H&E UNIT-3

1.Scientific thinking and method

1.Curiosity and Exploration

● What It Means: Scientists ask questions and seek to understand the world.
● Ethics: Encourages a desire to learn and discover for the benefit of society.

2. Observation

● What It Means: Carefully looking at things to gather information.

● Ethics: Requires attention to detail and respect for facts, ensuring accuracy.

3. Formulating Hypotheses

● What It Means: Making educated guesses based on observations.

● Ethics: Promotes creativity and logical thinking while maintaining humility and openness
to new ideas.

4. Experimentation

● What It Means: Testing hypotheses through controlled experiments.

● Ethics: Ensures fairness and safety in experiments, especially when involving living
beings.

5. Data Collection

● What It Means: Gathering facts and figures from experiments or observations.

● Ethics: Requires honesty and transparency in how data is collected and recorded.

6. Analysis

● What It Means: Reviewing the data to understand patterns or trends.

● Ethics: Demands objectivity, ensuring that conclusions are based on real evidence.
7. Peer Review

● What It Means: Asking other experts to check your work to ensure its accuracy.
● Ethics: Encourages collaboration and prevents errors, ensuring trustworthiness in
scientific results.

8. Replicability

● What It Means: Ensuring that experiments can be repeated by others to confirm results.
● Ethics: Guarantees reliability and consistency in scientific findings.

9. Drawing Conclusions

● What It Means: Using the data to support or reject the hypothesis.

● Ethics: Requires honesty and clarity in presenting findings, avoiding exaggeration or
manipulation.

10. Making Predictions

● What It Means: Using results to predict future events or behaviors.

● Ethics: Predictions should be based on solid evidence and used responsibly to avoid
misleading people.

11. Improvement and Refinement

● What It Means: Using the results to improve or adjust hypotheses and methods.
● Ethics: Promotes continuous learning and innovation, ensuring the progress of science
benefits society.

12. Ethical Responsibility

● What It Means: Applying scientific methods while respecting human and environmental
rights.
 ● Ethics: Ensures that scientific work is used for the good of society and does not harm
people or nature.

2. Proposing and testing hypothesis

1. Asking a Question

● What It Means: Start by asking a clear question about something you want to learn.
● Ethics: Ensures curiosity is focused on issues that benefit society or solve problems.

2. Making an Educated Guess (Hypothesis)

● What It Means: Propose a possible answer or explanation to the question based on

what you know.
● Ethics: Be honest and avoid bias, ensuring your guess is based on evidence.

3. Defining Variables

● What It Means: Identify what factors you will test and measure in your experiment.
● Ethics: Be clear and transparent about the variables to avoid misleading conclusions.

4. Designing the Experiment

● What It Means: Plan a fair test to check if your hypothesis is correct.

● Ethics: Ensure the experiment is ethical, especially when involving humans, animals, or
the environment.

5. Gathering Data

● What It Means: Collect information from the experiment using measurements,

observations, or tools.
● Ethics: Collect data honestly and accurately, without fabricating or altering results.
6. Controlling Variables

● What It Means: Keep other factors constant to make sure the test is fair and reliable.
● Ethics: Avoid manipulation of variables to ensure the experiment is unbiased and just.

7. Testing Repeatedly

● What It Means: Conduct the experiment several times to confirm the results.
● Ethics: Ensure that results are consistent and reliable, showing respect for scientific
integrity.

8. Analyzing Results

● What It Means: Look at the data to see if it supports or rejects the hypothesis.
● Ethics: Analyze data without twisting or ignoring unfavorable results.

9. Drawing Conclusions

● What It Means: Decide if the hypothesis is correct based on the data.

● Ethics: Be honest about the outcome, whether the hypothesis was supported or not.

10. Sharing Findings

● What It Means: Present the results of the experiment to others, usually in a report or
paper.
● Ethics: Share findings transparently, allowing others to replicate and verify your work.

11. Peer Review

● What It Means: Let other experts check your work to make sure it is accurate and valid.
● Ethics: Respect the peer review process and be open to feedback to improve your work.

12. Refining the Hypothesis

 ● What It Means: Use the results to adjust your hypothesis and test again, if necessary.
● Ethics: Always be open to learning and refining your work to advance knowledge and
avoid errors.

3. Validating Facts using Evidence based approach

1. Gathering Reliable Data

● What It Means: Collect data from trustworthy sources or experiments.

