14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Reasons for the failure of the French

● 18 th century India
 Navy
 Company
● Advent of the Europeans 

Fort
Support
○ Reason for the advent.
○ Reason for the failure of the Portuguese Reasons for the success of the British
○ Anglo-French rivalry  Company
○ Reasons for the failure of the French  Navy
 Industrial Revolution
○ Reasons for the success of British  Military skill
● Subordination of Indian rulers 

Stable government
Religious policy
○ Bengal
Subordination of Bengal
 Plassey (1757) – Reason, Course
 Significance
• Indirect rule
• Finance
• Bullions
• British supremacy • French ousted from Bengal

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

 Buxar 1764
● 18 th century India  Dual government
 Direct rule 1772

● Advent of the Europeans Mysore

 3rd Anglo – Mysore (1790-92)
○ Reason for the advent.  1st Anglo-Mysore (1766-69)
• Treaty of Madras • British, Maratha, Nizam
○ Reason for the failure of the Portuguese
 2nd Anglo-Mysore (1780-84) • Treaty of Seringapatnam
○ Anglo-French rivalry • Haider’s grievance  4th Anglo- Mysore (1799)
○ Reasons for the failure of the French • British’s grievance • Subsidiary alliance
○ Reasons for the success of British • Treaty of Manglore

● Subordination of Indian rulers Tipu Sultan

○ Bengal  Tiger of Mysore Bigoted Monarch?
○ Mysore  Army  Crushed Hindu coorgs and Nairs
 Never under French  Demolished Temple in Kerala
 Rocket technology  Action against Mopilah also
 Sericulture  Repair of Sringeri Temple
 French revolution
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Maratha
● 18 th century India
 1st Anglo-Maratha war (1775-82)
• Treaty of Surat (1775)
● Advent of the Europeans • Treaty of Salbai (1782)
 2nd Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05)
○ Reason for the advent.
 Treaty of Bassein (1802)
○ Reason for the failure of the Portuguese  3rd Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18)
○ Anglo-French rivalry  Treaty of Poona (1817)
 Peshwaship was abolished
○ Reasons for the failure of the French
 Confederacy was dismissed
○ Reasons for the success of British
● Subordination of Indian rulers Reasons for the defeat of the Marathas
 Leadership
○ Bengal
 Loose confederacy
○ Mysore  Inferior military
○ Maratha  Unstable economic policy
 English diplomacy and espionage

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Sikh
● 18 th century India
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1792-1839)
• Belonged to Sukerchekia misl.
● Advent of the Europeans • Treaty of Amritsar (1809)
 1st Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)
○ Reason for the advent.
 2nd Anglo Sikh War (1848-49)
○ Reason for the failure of the Portuguese
○ Anglo-French rivalry
Superiority of the British over Indian rulers
○ Reasons for the failure of the French
 Strategy
○ Reasons for the success of British
 Collaboration with Indian rulers
● Subordination of Indian rulers  Conspiracy / diplomacy
○ Bengal  Resources
 Discipline
○ Mysore
○ Maratha Policies of annexation
○ Sikh  Ring Fence Policy
○ Superiority of the British over Indian rulers  Subsidiary alliance
○ Policies of annexation  Doctrine of lapse
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Permanent Settlement System

● Agricultural Revenue Policy  By Corwallis Absentee Landlordism
○ Permanent Settlement system  Aims  Detachment of zamindars from the
○ Ryotwari system • Regular income land
• Corruption  Increase in social inequality
○ Mahalwari system
• Land improvement  Commercialisatin of agriculture
• Administration  Productivity of land deteriorated
• Loyalty  Distress migration
 Impact
• Occupancy rights
• Burden on peasants
• Sub-infeudation
• Sunset law
• No investment
Ryotwari settlement
 By Thomas Munor
 Aims
• Ideology
• More authority
• Greater revenue

