English Language

Teaching (ELT)

Dr. Khalid Azim Khan

Associate Professor
Department of English
City University of Science and
Information Technology
 Structuralism
Key Theories
in Second Behaviorism
Language
Acquisition Cognitivism
(SLA)
Constructivism
Sociocultural Theory
 Historical Context

• Constructivism has roots in the

works of Jean Piaget and Lev
Vygotsky. It views learning as a
4. Constructivism process of building knowledge
through experience and interaction
with the environment.
 Core Principles

• Learners actively construct

their knowledge rather than
passively receiving it.
Constructivism • Prior knowledge and
experiences influence how
new information is
processed.
• Social interaction plays a
vital role in learning.
 Applications in SLA

• Emphasis on learner autonomy

Constructivism and discovery-based learning.
• Using problem-solving tasks
and real-life contexts to make
learning meaningful.
 Example:
• Role-plays: Students act out a
shopping scenario to practice
vocabulary and sentence
structures.
• Projects: Creating a travel
Constructivism brochure to practice descriptive
language and organizational skills.
Relevance Today
• Constructivism aligns with task-
based and project-based
language teaching approaches.
 Historical Context
5. Sociocultural
Theory
• Sociocultural theory is
rooted in the work of Lev
Vygotsky (1896-1934) and
emphasizes the role of
social interaction and
cultural tools in learning.
 Core Principles
• Learning is a socially mediated
process.
Sociocultural • Language functions as a tool for
Theory thought and communication.
• The Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD) is the gap between what
learners can do independently and
what they can achieve with guidance.
• Scaffolding involves providing
temporary support to learners until
they can perform tasks independently.
 Applications in SLA

• Pair and group work to

encourage collaboration and
Sociocultural communication.
Theory • Peer feedback to enhance
learning through interaction.
• Teacher scaffolding: Breaking
tasks into smaller steps and
gradually withdrawing support.
 Example
• A beginner learner struggles to
describe a picture. A teacher might
guide them with questions like,
“What is this object? What color is
it? Can you say, ‘This is a red
apple’?”
Sociocultural • Collaborative writing: Students work
Theory in pairs to write a story, with
stronger students helping weaker
ones.
Relevance Today
• Sociocultural theory underpins
communicative approaches and
emphasizes authentic
communication and collaboration in
SLA.
 Comparative Overview
Theory Key Features Implications for SLA
Structuralism Focus on linguistic Mastery of grammar and
structures patterns.

Behaviorism Learning through Audio-lingual method,

repetition and error correction.
reinforcement
Cognitivism Mental processing of Emphasis on
input understanding and
memory.
Constructivism Active, experience-based Task-based learning and
learning discovery.

Sociocultural Social interaction and Collaboration and

Theory cultural mediation scaffolding in language
learning.
 Week-3

The Acquisition- Learning

Stephen D Hypothesis.
Krashen The Natural Order Hypothesis
and
Tracy D Terrel’s
“Five Hypotheses The Monitor Hypothesis
on
SLA” The Input Hypothesis
(The Natural
Approach:
Language The Affective Filter Hypothesis
acquisition in the
classroom)
 1. The Acquisition- Learning Hypothesis
• The most fundamental of the five hypotheses in Krashen's
Theory and the most widely known among linguists and
language teachers
• There are two independent systems of foreign language
performance: the acquired system and the learned
system.
• The Acquired system or acquisition is the product of a
subconscious process very similar to the process children
undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires
meaningful interaction in the target language – natural
communication – in which speakers are concentrated not in
the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.
 1. The Acquisition- Learning Hypothesis
• The ‘learned system’ or ‘learning’ is the product of
formal instruction, and it comprises a conscious
process which results in conscious knowledge ‘about’
the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules.
• A deductive approach in a teacher-centred setting
produces “learning” while an Inductive Approach in a
student-centred setting leads to “acquisition”
 The Acquisition- Learning Hypothesis

