Semantics & Pragmatics
Lec 3
Propositions :
• Meaning is expressed through declarative sentences.
• The main idea or content of a declarative sentence is often a fact or piece of
information.
• Most declarative sentences give facts or information (truth conditions).
• When you say a declarative sentence, you're stating or presenting a proposition.
• Proposition = the idea or content in the sentence.
• A proposition is a statement about the world in the form of an idea.
• If two propositions have the same truth conditions, they are equivalent.
• We can use the idea of truth to decide if two sentences express different propositions.
• If one sentence can be true while the other is false in any situation, they express
different propositions.
• When a speaker utters a declarative sentence, they are typically asserting a proposition.
The concept of truth is useful only for determining whether two sentences convey
different propositions. Therefore, if there exists any possible scenario where one
1
sentence is true and the other is false, we can conclude that they express distinct
propositions.
ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻣﻔﮭﻮم اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﺎ. ﻓﺈﻧﮫ ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻗﺪ طﺮح اﻗﺘﺮا ًﺣﺎ،ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻨﻄﻖ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪث ﺑﺠﻤﻠﺔ ﺧﺒﺮﯾﺔ
إذا ﻛﺎن ھﻨﺎك أي ﺳﯿﻨﺎرﯾﻮ ﻣﺤﺘﻤﻞ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻓﯿﮫ إﺣﺪى اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺘﯿﻦ، ﻟﺬﻟﻚ.إذا ﻛﺎﻧﺖ اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺘﺎن ﺗﻌﺒﺮان ﻋﻦ اﻗﺘﺮاﺣﺎت ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ
. ﻓﯿﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ أن ﻧﺴﺘﻨﺘﺞ أﻧﮭﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﺒﺮان ﻋﻦ اﻗﺘﺮاﺣﺎت ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ،ﺻﺤﯿﺤﺔ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ اﻷﺧﺮى ﺧﺎطﺌﺔ
Types of propositions in sentences:
1. Declarative: The speaker says that the proposition is true, meaning they are stating it as
a fact.
2. Interrogative: Used to ask questions. It checks if the proposition is true, but does not say
it is true.
3. Imperative: Used to give orders. It asks for the proposition to be done, but does not say
if it is true.
4. only declaratives are the assert of truth conditions.
• Propositions, unlike sentences, are not tied to any specific language. Sentences in
different languages can express the same proposition if they are accurate translations of
each other.
ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﺠﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻟﻐﺎت ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ أن ﺗﻌﺒﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻔﺲ. ﻻ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻘﻮل إﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻨﺘﻤﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻟﻐﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ، ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻜﺲ اﻟﺠﻤﻞ،اﻻﻗﺘﺮاﺣﺎت
.اﻻﻗﺘﺮاح إذا ﻛﺎﻧﺖ اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺘﺎن ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ دﻗﯿﻘﺔ ﻟﺒﻌﻀﮭﻤﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ
• Sense and reference:-
1- sense:-
The core meaning of an expression is its basic, literal meaning, and it doesn't depend on the
context.
• It refers to the main, direct meaning of the expression.
• It is about how words are related to other words within the same language.
• Sense is something abstract; it doesn't have a physical form.
• Sense focuses on relationships between words in a language, called "semantic
relationships."
• One example of a semantic relationship is when different words, phrases, or sentences
can have the same meaning. This happens when more than one word expresses the
same sense.