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

 Impact
● Agricultural Revenue Policy • Over assessment
○ Permanent Settlement system • Harsh methods
• Moneylenders
○ Ryotwari system
• Inaccurate survey
○ Mahalwari system • No legal help
● Uprisings and revolts (before 1857) Revolts of 1857
 Causes
● Revolt of 1857 • Immediate Cause
• Prevailing Causes
• Economic
• Political
• Administrative
• Other events
• Sepoys
 Main centres
 Causes of failure
• Limited extent • No common cause
• Poor equipment • Not supported by all
• No coordination
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Impact
● Agricultural Revenue Policy  Administrative changes
 Local bodies
• Promoted to earn
○ Permanent Settlement system • Transfer of power more revenue
• Secretary of state • Rippon (1882) –
○ Ryotwari system
 Military changes administering local
○ Mahalwari system • Army merged affairs through
● Uprisings and revolts (before 1857) • European increased
• Divide and rule
independent rural
and urban local
• Martial/Non-martial races
● Revolt of 1857  Relation with princely states
bodies. More elected
members
• No annexation  Other changes
 Provincial administration • No social reforms
• Decentralisation • Lack of public service
• Mayo (1870) – fixed sum from
central reserve
• Lytton (1877) – more heads of
expenditure
• Rippon (1882) – Province to
earn a fixed income from taxes.
Some sources of revenue fully
handed over

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Socio Religious Movement

● Agricultural Revenue Policy Causes
○ Permanent Settlement system  Ideology
○ Ryotwari system  Middle class intelligentsia
 Criticism
○ Mahalwari system
Major Issues related to women
● Uprisings and revolts (before 1857)  Sati practice
• Abolition of Sati Act, 1829
● Revolt of 1857  Female infanticide
• Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804
 Widow remarriage
● Socio Religious Movement • Widow’s remarriage act, 1856
 Child marriage
• Native marriage Act, 1872
• Age of consent Act, 1891 (12 years)
• Sarada Act, 1930 (14 years)
 Women education
• Bethune school 1849
• Vidyasagar was associated with 35 girls school
• Indian Women’s University (1916) by D.K.Karve
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Features
● Agricultural Revenue Policy  Modernisation
 Common themes
○ Permanent Settlement system
 Not revolution
○ Ryotwari system  Rationalism
○ Mahalwari system  Urban phenomenona and Filtration theory
● Uprisings and revolts (before 1857) Contributions
 Awareness
 Self-respect
● Revolt of 1857  Climate for modernaisation
 Natinalism
Limitations
● Socio Religious Movement  Narrow social base
 Legislatin
 Over emphasis on religion
 Communal consciousness

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Decline of artisanal industry

● Agricultural Revenue Policy Reasons
○ Permanent Settlement system  Cheap British products
○ Ryotwari system  No import duty
 Restriction on export
○ Mahalwari system
 Raw materials for natives at higher price
● Uprisings and revolts (before 1857)  Advent of railways
Crippled the rural economy
● Revolt of 1857  Lost in patrons
 No. of weavers declined
 Rural market captured by British product
● Socio Religious Movement  Burden on land
 Deteriorating condition of peasants

● Growth of Nationalism Famines

○ Drain of wealth
 Revenue policies
○ Decline of artisanal industry  Commercialisation of agriculture
○ famines  Draught
 Link to world economy
 Inflation
 Burden on land
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Lytton’s policies
● Growth of Nationalism  Arms Act, 1878
○ Drain of wealth  The Vernacular Press Act, 1878
○ Decline of artisanal industry  Civil Service age 21 to 19 (1876)
 Delhi Durbar (1878)
○ Famines
○ Rapid means of transportation Formation of INC
○ Centralized administration  Safety Valve theory
 Theory of lighting conductor
○ Modern education
○ Indian press Nature of INC
○ Art and literatures  Represented middle class
 From presidencies.
○ Lytton’s policy  90% Hindu, 6% Muslim
○ Ilbert bill (1883)  40% High cast, rest from high class
 Mostly professionals lawyers (34%), traders (14%), doctors,

● Formation of INC professors and zamindars (20%)

 Inspired by utilitarian ideology
○ Theories regarding origin  India can be modernized by the British only.
○ Nature  No faith in mass.

