, although
it can also be used with abstracts or older texts, as well as manually with
word additions and deletions. The following are KWIC's advantages:
Putting objects into the system requires very little or no mental effort. All
that is required is for the titles to be produced in electronic form so that
the machine can develop and print appropriate entries quickly.

You can give an example of a KWIC index and that of KWOC, so that
students can easily differentiate them. E.g.
KWIC index
Why my horse doesn’t drink (full title)
Doesn’t drink why my (Index terms highlighted in the middle)
Why my horse doesn’t
KWOC index
Keywords Title

drink Why my horse doesn’t drink

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horse Why my horse doesn’t drink

Works by separating the keyword from the title

Example-Title: Computerisation of Libraries in India
FORMAT1
COMPUTERISATION Computerisation of libraries in India 1289
INDIA Computerisation of libraries in India 1289
LIBRARIES Computerisation of libraries in Indian 1289
FORMAT 2
COMPUTERISATION
Computerization of libraries in India 1289
INDIA
Computerisation of libraries in India 1289
LIBRARIES
Computerisation of libraries in India 1289

These entries are then filed in an alphabetical sequence in the file of

the KWOC index.

Quick indexes are simple and affordable to create thanks to the usage of
computers. Aside from efficiency and speed, In what is known as enriched
KWIC or KWOC indexes, additional phrases are included to give more
index entries, and KWIC indexes may be easily updated with new
contents.  It's simple to use; some users prefer an alphabetical list of terms
because it's a faster way to find articles than the traditional topic heading
index, which alphabetises articles by the author within subjects. The
following are KWIC's subject merits: It indexes titles as the primary or
single source of information. For example, in Science and Engineering,
article titles commonly indicate the substance, whereas content is
revealed less frequently in nontechnical subjects.

When producing articles or documents, authors are urged to include at

least six significant words or keywords, as well as indexing terms. The
indexer can only be as specific as the author allows, and many titles only
give a basic overview of the articles' subject matter. In the preparation of
the KWIC index, each document is given a code number, which may be
an accession number, journal code, or the authors' name. Indexers are
limited in terms of exhaustivity by the extent to which the author includes
details in the title. The data is subsequently entered into a computer,
together with the code number and bibliographic reference information.
The indexer reads all of the titles and tags each significant term, allowing
the computer to produce an entry for each tagged word in one of two
ways. By providing a stop list of terms to the computer, the computer
understands that it will not index the words in the stop list (insignificant

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words as in the stop list). After that, the computer creates an index for
every word that isn't on the stop list. It also arranges the entries
alphabetically before printing them with their code number and
bibliographic reference. Consider the following title: Resource Centre
Facilities for Visually and Print Impaired People in Nigeria. The terms for
and in are used as stop words. Resource Centre, Facilities, Visually/Print
Impaired, Nigeria are the keywords extracted. The term is printed in
context, making it easier for the user to locate.

3.3 Computers as Indexing Tool

For years, the indexing community has debated whether computers can
perform the duties of an indexer. People have questioned whether a
machine could be an effective indexer. What is known is that the
computer is a human creation, and its effectiveness will be determined by
the human mind's ingenuity. The text of the paper had been successfully
transformed into machine-readable form, and all that remained was to
program the computer with the right rules in order to achieve the indexing
of our dreams. The computer is, without a doubt, an effective indexing
tool for the following reasons: − Computers are fast, and one of their
selling points is their speed. Is it possible for the human mind to work as
quickly as a computer? The computer's speed allows it to complete tasks
that would be impossible to complete manually. The computer's speed has
made it simple to complete potentially dangerous tasks. It has been
claimed that a computer can finish a task in 15 seconds or less that would
take a human eight or nine months to complete if the person worked 24
hours a day, seven days a week, using paper and pencil (Cleveland and
Cleveland, 2001).

Computers are programmed to carry out tasks in a logical order and are
meant to follow instructions automatically. programs are stored in the
computer, which then executes the instructions one by one. Humans
simply need to enter data into the computer when it is required, and it will
then carry out its tasks without human interference. Computers are precise
machines that make few errors. It rarely makes a computation error,
regardless of how large the data is. It is a trustworthy gadget that can be
used by anyone. When people provide the computer with incorrect or
erroneous data or instructions, the computer will process the information
according to the data provided. The computer encourages rigorous
problem study and will only work on a problem that has been
meticulously analyzed and mapped out. The computer, on the other hand,
malfunctions when programmers fail to comprehend the problem at hand.
Before installing a computer, it is critical to have a thorough
understanding of the problem or the system being automated. Online
database searching, indexing, the construction and maintenance of

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thesauri, general reference service, cataloguing and categorising labour,

and other duties have all been made easier by computers.

Indexing has benefited from the use of computers. The indexer looks for
surrogates that represent the information in the indexed document. But
how effective is a machine at indexing a document with a lot of
information? A computer can make judgements in the areas of number
comparison, character comparison, and machine system testing,
according to Cleveland and Cleveland (2001). Its most basic capacity, and
the limit of its intellectual ability, is to make a judgment based on the
relative magnitude of two integers. The capacity of a programmer to use
a computer's simple, logical ability determines the computer's decision-
making power. In this analysis, it is appropriate to state that computers
cannot index on their own, but that they can easily construct a
concordance, which is a list of words or phrases and where they appear,
but you will agree with me that this is not an index and may not be useful
for someone funding information. No indexing software can index books
because book indexing requires the manipulation and structuring of
concepts and information contained in documents, which the computer
cannot and will likely never be able to achieve for many years.

When the text of a document is saved to a computer disk, however, the

indexing features of applications can easily manage page numbers and
sorting. The main indexing labour will still be done by a human, but his
job will be made easier by the use of software that helps with index
sorting, editing, and formatting. Because human indexing is a costly
endeavour, indexers' attention has shifted to the use of computers for
indexing. Computers, on the other hand, have shown to be a poor
substitute for the human brain. Programs that can understand natural
languages have yet to be written by programmers. Human judgments are
still relied on by computers; no computer has this competence, and certain
value judgments are essential in indexing and abstracting.

3.4 Indexing Software

The following are the general categories of indexing software as defined

by Cleveland and Cleveland (2001):

* Computer-assisted Indexes
* Embedded Software
* Stand-alone Software
* Automated Indexing Software ( would be nice to explain the points
outlined by Cleveland 2001 by taking them one after the other)

The embedding program inserts indexing codes into electronic texts and
enables text updates as needed. When the file changes, the tags change to

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the terms, and the indexer tags the texts with terms. The indexer can work
independently of the publication or document being indexed with stand-
alone software. It is employed in the indexing of books. By searching the
content of documents, the automated indexing program creates a list of
words. Machine-assisted indexing software differs from automated
indexing software in that it allows humans to undertake the real
intellectual work of indexing while the computer takes care of the boring
stuff. A human scans a document and marks the places that need to be
indexed, such as the title, methodology, results, first and final sentences
in paragraphs, and so on. The document is entered into the computer,
which creates words using typical automatic indexing procedures. After
that, a person edits and makes adjustments as needed, while the machine
finishes the task by doing the necessary manipulations. The PRECIS
system is a good example of this type of system. Automatic formatting
style, entering and edition entry techniques, sorting order printing effects,
and merging index capability are some relevant recommendations for
evaluating indexing software, according to Fetters (1994) referenced in
(Cleveland & Cleveland 2001).

3.5 Internet and Indexing

The internet has given us tremendous access to endless information, but

it has also brought with it a slew of challenges and issues. One of the most
serious issues for librarians and indexers is how to arrange the vast
amount of information available on the internet. For indexers and
abstractors, the internet has also proven to be a useful communication
tool. They use the internet to discuss their activities and job since it is
quick, inexpensive, and convenient. The lack of a unified standard for
knowledge organisation, browsing methods, and other protocols has been
recognised as making internet use and search relatively challenging.

Conservative indexers found the internet to be unappealing since using

regulated languages for search can result in a small number of hits
compared to using free languages. Search engines are programs that scan
web pages in order to index them for use in a search engine. They are also
known as web indexes since they search the content of web pages. They
go to websites to pick and detect information updates, but they frequently
fail to find what they're looking for. The search engine compares user
queries to likely terms from its database of websites, then presents the
searcher with an ordered list based on a ranking algorithm. Because the
information on online pages is continually changing, search engines that
use a searching mechanism called a robot, spider, or crawler may not be
able to retrieve what is needed. Low recall, uneven quality, large
variances in indexing depth, and a lack of advanced searching capabilities
are some of the flaws of web crawling robot indexes. A web index has the
same purpose of finding information as a search engine, but it directs you

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to millions of files. The internet can be thought of as a massive database

of information, some of which is untrustworthy, provocative, and
deceptive. The information on the internet is never organised in the same
way that it is in an online catalogue database. In essence, there is no
standards or bibliographic control on how the material is organised on the
internet. The internet is complicated and chaotic information and
knowledge repository.

