BSW-122

Society, Social Institutions and

Social Problems

Block

1
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIETY

UNIT 1
Basic Sociological Concepts

UNIT 2
Evolution of Human Society: Nature and Characteristics

UNIT 3
Social Processes

Unit 4
Social Change: Concept and Factors involved in Social
Change

Unit 5
Social Control
Expert Committee (Original)

Prof. P.K. Gandhi Dr.Ranjana Sehgal Prof.

Jamia Millia Islamia Indore School of Social Work, K.K.Mukhopathyaya
New Delhi Indore University of Delhi
New Delhi

Dr. D.K. Lal Das Dr. Rama V.Baru Prof. A.A.Khan

R.M.College of Social JNU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Work, Hyderabad

Dr.P.D.Mathew Dr. Jerry Thomas Dr. R.P.Singh

Indian Social Institute Don Bosco IGNOU,New Delhi
New Delhi Guwahati

Dr.AlexVadakumthal Prof. Surendra Singh Dr. RichaChaudhary

CBCI Centre, New Delhi Vice Chancellor B.R.Ambedkar
M.G.Kashi Vidyapeeth University of Delhi
Varanasi Delhi

Prof. Gracious Thomas Prof.A.B.Bose (Retd.) Prof.Prabha Chawla

IGNOU, New Delhi SOCE,IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Prof. A.P.Barnabas(Retd.)
IIPA, New Delhi

Expert Committee (Revision)

Prof Sushma Batra, Dr. Sangeeta Sharma Dr. Saumya,
Department of Social Dhaor, School of Social
Work, University of Dr. Bhim Rao Work,
Delhi Ambedkar College, IGNOU
University of Delhi

Dr. R.R. Patil, Prof. Gracious Dr. G. Mahesh,

Department of Social Thomas, School of Social
Work, Jamia Millia School of Social Work,
Islamia Work, IGNOU
IGNOU

Dr. Beena Anthony Dr. Rose Dr. Sayantani

Reji, Nembiakkim, Guin,
Aditi Mahavidyalaya, School of Social School of Social
University of Delhi Work, Work,
IGNOU IGNOU

Course Preparation Team (Original)

Unit Writers
1. Mr. Joseph Varghese, Consultant, IGNOU, New Delhi
2. Mr. M.K. Saju, BSSS, Bhopal
3. Ms. Renu Sharma, University of Delhi, Delhi
 4. Prof. Manjit Singh, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab
5. Dr. Raj Kumar Singh, Lucknow University, Lucknow

Content Editor Language Editor Block Editor and

Prof. J.S. Gandhi Dr. Eisha Kannadi Programme
JNU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Coordinator
Prof. Gracious
Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Unit Transformation Secretarial
Coordinator Mr. Joseph Varghese Assistance
Prof. Gracious Consultant, IGNOU Mr. Balwant Singh,
Thomas New Delhi IGNOU
Dr. R.P. Singh Ms. Maya Kumari,
Dr. Annu J. Thomas IGNOU

Course Preparation Team (Revision)

Unit Writers
1. Mr. Joseph Varghese, Consultant, IGNOU, New Delhi
2. Mr. M.K. Saju, BSSS, Bhopal
3. Ms. Renu Sharma, University of Delhi, Delhi
4. Prof. Manjit Singh, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab
5. Dr. Raj Kumar Singh, Lucknow University, Lucknow

Content Editor Block Editor Programme

Dr. Francina PX Dr. Sayantani Guin, and Course Coordinator
Loyola College of Social Sciences, School of Social Work, IGNOU Dr. Sayantani Guin,
Kerala School of Social Work, IGNOU

Print Production
COURSE INTRODUCTION

Welcome to the course on, ‘Society, Social Institutions and

Social Problems’. There are four blocks in this course.

Block 1 is on “Introduction to Society”. This block deals with

the basic concepts of sociology, which are frequently used in
social work practice. In this block, we discuss the evolution of
society from complex form to simpler forms as a result of
social forces within the society as well as from outside it.
Concepts of social change and social control are also explained
in this block.

Block 2 is on “Social System and Social Sub-system”. In this

block, some of the important components of the society, such as
family, class, caste, culture and the State are discussed. The
mutually interacting components of social structure and culture,
dynamics of caste and class and the role of State in the
promotion of welfare of the people and protecting their rights,
are discussed in detail in this block.

Block 3 deals with “Social Institution of Marriage”. In this

block, we discuss about the historical development of marriage,
functions and purpose of marriage, various forms of marriage
etc. In this block, we also discuss the changing patterns in
family life, role expectations in marital life, role conflicts and
role changes in different phases of marriage.