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Moderate Phase
● Indian National Movement Nature and approach
○ Moderate phase  Faith in British
 Constitutional agitation
 Emotional appeal and irrefutable arguments
 No faith in masses
Achievements
 National awakening
 Popularising Nationalism, democracy, etc.
 Exposing exploitative nature
 Providing a solid base
 Indian council Act, 1892.
Failures
 Narrow social base
 Failed to secure Muslim support
 Waste the opportunity to involve workers and women
 No substantial gain
 Law and political background – communication gap
 Led to rise of militant nationalism
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Extremist Phase
● Indian National Movement Reasons for the rise of militant nationalism
○ Moderate phase  Realisation of true nature
○ Extremists phase  Confidence and self respect
 Education
 International influence
 Socio-cultural reason
 Famines
 Failure of the moderates
 Curzon’s policy
 Calcutta Corporation Act, 1899
 Universities Act, 1904
 Official secrets Act, 1904
 Bengal Partition, 1905
Nature and approach
 No faith in British
 No faith in constitutional methods
 Passive resistance
 Power of the mass
 Salvation is possible through struggle

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Bengal partition
● Indian National Movement  Swadeshi movement
○ Moderate phase  New form of struggle
○ Extremists phase  Passive resistance
 Public meetings and processions
○ Bengal Partition and Swadeshi movement  Traditional festivals and melas
 Atma-shakti
 Promotion of education
 Mass participation
 Causes of failure
 Surat split
 Severe suppression (carrot and stick policy)
 Lack of organization
 Limited extent
 Significance / impact
 Decline in imports
 Effectiveness of passive resistance realised
 Swadeshi Institutions: Bengal National College, National
Council of Education, Bengal Institute of Technology.
 Swadeshi Industries - swadeshi textile mills, soap and
match factories, tanneries, banks, insurance companies.
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Indian Council Act, 1909 (Morley Minto Reforms)

● Indian National Movement  Expansion of Legislative Council
○ Moderate phase  Communal representation and separate electorate
○ Extremists phase  Indirect election
 Indian in executive council
○ Bengal Partition and Swadeshi movement  More powers to the non-official members
○ Formation of Muslim League Criticism
○ Indian Council Act 1909  No self-government
 Seeds of communalism
 Divide and rule – muslims and moderate against the rising tide of
nationalism
 System of election was too indirect
 Governor General was still too powerful

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Revolutionary Nationalism (The politics of the bomb)

● Indian National Movement  Causes
○ Moderate phase  Suppression of the extremists
○ Extremists phase  Angered by the British arrogance
 Inspired by Irish Nationalist, Russian revolutionaries.
○ Bengal Partition and Swadeshi movement  Method
○ Formation of Muslim League  Assassination of unpopular British officials and informers
○ Indian Council Act 1909  Swadeshi decoities
 Major activities
○ Rise of revolutionary nationalism
 Abhinava Bharat (1904) by V. D. Savarkar
 Anushilan Samitis and Yugantar group
 Attempt to kill Kingsford by Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose.
 Attempt to kill Hardinge by Ras Behari Bose and Sachin Sanyal.
 India House by Shamaji Krishna Verama in London
 Assassination of Curzon Wylie in London by Madan Lal Dhingra
 Ghadar party in San Francisco
 Komagata Maru incident
 Ghadarites in India.
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Home Rule Movement

● Indian National Movement  Causes
○ Moderate phase  Initiatives of Tilak and Annie Besant
○ Extremists phase  Moderates were disillusioned
 Price rise and high taxation
○ Bengal Partition and Swadeshi movement  Aims
○ Rise of revolutionary nationalism  Demand of home rule
○ Indian response to World War I  Political education
 Carrying out propaganda through newspapers, pamphlets, etc.
○ Home Rule Movement
 Causes of decline
 Montague declaration.
 Moderates also pacified by the release of Besant.
 Idea of launching civil disobedience alienated the moderates.
 Dilemma of Annie Besant.
 Tilak left for England.
 Significance
 Created a generation of ardent nationalists
 Popularise the idea of self-rule
 Organisational link between town and country.