4.0 CONCLUSION

From the foregoing, it is clear that automated indexing systems have their
advantages; yet, the fact that the human mind aids the computer in the
indexing process suggests that the computer may not be capable of
producing good indexes on its own. Human intelligence is essential for
good indexing, and we must develop computers and software that will
allow us to minimize our indexing responsibilities to those that the
machine can handle. The computer is a product of human ingenuity.

5.0 SUMMARY

Keywords in context and keywords out of content systems are used to

illustrate the benefits and drawbacks of automated indexes in this section.
Computers are also used to teach the KWIC preparation process. The
section went on to highlight the relevance of computers as indexing tools
and why they would continue to be beneficial for indexing in the future.
It also briefly explains how indexing is done on computers, the different
types and classes of indexing software, and the relationship between
indexing and the internet, at least from the perspective of librarians and
indexers.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe the following: Keyword in Context (KWIC) and

Keyword out of Context (KWOC) are two automated indexing
approaches (KWOC).
2. What are the KWIC system's advantages and disadvantages?
3. What are the advantages of using a computer for indexing?
4. How important are computers in indexing compared to humans in
which areas?
5. What types of indexing software are there?
6. What are the internet's inadequacies when it comes to indexing?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

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Arms, W. Y. (2009). “How Effectively Can Computers be Used for

Skilled Tasks of Professional Librarianship?” ETD-Educação
Temática Digital, 2(1).50-55

Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.

Fetters L. K. (1994). A Guide to Indexing Software (5th ed.). Port Aransas:

American Society of Indexers

Hawkins, D. T. (2013). “Information Discovery and the Future of

Abstracting and Indexing Services.” An NFAIS Workshop.
Against the Grain. 20(5), 55

Jacsó, P. (2006). “Open Access to Scholarly Indexing/Abstracting

Information.” Online Information Review, 30(4), 461-468.

Lancaster, F. W. (2003). “Do indexing and Abstracting Have a Future?”

In Anales de Documentación (Vol. 6, pp. 137-144). Servicio
de Publicaciones, Universidad de Murcia (Spain).

Mulvany, N. C. (2009). Indexing Books. University of Chicago Press.

O'Connor, B. C., Kearns, J., & Anderson, R. L. (2008). Doing things with
information: Beyond Indexing and Abstracting. Libraries
Unlimited, Greenwood Publishing Group.

Peters, I. (2009). Folksonomies: Indexing and Retrieval in Web 2.0 (Vol.

1). Walter de Gruyter

Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of

Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8,

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of

Indexing. Accessed via https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ 25/5/2021

Osarome, O. (2017). History and Types of Indexes. Accessed via

https://osarome.blogspot.com/

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MODULE 4 TYPES AND TECHNIQUES OF

ABSTRACTS AND ABSTRACTING

Unit 1 Types of Abstract

Unit 2 Evaluation of Abstract and Index
Unit 3 Abstracting Techniques
Unit 4 Computerised Abstracting Systems

UNIT 1 TYPES OF ABSTRACT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Informative Abstract
3.2 Indicative Abstract
3.3 Other types of Abstract
3.4 Functions of Abstract
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

An abstract is a concise summary of an information package. This can be

books, journals, dissertation, thesis, conference proceedings and so on.
The essence of an abstract is to help patrons capture or understand the
central idea or purpose of the document. An abstract generally comes at
the beginning of an information package serving as the entry point. Most
abstract services in academic disciplines aimed at accumulating a body of
literature in related fields. The goal of abstracting services for various
academic fields is to compile a body of literature for that subject. This
workshop will cover the two most common forms of abstracts: indicative
and informative. Other kinds of abstracts
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define what is informative and indicative abstract

• differentiate between informative abstract and indicative abstract
• identify other types of abstract
• state the functions of abstract.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Informative Abstract

An informative abstract provide a detailed information about an

information package. The length of the abstract may range from 100 to
200 words to a page or more in length. However, the length may vary
based on the document type. For example, for thesis and dissertation the
abstract may range up to 500 There are several forms of abstract in use
depending on the aim in which they are provided. The indicative abstract
on the other hand is fairly short ranging from 50-100 words. This type of
abstract essentially summaries the content of a document within each
paragraph. Looking at the detailed nature of informative abstract it can
serve as a substitute to the original document. Informative abstract by its
nature provides a detailed summary of an information package both in
terms of quality and quantity, reporting findings of empirical studies,
reports and so on. Hence, it is an abridged version of the original
document that captures all the major ideas and facts.

It communicates the document's substance without requiring the reader to

read it. You'll create an informative abstract if you're writing an abstract
for a rigorously structured document like an experiment, study, or survey.
The reason for the experiment or inquiry, as well as the key objectives of
the experiment or research, should be stated in the purpose part of an
informative abstract. An informative abstract's purpose section may
additionally provide the experiment's hypothesis. The strategies
employed in conducting the experiment should be described in the
methodology part of an informative abstract. This section should only
provide as much information as is required to comprehend the
experiment; the abstract should not be solely focused on research
methodologies unless it is the primary emphasis of the original article.
The observations and/or data acquired during the experiment should be
described in the results part of an interesting abstract. Only the most
important results should be given in this part, which should be brief and
useful. The evaluation or analysis of the experiment results should be
stated in the conclusion part of an informative abstract. It should also
mention the ramifications of the findings. This section of the conclusion
could potentially state whether the experiment's central hypothesis was
correct.

3.1.1 Component of informative abstract

- The objectives of the work: this form the central goal or idea of the
research or document
- The methodology: this covers a “contextual framework' for
research, a coherent and logical scheme based on views,

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beliefs, and values, that guides the choices researchers [or

other users] make". In specific terms, it covers the
population of the study and the area covered by the study
- The finding or result: the report the outcome of the study
based on the objective that was
set out for the study
- Conclusion and recommendation: this reports the final
dugement or decision reached as
well as possible suggestions and solution to the identified
problem
A good informative abstract should have the following
characteristics.

Structured – Usually 250 words or above.

The structure of the abstract is title-introduction-methodology-body-

conclusion.

It includes the information and arguments offered in the text.

Due to its quality and quantity, it tends to be longer than other forms of
abstracts.

This is sometimes referred to as a situation-problem-solution-evaluation

paradigm in engineering.

Reports on the structure of the paper – Reports on the paper's

purpose/objectives, method, findings, and conclusions.
Connected — Makes logical links between the abstract's components.
Adds nothing new — This section summarises the study and does not
include any new information or analysis.

3.2 Indicative or Descriptive Abstract

Indicative abstract indicates the salient point of an information package.

(unnecessary details are avoided in all types of abstracts) It reports a
precise and straightforward summary of a document. An indicative
abstract cannot serve as a substitute for the original document. The
purpose of indicative/descriptive abstracts is to inform the user or reader
about the presence of documents. They are usually short and objective.
Indicative abstracts define the kind and form of the abstracted work,
identifies the principal topics covered in the work and gives a brief
overview of how the facts and concerns were treated. It does not attempt
to summarise or analyse the content. An indicative abstract identifies the
kind of document that is being abstracted. Indicative abstracts are often
brief, written in general terms, and do not provide a step-by-step narrative

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of the document's production to the reader. It summarises the content of

document so that the reader may decide whether or not to read it. The
table of contents page can be compared to an indicative abstract in some
aspects. On the contrary, an indicative abstract highlights the salient point
contained in the document. Hence it cannot replace reading the actual
material. Indicative abstracts are less prevalent since they do not meet the
critical aims of abstracts unlike the informative abstract. Because
indicative abstracts rarely reveal the true substance of documents, they
cannot be utilized as a substitute for the original. They merely tell users
what they can find in documents, not the actual data or information they
contain.

The rationale for or key objectives of the inquiry should be stated in the
purpose section of an indicative abstract. A suggestive abstract's goal
section may additionally include the experiment's hypothesis. The
strategies employed in performing the inquiry should be described in the
methodology part of an indicative abstract. This section should only
provide as much information as is required to comprehend the
experiment; the abstract should not be solely focused on research
methodologies unless it is the primary emphasis of the original article.
Unlike informative documents, the reader/user cannot grasp the content
of the message provided by the document until he/she reads the entire
document.

3.2.1 Components of the Indicative Abstract

The following items are included in the content of the indicative abstract:

• The work's purpose (objectives)

• The method utilized
• The scope of the work

For example:
- Ahmadu Bello University resumes for 2019/2020academic session
- Campaign guidelines for 2023 are outlined.
- NPA director-general suspended

3.3 Other types of Abstract

Indicative and informative abstracts are the main types of abstracts

frequently used by scholars, librarians and professional abstractors.
However, there exist other types of abstract which include but are not
limited to critical abstract, mission-oriented abstract and subject-oriented
abstract

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3.3.1 Critical Abstract

A critical abstract could be defined as critical analysis and evaluation of

information material. It is essentially the condensation or distillation and
critique of the most important components of a document. In this regards,
the abstract analyses and evaluate materials and makes comparison with
other works in the same subject area. Therefore, a critical abstract is a
“condensed critical review”. This means that a critical abstract is a form
of an intellectual summary of a document aimed at evaluating the strength
and weaknesses of documents mostly by comparing them with other
works in similar areas.