Block 4 is on “Social Problems and Services”. This block

brings in a systematic learning about the causative factors
which cause social problems and suggest different solutions to
the social problems. Various social issues like migration and
displacement, environmental degradation, communalism, youth
unrest and corruption, substance abuse, juvenile delinquency
etc. are discussed in detail. The block also explains the concept
and practice of social defense in India.
This course will give you a comprehensive understanding of the
society, social institutions and social problems in India.
BLOCK INTRODUCTION

‘Introduction to Society’ is the first block of the course. This

block deals with the basic concepts of sociology. Sociology is
a discipline from which social work borrows a significant
amount of knowledge. However, the use of this knowledge is
through the application of social work methods, which means
that social workers creatively use the knowledge borrowed
from these disciplines.
The first unit on ‘Basic Sociological Concepts’ deals with
sociological terms that are frequently used in social work
practice. The second unit ‘Evolution of Human society:
‘Nature and Characteristics’ discusses how society evolved
from simpler forms to complex forms as a result of social
forces from within the society as well as from outside it. The
third unit ‘Social Processes’ deals with processes like
competition, conflict, assimilation and cooperation. The fourth
unit is on ‘Social Changes: Concept and Factors involved in
Social Change,’ which explains the forces of changes in society
and its consequences on an individual and society. The fifth
and last unit is on ‘Social Control,’ which deals with the
concepts of social control. Agencies of social control and its
functions are described in this unit. While studying sociology
which mainly deals with how society evolved and social groups
behave, the social worker should remember that the influences
of social groups can be positive or negative. Together, these
five units will introduce you to society, its structures, processes
and functions.
UNIT 1 BASIC SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
*
Joseph Varghese

Contents

1.0 Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Society

1.3 Community

1.4 Associations

1.5 Institutions

1.6 Primary Groups and Secondary Groups

1.7 Let Us Sum Up

1.8 Key Words

1.9 Suggested Readings

1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the concepts of society;

 Describe the different ways in which individuals relate to
each other;
 Identify the differences in the concepts; and
 Explain ways in which these concepts are used in social
work.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit you will be introduced to the basic concepts used in

sociology. Social work and sociology are related disciplines and
social work borrows liberally from sociological theory and
sociological concepts to understand social problems and society.
Community, association, institutions and groups are concepts that
you will frequently come across in your theory as well as your field
work. Therefore, it is important that you must be familiar with these
concepts and their usage at the initial stage itself.

*
Joseph Varghese, Visva Bharati, Sriniketan
1.2 SOCIETY
Before we understand these concepts, it is important that we must
clarify what a concept means. A concept is expressed in one or more
words. Also, concepts are abstractions, which are derived from
experience and are results of mental exercise. Once the scientific
community accepts a concept, all those who practice or use it, accepts
the meaning assigned to it. For example, in everyday language ‘a
road’ means ‘a way’.
Sometimes there is need for further clarification of the concept. For
example, a road can be a street, a pukka road or kacha one or even a
highway. So, there must be a description associated with the concept
so that the concept gets clarified and precise. Similarly, in scientific
language, we qualify concepts, when we want to say something more
specific. For example, communities
can be further classified into rural community, urban community and
tribal community. So, it is essential to be specific, when quoting a
concept. Sometimes, social scientists do not agree with the meaning
attached to a specific concept and after a debate among them,
meanings attached to the concept undergo a change and the final
decision will be taken only after mutual consensus.
According to Horton and Hunt, concepts are used for the following
reasons. One, it enables scientific discussion to take place. Concepts
help social scientists find common ground for initiating discussions
on theories. Secondly, new knowledge is also created when concepts
and theories are debated and its limitations are identified. Thirdly,
concepts allow easy communication by reducing need for elaborate
description. Otherwise, the communicator would have to explain the
social phenomena every time he/ she has to use it.

Society

According to Horton and Hunt society is an organization of people

whose associations are with one another. Whereas, MacIver
describes society as a web of relationships. There are a number of
definitions of society. Most of them point to the following
characteristics of society.
Society involves mutual awareness: The first condition for calling a
set of individuals a society is the awareness among them about each
other. It is only when individuals are aware about the presence of
others, they can form a social relationship.
Society comprises social relationships: Any two individuals or
objects are said to be in relation with each other when there is mutual
interaction and when the actions of one affect the other. Thus, in a
society, individuals are affected by the ways, in which others behave.

Society has values and norms that guide these social relationships:
Social relationships are guided and controlled by the values and
norms of a society. Every individual has a specific role assigned to
him/ her by the society. The performance of these roles is guided by
the values and norms of the society. These values are taught to the
individuals through the process of socialization and it becomes part
of the individual personality. Apart from this, there are informal and
formal agencies of social control which apply positive and negative
sanctions on the individual for making him/her conform to the
societal values and norms.
Society has general goals: Every society wants to perpetuate itself.
Certain functions have to be performed if the society has to maintain
itself and prevent its own destruction. These are called functional
prerequisites. Some of the most common functions identified are the
following; common goals; common orientation towards environment;
communication; set of common values; reproduction and rearing of
children, socializing the children, attaining food and other resources
required for its members’ survival, protecting its members from
natural and man-made disasters and specific ways to deal with
conflicts and disagreements within the members. The way these
functions are performed vary from society to society.
Society has several complementary social processes: We find a
variety of social processes and attributes in the society. We find
instances of association, cooperation, competition and conflict in
society. Similarly we find that in many ways the members of society
are alike and in many other ways they are different. There are groups
and subgroups with these groups that have their respective dynamics.
All these different social processes make up the society.

Society has division of labour: One individual cannot perform all

functions required to maintain a society. The work has to be divided
among the members. The criteria by which the functions are divided
among the members and its social consequences are important part of
study for the sociologist. Division of labour can be based on sex,
education, profession, ethnicity, caste or class. Division of labour
depends on the level of complexity of the society.
Society is more than the sum total of its members:
The society influences individuals in many ways. It is the
environment along with hereditary factors that determine the
personality of the individual. Thus, the society comes to have a force
of its own by which it influences the members. This force is applied
through social institutions like laws, religion and family.
Classification of Societies

Sociologists have classified societies according to different criteria.