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Arrival of Gandhi
● Indian National Movement  Gandhi in South Africa
○ Moderate phase  Natal Indian Congress
○ Extremists phase  Indian Ambulance Corp
 Satyagraha against Registration Certificates (1906)
○ Bengal Partition and Swadeshi movement  Campaign against Restrictions on Indian Migration
○ Rise of revolutionary nationalism  Campaign against invalidation of Indian Marriages
○ Indian response to World War I  Kesar-i-Hind
 Satyagraha Vs Passive Resistance
○ Home Rule Movement
 Idea of
○ Lucknow Pact  Swaraj
○ Arrival of Gandhi  Swadeshi
○ Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda  Trusteeship
 Sarvodaya
 Gandhi’s contribution
 Non-violence ensured mass participation and exposed British
 Inclusive politics – class movement to mass movement
 Women participation
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Government of India Act, 1919 (Mont-Ford reforms)

● Indian National Movement Centre
○ Moderate phase  Subjects divided as central and provincial
○ Extremists phase  3/8 Indians in executive council
 Bicameral legislature – Assembly: 3year, Council of states: 5 years
○ Bengal Partition and Swadeshi movement
○ Rise of revolutionary nationalism Provinces
○ Indian response to World War I  Dyarchy at the provinces
 Provincial council expanded
○ Home Rule Movement
 Direct election at the provinces
○ Lucknow Pact  Voting rights to women
○ Arrival of Gandhi  Separate electorate to Sikh and Christian
○ Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda
Criticism
○ Government of India Act 1919  Limited franchise
 At centre, no control of legislature over Viceroy and his executive
council.
 Allocation of seats to the provinces was made on the basis of
importance of the province
 Dyarchy was unworkable
 Provincial ministers had no control over the bureaucrats.

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Rowlatt Satyagrah
● Indian National Movement Rowlatt Act, 1919
○ Moderate phase  Recommendation of Sedition Committee (Head: Sydney Rowlatt)
○ Extremists phase  Imprisonment without warrant
 Camera trials without juries
○ Bengal Partition and Swadeshi movement  Evidence beyond evidence act
○ Rise of revolutionary nationalism  Restriction on freedom of speech and movement
○ Indian response to World War I Rowlatt Satyagraha
 Strike
○ Home Rule Movement
 Fasting and prayers
○ Lucknow Pact  Civil disobedience
○ Arrival of Gandhi  Courting arrest
○ Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda Aftermath
 Jallianwala Bagh
○ Government of India Act 1919  Himalayan Blunder
○ Rowlatt Satyagrah, 1919 Significance
 Repeal of Rowlatt Act in 1920
 Elevation of Gandhi as a mass leader
 Changed the nature of freedom struggle
 Exposed Authoritarian rule of the British
 International attention
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Tilak Vs. Gandhi

● Indian National Movement Similarities
○ Moderate phase  Importance of self-governance
○ Extremists phase  Believe in power of the masses
 Use of non cooperation and civil disobedience
○ Bengal Partition and Swadeshi movement  Believe in Indian culture and heritage
○ Rise of revolutionary nationalism  Both used press to propagate and spread their ideas
○ Indian response to World War I Differences
 Tilak was ready to use violence if needed.
○ Home Rule Movement
 Tilak believe in supremacy of Hindu religion and culture
○ Lucknow Pact  Tilak more interested in political reforms. Gandhi in political,
○ Arrival of Gandhi cultural, social and economic reforms
○ Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda  Tilak emphasised on the importance of education. Gandhi on
education and vocational training.
○ Government of India Act 1919
Non-Cooperation Movement
○ Rowlatt Satyagrah, 1919
 INC sessions – Calcutta and Nagpur
○ Khilafat Movement  Negative and positive agenda
○ Tilak Vs. Gandhi  STS strategy of Gandhi
○ Non cooperation movement

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Tilak Vs. Gandhi

● Indian National Movement Similarities
○ Moderate phase  Importance of self-governance
○ Extremists phase  Believe in power of the masses
 Use of non cooperation and civil disobedience
○ Bengal Partition and Swadeshi movement  Believe in Indian culture and heritage
○ Rise of revolutionary nationalism  Both used press to propagate and spread their ideas
○ Indian response to World War I Differences
 Tilak was ready to use violence if needed.
○ Home Rule Movement
 Tilak believe in supremacy of Hindu religion and culture
○ Lucknow Pact  Tilak more interested in political reforms. Gandhi in political,
○ Arrival of Gandhi cultural, social and economic reforms
○ Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda  Tilak emphasised on the importance of education. Gandhi on
education and vocational training.
○ Government of India Act 1919
Non-Cooperation Movement
○ Rowlatt Satyagrah, 1919
 INC sessions – Calcutta and Nagpur
○ Khilafat Movement  Negative and positive agenda
○ Tilak Vs. Gandhi  STS strategy of Gandhi
○ Non cooperation movement
○ Swarajists
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