The objective of the critical abstract is to make a value judgment on a

document. It could also be a paper's editorial comment. The content of the
text is reflected in the critical abstract, which indicates its depth while also
commenting on various parts of the material. As a result, the abstractor is
a subject expert with a thorough understanding of the document's content.
Despite the fact that some abstractors believe that a good abstract should
avoid the bias and critical comments that characterize critical abstracts, it
is still a powerful and efficient tool. Its strength is that the abstractor is
sufficiently aware of the paper's or document's subject areas, techniques,
and other essential areas to make value judgments.

According to Cleveland and Cleveland (2001), critical abstracts are

typically used o in general articles with broad overviews, reviews, and
monographs, but they can also be used for single papers. It's vital to note
that the content of a document, as well as the users of the document, are
the factors that go into determining which type of abstract to employ.

3.3.2 Discipline Oriented Abstract

A discipline-oriented abstract is one that is focused on a single field of

knowledge or discipline, and it is concerned with abstracting papers in
that field. As an example (chemical Abstracts, Library and Information
Science Abstracts LISA). The Chemical Abstract is dedicated to the field
of chemistry, whereas the Library and Information Science Abstract is
dedicated to the domain of Library and Information Science.

3.3.3 Mission Oriented Abstract

This is a form of abstract that aims to support a particular project or

research or assignment that may be disciplinary based or
multidisciplinary in nature. This form of abstract dwells more on a subject
area or discipline. E.g. child abuse, environmental degradation etc.

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3.3.4 Statistical /Numerical/Tabular Abstract

They're a way of summing up numerical data. Original data is not

tampered with by the abstractor. He or she summarises information for
presentation or decision-making purposes. Selecting meaningful data
from the original data necessitates skills and ability.

3.3.5 Highlight abstract

This simply attracts or draws readers' attention to articles or titles; they

function similarly to running titles. They are significantly lengthier than
indicative abstracts and appear in primary journals or conference
proceedings.

3.4 Criteria for Selecting Articles to be Abstracted

Before beginning any form of abstracting service, some criteria must be

created to select documents or articles to be abstracted. There are
numerous information sources available nowadays that are irrelevant to
users.

1. Documents that are relevant to the users' interests.

2. Compile a list of contributions that are unique. It contains
components of knowledge contribution.
3. A final document that contains information that maybe difficult to
get, such as foreign documents, internal reports or memoranda, and
other limited-circulation documents.
4. A final research report or other reports that include well-supported,
sound methodologies and persuasive evidence.
5. Sources in a certain publication or report published by a particular
organization, such as the Nigeria Library Association, the Nigeria
Medical Association, and so on.

3.5 Functions of Abstracts in Information Retrieval

The following serves as functions of abstracts as proffered by Nnadozie

(2007):

1. An abstract serves as a guide to the reader of a document and helps

him decide either to read the full document or not by providing
value-added service; bibliographic details and an intellectual
summary of the information package. This allows the reader to
ascertain whether the full material is relevant to his information
need or not,thus saving his time.
2. An abstract can serve as a current awareness tool which keeps
users; researchers, scholars abreast of current trends and progress

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in their research focus area. This kind of information is primarily

available through the informative abstract.
3. An abstract assists in bibliographic control. This is possible
through the identification and documentation of various existing
information sources, together with their detailed bibliographic
information. By implication, it assists in preventing duplication of
research effort, waste of time and resources.
4. An abstract give information users the privilege to read summaries
of works or research conducted across the globe; when they have
access to the original document. This serves as a valuable resource
in the review of related literature across diverse disciplines.
5. Abstracts can facilitate indexing efficiency by grasping the central
focus of a document at the initial stage of indexing.
6. . Abstracts are true bibliographic control tools. They assist
researchers in preventing or at least reducing plagiarism by alerting
them to the availability of identical works done elsewhere. It also
aids in avoiding the needless duplication of already completed
work.

Dos And Don'ts in Abstracts

When creating descriptive and informative abstracts, there are a few
frequent mistakes to avoid:

• Don't repeat the paper's title because it's already in the title (and
the more you repeat the title, the more boring it gets and the more
space it wastes).
• Don't include any literature references (e.g. Bloggs, 1999).
• Figures and tables should not be included in the abstract.
• Avoid as much as possible incorporating ideas outside the original
document. The title of the work should serve as an independent
unit that may be used in an indexing and abstracting services like
Compendex or Science Citation Index.
• Avoid citation to sources from literature in the abstract (Caron
2021) (repeated point)
• Always avoid inclusion of figures, Charts and tables in the abstract
(repeated point)
• Avoid using ambiguous acronyms and abbreviations. Always try
to defined acronyms in your text.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

The indicative abstract is among the major types of abstracts commonly

used. The indicative abstract always provides the reader with a document
with salient points. This limits the indicative abstract's ability in reporting
detailed information about the original document or serve as a substitute.
On the other hand, informative abstracts, include enough information to
be considered a substitute for the original material, despite the fact that it
is not. It tries to capture as much of the content of documents as feasible.
Critical abstracts not only represent the content of a document, but also
make observations or judgments about it.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, the importance of discipline-specific and mission-specific

abstracts was discussed. Abstract writing is more than just a creative
endeavour; the writer is always seeking methods to improve and polish
the abstract to correspond to the original document's substance. Abstracts
have also been highlighted as having the following functions: saving the
user's time, serving as current awareness tools, serving as bibliographic
control tools, leading the user to the source work, and improving indexing
efficiency. This is why informative abstract covers as much as possible
the detailed and comprehensive narration the contents of the document.
Also, the unit covers disciplinary and mission-oriented abstracts as other
distinct forms of abstracts. Similarly, functions of abstracts were
identified to include: saving the user’s time, serve as current awareness
tools, serve as tools for bibliographic control, lead the user to the original
work and improve indexing efficiency. Noteworthy is the fact that writing
a good abstract requires paying attention to details and creativity.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is your understanding of informative and indicative abstracts?

2. Differentiate between informative abstract and indicative abstract
3. State the functions of an abstract

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

Cox, J. (2013). “As I See It!--Abstracting and Indexing Services--The

Ostriches of Information.” Against the Grain, 20(5), 32.

Lancaster, F. W. (2003). Indexing and Abstracting in theory and Practice.

Illinois: University of Illinois.
Musa, A. U. Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of
Indexing and Abstracting Services in Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Journal of Research on Humanities and
Social Sciences Vol.4, No.8, p.21-29.

Splenda, R. (2014). “Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting.”

Technical Services Quarterly, 31(3), 307-308

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of

Indexing. Accessed via https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ 25/5/2021

Osarome, O. (2017). History and Types of Indexes. Accessed via

https://osarome.blogspot.com/

66
LIS 306 MODULE 4

UNIT 2 EVALUATION OF ABSTRACT AND INDEX

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Abstract Evaluation
3.2 Quality of Good Abstract
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The goal of abstract evaluation is to determine an abstract's efficacy or

value. You can use evaluation to determine whether your abstract is good
or awful. We assess abstracts to determine their quality. A good or terrible
abstract is determined by a number of elements that will be discussed in
this session. The quality of an abstract is measured by how well it
represents the source document. Is it possible to substitute it with the
original document?

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify the criteria for evaluation of an abstract

• define the term "abstract evaluation."

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Abstract Evaluation

Abstract evaluation, according to experts, might be extremely difficult to

achieve. The quality of an abstract determines how good it is. To
enumerate abstracts, Cleveland and Cleveland (2001) suggest using a
variety of error direction methods such as correct citations, factual
description, and deletion of crucial topics.

• Diction and Grammar

• Redundant phrases
• Obscure writing
• Conformity to abstracting policy and rules

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

• Promptness in publication
• Cost • Quality supportive indexes
• Authoritativeness
• Brevity is another criterion used to evaluate abstracts.

A good abstract should also represent what the object is about, be error-
free, and be free of unnecessary material. It needs to be readable. Users
of abstracts typically do not require access to the original document;
instead, they require a proxy of the original, which the abstract provides.