Societies classified on their geographical location:
Examples of this classification are Western society, Indian society,
Chinese society and so on. This kind of classification is broader in
nature where the society is identified to share certain common and
significant characteristics. the classification can be also used
narrowly when we want to refer to a regional group, for example we
talk of Manipuri society or Rajasthani society.
Societies classified on the basis of the language:
Language is a medium which unites people and one mode by which
the culture of the people is expressed. So, language is sometimes
used to distinguish societies from each other. Examples of such
classifications are Tamil society and Telugu society.
Societies classified based on core values: Sometimes opinions
regarding the nature of the society are based on essential core-values
which the members adhere to. For example, Western society is
considered modern, rational, individualistic and consumerist while
Indian society is considered as to be traditional, religious, group-
oriented and spiritual. In most cases such classification results from
stereotyping and labeling. It is based on insufficient and inaccurate
information on the societies other than one’s own. Social workers
should be able to see how such images, often negative, about other
societies, influence the behaviour of members.
Societies based on level of complexity of social life:
Simple societies are those societies that have the following
characteristics: small-sized with fewer members; relatively isolated
from other societies-spatially, culturally and economically, means for
getting food is hunting and gathering; low level of technology used
in production of articles; division of labour is limited and based on
age and sex; barter and gift taking and giving are the major ways for
exchange of goods between the members; political system is based
on hereditary principle and traditional authority; group consciousness
dominates individual consciousness and unity in the group is
maintained by the likeness among the members.
On the other hand, complex societies are based on the following
characteristics: large numbers of members and, therefore; close
relationship with other societies mainly due to advanced technology
used in communication and transport; high level of technology used
in producing all goods including foodstuffs; division of labour is
highly diversified; market is the main form of exchange of goods
while other forms of exchange like barter play a marginal role;
political system is highly advanced with different competing
interests; a large bureaucracy based on rational-legal values;
individual consciousness and individual freedom is promoted;
diversity in life-styles is encouraged and unity is based on
interdependence of members.
Societies based on its economic system: Sociologists influenced by
Marxism argue that the economic factors have a predominant
influence on how the society is structured and how society functions.
Based on this criteria societies are classified as capitalistic societies
and socialistic societies. Both these societies are complex in nature,
but in capitalistic society, the forces of production (land, factories)
are privately owned. Workers working in these factories are paid
wages in exchange of the labour they contribute. Markets determine
the costs of the goods and services that are produced. Private
property-ownership and profit-making are encouraged. The state has
no or minimal role in the economy of the country.
In a socialistic society, all or significant part of the forces of
production are owned by the state in different forms. The state uses
its ownership of industries to influence the economy. Equally
important is the role of planning in a socialistic economy. The market
is only allowed to have limited influence on the economy. The
supply of goods and services are determined by the plan which the
government prepares after assessing the needs and demands of
different sections of the society. The government through its policies
tries to ensure that the differences in income between various
sections of the society are not very large. After the collapse of the
Socialist, bloc planning has lost much of its appeal for governments
around the globe. Most countries have given significant role to
market and private entrepreneurs in their economies. Nevertheless, it
is also true that classical capitalist society no longer exists as all
governments in the modern times play a significant role in the
economy of the country.
Societies based on the political system: Societies can be classified
also on the basis of the nature of political system, which is
democratic or authoritarian. A democratic society has a state whose
leaders are elected by popular vote. Regular elections are held to
elect the leaders. Though free and fair elections are important, other
conditions needed for democratic society are: freedom of association,
freedom of speech, tolerance of different opinions, protection of
minority rights, equality before law and respect for human rights.
Authoritarian society neither allows dissent nor freedom of
association. No other organization is allowed to challenge the
authority of the state.
Societies classified based on historical periods:
Ancient societies, medieval societies and modern societies are some
of the societies based on historical periods in which they existed.

Check your progress I

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this
unit.

1) What are the major characteristics of a society?

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1.3 COMMUNITY
Like society, different sociologists have also defined ‘community’
differently. Horton and Hunt define a community as a local grouping
within which people carry out a full round of life activities.
Explaining it in detail includes the following characteristics.

Community is a grouping of people: Community comprises a

number of people living together and
sharing a common life. They interact with each other frequently and
purposefully.

A fixed geographical area: This is an important characteristic of the

community. A community has well-defined boundaries that are
recognized by the members of the community and outsiders. To
become a member of the community, one need to have some
relationship with the specific geographical area. Sometimes,
membership of the community can be inherited if one’s parents
belong to the specific community.

Division of labour: In every group, many functions have to be

performed, so that the group survives. No individual or group can do
all these functions by themselves. There are also differences in the
skill and aptitude of the individuals. These factors lead to division of
labour and occupational specialization.

Members are conscious of their unity and of belongingness to the

community: Members are aware of their membership in a particular
community. It affects their behaviour in many ways. They take pride
-in the achievements of their fellow-members and are concerned
when undesirable things happen to them.
Members act collectively in an organized manner to achieve
common goals: Members live in a particular area and share common
interests. Therefore, they can be easily organized to achieve common
objectives. This condition enables the practice of social work method
— community organization. Also, many programmes are
implemented because it is felt that the community as a whole will
participate and benefit from the programme, for example, the
community development programme.

