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 CIE50 Proceedings, October 30 – November 2, 2023
American University of Sharjah, UAE

WAVE ENERGY ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS STRENGTH (S), WEAKNESS (W),
OPPORTUNITY (O), AND THREATS (T)

MARYAM NOOMAN ALMALLAHI 1 , HALEH DELNAVA 2, MAMDOUH EL HAJ ASSAD 3, LAVEET

KUMAR 4, MAHMOUD ELGENDI 1,5,6
1
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, Al
Ain City, United Arab Emirates
700039403@uaeu.ac.ae , mahgendi@uaeu.ac.ae
2
Department of Applied Mathematics, School of Mathematics. University of Science
&Technology, Iran
halehh.del@gmail.com
3
Sustainable And Renewable Energy Engineering Department University Of Sharjah, Sharjah,
UAE
massad@sharjah.ac.ae
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Energy and Environment Engineering Research
Group Mehran University of Engineering & Technology Jamshoro Sindh Pakistan
laveet.kumar@faculty.muet.edu.pk
5
National Water and Energy Center, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, P.O. Box
15551, United Arab Emirates
mahgendi@uaeu.ac.ae
6
Department of Mechanical Power Engineering and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, Minia
University, Minia, Egypt
mahgendi@uaeu.ac.ae

ABSTRACT
Ocean wave energy provides sufficient storage as renewable energy with enormous growth
potential. Marine renewable energies present challenges and opportunities that necessitate
a reassessment of marine space and management. This article provides the primary
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats using a SWOT analysis while considering
economic and environmental factors. Addressing a variety of perspectives and issues makes
SWOT favorable to support in brainstorming sessions. This facilitates an understanding of the
strengths and weaknesses of wave energy resources that ultimately encourages the
development of strategic thinking. Also, enable decision-makers to focus on strengths and
build opportunities while considering the threats and weaknesses.
Keywords: Wave energy, economic and environmental aspects, SWOT analysis, wave energy
converters.

1 INTRODUCTION
The accessibility of renewable technologies that accompany low emissions to generating
electricity has convinced the government to support such technologies financially to become
competitive against nonrenewable alternatives [1-5]. Such a green energy resource requires
minor government investment to fulfill the energy industry to increase economic output and
employment [6-10]. Furthermore, wave energy is more easily assimilated into the grid than
wind and solar energy [11]. From a socio-economic aspect, the closeness of wave energy
areas may enhance fishing activities [12, 13]. Hence, countries no longer depend on
conventional energy sources, leading to energy diversity [8, 14, 15]. Thus, renewable energy
resources such as wind, solar, and wave increase the domestic energy supply [16]. Thus, the
economic path is the most critical perspective for policymakers, particularly investors who

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American University of Sharjah, UAE

have to decide how or where to develop and deploy wave energy convectors (WECs)
technologies in deep waters.
Although wave energy generation is vast and more reliable than other renewable
resources, the most major disadvantage of this green energy is its location. Fig.1 represents
that in the northern hemisphere, Scotland and Ireland (Europe), Oregon, British Columbia,
and Alaska (US) are the leader in generating energy from wave energy. In contrast, Chile,
South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand have the highest proportion in the southern
hemisphere.

Figure 1: Annual net wave power generation the worldwide source [17]

Some studies noted a positive relationship between cost reduction and physical conditions
of WECs like device size, mass, and amount of material [18, 19]. In the early ’90s, a
spreadsheet-based capital costing model was developed [20], based on the work initially
carried out by [21]. They defined four major costs for any wave power scheme: device
structure, mechanical and electrical plant, electrical transmission and transportation &
installation. The approach adopted a parametric model that computes capital costs over the
total expected output of the scheme gives the CoE [22, 23]. Recently, the CoE approach has
been reformed by several researchers by applying the discounting rate to obtain a levelized
cost of energy (LCoE).

2 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF WAVE ENERGY CONVERTERS

The LCoE is defined as the sum of the CAPEX, OPEX, and decommissioning expenses,
discounted to present value, divided by the amount of power provided to the grid throughout
the technology's operational life. There are two methods commonly used to calculate the
levelized costs [24, 25]: the discounting method and annuitizing method. In the literature of
LCoE, it is assumed that annual output (electricity supplied) is constant.
In long term policymaking, the scenarios are developed based on examine energy
production/availability and then applying a learning curve to assess the potential reduction in
CAPEX. Regarding wave energy, the most excellent chance of reduction lies in the cost of
construction [26]. The study conducted by Lavidas., 2018, concluded that an incremental
annual increase is more favorable. It indicates that in 2030 cumulative installation of wave
energy will reach 141 MW compared with 25 MW in 2016, which contributes a significant
reduction in unit cost represented from the learning curve approach. Hence, such a decrease
in energy cost by WECs in the Greece region leads to lower CLoE. Moreover, some empirical
case studies were conducted to investigate the effect of device and deployment parameters
on LCoE. O'Connor, et al. [27], Bricker, et al. [28] De Andres, et al. [29], and Guanche, et al.
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 CIE50 Proceedings, October 30 – November 2, 2023
American University of Sharjah, UAE