3.2 Qualities of Good Abstract

• A quality abstract should precisely adhere to the conventional

checklist of abstract preparation procedures or methods. It should
follow the introduction, methodology, findings, conclusion, and
recommendations style, which presents and convey the intended
message to readers base on the set goal, results, conclusion, and
recommendations of an article, paper, or report in that order. This
is critical for the marketability of your abstracts, as it serves the
demand of the customer.
• A decent abstract should adhere to the typical checklist of
procedures or methods for preparing an abstract. It should follow
the introduction, methodology, findings, conclusion, and
recommendations structure, which presents the goal, results,
conclusion, and recommendations of an article, paper, or report in
that order. This is critical for the marketability of your abstract,
since it allows you to meet the needs of your readers.
• It must be well-written and logical; scientific methods should be
combined with a summary to repackage a multi-page material into
a paragraph. It must be well-developed. For readability, this is
required
• An excellent abstract should collect details, ideas, or opinions from
works and precisely duplicate them without ambiguity.
• A good abstract should utilise technical language at the same level
as the paper or article.
• It should assist the reader in deciding whether or not to read the
original content.
• It should aid in the comprehension of the original work. It should
serve as an excellent pre-reading outline of the paper's main ideas.
• It should aid in the comprehension of the original work. It should
serve as an excellent pre-reading outline of the paper's main ideas.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Identify the Criteria for evaluation of an abstract

ii. State the qualities of abstract
iii. Explain the meaning of abstract evaluation
iv. Explain the criteria for evaluating an index

4.0 CONCLUSION

Evaluation of abstracts and knowledge of the attributes of a good abstract

is critical for information retrieval and utilisation. Abstracts are important
to librarians, and a good abstract ensures document accessibility.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this section, we've focused on the methods for evaluating abstracts,

specifically the parameters that can be used to evaluate if an abstract is
excellent or terrible. Librarians know the importance of abstracts and that
a quality abstract ensures accessibility to documents. This unit focused on
the means of abstract evaluation, the parameters for determining if an
abstract is good or bad. Also highlighted are the specific points to look
out for in an abstract to determine its quality. Index evaluation is done so
that its effectiveness and efficiency can be put to test.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Why is abstract evaluation critical to both the audience and the abstractor?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

Bennett, D. B., & Williams, P. (2006). Name Authority Challenges for

Indexing and Abstracting Databases. Evidence-Based Library and
Information Practice, 1(1), 37-57.

Bonura, L. S. (1994). The Art of Indexing. New York: John Wiley.

Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.

Cox, J. (2013). “As I See It!--Abstracting and Indexing Services--The

Ostriches of Information.” Against the Grain, 20(5), 32.

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LIS 306 INDEXING AND ABSTRACTING

Hjørland, B. (1992). “The Concept of "Subject" in Information Science.”

Journal of Documentation. 48(2), 172- 200.

Hjørland, B. (2007). “Semantics and Knowledge Organisation.” Annual

Review of Information Science and Technology, 41, 367-405.

Lancaster, F. W. (2003). Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and

Practice. Illinois: University of Illinois.

Musa, A. U. Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of

Indexing and Abstracting Services in Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Journal of Research on Humanities and
Social Sciences 4(8) p.21-29.

Paolilli, John C. (2010). “Linguistic and the information science.” In M.

J. Bates & M. N. Maack (Eds). Encyclopedia of Library and
Information Science. (3rd ed. Edited CRC Press.

Rowley, J. E. & Farrow, J. (2000). Organising Knowledge: An

Introduction to Managing Access to Information. (3rd ed.).
Alderstot: Gower Publishing Company

Splenda, R. (2014). “Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting.”

Technical Services Quarterly, 31(3), 307-308.

Taylor, A. G., & Joudrey, D. N. (2004). The Organisation of Information

Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited p. 77.

Yee, M. M. (2007). “Cataloguing Compared to Descriptive Bibliography,

Abstracting and Indexing Services, and Metadata.” Cataloguing
and Classification Quarterly, 44(3-4), 307-327.

Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of

Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8.

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of

Indexing. Accessed via https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ 25/5/2021.

Osarome, O. (2017) History and Types of Indexes. Accessed via

https://osarome.blogspot.com/

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LIS 306 MODULE 4

UNIT 3 ABSTRACTING TECHNIQUES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Abstracting Techniques
3.2 Writing an Abstract
3.2.1 Reviewing an Abstract
3.2.3 Editing an Abstract
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The essence of any type of abstract is to guide the users essentially on the
information contained in a document by understandably providing a
summary. This helps users to have a glimpse or clue about the content of
the document, saves their time, and most importantly, enables them to
decide whether to read the full content or not. This process involves the
identification, analysis and reporting theme, focus, or central idea of a
document. Therefore, the preparation of an abstract involves techniques
and guidelines to assist the abstractor. Abstracting is the process of
creating a concise and objective description of a document's content that
allows consumers to swiftly decide whether or not to read the complete
text in order to meet their information needs. It entails summarizing or
analyzing a document's content and highlighting the key elements so that
the user can determine whether or not to consult the text. This preparation
entails techniques and recommendations that will aid and guide the
abstractor in reaching his goal in the most efficient and effective manner
possible.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify the techniques for abstracting

• state the reason we revise abstracts
• identify areas covered by editing.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Abstracting Techniques

Abstracting techniques are styles and guidelines adopted by abstractors to

arrive at a meaningful and comprehensive summary useful for their
audience. It is an intellectual activity that requires expertise and follows
some guidelines or styles. After the initial writing, the abstract needs to
be revised and edited. Revising entails going over the abstract again and
reading it extremely carefully in order to identify errors and make
corrections. Editing is a process that should be done with great care
because abstracts might contain omissions and flaws that render the
abstract ineffective.

3.1.1 Writing an Abstract

Abstract writing requires an adequate understanding of the document, the

right form title, the structure of the document and the central theme or
message that the document intends to pass across to the audience. Without
a good knowledge of the document, the abstractor may not likely produce
a good abstract. The abstractor, therefore, requires the needed set of skills
such as the terminologies used in the document and the ability to transmit
the intended message across the users in a clear, precise and concise
manner.

Here are some helpful suggestions for creating abstracts:

• Highlight or copy sentences summarising the entire paper or

individual sections as you read through a paper to be abstracted.
• Write a sentence that encapsulates the key idea.
• Include summary sentences for each section.
• If you're writing an indicative abstract, you can start rewriting now.
• If you're writing an informative abstract, look over the manuscript
for important findings and major conclusions.

You might also use this writing method or style:

• After reading each paragraph, write one phrase or sentence that
encapsulates the core of it.
• Examine this list of sentences or phrases to see if there are any
connections between them. Are there any links between the
sentences?
• You should have a suggestive abstract after refining your outline
to four or five general themes.

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• For insightful abstracts, fill in the important elements regarding the

paper's substance.
Whatever method you use to write your abstract, it's critical to be brief
and accurate in stating the document's essential points. The abstract
usually begins with a one-sentence overview of your paper's key point,
and it frequently introduces the paper's problem. You must be careful not
to narrow your emphasis too much, and you must test your abilities to
determine how concise your one-sentence summary is.

3.1.2 Revising an Abstract

Revising an abstract is very important and central to the production of a

good abstract itself. Revising simply means reading the abstract to ensure
that it captures the central themes and ideas as appropriate. The process
looks simple but very sensitive as it requires a high level of attention and
rigour. During this process errors; wrong spellings, disjointed ideas are
identified, unnecessary wording are rectified.

We are frequently requested to write an abstract with a modest word

count; a thorough re-read of your abstract might help you achieve this.
The writer wants to make sure that each sentence in your abstract flows
easily into the next with proper revision. It's possible that the writer may
need to add or change words or phrases, as well as repeat keywords. He
may also be required to combine terms so that the relationships between
ideas are presented in a logical manner. Finally, the writer must verify
that the abstract is readable.

3.1.3 Editing an Abstract

Abstracts must be edited for a variety of reasons. Before being published,

all literary work goes through an editing procedure, and abstracts are no
exception. The following items are addressed in the abstract:

• Omissions
• Reference errors
• Poor diction
• Meaningless abbreviations
• Poor grammar
• Punctuation errors, and so on.

When done properly, abstract editing examines the content of the article,
as well as the content analysis and general quality of the abstract. To
establish abstract quality, the abstract editor must essentially work
directly with the original document. The editing process begins with a
comparison of the reference section to the source content. The editor
double-checks that the abstract carry accurate information correct as
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contained in the original document without any misleading information.

The process of editing begins with a comparison of the reference section
to the original document. Author names, titles, journal names, sources,
and journal volume and issue numbers are all examined. The editor
double-checks them for accuracy. Numerical data is double-checked to
ensure that it matches what's in the paper. The editor ensures that all terms
in the text comply with the rules provided to the abstractor. When
necessary, the editor corrects the grammar, abbreviates words, eliminates
repetitions, removes extraneous topics, and corrects diction problems.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Abstracting is the process of creating a concise and objective description

of a document's content that allows consumers to swiftly decide whether
or not to read the complete text in order to meet their information needs.
Abstracting Techniques are the styles and rules that an abstractor uses to
provide a relevant and thorough summary for their audience.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we learned that producing techniques for abstracts include

highlighting sentences that summarise the entire article or sections,
writing a sentence that highlights the main point, adding phrases that
summarise sections, checking the paper for specifics of significant
findings and major conclusions, and then modifying. Also, we discussed
that editing work takes care of many types of errors. It ensures that the
content of abstracts is correct and fit for purpose, while revising work
involves a full examination of the abstract, deleting unneeded items,
words, and phrases, and ensuring that it is easy to read and understand.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Identify the areas of interest in revising and editing of abstract.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

Bennett, D. B., & Williams, P. (2006). Name Authority Challenges for

Indexing and Abstracting Databases. Evidence-Based Library and
Information Practice, 1(1), 37-57.

Bonura, L. S. (1994). The Art of Indexing. New York: John Wiley.

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Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.

Cox, J. (2013). “As I See It!--Abstracting and Indexing Services--The

Ostriches of Information.” Against the Grain, 20(5), 32.