Common culture: Culture of any group develops because of group

living. A common way of thinking about the different aspects of life
develops and this is transmitted from one generation to other.
Cultural influences from outside the group are accepted or rejected
collectively by the group. As a result of common experiences, a
common culture develops and regulates the group behaviour.

Use of the Concept ‘Community’

The concept also helps in describing and differentiating existing

communities. The most commonly used classification is to
distinguish between urban community and rural community. Rural
communities are characterized by the following attributes: strong
community sentiment; importance of neighbourhood; relatively high
incidence of extended families; predominance of primary
relationships; majority of community members’ occupations are
related to the primary sectors like fishing, agriculture, hunting, etc.;
high degree of informal social control; greater degree of
homogeneity. On the other hand, urban community is defined as
characterized by the following: weak community sentiments and
lesser importance of neighbourhood; predominance of lower degree
of informal social control; major occupations of the members are
related to industry and services sector and heterogeneity.

Further when the community is taken as a unit for action, it

simplifies the formulation and implementation of programmes.
Without delineating the boundaries of the community and
understanding its structure it would be difficult to analyze the needs
of the community.

Limitations in using the Concept ‘Community’

Though the concept is quite clear on paper, in real life its application
is confusing due to these reasons. Firstly, no community seems to
fulfill all the characteristics required to be termed as a community.
Also, the distinctions between different types of communities are not
clear. We find that characteristics that are attributed to the rural
characteristics are also found in the urban areas and vice versa.
Secondly, in some Indian villages, there is less or even no ‘We
feeling’ among the members because the community is divided on
the basis of caste. Thirdly, it is observed that when people say
‘community’ they seem to have in their minds only the male
members of the community. In many village communities, women
do not have a public voice and sometimes are not even seen. In the
coming lessons, you will learn how these factors influence the
practice of social work methods.

1.4 ASSOCIATIONS
Modern societies are characterized by presence of numerous
associations. These associations are of different varieties, of different
types, of different sizes and with different objectives. MacIver
defines an association as ‘an organization deliberately formed for the
collective pursuit of some interest or set of interests, which its
members share’. The following are the characteristics of associations:
Associations are groups of individuals: Associations comprise
number of individuals who share common interest or common likes.
They relate to each other so that they can promote the group’s
interests. Attaining group interests will eventually mean that the
individual member’s interests are also promoted.

Associations have objectives: These interests are specific and all the
members know of these interests. In most cases, the objectives of the
association will reveal those interests of the members, which it wants
to pursue.
Objectives are framed after considering reality of the situation. The
success and failure of the association depends on whether it attains its
objectives or not.
Association has formal rules and regulations: A small association
may not have any formal rules as members may be functioning based
on the personal relationship they have with each other. But if the
association grows larger and its functioning becomes complex, then
normal rules and regulations are formulated. Formal rules and
regulations of the association determine how the members will act in
specific situations. In many associations, these rules and procedures
are written down. In your fieldwork agency you can request the
officials to allow you to show the ‘Memorandum of
Association’(MoA). This document will show you the objectives of
the agency, its mode of functioning and other relevant information.
Membership is voluntary: Associations are product of modern
societies. Membership is voluntary, that is, members join the
association out of their own desire. The association can set standards
for allowing members to join. Once the aspirant meets these
standards, he or she is allowed to join the association.
Association survives as long as it has members:
Unlike families, associations survive even if the original members
leave or expire. The only condition is that new members should join
the association and replace those who’re leaving.

Associations and their relevance in modern society:

Modern societies freely allow and even encourage the formation of
the associations. Therefore, we find that there are associations that
have serious objectives like influencing government policy and there
are associations that want to promote bird watching. Tocqueville, a
prominent social thinker, who studied the American society in the
eighteenth century, was the first to point out that associations
promote democracy. Modern thinkers have agreed with these
observations. Associations allow citizens to organize themselves,
articulate their demands, thereby restricting the authority of the
government. This prevents the government from accumulating all
authority in itself at the cost of individual freedom. Two, associations
allow for plurality of opinions. Associations also provide a number
of services, which improve the quality of life of the people.

In traditional society, individuals become part of the groups on the

basis of their ascribed status. For example, medieval cities had
merchant guilds where membership was based on the caste of the
individual. In modern India, there is a proliferation of caste
associations. These associations have characteristics of both
traditional groups and modern associations. Its objectives are related
to that of a modern society like influencing government policies and
building educational institutions. However, membership is based on
primordial considerations like caste and religion. So these
associations cannot be called fully modern or fully traditional.
However, they play a significant role in the lives of most Indians.
\
Check your progress II

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this
unit.

1) What are the characteristics of modern associations?