2
Examples:
• Same language: "big" / "large"
• Different languages: "house" / "maison"
• Different dialects: "truck" (American English) / "lorry" (British English)
. وﻻ ﯾﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق،اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﯿﺮ ھﻮ ﻣﻌﻨﺎه اﻟﺤﺮﻓﻲ واﻟﺒﺴﯿﻂ
اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ. ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻜﯿﻔﯿﺔ ارﺗﺒﺎط اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت ﺑﺎﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت اﻷﺧﺮى داﺧﻞ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ. ﯾﺸﯿﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﻲ واﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﯿﺮ
". واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ "اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت اﻟﺪﻻﻟﯿﺔ،اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﯾﺮﻛﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ. ﺷﻲء ﻣﺠﺮد؛ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﮫ وﺟﻮد ﻣﺎدي
ﯾﺤﺪث ھﺬا.أﺣﺪ أﻣﺜﻠﺔ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت اﻟﺪﻻﻟﯿﺔ ھﻮ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﺤﺘﻮي ﻛﻠﻤﺎت أو ﻋﺒﺎرات أو ﺟﻤﻞ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ
.ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﺒﺮ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ
• In some cases, one word can have more than one meaning, which leads to lexical
ambiguity. Here are some examples:
• The word light can mean "not heavy" or "something that helps you see".
• The word bark can mean the sound a dog makes or the outer layer of a tree.
• This happens when the same word has different meanings based on how it is used.
In some cases, similar sentences can have different meanings. Here's an
example:
1. The book is ready to read.
o Meaning: The book is prepared and available for someone to read.
2. The book is ready to be read.
o Meaning: The book is in a state or condition that makes it ready for someone to
read it.
3. The book is ready to read something.
o Meaning: The book is prepared to read another piece of text or content, like a
passage from another book.
This shows how sentences with similar wording can have distinct meanings based on their structure and
context.
2- Reference:-
1- something that has a physical form.
Expression = part of language
2- Needs context to understand the referent.
Thing or person = part of world
3- Occurs during the utterance.
4- The connection between language and the world.
3
5- Referents, as part of language and the world, include things or people that exist in the
world, even if they may not physically exist, but we believe they are present or real.
• All meaningful expressions have sense, but not all have reference.
• Sense: "The morning star" and "the evening star" have the same sense (both refer to
Venus), but they may have different references depending on the time of day.
• Reference: "Unicorn" has sense (the idea of a mythical horse with a horn) but no
reference in the real world, as unicorns do not exist. Function words =
sense language
Content words =
Two different expressions can refer to the same thing. For example: sense and reference
• "The capital of France" and "Paris" both refer to the same place, Paris, even though they
are different expressions.
Types of reference :
1- Constant and Variable:-
• Constant Words refer to only one specific thing in the world. They never point to
different things. They are always clear and refer to one object or person.
Example:
• "The sun" always refers to the same thing: the star at the center of our solar system.
• "The White House" always refers to the specific building in Washington, D.C., where
the President of the United States lives and works.
Variable Words can refer to different things depending on the context. They might refer
to various entities, and they can be either definite or indefinite based on the situation.
For example:
• "A dog" can refer to any dog, depending on the context, making it indefinite.
• "The dog" refers to a specific dog that has been identified or is known in the context,
making it definite.
In these cases, the same word ("dog") can refer to different things depending on how it's used in a sentence.
4
2- Definite vs Indefinite:-
• Definite It is used when the speaker believes that the listener can identify the referent,
or when the identification is included in the expression due to shared knowledge between
both people.
أو ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻀﻤﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻌﺒﯿﺮ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ،• ﯾُﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﺘﻘﺪ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪث أن اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﻊ ﯾﻤﻜﻨﮫ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ
.اﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ
Example:
"Can you close the window?"
Here, the speaker assumes that the listener knows which window they mean, based on the
context or shared understanding between them.
• 1. Definite articles (the) 2. Pronouns 3. Proper names 4. Demonstratives 5. Possessives
• Indefinite This refers to situations where the referent is not specific but is part of a
larger entity. It indicates that the reference is general and not clearly defined within the
context.
وھﺬا ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أن اﻹﺷﺎرة ﻋﺎﻣﺔ.ﯾﺸﯿﺮ ھﺬا إﻟﻰ اﻟﺤﺎﻻت اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻓﯿﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺤﺪد وﻟﻜﻨﮫ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﻛﯿﺎن أﻛﺒﺮ •
.وﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻣﺤﺪدة ﺑﻮﺿﻮح ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق
Example:
• "A book" — This refers to any book, not a specific one. It’s part of the larger category of
books.