● Ethics: Ensures the information used is accurate and comes from credible sources.

2. Ensuring Objectivity

● What It Means: Analyze facts without personal bias or preconceived notions.

● Ethics: Ensures fairness and honesty in drawing conclusions.

3. Using Multiple Sources

● What It Means: Check facts from more than one reliable source to confirm their
accuracy.
● Ethics: Promotes thoroughness and reduces the risk of misinformation.

4. Testing Hypotheses

● What It Means: Test ideas or predictions using experiments or data analysis to check
their validity.
● Ethics: Promotes transparency and ensures conclusions are based on evidence, not
assumptions.

5. Peer Review

● What It Means: Ask other experts to review the findings to check for accuracy and
reliability.
● Ethics: Ensures accountability and encourages improvements in research.
6. Cross-Referencing Information

● What It Means: Compare facts from different studies or fields to ensure consistency.
● Ethics: Ensures the facts are consistent and reliable across different sources.

7. Using Transparent Methods

● What It Means: Clearly explain how facts were gathered or tested, so others can verify
the process.
● Ethics: Promotes honesty, allowing others to replicate findings and trust the results.

8. Considering the Context

● What It Means: Ensure the facts are understood in the right context, as different
situations can affect how facts are interpreted.
● Ethics: Encourages thoughtful and responsible interpretation of data.

9. Evaluating the Quality of Evidence

● What It Means: Assess the strength of the evidence, considering the source, method,
and relevance.
● Ethics: Ensures that only high-quality, credible evidence influences decisions.

10. Avoiding Cherry-Picking

● What It Means: Don't select only facts that support a certain view while ignoring facts
that contradict it.
● Ethics: Promotes fairness and objectivity in presenting the full picture.

11. Recognizing Limitations

● What It Means: Acknowledge the limitations of the evidence, such as small sample
sizes or bias in the study.
 ● Ethics: Shows honesty and helps avoid misleading conclusions.

12. Using Evidence to Make Informed Decisions

● What It Means: Use the facts and evidence to make choices that are fair, responsible,
and based on truth.
● Ethics: Ensures that decisions are made for the good of society, based on verified facts
and evidence.

4. Inductive and Deductive Thinking

1. Starts with Observations

● What It Means: Inductive thinking begins by looking at specific details or examples.

● Ethics: Encourages careful observation and respect for facts before making
conclusions.

2. Generalizing from Specifics

● What It Means: It moves from specific observations to broader generalizations.

● Ethics: Requires honesty, ensuring the generalization is based on accurate and
representative examples.

3. Patterns and Trends

● What It Means: Inductive reasoning looks for patterns or trends in data to form
conclusions.
● Ethics: Promotes critical thinking by using evidence to understand broader truths.

4. Flexible Conclusions

● What It Means: The conclusions can change if new evidence is found.

● Ethics: Encourages openness and adaptability to new information.
5. Risk of Overgeneralization

● What It Means: Sometimes, inductive thinking can lead to incorrect generalizations.

● Ethics: Promotes careful, thoughtful reasoning to avoid misleading conclusions.

6. Requires Sufficient Evidence

● What It Means: It’s important to have enough examples or data to support the
conclusion.
● Ethics: Ensures fairness by avoiding conclusions drawn from insufficient or biased data.

Deductive Thinking:

7. Starts with General Principles

● What It Means: Deductive thinking begins with a general rule or theory and applies it to
specific cases.
● Ethics: Encourages logical consistency and clarity in reasoning.

8. Logical Structure

● What It Means: Deductive reasoning follows a clear and logical structure to reach a
conclusion.
● Ethics: Promotes integrity in reasoning, ensuring conclusions are grounded in valid
premises.

9. Specific Conclusions from General Rules

● What It Means: It applies broad principles to make specific predictions or conclusions.

● Ethics: Ensures conclusions are logically consistent and reliable if the premises are
correct.
10. Fixed and Certain Conclusions

● What It Means: If the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.
● Ethics: Promotes truth and accountability in reasoning by ensuring conclusions are
based on sound logic.

11. Risk of False Premises

● What It Means: If the general rule is incorrect, the conclusion will also be wrong.
● Ethics: Encourages verifying the truth of premises to avoid misleading conclusions.

12. Clear and Precise

● What It Means: Deductive reasoning provides clear, precise conclusions based on

sound principles.
● Ethics: Promotes clarity and accuracy in decision-making, ensuring ethical and informed
choices.