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1.5 INSTITUTIONS
In everyday language, people use the term ‘institutions’ while
referring to ‘organizations’. For example, college is called
educational institution. But in sociology the concept ‘institution’ has
a specific meaning. According to MacIver, institutions are
‘established forms or conditions of procedures characteristics of
group activity’. According to Horton and Hunt, an institution is a
system of norms to achieve some goal or activity that people feel is
important, or more formally an organized cluster of folkways and
centered around a major human activity. Institutions have the
following characteristics.
Institutions emerge out of social interactions within a group:
According to Sumner, there are two types of institutions — crescive
institutions and enacted institutions. Crescive institutions are those in
which norms emerge unconsciously in the society. Its origin is
unclear. On the other hand, enacted institutions are consciously
created for specific purposes. Rules and legislations conceptualized
and listed in the modern era, are rationally formulated and a typical
example of enacted institutions.
Institutions are structural processes that control human behaviour:
Any member of society is expected to follow the rules, regulations
and usages prevalent in the society. These rules, regulations and
usages can be informal or formal. If it is formal, then it is codified
and, in most cases, will have responsible body to monitor whether
the individuals follow these rules or not.
For example, in Indian society if a person wants to get married,
he/she has to register it under any of the Marriage Acts formulated by
the government so as to make it valid and socially accepted. There
will be an agency for conducting marriage and to verify whether
conditions and standardized criteria for marriage has been fulfilled.
The male and female accepts and agrees to perform the duties as a
husband and as a wife respectively. In cases of conflict between the
partners, there is a legal system to deal with such issues which
includes the police and family courts. The totality of these processes
can be called the institution of marriage in India.

All institutions have roles and status: Every institution gives a

particular role and status to the individuals involved in it. Role is a
set of behaviour expected out of an individual in a particular social
context. Whereas status is the position of the individual in society.
For example, in an educational institution, individuals who come to
learn are given with the status of students, and the individuals who
teach are given status of teachers. In his/her role as a student he or
she has to attend class, maintain discipline, obey the teachers and
participate in the class discussions. In his/her role as a teacher as
her/she has to take classes, evaluate students’ notebooks, control the
students and follow the principal’s instructions. Institutions operate
through the means of roles.

Institutional roles are learnt by socialization: Every institution

prescribes specific roles for the particular individual. The different
roles individuals perform are learnt through the process of
socialization. Main agencies of socialization are family, educational
institutions, peer group, state and religion.
Institutions influence each other: There are many institutions in a
society and they influence each other. For example, the school
teaches the students how to be a good citizen which ultimately tries
to make them good citizens who are aware of the laws and their
responsibilities.
At times various institutions give contradictory norms, which result
in confusion in the individual. For example, feudalism and modern
democracy co-exist in some parts of India, each of which makes
opposing demands on the individual. Democracy advocates equality
while feudalism advocates structured inequality.

The major institutions which are the subject of the sociological study
are political, economic, family, educational and religious. Other
important institutions in society are bureaucracy, welfare institutions
and military.
Relationship between an institution and organization: As
mentioned in the start of the section, institutions and organizations
are different conceptually. Institutions are recognized way of
thinking while organizations are formal groups created to achieve
specific objectives. At the same time, they are related to each other as
every organization has an institutional framework, which allows it to
survive.

1.6 PRIMARY GROUPS AND SECONDARY

GROUPS
According to Horton and Hunt, groups are described in many ways.
Some define a group as a collection of individuals who live in close
physical proximity. Other definition emphasizes the need for
common characteristics among the members if a collection of
individuals has to be called a group. Yet another set of definitions
require the members to have common consciousness and regular
interaction in order to be called a group. We will describe a
collection of individuals as a group if it is marked by the following
characteristics:
A group should have a given number of individuals:
One or two members cannot be called a group. Similarly, a very large
number of individuals cannot be called a group. It would be more
appropriate to call it a community, crowd, mob or a society. You will
learn about these concepts later.
The group members should have regular interaction between
themselves: Interaction between the members
should be purposeful and considered as such by the members. Thus,
individuals waiting for a bus and having casual conversations cannot
be called a group considering these standards.
Awareness about each other: The members are conscious about
other members’ behaviour, emotions, needs and this consciousness
influences their own behaviour.
Members are aware of themselves being a unit:
Group members see themselves as distinct from others. They
acknowledge that their membership in the group makes them
different from others.
Common goals: A group, if it has to sustain itself has to have goals.
Goals can be same for all members or in some cases goals can be
different. It is also possible that the stated goals of the group may be
different from the actual goals. A group may declare that its aim is to
help the poor but members may join it primarily to meet and
socialize with each other.
Common ideals and values: When the above conditions are met it is
likely that as far as the group purpose is concerned, the members will
have shared values. In matters not concerned with group, the
members can have different views. For example, members of group
dedicated to promoting wildlife photography will agree with each
other on the importance of promoting such a cause. But, they may
belong to different political parties and adhere to different ideologies.
Established group patterns: Regular and purpose full interactions
formulates group patterns. These interactions can be formal or
informal depending on the nature of the groups. In case of formal
interactions,
rules, regulations and procedures are followed while in case of
informal relations, there is spontaneity.
Primary Groups

Primary groups are those groups whose members have face to face
contacts, intimate, personal and non-formal relationship with each
other. They have the following characteristics:
Primary groups are of small size: The size of the group is important
as in larger groups it is difficult for the member to have intimate
contacts with everyone. Small groups allow better interactions both
qualitatively and quantitatively. Therefore, members have personal
relationship with each other.
Primary group members share common goals:
Members of a primary group may have different characteristics. For
example, a family may have an adult male and adult female and their
children. Though they are different in many ways they share common
goals, which they all think are important and contribute towards their
collective happiness.
Primary group offers its members a total experience:
Total experience means that it affects the members in a number of
ways. Individuals are accepted as total personalities. For example,
the family is a primary group, which has face-to-face and intimate
relationship. It is also a total relationship in the sense that members
benefit in a number of ways. Children are given love and affections,
provided with education and taken care of when they are sick etc.
The husband and wife help each other in more than one way. Hence a
very important part of the lives of the members is spent in the family.
Peer groups are another example of primary groups.
Primary group has relationship as an end in itself:
Primary group members see the relationship as an end in itself. In
other words, the relationship is valued for what it is i.e., more than
any specific benefit the members may get because of their
membership. For example, if a man marries only because he wants
somebody to cook for him then it cannot be called a ‘genuine
marriage’.
Primary groups generally have long life: Families and peer groups
exist as long as the members of the group live. If any member dies or
leaves the group the group itself ends. For example, if the father of
the family dies, the group in its original form also come to an end.
The surviving members may continue to act as group but roles and
interaction patterns undergo a major change. It is, therefore, correct
to call it a new group.