[30] diagnosed the impact of differing wave energy resources at different geographical
locations, development strategies and uncertainty in resources on LCoE, respectively.
To this end, Stallard, et al. [31] applied nonparametric model, i.e., Data envelopment
analysis (DEA), originally described by Charles et al., 1978. This method provides a
straightforward means of selecting the technology which maximizes electricity generation
with minimum inputs. In contrast to previous cost studies, this approach is independent of
expert estimates regarding cost and variation in market prices. Furthermore, the DEA model
can include additional inputs or output as environmental and macroeconomic effects are
likely to become critical at the industry level. The main drawback of this approach, from an
empirical viewpoint, is eliminating noise from data that means deviations from the efficient
frontier is due to the inefficiency, exclusively [32].
The operational simulation Teillant, et al. [33] has been developed in two phases:
productivity & cost assessment and financial calculator. In the first phase, capital
expenditure (CapEx), operational expenditure (OpEx) and energy productivity will be
quantified, which simultaneously applied as inputs for the second phase returns selected
financial indicators. However, this approach has some limitations: (1) Lack of information
regarding the requirement for manufacturing a WEC, workforce costs are almost ignored. (2)
power calculation denoted by pair of wave Hight (Hs) and wave energy period (Te) can be a
little fallacious for WECs as they are sensitive to the particular sea power spectrum. (3) The
hourly estimation of the device availability and operational costs fails to denote any moment
level alteration.
Recently, reverse engineering is applied to LCoE calculation in the wave energy sector
[34]. This estimation is performed based on a stepwise (6 steps) framework. In contrast with
traditional LCoE, the reversed LCoE is assumed with a predefined value, i.e., £0.15/kWh
[29], unknown costs (CAPEX and OPEX) as historical data is available, and three annual energy
production (AEP) scenarios are defined. Such a framework facilitate identification in the
early stages to diagnose whether their technology has the potential to become economically
lasting in the near future; otherwise, they need innovative breakthroughs to achieve
commercialization to compete with other renewable energies (especially wind power).
However, to assess the feasibility of wave energy, further clarification is required to
investigate the type of material (like steel) used in the construction of the WECs, which
under technical innovations can result in significant cost reduction and boosting in
performance.

3 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF WAVE ENERGY CONVERTERS

Demand for sustainable energy is achieved by investigating the sustainable method of
energy generation with the most negligible environmental effects. Recently, the potential to
generate energy from waves has attracted the attention of many countries. However, Wave
Energy Converters are often viewed as environmentally benign due to their diminished
erosional potential compared with fossil fuel systems; the environmental effects must be
carefully addressed even though WECs are in their development infancy. Hence, wave energy
developers require intensive monitoring programs to collect a significant amount of data to
facilitate authorities to make an informed decision on the proposed project and its potential
environmental impacts (both positive and negative). Throughout Europe, six test centers
exist in the SOWFIA (Streamlining of Ocean Wave Farm Impact Assessment) project that aims
to quantify the real effects of technologies on the marine environment during device
operation site-specific. These monitoring programs are AMETS in Ireland [35] , BIMEP in Spain
[36], Lysekil in Sweden [37], Ocean Plug–Pilot Zone in Portugal [38], SEM-REV in France [39]
and Wave Hub in the UK [40]. Following, we will elaborate on the magnitudes of these
impacts: compatible, moderate, severe, and critical impact as an Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) for each classification.

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American University of Sharjah, UAE

Some environmental aspects of wave energy have been recognized in several papers [41,
42]. Actual environmental impacts can occur during (the construction, operation, and
decommissioning) stages [43, 44]. Frid, et al. [45] classified environmental concerns for wave
energy into five categories: (1) habitats and species, and ecological changes. (2) direct
effects on reproduction and recruitment, (3) impacts on water column processes and
hydrology, (4) noise emissions (5) electromagnetic fields.

3.1 Impacts on habitats and species

Environmental factors can also have an impact on biodiversity interactions, such as those
between habitat-forming species and related organisms, by altering the species group or by
influencing vegetation supply to a location [46, 47]. Wave motion can have an immediate
impact on water flux and an indirect impact on the size of habitat structure [48]. High wave
action disturbs community structure by producing removal and damage to organisms that may
benefit prey indirectly, especially when space-dominants or keystone predators are displaced
or harmed [49]. Furthermore, excessive wave action may change population dynamics by
restricting foraging activity or decreasing predator feeding efficiency. High wave energy can
also affect individual organisms' development and appearance by limiting or encouraging
feeding by having resource supply [50].
Nevertheless, improper installation of marine renewable energy installations (MREIs) in
sensitive places, such as fishery grounds or high biodiversity areas, has the potential to harm
specific organisms [51, 52]. Anchor deployment, which is used to keep WECs in place, might
involve the pile driving, gravity bases, or drag anchors, all of which have various potential
consequences [53].