New objectives
● Indian National Movement  Uplift the oppressed class
○ New objectives of 1920s  Welfare of women and minorities
○ Post war revolutionary activities  Socialist state
 Concerned for peasants
○ Nehru Report
 Care for labours
○ Civil Disobedience Movement
Post war revolutionary activities
 HRA
 HSRA
 Surya Sen
CDM Vs NCM
 Violation of law vs non-cooperation
 Objective of CDM was purna swaraj.
 Muslim participation was less in CDM
 No major labour upsurge coincided with CDM
 Three times more Indians were imprisoned in CDM
 The Congress was organisationally stronger

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

● Indian National Movement

○ New objectives of 1920s
○ Post war revolutionary activities
○ Nehru Report
○ Civil Disobedience Movement
○ Gandhi Vs. Ambedkar
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Development of education
● Development of education Individual efforts
○ Individual efforts • Warren Hastings established Calcutta Madrassa in 1781.
○ Charter Act, 1813 • Jonathan Duncan established Sanskrit College, Benaras in 1791
• Wellesley established William College in 1800.
○ Macaulay’s minute, 1835
Charter Act, 1813
○ Efforts of Thomson • One Lakh rupees annually for promotion of education in India.
• Orientalist-Anglicist controversy
• Grant sanctioned to set up Calcutta College set up in 1817 by
educated Bengalis to impart English education.
• Three Sanskrit colleges at Calcutta, Delhi and Agra
Macaulay’s minute (1835)
• Teaching of Western sciences and literature through the medium
of English language alone.
• Downward filtration theory.
Efforts of Thomson
• lieutenant-governor of NW Provinces (1843-53), developed a
comprehensive scheme of village education through the medium
of vernacular languages.

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Development of education
● Development of education Wood’s despatch (1854)
○ Individual efforts • Considered the “Magna Carta of English Education in India.”
○ Charter Act, 1813 1. Mass education
2. Vernacular primary schools in villages, Anglo-vernacular high
○ Macaulay’s minute, 1835
schools, affiliated college at district levels and affiliating
○ Efforts of Thomson universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
○ Wood’s Despatch (1854) 3. English as the medium of instruction for higher studies and
vernaculars at school level.
4. stress on female and vocational education, and on teachers’
training.
5. Secular education in government institutions
6. recommended a system of grants-in-aid to encourage private
enterprise.
Implementation
• Universities were set up in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857
• Department of education set up in all provinces.
• An Agriculture Institute at Pusa (Bihar)
• An Engineering Institute at Roorkee.
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Development of education
● Development of education Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)
○ Individual efforts • Extension and improvement of primary education in vernacular
○ Charter Act, 1813 medium.
• Control of primary education to district and municipal boards.
○ Macaulay’s minute, 1835
• 2 divisions in secondary (High School) education-
○ Efforts of Thomson • literary—leading up to university.
○ Wood’s Despatch (1854) • vocational—for commercial careers.
• Drew attention to inadequate facilities for female education,
○ Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)
especially outside presidency towns and made recommendations
○ Indian Universities Act, 1904 for its spread.
Indian Universities Act, 1904 (Raleigh Commission, 1902)
• Universities were to give more attention to study and research;
• The number of fellows of a university and their period in office
were reduced and most fellows were to be nominated by the
Government;
• Powers to Govt to veto universities’ senate regulations and could
amend these regulations or pass regulations on its own;
• Stricter condition for affiliation of private colleges; and
• 5L/year to be sanctioned for five years for improvement of higher
education and universities