Primary groups play an important role in determining the

individual’s personality: The family and the peer group are
important agencies of socialization. Both of them are primary groups
and provides services, emotional support and education to the
members. While other agencies of socialization do play an important
role, it is the unique experiences that the individual experience in the
primary groups which becomes basis of his or her personality.
Primary groups sometimes compete for individual loyalty: Primary
groups seek high degree of loyalty from its members and in certain
cases may advocate, different values. In such a situation, the
individual may be in a dilemma as to which group value to adopt. For
example, a teenager’s family may want the individual to dress
conservatively while his peer group may want him to dress according
to the latest fashion and style. This can lead to personality conflicts.
Some sociologists have held that primary groups must have members
living in close proximity with each other and having face-to-face
relationships. But it need not be so as even when there is physical
distance between the members, if they can still be emotionally close
to each other and thus satisfy the criteria of the primary group.

Secondary Groups

Secondary groups are generally larger than primary groups. Members

in secondary groups have formal, impersonal, and need-based
relationship with each other. A secondary group has the following
characteristics:
Secondary groups have relatively large number of members:
Secondary groups consist of many members who share common
interests. Some secondary groups may have lesser number than a
large joint family. But the manner in which they relate with each
other is different, as we will see now. The members can also be
spread over large distances. Now a days, there are secondary groups
whose members are all around the globe. They interact through the
web and conduct effective global campaigns without meeting each
other face-to-face.
Secondary groups have specific interests: While primary groups
have relationship as an end in itself, in secondary groups, relations
are maintained so that some other ends can be achieved. Members
are also aware of this condition and as such, their emotional
involvement is much less as compared to secondary groups.

Secondary group has clear objectives: The aim of forming a

secondary group is to attain some objectives which the members feel
are important. In most cases, the objectives are unattainable by a
single individual. He/she needs the cooperation from others. A
secondary group is conceptually closer to the concept of association.
Secondary group members relate to each other formally: Since
secondary members have specific objectives in mind there is no need
for them to know each other intimately. There is no need of meeting
each other face-to-face either. A common newsletter or a website as
is the case now a days, is all that is needed to share information and
pool resources. Once the objective is attained, the secondary group
may end its existence.

Secondary groups play an important role in furthering members’

interest: In democratic societies like ours, there is a need for
mobilizing people on the basis of common interests. People can
influence decision making at different levels only if they organize
themselves and make their voices heard. Secondary associations are
used to articulate the demands of various groups.
Relationship Between Primary and Secondary Groups

Primary and secondary groups are related in more ways than one.
Firstly, primary groups like family provides members to the
secondary groups. They prepare them to cooperate and interact with
each other. Some behavioural problems among individuals occur
when families do not prepare their children to deal with the demands
of secondary groups. Secondly, primary groups like sub-groups and
cliques which are part of secondary groups play a vital role in their
decision making process. Their influence on the performance of the
secondary groups may be positive or negative depending on their
intentions, their power and the power of those who may oppose
them. Thirdly, primary groups within the secondary group give
emotional support to the members. Most secondary groups cannot
give its members a real sense of identity and nor can they give them
individual attention. This can be seen in a college or even in the army
and in such places, the primary groups of peers give support to the
member.
Differences and Similarities in Concepts

You have been introduced to the basic sociological concepts. You

would have noticed that these concepts have some similarities and
some differences. Any social group is seen as being more than sum
total of its members and characterized to have a distinct life of its
own. You should keep in mind that a sociologist’s major interest is in
the way human collectivities function as a whole and exercise their
influence on the behaviour of the individuals.
The difference between the various collectivities is due to the
following factors: size of the group, that is, the number of members;
geographical area over which the members are located; type of
relationship between the members; relationship of the members to the
collectivities; the nature of goals of the collectivities the duration of
their life and finally collectivities, influence on the individual
members.
We shall differentiate the various concepts based on these factors as
it will help in better understanding of the same.
Size: The society is the largest collection of individuals. It consists of
a number of communities, associations,
institutions, primary groups and secondary groups. A community is
always a part of the larger society. Associations and secondary
groups are often smaller than a community and the primary group is
the smallest social unit.
Geographical location: The society is spread over the largest area,
followed by the community and primary group. Associations and
secondary groups may have members from a wide area but all people
living in the area need not be members of the association. For
example, everybody living in India is an Indian and everybody living
in a village is part of the village community. But a political party
while having members from all over India cannot claim that all
Indians are its members.