• "A piece of cake" — Refers to any piece from a larger whole, not a specific piece.
In both examples, the referent is general and part of a larger entity.
• All definite references are constant, but not all constant references are definite.
Example:
• Definite reference (constant):
o "The sun" — Refers to a specific and constant entity, the star in our solar system.
• Constant reference (not necessarily definite):
o "The Earth" — Refers to a specific planet, but in some contexts, it could be part
of a broader group of planets (making it constant but not always definite).
5
3- Generic references:-
It refers to using a noun in a general way. It's easy to recognize because changing from
singular to plural (or vice versa) doesn’t affect its meaning.
Example:
• "Dogs are loyal." (general reference to dogs as a species)
• "A dog is loyal." (general reference to any dog)
In both cases, the reference is general, and the change in number doesn't change the
meaning.
• Types of Ambiguity :-
1- Lexical / word ambiguity refers to the situation where a single word has multiple
meanings or senses. This happens when one word can be used in different contexts to
represent different ideas or concepts.
Example:
• "Bank"
o A financial institution: "I went to the bank to withdraw money."
o The side of a river: "We walked along the bank of the river."
In this case, the same word "bank" has multiple meanings depending on the context.
1- Syntactic ambiguity occurs when a sentence can be understood in multiple ways due to
its structure, even though the words themselves are clear.
Example:
• "I saw the man with the telescope."
o Interpretation 1: The speaker used a telescope to see the man.
o Interpretation 2: The man the speaker saw had a telescope.
In this case, the sentence structure creates ambiguity, as the meaning depends on how you
interpret the relationship between the words.
• Referring expressions:-
A referring expression is any word or phrase used in speech or writing to point to a specific
thing or person, with a particular referent in mind. Definite noun phrases are most commonly
used as referring expressions.
6
Example:
• "The book on the table" — Here, "the book on the table" is a referring expression
because it points to a specific book.
• "She" — In context, "she" can be a referring expression if it's clear who is being
talked about.
Definite noun phrases like "the cat," "the president," or "the car" are typical examples of
referring expressions.
اﻟـ referring expressionھﻮ أي ﺗﻌﺒﯿﺮ أو ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﺑﺘُﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻋﻠﺸﺎن ﺗﺸﯿﺮ ﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ أو ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ،ﯾﻌﻨﻲ ﺑﯿﻜﻮن ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ
ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﻚ واﻧﺖ ﺑﺘﺘﻜﻠﻢ ﻋﻨﮭﺎ .ﻋﺎدةً ،اﻟﻌﺒﺎرات اﻻﺳﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﺮوﻓﺔ )اﻟﻠﻲ ﺑﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﺤﺪدة( ھﻲ اﻟﻠﻲ ﺑﺘﺴﺘﺨﺪم أﻛﺘﺮ ﻛـ
referring expressions.
:ﻣﺜﺎل
"اﻟﻜﺘﺎب اﻟﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮاﺑﯿﺰة — "ھﻨﺎ" ،اﻟﻜﺘﺎب اﻟﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮاﺑﯿﺰة" ھﻮ referring expressionﻷﻧﮫ ﺑﯿﻮﺟﮭﻚ •
ﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ وھﻲ اﻟﻜﺘﺎب اﻟﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮاﺑﯿﺰة.
"ھﻲ — "ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق" ،ھﻲ" ﻣﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻜﻮن referring expressionﻟﻮ ﻛﻠﻨﺎ ﻋﺎرﻓﯿﻦ ﻣﯿﻦ اﻟﻠﻲ ﺑﺘﺘﻜﻠﻢ ﻋﻨﮫ. •
اﻟـ referring expressionsﺑﺘﻜﻮن ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ً ﺟﻤﻞ أو ﻋﺒﺎرات ﻣﻌﺮوﻓﺔ زي "اﻟﻘﻂ"" ،اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺲ" ،أو "اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ" ﻟﻮ ﻛﺎن
اﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮع ﻣﺤﺪد وواﺿﺢ.
7