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UNIT 4 COMPUTERISED INDEXING AND

ABSTRACTING SYSTEM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Use of Computers in Indexing and Abstracting
(Individual or Group Assignments)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

10 INTRODUCTION

Information and communication technology (ICT) has touched nearly

every aspect of our lives, including information organisations, access and
retrieval. The world is shifting from the manual method of information
creation and repackaging. This development leads to the emergence of
automated indexing and abstracting. Automation is the process of
scanning, identification and assigning key terms from a large volume of
information against control vocabulary without human intervention. This
development no doubt enables the indexer to index large volumes of
information with little difficulty. There are four different approaches to
automated indexing. The statistical approach, the syntactical approach,
the semantic approach, and the knowledge-based system are all viable
options.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• describe the use of computers in relation to indexing and

abstracting services.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Use of Computers in Indexing and Abstracting

Over the last two decades, automated indexing has continued to grow in an
accelerated way. Computers and related technologies are used by large
organisations to index valuable information in their everyday operations.
This has no doubt increased their efficiency in information retrieval and
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access. Automated indexing is possible through the use of the computer to

identify, capture, assigned and arrange index terms to a document without
human interference. Sheth (2004) and Obaseki (2010) argued that
automated indexing is fast and cost-effective. Automated indexing uses an
algorithm system. This system works in a database where keywords or
bibliographic records of documents are embedded to enable users to search
at the point of retrieval. Despite the advantages of automated indexing over
manual indexing systems, some scholars argue that manual indexing is still
relevant in the information age.

Tulic (2005), for example, supports human indexing by stating that “to date,
no one has found a method to give computer programs the judgment,
competence, intelligence, or audience awareness that is required to
construct usable indexes.” Until it happens, automated indexing will remain
a pipe dream”. However, there are several companies engaged in the
business of online indexing and abstracting. Some of these companies
include but are not limited to ERIC, and OVID Within their time frame of
operations, different indexing and abstracting software was produced, this
includes INSPECT (for engineering), Biological abstract etc. At the initial
stage, these products were offline and made available in CD-ROM format.
But today, these services are available online, and the providers are now
highly engaged with large volumes of works for their customers.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the use of computers in relation to indexing and abstracting

services.

4.0 CONCLUSION

As a result of the advent of various types of indexes, citation indexes were

the result of earlier work, and computer-aided indexing made it feasible
to offer an index to words, author names, journal titles, citations, and
many other things. Libraries were able to access indexes through the
internet thanks to library automation.

5.0 SUMMARY

The unit emphasised the technological revolution brought about by

information and communication technologies in indexing and abstracting.
There is no doubt that the use of computers and other related technologies
has had a great impact on indexing and abstracting activities. Besides,
there are numerous advantages of automated indexing and abstracting
over manual which includes speed, accuracy among other advantages.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

The invention of the computer is a blessing and a curse. Discuss for or

against the motion.

7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READING

Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Greenwood: Libraries Unlimited.

Cox, J. (2013). As I See It!--Abstracting and Indexing Services--The

Ostriches of Information. Against the Grain, 20(5), 32.

Jacsó, P. (2006). Open access to scholarly indexing/abstracting

information. Online Information Review, 30(4), 461-468.

Mulvany, N. C. (2009). Indexing books. University of Chicago Press.

Parkway, R. (2014). Indexing/Abstracting. International Journal of

Progressive Education, 10(1). 55-60

Reitz, J. M (2004) Dictionary for library and information science,

London: Libraries Unlimited.

Splenda, R. (2014). Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting. Technical

Services Quarterly, 31(3), 307-308.

Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of

Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8.

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of

indexing accessed via https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ 25/5/2021

Osarome, O. (2017) History and Types of Indexes accessed via

https://osarome.blogspot.com/

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MODULE 5 PRACTICUM ON INDEXING AND

ABSTRACTING

Unit 1 Indexing
Unit 2 Abstracts Guides and Practice
Unit 3 Thesaurus Construction and Use

Module 5 is comprised of 3 units which are centered on carrying out

practical exercises on indexing, abstracting and thesaurus construction.
You are also encouraged to visit your centre library with your ID showing
that you are a student of Library and Information Science from this
University for the Centre Librarian to allow you to use the hard copies of
these to practice.

UNIT 1 INDEXING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Book and Periodical Indexing
3.2 Indexing a Document, Some Indexing Rules, and Principles
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The process of index production looks simple but is a very herculean task
as it requires attentiveness and high-level critical thinking and reading. The
process usually begins with the identification of terms and keywords that
constitute the major themes within the document, extracting the identified
terms and assigning terms from a controlled vocabulary tool. The terms in
the index are then presented in a logical sequence. The number of terms
to include and how specific the phrases should be are decisions that
indexers must make. This adds up to a lot of indexing depth. As a result,
this session will cover book and periodical indexing, document indexing,
indexing principles, and indexing rules.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

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• define book and periodical index

• list the steps in indexing a document
• outline some of the principles of indexing.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Book Index

Book indexes are collections of entries, frequently organized

alphabetically, that help users find the information they need within
books. It's also known as the back of the book index, and it gives book or
document users quick access to information by using a list of index terms
carefully chosen from the book or document itself. The book index is a
well-known index among book readers. Situated at the back of books, the
book index provides an alphabetical listing of words and phrases, as well
as the position of the page where the words or phrases appear in the book.
A list of names linked with each term can also be found in book indexes.
A book index directs the user to where the necessary information may be
located, saving the reader from having to read or re-read the entire book.
It's crucial to remember that the index isn't a replacement for the content
in the book; rather, it's a guide to the information being sought.

The index is one of the factors used to assess a book's quality. It is critical
that books contain indexes so that their content may be accessed quickly
and comprehensively. A book without an index, or one with a poor index,
is not only incomplete but also inferior because readers expect an index
to be included in the text. The book index, in particular, will highlight
essential topics in a book that are captured within large chapters that the
indexer determined to be important to the user. It also includes a list of
people's names, corporate names, and geographical names, as well as their
page addresses. The indexer utilizes a natural indexing language rather
than a regulated indexing language; he uses the author's terminology. For
synonyms and abbreviations, he also employs the “see” and “see also”
references.

A book's indexer is thinking about the reader, and he understands that

every word, concept, term, or name in the book should be indexed. Some
words or concepts have little or no meaning, hence they should be
excluded from the index. In this case, the indexer is led by two logical
rules. To begin, indexed phrases should be those that are likely to be
searched for by a user, and they should also contain enough information
within the text or book.

The step in book indexing are highlighted as follows:

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1- Take the time to read the book. The first step may seem self-
evident, but it's critical to go through each book thoroughly before
beginning the indexing process. Even if you've already read the
book casually, you should still read it entirely while indexing.
2- Use indexing software to help you. On simple word processors,
there are numerous good indexing software packages. If you're
new to indexing, it may be a good idea to use indexing software to
make the process easier.
3- Make a note in the book. You should mark up the text as you look
for key terms and possible section headings, whether you're using
a paper copy or reading an ebook or pdf. Make a list of all the
themes you want to include in the index, and keep track of
comparable items on index cards or a computer document.
4- Questions about formatting should be addressed. Decide how
you'll format cross-references and page numbers before diving into
the actual index entries. Looking at various indices and speaking
with colleagues might help you become more aware of different
types and determine which ones you favour. A style guide for the
design and appearance of a book index, such as the Chicago
Manual of Style, is frequently included.
5- Fill in the indexes. It's time to build your index after you've read
through the main text thoroughly and taken copious notes of your
primary headings and subheadings. Make sure your final index
includes everything you've indicated in your text and that you're
using a consistent style.
6- Sort the index entries in a logical order. Because all indexes are
sorted alphabetically, make sure your entries are in alphabetical
order.
7- Make changes to your index. It's time to undertake some
copyediting when you've finished the initial draft of your index.
Make sure there is no redundancy in subentries and subheadings,
and that you haven't forgotten anything before submitting your
final index.

3.1.1 Periodical Indexes

Periodical indexes are indexes that refer to a journal or a group of journals.

Individual indexes and broad indexes are the two types of indexes. It's
critical to comprehend the importance of journal literature to science and
study. Journals are essential for intellectual communication; many experts
have praised the journal as a beautiful development because it serves as a
repository for research findings and new ideas. It is also the source of the
majority of information that eventually finds its way into books. Because
the periodical index is a list of authors and subjects that describe the
content of research reports, it is important to scholarship and knowledge
in general.

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Index terms are taken from the titles of individual journal articles; there
is no need for regulated vocabulary in this case, and a thesaurus may
suffice. However, because there are many journals with diverse words,
styles, and disciplines, it may be important to employ controlled indexing
language for a collection of journals in a certain field of study. In contrast
to books with one or two authors, a periodical index may have thousands
of authors. Periodical indexes present indexers with a variety of
challenges due to their broad scope. Periodical indexes are open-ended;
they are created by a group of people over a long period of time,
incorporating indexers' differing subject views as well as their indexing
goals. A periodical index should be aware of these anomalies and strive
to bring the organisation to the index construction.

Since this is the practical section, you can at least show the readers what
a periodical index looks like, identifying the components for ease of
assimilation.