Voluntary nature of membership: The above stated difference is due

to the type of membership of the various collectivities. An individual
becomes a member of a society and a community naturally, that is,
by being physically present in the area and sharing essential
characteristics. On the other hand an individual has to formally apply
to be a member of an association or a secondary group.
Nature of interaction: The interaction between the members is most
frequent and intense in a primary group. Community, associations
and secondary groups have less frequent and less intense interaction.
Individuals are considered in their wholeness in a primary group
while in a secondary group and association only a few aspects of the
personality are taken into consideration. A political party is not
concerned whether a member is healthy or educated as long as he or
she performs useful work for the party. The primary group, however
is concerned about
many aspects of the personality and does not just keep in view the
usefulness of the member.
Goals of the collective: The goals of secondary groupsand
associations are specifics while the goals of the society and
community are general and broad in nature. Primary groups have
many goals and perform many functions for their members. The
existence of primary groups is crucial for the continuance of other
collectivities of social life.
Relationship between the members and the larger whole: The
loyalty and sense of identity the members feel in primary groups is
greater than the feelings of identification among members in a
community or a secondary group. In a society, these feelings are
weaker still and more imagined than real.

Duration of the collective: The duration of groups and collectivities

varies. The family as primary group exists as long as the members
are alive or do not leave. On the other hand, secondary groups,
associations, community and society exist for long durations even as
members die or leave. The persistence of these collectivities is
irrespective of the presence and absence of any member or group of
members.

Check your progress III

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this
unit.

1) Give two examples of primary group and secondary group.

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1.7 LET US SUM UP

We have seen that the basic concepts related to society and the study
of society. Some of these concepts will seem confusing mainly
because people, including sociologists, use these terms in a general
sense. These are used inter-changeably. But you must use them with
care and without ambiguity.
A clarity about the terminology and concept will enhance your
ability to work in group.

Society is a larger collection of people who have patterned social

relationship with each other as individuals and as groups. Society has
values, norms, folkways and mores which guide the members’
behaviour. Society has to perform certain functions if it has to
maintain itself. Community is relatively a smaller collective where
the members have more intense interaction between each other. They
live in a specific geographical space and have a sense of “we”
feeling. While society and community are considered natural in their
origin, associations are created purposely by individuals. Their
objectives are specific in comparison to those of society and
community. Relationships between the members are formal and issue
based. Modern society is characterized by presence of numerous
associations with different purposes. Groups are smallest social units
when compared to society, community and associations. Primary
group consists of small number of members who have intimate face-
to-face relations with others. Families and peer-groups are examples
of the primary groups. They treat members in their totality and
perform a number of important functions for them. These groups
engage in the primary socialization of the individual. Secondary
groups are similar to associations. They help individuals further their
particular interests in society. The relationship between members are
segmentary in nature.

Social concepts are related to social relationships. Understanding the

nature of social relationship and using them to benefit is primary
function of the social worker.

1.8 KEY WORDS

Roles : A set of behavioural patterns
expected from an individual having
a specific status in society.
Status : A position an individual occupies in
society.
Socialization : Process by which an individual
learns the values, norms, mores of
the society.
Norms : Standards of behaviour of a particular society
“We feeling” : A feeling of oneness and of having a
common identity; a sense of being
part of a larger whole and sharing a
common destiny.
Ascribed status : A position an individual occupies in
society by virtue of his/her birth.
His/her efforts cannot make any
difference in his/her status.
Achieved status: : A position in society an individual
occupies by his/her efforts and not
by virtue of his/her birth.

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Horton, P.B. and Hunt, C.L., (1984), sociology, Tata Mcgraw-
Hill, Singapore.

Maclver, I.M. and Page, C.H. (1964), society-An Introduction

analysis, Macmillan Press Ltd, London.

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to check your progress

Check your Progress I

1) Society consists of large number of individuals who

have mutual awareness of each other. Secondly, there
exists meaningful and purposeful interactions between
them. These interactions are guided by norms and
values of society. Division of labour is the third
condition. Social processes like competition and
cooperation are found in society.

Check your progress II

1) Modern association have the following characteristics:

clear objectives which the organization has to achieve;
voluntary membership; rules and regulations which
govern the functioning of the association.

Check your progress III

1) Small-sized peer group and family are examples of

primary groups whereas political parties and voluntary
association are examples of secondary groups.
UNIT2 EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SOCIETY:
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS
* M.K. Saju

Contents

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Evolution of Society
2.3 Society as a System of Relationship
2.4 Individual and the Society
2.5 Socialisation
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Suggested Readings
2.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims at creating a fair comprehension of the society and to
give an orientation to the social perspective. The unit will also deal
with the close relationship that exists between individuals and society.
Apart from these, the process of socialization is also discussed with an
intention to elaborate the significant aspects of socialization, a
fundamental function of the society by which individuals learn to be
participants of social interaction. Social interaction is a process basic
to social life. It occurs in terms of five basic patterns including
cooperation, conflict, social exchange, coercion and conformity. An
individual learns to be a part of social interaction through the process
of socialization. Society’s continuity depends on its socialization
process since it is through this process that the members of society
learn to establish social relationships.