LEARNING ACQUISITION
Formal setting Natural setting

Focus on the Written Language Focus on the Spoken Language

Formal Instruction Meaningful interaction

Conscious process Subconscious process

Activities about the language Activities in the language

Focus on Form Focus on Communication

Produces knowledge Produces an ability

 The Monitor Hypothesis
• In this hypothesis, monitor is synonymous to edit. It is
the process of editing in case of using second language
for communication.
• Defines the influence of learnt knowledge on
language performance.
• The monitor function is the practical result of the learnt
grammar.
• According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the
utterance initiator, while the learning system
performs the role of the ‘monitor’ or the ‘editor’
 The Monitor Hypothesis
• The ‘monitor’ acts in the planning, editing and
correcting function, when three specific conditions are
met:
1. The second language leaners have sufficient time
at their disposal.
2. They focus on form or think about correctness.
3. They know the rule.
• It appears that the role of conscious learning is
somewhat limited in SL performance.
• According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is minor,
being used only to correct deviations from “normal”
speech and to give speech a more ‘polished’
appearance.
 The Monitor Hypothesis
• There is individual variation among language learners
with regards to ‘monitor’ use.
• He distinguishes those learners that use the
‘monitor’ all the time (over-users); those learners
who have not learned or who prefer not to use their
conscious knowledge (under-users); and those
learners that use the monitor appropriately
(Optimal -users)
• An evaluation of the person’s psychological profile can
help to determine to what group they belong.
• Usually extrovert are under-users, while introverts
and perfectionists are over-users.
• Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the
over-use of the “monitor’.
 The Input Hypothesis
• The Input hypothesis is Krashen’s attempt to
explain how the learner acquire a second
language – how second language acquisition
takes place.
• It is the most effective principle for SLA.
• The input received by the learner must not only
be comprehensible but also slightly beyond
the current linguistic competence level of the
learner.
• This concept is represented as i+1. “i” stands for
current level and 1 refers to improvement of
level one step ahead.
 The Input Hypothesis
• For example, if a learner is at a stage ‘i’, then
acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed
to ‘Comprehensible Input’ that belongs to level
“i+1”.
• Since not all the learners can be at the same
level of linguistic competence at the same time,
Krashen suggests that natural communicative
input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring
in this way that each learner will receive some
“i+1” input that is appropriate for his/her current
stage of linguistic competence.
 The Affective Filter Hypothesis
• The term ‘affective filter’ stands for adherence to
acquiring language, avoiding negative aspects.
• The Affective filter hypothesis embodies Krashen’s
view that a number of ‘affective variables’ play a
facilitative, but non-casual, role in second language
acquisition.
• These variables include motivation, self-
confidence, anxiety and personality traits.
• Krashen claims that learners with high motivation,
self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low
level of anxiety and extroversion are better
equipped for success in second language
acquisition.
 The Affective Filter Hypothesis
• Low motivation, low self-esteem, anxiety,
introversion, and inhibition can raise the
affective filter and form a ‘mental block’ that
prevents comprehensible input from being used
for acquisition.
• When the filter is ‘up’ it impedes language
acquisition.
• On the other hand, positive affect is necessary,
but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to
take place.
 The Natural Order Hypothesis
• The natural order hypothesis is based on
research findings (Duly &Brut, 1974, Fathman,
1975, Makino 1980 cited in Krashen 1987.
• The acquisition of grammatical structures
follows a ‘natural order; which is predictable.
• For a given language, some grammatical
structures tend to be acquired early while others
late.
 The Natural Order Hypothesis
• This order seemed to be independent of the learners’
age, L1, background, conditions of exposure and
although the agreement between individual acquirers
was not always 100% in the studies, there were
statistically significant similarities that reinforced the
existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition.
• Krashen however points out that the implication of the
natural order hypothesis is not that a language program
syllabus should be based on the order found in the
studies.
• In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the
goal is language acquisition.
 Pedagogies and Methodologies in
the 20th Century
Language teaching methodologies
based on Structuralism and
Behaviorism:
1. The Grammar-Translation or
traditional method
Week - 4
2. The Direct Method (To some
extent)
3. The Audio-Lingual Method
4. Total Physical Response (TPR)
5. Situational Language Teaching