3.2 Indexing a Document

The capture of bibliographic characteristics of documents is the initial

step in the process of indexing a document. It is critical that the entries
are consistent. First and foremost, the indexer reads the document as a
whole fast to have a thorough comprehension of the document's major
theme or subject matter. When doing so, the indexer makes notes on a
piece of paper, attempting to identify significant words in the document
as well as major ideas in the text. The indexer must determine the
locations of all significant words.

Finally, the indexer looks over the document's abstract. This would be
done with great care in order to find important keywords.

The indexer will then scan the document's section headings. This is also
done to make a list of important words. At this point, all other meaningful
terms that have been listed previously are removed. Following the
scanning of the section headings, a comprehensive review of the
document's text is required. Additional keywords and phrases are
extracted from the text by scanning through it. The newly discovered
significant words are added to the general term list. Words that have
previously been collected are excluded, and inappropriate terms are
deleted.

The indexer scans the references after scanning the text; he looks for
keywords in the names of the references as well, as the references are
thought to indicate what the document is about.

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The indexer can now demonstrate his comprehension and understanding

of the document thus far by adding terms that he believes are acceptable
to fill in the gaps between natural language content and the list of captured
significant words. The indexer also adds terms at this stage, with an
awareness of who the index's users would be. In other words, indexers
understand that words from the text alone will not be enough to express
the complete meaning of natural language. Additional words or phrases
are added as a result of this.

Finally, the final list of relevant words is cross-checked against a

thesaurus to get a broad sense of what has been accomplished. This action
effectively aids the indexer in visualizing the index, allowing him to
generate broader, narrower, and related terms alternatives. The page is
now indexed with a thesaurus, and the list is converted into a controlled
vocabulary. The indexer compares each phrase to the thesaurus, reads the
scope notes, and analyses broader, narrower, and related terms before
deciding on the terms that best reflect what was read in the text and what
the user would think about it. Thesaurus is a mental tool used by indexers
to make decisions. The document's final exhaustive and particular index
words are then generated.

You can put all these together in a neat step-by-step of how to index
generally before looking at different types of indexes such as book
index/periodical index and how to prepare them

3.2.1 The Indexing Rules

The following are some key rules to remember when indexing documents:

i. Include all index terms or entries in one alphabetical sequence and

index everything useful in the document.
ii. Unless a special audience is addressed, use popular headings with
references to their equivalents. Be consistent in your spelling
choices. Make use of a common dictionary.
iii. Use the most precise phrases that accurately describe the indexed
items.
iv. Consistency in the use of singular and plural nouns is important.
v. If required, combine the words with the action that describes it.

When required, invert terms to bring important words to the fore.

Make a list of synonyms and references for each term.
Include an identifying phrase in brackets where concepts with the same
spellings have different meanings.

Wherever feasible, give the complete names of those mentioned in the

text.

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All proper names should be written in capital letters.

Wherever feasible, subdivide terms by aspect alphabetically.
Substitute chronological sub-divisions for alphabetical sub-divisions in
historical or bibliographical works.
All symbols and abbreviations must be spelt out.
Avoid employing words in bold type.

3.2.2 Principles of Indexing

The fundamentals of indexing are listed below:

The use of correct and proper spellings of terms, as well as the
presentation of words in the index, must be adhered to at all times.
Because indexing systems differ, indexing should be uniform and
consistent. Indexers must maintain consistency in their indexing.
The indexer must guarantee that the bibliographic data of the document
is complete.

Subject headers and index words must be specific and simple, and the
indexer must describe them properly.

The indexer should be careful about the wording he uses. He must make
certain that the potential user's language is taken into account favourably.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Book indexing offers or pinpoints the page position of information needed

by a user within the book, saving the user the time and effort of having to
go through the text to discover it. Because a book is only as good as its
index, this is a handy tool for information seekers. Periodical indexes,
whether produced for a single journal or a set of journals, allow systematic
and orderly access to the names of writers and the topic matter of articles.
Its prominence in scientific communication has not waned. Likewise,
index creation for a document begins with the recording of bibliographic
details of documents. It concludes with the comparison of the final list of
relevant words to a thesaurus, giving a general sense of what was
accomplished. The indexer can come up with options for the index that
are broader, narrower, and related phrases. In addition, the unit covered
practical guidelines and concepts that can be used as a guide for indexers
to create successful indexes.

5.0 Summary

The book index, in particular, will highlight essential topics in a book that
are captured within large chapters that the indexer determined to be
important to the user. It also includes a list of people's names, corporate
names, and geographical names, as well as their page addresses. The

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indexer utilises a natural indexing language rather than a regulated

indexing language; he uses the author's terminology. For synonyms and
abbreviations, he also employs the “see” and “see also” references.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is your understanding of a book index? Avoid asking two

questions in one.
2. Describe the periodical index (You can put the question as desired).
3. What are the steps in indexing a document.
4.. List some of the principles of indexing.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.

Cox, J. (2013). “As I See It!--Abstracting and Indexing Services--The

Ostriches of Information.” Against the Grain, 20(5), 32.

Lancaster, F. W. (2003). Indexing and Abstracting in theory and Practice.

Illinois: University of Illinois.
Musa, A. U. Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of
Indexing and Abstracting Services in Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Journal of Research on Humanities and
Social Sciences Vol.4, No.8, p.21-29.

Splenda, R. (2014). “Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting.”

Technical Services Quarterly, 31(3), 307-308

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of

Indexing. Accessed via https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ 25/5/2021

Osarome, O. (2017). History and Types of Indexes. Accessed via

https://osarome.blogspot.com/

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UNIT 2 ABSTRACTS GUIDES AND PRACTICE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Guide to Writing an Abstract
3.2 Reason for Writing an Abstract
3.3 Consideration for Writing an Abstract
3.4 Sample of an Informative Abstract
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Document abstracting is a time-consuming technique that necessitates the

abstractor's expertise in summarising the actual substance of a document
or paper. To abstract a document, the abstractor must follow a set of
processes that will result in a "Good" Abstract. It's worth noting that no
matter how "excellent" an abstract is, it can't replace the original
document; it's merely a substitute. Abstracts are created and used for a
variety of reasons. This session will go over how to write an abstract, why
it's written, and some things to think about when writing one.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state the steps to follow while writing an abstract

• list the reasons for writing an abstract
• write good abstract of whatever type and convert the informative
abstract to an indicative abstract.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Guide to Writing an Abstract

To abstract when you are working on a document, the first thing you
should do is read it over and figure out what the document is all about To
fully comprehend the paper's core idea, you will need to read it numerous
times. When you have finished reading, you should be able to state in one
sentence what the paper is about. Following that, the references to the

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authors of the original document's works are scanned. After you have
written this statement, you should highlight any new ideas you come
across in the document, which will allow you to expand the first broad
sentence. Then you record the rest of the information. In abstracts, details
should be used sparingly. The number of facts described depends on the
type of abstract you are writing (informative or indicative), the difficulty
of the article you are abstracting, the word limit, and the goals you think
your abstract's readers will have for reading it.

The ideal technique to produce an excellent abstract, according to San

Francisco Edit (2010), is to start with a draft of the entire book and follow
these ten steps:

1. Determine the main goals and conclusions.

2. Look for sentences that contain keywords.
3. Determine the most important findings from the discussion or
results section.
4. Put what you have learned thus far into a single paragraph.
5. In the first sentence, state your hypothesis or method.
6. Leave out background information, a study of the literature, and a
full description of the methodology.
7. Remove any unnecessary words or phrases.
8. Rewrite the paragraph so that the abstract only contains the most
important details.
9. Check to determine if it adheres to the journal's requirements, in
case you are writing for a particular journal.
10. Show the abstract to a co-worker (ideally one who is unfamiliar
with your job) and ask whether it makes sense.

3.1.1 Important Points to Consider When Writing Abstracts

These are some of the most important considerations while creating an

abstract:
• A succinct, accurate statement of the main idea
• Sub-point organisation
• Revising and editing
• Using details

3.2 Reason for Writing an Abstract

The abstract is a crucial instrument. However, the primary purpose for

abstracts:

• Abstracts have become crucial tools nowadays as a result of the

world's paradigm change from collecting to access.

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• Abstracts take pride of place in the scientific literature; they are

read far more frequently than those who listen to or read the whole
document or paper.
• While writing an abstract might be tiresome, it is appealing to
readers who are looking for information in abstracts, resulting in a
higher effect for the writer.
• In today's electronic documented scholarly environment,
keywords are critical for information retrieval.
• They can be used in libraries and information centres to provide
current awareness services.
• Abstracts can assist in answering questions and conducting desk
research, which can help meet the needs of information seekers.
• An abstract can assist in the preparation of briefings and report
writing.
• Abstracts are an important component in the building of databases
all around the world.
• Managers and senior executives who need to quickly ingest
documents and review them in reports will benefit from abstracts.

3.3 Some Points to Keep in Mind When Writing Abstracts

• Considering these factors will help you write a strong abstract.