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Development of education
● Development of education Resolution on education policy, 1913
○ Individual efforts • In 1906, princely state of Baroda introduced compulsory primary
○ Charter Act, 1813 education throughout its territories. National leaders urged the
government to do so for British India.
○ Macaulay’s minute, 1835
• 1913 Resolution on Education Policy although refused to take up
○ Efforts of Thomson the responsibility of compulsory education, urged provincial
○ Wood’s Despatch (1854) governments to take early steps to provide free elementary
education to the poorer and more backward sections.
○ Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)
• Private efforts were to be encouraged for this
○ Indian Universities Act, 1904 • The quality of secondary schools was to be improved.
○ Resolution on education policy, 1913 • A university was to be established in each province and teaching
○ Saddler University Commission (1917-19) activities of universities were to be encouraged.
Saddler University Commission (1917-19)
1. 12 years school course. University entry after intermediate stage
(rather than matric) for a three-year degree course in university.
2. A separate board of secondary and intermediate education.
3. University should function as centralised, unitary residential-
teaching autonomous body
4. Female education, applied scientific and technological education,
teachers’ training colleges should be extended.
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Wardha scheme of basic education

● Development of education In Wardha, Congress organized a National conference on education in
○ Individual efforts 1937 and based on a resolution passed here, Zakir Hussain Committee
○ Charter Act, 1813 formulated a detail plan based on the ideas of Gandhi.
• Basic handicraft in the syllabus
○ Macaulay’s minute, 1835
• Free, compulsory and nationwide education in vernacular medium
○ Efforts of Thomson for first 7 years.
○ Wood’s Despatch (1854) • Medium should be Hindi from Class II-VII and English from VIII
• To establish contact with the community through service.
○ Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)
• Educating through the medium of productive activity of a suitable
○ Indian Universities Act, 1904 handicraft.
○ Resolution on education policy, 1913
○ Saddler University Commission (1917-19) Resignation of congress ministries in 1939 hampered the
implementation of this idea.
○ Under Dyarchy
○ Hartog committee
○ The Sergeant Plan

● Wardha scheme of basic education

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Development of judiciary
● Development of judiciary Reforms under Warren Hastings
○ Under Warren Hastings • District Diwani courts for civil disputes placed under collector with
○ Under Cornwallis hindu and muslim personal law.
• Sadar Diwani Adalat as court of appeal under a president and two
members of the Supreme Council.
• District Fauzdari Adalats using muslim law for criminal disputes
under an Indian officer assisted by Qazis and Muftis.
• Approval for capital punishment and acquisition of property under
Sadar Nizamat Adalat under deputy Nizam assisted by chief qazi
and chief mufti.
• Supreme court established in Calcutta under Regulating Act, 1773 –
competent to try British subjects in Calcutta and the subordinate
factories. It had original and appellate jurisdiction.
Reforms under Cornwallis
• District Fauzdari Adalats were replaced by circuit courts at Calcutta,
Dacca, Murshidabad and Patna under European judge as appellate
court for both civil and criminal cases
• Sadar Nizamat Adalat under governor general and members of the
Supreme council assisted by chief qazi and chief mufti.
• District Diwani Adalat (District court) under district judge.
 14-05-2024

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Development of judiciary
● Development of judiciary The Cornwallis code
○ Under Warren Hastings • Separation of revenue and justice administration
○ Under Cornwallis • European subjects were also brought under jurisdiction.
• Government officials were answerable to the civil courts for actions
○ Under William Bentick
done in their official capacity.
○ Later developments • The principle of sovereignty of law was established.
Under William Bentick
• Circuit courts abolished. Functions transferred to collectors under
the supervision of the commissioner of revenue and circuit.
• Option to use Persian or a vernacular language in courts, while in
the Supreme Court, English language replaced Persian.
• Law commission under Macaulay for codification of Indian law
• Civil Procedure Code (1859)
• Indian Panel Code (1860)
• Criminal Procedure Code (1861)
Later developments
• 1865 – Supreme court and sadar adalats merged into three High
courts in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
• 1935 – Federal court set up in 1937.

INDIAN HISTORY MAINS

Development of judiciary
● Development of judiciary Positive
○ Under Warren Hastings • Rule of Law
○ Under Cornwallis • Codified laws replaced Hindu and Muslim personal law of rulers.
• European brought under jurisdiction (tried by European judge only
○ Under William Bentick
in case of criminal cases)
○ Later developments • Govt. servants made answerable to civil courts.
○ Evaluation Negative
• Complicated and expensive system
• Scope for false evidence and deceit.
• Delayed justice
• Overburden
• European judges were not familiar with the Indian usage and
traditions