3.2 Impacts on reproduction and recruitment

Separating and limiting access to spawning and nursery sites could harm life underwater
and sea populations [54]. Barriers to marine mammal ranges and access to feeding, haul out,
breeding, and pupping regions can be harmful. Creating barriers across an estuary will
influence the migration of species such as salmonids, eels, and shad. The blockage of tidal
fences restricts marine mammals from the passage. However, as mitigation, an engineering
structure fence would allow spaces for fish to pass between turbines and rotors without
damage. Also, studies showed that the position of the fence could significantly impact the
parallel or in-series water flow, ultimately influencing the species and habitats. Conversely,
by increasing the substrate * availability, food availability will increase, which results in
spatial heterogeneity and species biodiversity [55]. Thus WECs can also support new
colonization by becoming artificial reefs. For instance, the Swedish Lysekil [56] test center
successfully demonstrates the potential features of WECs to accelerate positive effects.

3.3 Impacts on water column processes and hydrology

Some vessels and equipment are used in the wave energy test center's infrastructure and
WECs during device installation procedures. However, such devices risk water quality as these
devices accompany some principal types of substances such as fuels, lubricants, and coolants.
Furthermore, the seabed disturbance during the test center's construction and device
installation may increase sediment suspension and water column turbidity. The AMETS test
facility indicated that the major effects of suspended sediments during cable burying and
anchoring activities were mild regarding water quality and groundwater. In contrast, the
influence on air quality and climate was shown to be compatible both nationally and in the
immediate receptor region.

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 CIE50 Proceedings, October 30 – November 2, 2023
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3.4 Impacts on noise emissions

Anthropogenic activities such as shipping, installation, pile driving, seismic surveys, and
seabed drilling cause some extra noise, which is likely to impact local marine life,
particularly marine mammals, fish, and benthic invertebrates [45]. Different species can
detect pile driving noise over a range of frequencies from a significant distance. Hence, noise
may disturb their communication [57, 58]. For MREs, distraction is likely to be most severe
during construction [59]. The accumulation effects of noise on the entire marine mammal’s
system could be evaluated and further studied. Also, the operational impacts are insignificant
on fish and marine mammals in the long run. In general, the cumulative impact was classified
as moderate.

3.5 Electromagnetic fields

During day-to-day operation, electrical cables are needed to transfer power between
devices. These cables will produce electromagnetic field (EMF) which can be recognizable by
a number of marine [41]. The magnetic component of EMF can impress to some magneto-
sensitive species such as bony fish, elasmobranches, marine mammals, and sea turtles.
Moreover, EMF could affect animals that using geomagnetic cues for navigation during
migration [60]. The development of an artificial reef can boost biodiversity in the region and
fragment benthic ecosystems.

4 SWOT ANALYSIS
A SWOT study (the abbreviation refers to "Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and
Threats") has been created utilizing a comprehensive approach to acquire an understanding
of the primary benefits and drawbacks that marine renewable energy (MRE) technologies
possess. Furthermore, the SWOT analysis identifies the major elements that may limit or aid
the growth of the MRE industry [61]. Fig. 2 presents a SWOT analysis of the environmental
impacts of marine or wave energy.

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 CIE50 Proceedings, October 30 – November 2, 2023
American University of Sharjah, UAE

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

• Zero greenhouse emissions

• Reliable energy source • Suitable to certain locations
• Highest energy density
• Lack of energy policy due to its
• Improving biodiversity
infancy
• Habitat aggregation device/ artificial
reefs • Lack of investment in renewable
• Marine protected areas (MPAs) energy
• Power extraction is continuous (90% of • Lack of technical skills in
the day) renewable energy resources
• Increase the domestic energy supply • Sediment deposition around WECs
• Satisfies electricity demand
• Affordable electricity price
• Easily assimilated grid

OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

• Climate change mitigation

• Reduce shore erosions
• Increased number of initiatives • Investors need strong signs of
to raise awareness on renewable stability of the renewable energy
energy resources before committing
• Promoting local job creation • Noise emission
and economic development • Water quality
• Reducing dependency on • Changes in hydrodynamics
imported energy supplies poses risk
• Increase fishing activities • Navigational risks

Figure 2: SWOT analysis of environmental aspects of wave energy converters (WECs)

5 CONCLUSION
Marine energy is a renewable and sustainable form of energy. The two basic kinds of
marine energy are offshore wind and ocean energy (wave, tide, marine currents, and
temperature and salinity gradients). The SWOT analysis may be used to study and assess the
existing state of Renewable Energy Sources, providing a platform for policy recommendations
on utilizing these resources efficiently. This provides an examination of the circumstances in
the marine energy sector in order to gain a comprehensive knowledge of the existing
situation, which can then be used to propose objectives and plans. Thus, private and public
sectors should be aware of this renewable energy potential in the GCC and utilize ocean
energy in its different forms. Moreover, countries by the ocean must prioritize the rapid
transition from nonrenewable fossil fuels to renewable energy sources and establish much
more specific renewable energy objectives in order to reduce foreign dependence, control
environmental problems, have a high-quality environment, have sustainable and stable
economic growth, and have national security.

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