• Abstracts should be a self-contained description of documents;
they must stand on their own for their users and for themselves.
You must also make sure that your abstract does not exceed the
word limit. The size of the text should be lowered. You must also
ensure that your abstract has a sufficient number of phrases and
keywords for search engines to find when browsing for papers. The
search terms will appear at the top of the results page.
• The goal of abstract writing is to explain what you accomplished
in the paper in the most straightforward and informative way
possible.
• Your abstract isn't a story or a tale, and users won't be interested in
reading it. They want rapid and relevant information, and they may
decide to read on for further details if they get it.
• You must make sure that your abstract's introduction and
conclusion are well-written and presented in order to lure the
reader to read the details. These sections should be considered as
an instance – of your abstract.
• It's critical that you focus on the substance rather than the goal.
You should summarise the original document's content rather than
the author's wishes. Only the most important points from the
document should be included in your abstract.

The main objectives and scope of work should be expressed in the
abstract for a research article.

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Methodology

Results and

Conclusions
• Assume that the reader is knowledgeable and understands the work
while writing your abstract. Write a good explanation of the
important points based on the content of the document after
thoroughly reading it. After reading the document, the abstract
should be written last.
• Use active terms in your abstract, avoid passive words, and avoid
conflicts between intent, content, and superfluous words.
• Make sure your abstract is short and to the point. Your abstract
should be one paragraph long, not several. A user can easily read
a short abstract. In other words, your abstract does not need to be
any longer than it needs to be. • It is preferable to make quantitative
rather than qualitative claims in your abstract, as this indicates the
inclusion of unneeded words, phrases, and ideas.
• In your abstract, avoid using mathematical notations or formulae.
Your abstract needs to be self-contained. Give equations and
mathematical symbols names.
• Finally, keep in mind that the purpose of the abstract is to present
the substance of a document in a concise and direct manner. It
should pique the interest of both the casual and serious reader.
Your abstract serves as a marketing tool.

3.4 Sample of an Informative Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of information and
communication technology (ICT) on knowledge sharing among
academics in Nigeria's northern states. The study's goals were to
determine the types of knowledge that academics shared in Northern
Nigerian universities, the types of Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs) that academics used for knowledge sharing in
Northern Nigerian universities, and the level of ICT literacy competence
among academics for knowledge sharing in Northern Nigerian
universities. the impact of academics' use of information and
communication technologies (ICTs) on knowledge sharing in universities
in Nigeria's northern states, as well as the challenges of academics' use of
ICTs on knowledge sharing in universities in Nigeria's northern states.

Quantitative research methodologies, notably a survey research design,

were used in the study. Academics from Ahmadu Bello University in
Zaria, the Federal University of Technology in Minna, and Umaru Musa
Yaraduwa University in Katsina made up the populace. The population
consisted of 3,260 academics, of whom 326 were used as samples. The
instrument for data gathering was a questionnaire. The acquired data were
analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Knowledge of my

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discipline, knowledge of new technologies, knowledge of current and

ongoing research, and knowledge of research supervision was among the
key categories of knowledge shared among academics, according to the
survey.

Computers, printers, Internet, projector, PowerPoint, Email, CD-ROM,

handheld devices, and other ICTs are used to share knowledge among
academics. Among all three levels of academics, the Lecturer I-Assistant
lecturer cadre possessed the highest ICT literacy. Lack of ICT skills,
network fluctuations, technophobia, an unsubscribed database, and an
inconsistent power supply were some of the issues affecting the usage of
ICTs for knowledge sharing in the universities investigated. The study
found that the most advanced ICTs, such as smart boards, E-books,
teleconferencing, and video conferencing, should be introduced in the
selected universities to provide proper training for the use of these
facilities in knowledge transfer. The study recommended that academics
be supplied with information literacy skills, with an emphasis on
knowledge sharing strategies, as well as training and retraining on how to
use these facilities, so that the universities surveyed can keep up with
worldwide trends in terms of teaching and research.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The work of abstracting a document entails several steps, and the abstract
writer must be aware of the rationale for these steps, and guarantee that
the considerations outlined are taken into account when composing his
abstract. When these considerations are followed, the writer will be able
to produce an ‘Excellent' abstract.

5.0 SUMMARY

An abstract is a summary of the entire manuscript that includes as much

new material as feasible. The ideal technique to produce a successful
abstract, according to San Francisco Edit (2010), is to start with a draft of
the entire paper and then identify the principal aims and conclusions, as
well as phrases with keywords in the methods section.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is the procedure for writing an abstract?

2. Change the sampled abstract from informative to indicative

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

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Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Colorado: Libraries Unlimited.

Cox, J. (2013). “As I See It!--Abstracting and Indexing Services--The

Ostriches of Information.” Against the Grain, 20(5), 32.

Lancaster, F. W. (2003). Indexing and Abstracting in theory and Practice.

Illinois: University of Illinois.
Musa, A. U. Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of
Indexing and Abstracting Services in Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Journal of Research on Humanities and
Social Sciences Vol.4, No.8, p.21-29.

Splenda, R. (2014). “Introduction to Indexing and Abstracting.”

Technical Services Quarterly, 31(3), 307-308

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of

Indexing. Accessed via https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ 25/5/2021

Osarome, O. (2017). History and Types of Indexes. Accessed via

https://osarome.blogspot.com/

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UNIT 3 THESAURUS CONSTRUCTION AND USE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Thesaurus
3.2 Importance of Thesaurus
3.3 Guide to Constructing Thesaurus
3.4 Sample of Thesaurus
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Thesaurus emerged as a result of a concerted effort to address the issues

connected with the usage of essentially uncontrolled free vocabularies. In
essence, thesauri, like categorisation schemes and subject headings, were
created to govern terminology. In a thesaurus, the relationship between
terms is more specific; descriptors/terms are dependent on these more
particular terms and must be coupled with other terms, unlike in topic
headings and categorization schemes. As a result, this lesson goes through
the definition of a thesaurus, its importance, and how to build one.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define Thesaurus
• state the importance of thesaurus
• identify the guide to constructing thesaurus (construct a thesaurus)

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Thesaurus

Cleveland and Cleveland (2001) define thesaurus as "a particular

language with words, relationships between words, and its own
grammatical norms of usage." It is a subset of natural language that is
regulated and collected. Its goal is to make indexing and searches more
consistent.

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A thesaurus is a "managed and structured vocabulary in which concepts

are represented by terms, ordered so that links between concepts are made
obvious, and favoured phrases are followed by lead-in entries for
synonyms or quasi-synonyms" (International Organisation for
Standardisation 2011, 2013).

Thesauri are important and useful tools for content discovery, information
organisation, and retrieval, for many disciplines, including cultural
heritage, higher education, commerce and enterprise. Information
professionals can use the thesaurus to describe documents in a consistent
way, making it easier for researchers, employees, and the general public
to find them.

Knowledge organisation systems (KOSs) and knowledge representation

systems come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Different systems are used
to define and describe terms and concepts, as well as organise knowledge
for improved search and retrieval, ranging from controlled vocabularies
to authority lists, categorisation schemes to taxonomies, thesauri, and
ontologies. In practice, terminology like controlled vocabulary,
taxonomy, thesaurus, and ontology are used interchangeably to describe
similar applications and knowledge organising activities across areas.

According to Hedden's The Accidental Taxonomist (2010), the term

"taxonomy" can refer to a variety of knowledge organizing methods other
than standard hierarchical classification (Hedden 2010a). The parallels
and contrasts between controlled vocabularies, taxonomies, and thesauri
have been examined by a variety of writers (Garshol 2004; Hedden 2010a;
Leise and Fast 2002; Pidcock 2003; Taxonomies and Controlled
Vocabularies Special Interest Group of the American Society for
Indexing, n.d.). The following are their most essential characteristics:
(what are the characteristics?)

3.1.1 Controlled Vocabulary

This is a limited collection of terminology that can be used for names,

locations, and subjects, as opposed to concepts. A controlled vocabulary
does not require a framework, though one may be present. Equivalence
terms like USE and Use For (UF) can be used as see reference types, and
every term in a restricted vocabulary should ideally have an explicit
definition, although this isn't often the case. Authority lists, taxonomies,
and thesauri, such as the Library of Congress Subject Headings and The
Getty Research Institute's Art & Architecture Thesaurus, are examples of
controlled vocabularies (AAT). Site maps and navigation menus are also
included.

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A regulated vocabulary is used to ensure uniformity throughout searches

and to avoid overlooking non-preferred terms. When individuals, places,
things, genres, forms, and subjects are described using controlled
vocabularies, all relevant records are found or collated under a single
term. Controlled vocabularies also eliminate ambiguity in search results
and increase precision. For example, if a full-text keyword search for the
term "roses" was conducted on a database, the results would include some
material containing Shakespeare quotations, which may or may not be
desirable:

‘What does a name mean? that which we refer to as a rose

It would smell as lovely under any other name;'
A search for the controlled vocabulary phrase ‘roses', on the other hand,
would only return documents that had the subject heading ‘roses' indexed
or tagged.

3.1.2 Taxonomies

A taxonomy is a structured vocabulary organized into a hierarchical tree

using parent/child, whole/part, or instance links. To describe these
relationships, taxonomies use broader words (BT) and narrower terms
(NT), as well as equivalence terms. The term taxonomy has taken on a
broader meaning in recent years, notably in business and corporate
information management, and it now refers to a variety of vocabulary,
including controlled vocabularies, authority lists, thesauri, and
ontologies. Taxonomies will be used in this document to refer to the
simpler hierarchies that do not have associative links, however, they can
be built similarly to a thesaurus. Internally or as a navigational menu on
a website, taxonomies can be used for organization and navigation. They
can also be a type of classification in which a child node has several of its
parent node's features or attributes. The taxonomy tree helps search in
both scenarios by allowing users to browse for terms further up or down
the hierarchy.

3.1.3 Thesaurus

A thesaurus, like a taxonomy, is a regulated vocabulary with more

sophisticated relationships. Hierarchical relationships such as BT and NT,
see also, and equivalence relationships, as well as associative
relationships such as related terms, are examples of these interactions
(RTs).

A thesaurus is a networked collection of terminology in which all terms

are related to one another and which helps users not only discover
information but also interpret it. ISO 25964 is the most recent

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international standard for the production of thesauri. In 2011 and 2013,

thesauri and interoperability with other vocabularies were provided in two
sections. This document contains suggestions for the creation and
management of information retrieval thesauri, as well as their
interoperability with other vocabularies.

3.2 Importance of Thesaurus

The major purpose of most thesauri and other controlled vocabularies is

to improve a user's ability to discover the information they need quickly
and simply, and the ISO standard specifies how they do this.

• Thesauri are tools that allow indexers and researchers to use the
same terminology to describe the same themes or concepts,
making search and retrieval easier.
• they help with information indexing, retrieval, organising, and
navigation (Hedden 2010). A thesaurus' relationships guide users
to more general or specialised concepts by helping them to
navigate through the lexicon and select the most appropriate
phrases for their content. Thesaurus navigation lets a user traverse
a subject domain or website, making it far more helpful than a
simple regulated list of terms— Thesaurus can be sorted
alphabetically by terms or used as a navigational aid and domain
map by displaying a systematic framework of hierarchical or
categorised relationships.
• In a thesaurus, associative associations can lead a user to similar
terms, allowing them to make connections they may not have
considered before.
• A thesaurus can be utilised as a source of metadata for subject
cataloguing (Broughton 2006) because it can connect diverse items
together and improve material discovery and access by utilising all
of the above features.
• • Thesaurus are useful in the workplace. Employees waste a lot of
time and money hunting for stuff on an intranet that they can't
access quickly or easily. Indeed, in certain circumstances, they are
unable to locate the information they require. When a customer
can't find what they're looking for on a website, they go somewhere
else, usually to a competitor (Stewart 2011).
• Many websites now use a type of faceted navigation in which
products are organised by their attributes or division principles; for
example, shirts can be organised by colour, material, or size.

3.3 Guide to constructing a Thesaurus

Cleveland & Cleveland (2001), listed the following characteristics of a

user-oriented thesaurus:
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• Contains a glossary of all terminology used in the database.

• Carefully separates terms that are used in a database from those
that aren't.
• Provides scope notes for difficulties that end users are likely to
encounter.
• Uses self-explanatory names for topics and relationships, as well
as a large entry vocabulary tailored to the needs of end-users. This
is a highly significant feature.
• Tools such as categorization schemes and subject headings, review
articles, monographs, and fundamental reference tools such as
dictionaries, handbooks, encyclopedias, and others that deal with
terminology in subject fields are utilized in the building of a
thesaurus.

Cleveland and Cleveland (2001) recommend the following stages for

creating a thesaurus:
• Determine the field of study. The topic field's boundaries should
be clearly specified.
• Determine the type of material that will be indexed. Is it mostly
journal articles? Is it books, reports, conference papers, and so on?
Is it historical or current?
• Determine who the users are and what information they require.
Will they ask a general or a specialised question?
• Determine whether the system will be pre-coordinated or post-
coordinated.
• For a raw vocabulary, consult published indexes, glossaries,
dictionaries, and other resources in the topic areas. This will
improve the thesaurus designer's knowledge of the field's
terminology and semantic relationships.
• Arrange the terms in a cluster.
• Develop long-term relationships.

Tijjani (2019) also provides the following steps for thesaurus

construction:
- Analyse copies of documents related to the field in question.
- Arrange terms into categories.
- Decide which terms will be authorised and which will serve as
cross-references
- Organise the result into an alphabetical thesaurus with appropriate
notes.
- Use the thesaurus to index a set of documents

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3.4 Sample of a Thesaurus Entry

Term Relationships
• Uniformity
• Ranking
o Broader term (BT) Example; Games
o Narrower terms (NT) Example; Football
Example; Games (BT)
Example; Football (NT)
• Colligation
o Related term (RT)
USE and Use For
• Use (USE)
o It is used for the description of a term or a concept that can be used
instead.
o Is the inverse of a USE FOR (UF)
• Use for (UF)
o Concentrate on synonyms or variations of the desired term.
o Can also be used to direct the indexer to a broader term.
USE and UF examples
• Mango Branch
o USE Branch
• Branch
o UF Mango Branch
• EMPLOYMENT REGULATION
UF Automatic Employment
• Automatic Employment
o USE EMPLOYMENT REGULATION
Sports
UF games
RT Athletes
NT Football
Joggers
Judo
Squash
Polo
Table tennis

4.0 CONCLUSION

Knowledge organisation systems (KOSs) and knowledge representation

systems come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Different systems are used
to define and describe terms and concepts and organise knowledge for
improved search and retrieval, ranging from controlled vocabularies to
authority lists, categorization schemes to taxonomies, thesauri, and

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ontologies. Controlled vocabulary and thesaurus aid in ensuring that

indexed terms are constantly consistent and adhere to standardisation.
Thesaurus construction, its features, and the construction technique were
all thoroughly detailed.

5.0 SUMMARY

Thesauri are important and useful tools for content discovery, information
organisation, and retrieval, which are activities that are prevalent in many
disciplines, including cultural heritage, higher education, and commerce
and enterprise. Information professionals can use the thesaurus to
describe the contents of documents in a consistent manner, making it
easier for researchers, employees, and the general public to find them.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is a thesaurus?
2. List the importance of a thesaurus.
3. What are the steps in constructing a thesaurus?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aina, L. O. (2004). Library and Information Science text in Africa.

Ibadan: Third World.

Broughton, V. (2006a). Essential Thesaurus Construction. London. Facet

Publishing.

Cleveland, D. B. & Cleveland, A. D. (2001). Introduction to Indexing and

Abstracting. Greenwood: Libraries Unlimited.

Garshol, L.M. (2004). Metadata? Thesauri? Taxonomies? Topic maps!

Ontopia, available at:
http://www.ontopia.net/topicmaps/materials/tm-vs-thesauri.html
(24 July 2013).

Hedden, H. (2010a). The Accidental Taxonomist. Medford, New Jersey:

Information Today, Inc.

Hedden, H. (2010b). Combining Controlled Vocabularies, available at:

http://www.heddeninformation.com/Combining%20Controlled%
20Vocabularies.pdf (22 November 2013)

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International Organisation for Standardisation (2011) ISO 25964-1:2011,

Information and documentation. Thesauri and interoperability
with other vocabularies. Part 1: Thesauri for information retrieval.
Geneva. International Organisation for Standardisation.

International Organisation for Standardisation (2013) ISO 25964-2:2013,

information and documentation. Thesauri and interoperability with
other vocabularies. Part 2: interoperability with other vocabularies.
Geneva. International Organisation for Standardisation.

Leise, F. & Fast, K. (2002). “What is a controlled vocabulary?” Boxes

and Arrows, available at http://boxesandarrows.com/what-is-a-
controlled-vocabulary/ (22 November 2013).

Pidcock, W. (2003). “What are the differences between a vocabulary, a

taxonomy, a thesaurus, an ontology, and a meta-model?”
Metamodel.com, available at: http://
web.archive.org/web/20050114010349/http://www.metamodel.co
m/article.php?story=20030115211223271 (23 July 2013).

Ryan, C. (2014), ‘Thesaurus construction guidelines: an introduction to

thesauri and guidelines on their construction’. Dublin: Royal Irish
Academy and National Library of Ireland.

Stewart, D.L. (2011). Building Enterprise Taxonomies: A Controlled

Vocabulary Primer. (2nd ed.). Lexington, KY: Mokita Press.

Musa, A. U., Musa, A. M. & Musa, S. (2014). “An Assessment of

Indexing and Abstracting Services In Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic
Library, Zaria, Nigeria.” Research on Humanities and Social
Sciences Vol.4, No.8.

World Heritage Encyclopedia (2021). Bibliographic Control. World

Heritage Encyclopedia.

Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers (2021). Types of

indexing. Accessed via https://www.anzsi.org/about-
indexing/types-indexing/ 25/5/2021

Osarome, O. (2017) History and Types of Indexes. Accessed via

https://osarome.blogspot.com/

Tijjani A. (2019). “Procedure for Constructing Thesaurus, List of

Preferred Terms for Nigerian Libraries.” Information Trends (1)13
p.18.

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