After completing this unit, you should be able to know:

Gradual development of human society;

 Society and its nature and meaning;
 Social relationships and their nature;
 The relationship between individual and society;
 Nature of socialization;
 Development of personality through socialization; and
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The most distinctive feature of human life is its social character. All
human beings interact with other human beings in order to survive.
Man lives in society and he has to depend on society for his survival.
Therefore, both nature and necessity impel man to live in society.
Man, from times immemorial, has been trying to comprehend the
social environment and in his search for understanding society, he
created different social sciences like Sociology, History, Economics,
Political Science, Psychology etc. However, the study of society, its
functioning, the social relationships present therein and social
interactions have been of great significance in this effort to study
society. While studying social relationships, which form society, it is
essential to study the evolution of society, its systems and structures,
the development of institutions and their functions, the customs and
rules regulating social relationships, the groups and communities
formed by man throughout history, the nature and interdependence of
these groups like, family, government, economic groups, religious
groups and the phenomenon of social change. In this unit, we will
analyse society, the relationship between individual and society,
constituents of society and socialisation process.

2.2 EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SOCIETY

Society is a complex system of relationships, which are diverse in
nature. Society passes through various stages and undergoes
enormous changes. In the most primitive stage, society was very
simple and every individual lived an individualistic life, trying to
know and do things about him/her alone. Every man was more or less
similar, in so far as his ignorance about organized life was concerned.
In this sense, people were homogenous in nature. In the primitive
stage, neither they were able to organize their social life, nor could
they work together. Thus, the primitive society was a homogenous
one with simple social relationships. However, as the time advanced,
society took the shape of complex network of social relationships,
which were heterogeneous in nature.
Evolution Theory According to Herbert Spencer

Evolution theory, propounded by Charles Darwin was related to

organisms. Herbert Spencer was one of the pioneering Sociologists
who had introduced theory into Sociology. Herbert Spencer who had
formulated the organic analogy about the society, opined that society
also passes through various phases of development, exactly the way
organisms did. Herbert Spencer had presented his evolutionary
scheme in ‘First Principles’ and again in ‘Principles of Sociology’.
As we know, the evolution theory says that simple organisms
developed into complex organisms through a process that consumed
hundreds of centuries. Similarly, the evolutionary approach explicates
that society also passed through many stages before assuming the
present complex state. Since the evolutionary theory of society was
woven around the concept that society resembles organism, a mention
of the Organismic theory is essential. Organismic theory conceives
society as a biological system, a greater organism, alike in its
structure and function, exhibiting the same kind of unit as the
individual organism and subject to similar laws of development,
maturation and decline. Society’s cells are individual persons; its
organs and systems are associations and institutions. Herbert Spencer
said that society has its youth, its prime, its old age and death.
According to Spencer, the principles of evolution are:
(a) that forces tend to persist; (b) that matter is indestructible; and (c)
that everything moves along the lines of least resistance or greatest
attraction, impelled by some source, matter, accompanied by a
concomitant dissipation of motion, tends to integrate. Spencer said,
“Evolution is the integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of
motion during which matter passes from an indefinite incoherent
homogeneity to definite, coherent heterogeneity.” For Spencer,
society is also subject to a similar process of evolution that is
changing from a state of ‘incoherent homogeneity’ to a state of
‘coherent heterogeneity’. Evolution is, thus, a gradual growth or
development from simple to complex existence.
In the primitive societies, there was no system, nothing definite,
except their incoherent or loose group formations. Thus, they formed
an ‘indefinite, incoherent homogeneity’. But gradually their
experiences, realizations and knowledge increased. They learnt to live
and work together. The task of social organization was taken on,
division of labour was elaborated and each found particular type of
work, which could do best. All worked in an organized and definite
way towards a definite goal. Thus, a state of ‘definite, coherent
heterogeneity’ was reached.

Spencer said that the main fact of evolution was the movement from
simple societies to various levels of compound societies. By the
aggregation of some simple societies, compound societies arose;
through further aggregation of compound societies, doubly compound
societies arose; by aggregation of doubly compound societies, trebly
compound societies arose. A simple society consists of families, a
compound society of families unified into clans, a doubly compound
society finds clans unified into tribes, and the trebly compound
societies such as our own, are those in which tribes have been brought
together into nations or states. With the increase in size, structure
increases as well as differences in power and in the occupations of the
members.
Development of Society According to August Comte

August Comte, the father of Sociology, also had presented a well-knit

theory on the development of society. Comte’s theory on the
development or evolution of society was based on his Law of Three
Stages. According to his Law, human knowledge evolves through
three different stages; or in other words, there are three different
ways, in which human mind explains the phenomena, each way
leading to the next in successive order. The three stages are;
1) Theological or Fictitious State: In this phase, human mind seeks
 to understand the essential nature of beings, the first and final
causes (the origin and purpose) of all effects, in short the
Absolute knowledge.
2) Metaphysical or Abstract State: This state is a modification of
the first in so far as the mind supposes abstract forces and
personified abstractions, instead of supernatural beings, inherent
in all beings and capable of producing all phenomena.
3) The Positive or Scientific State: In the final state, the mind gives
up vain search absolute notions, the origin and destination of the
universe, and the causes of phenomena, and applies to the study
of their laws, that is their invariable relations of succession and
resemblance. Reasoning and observation, duly combined are the
means of this knowledge.
Comte traced a direct relationship between the stages of human
thinking and social organization. In other words, Comte’s contention
is that each type of human thinking represents a particular type of
social organization.

When human mind was in the theological state, political events, for
example, were explained by the will of the God, and political
authority was based on divine right. Military and monarchial social
organization was the keynote to the theological thinking. Kings were
considered as the direct representatives of, or, next to God on earth,
ruling the society under the direction of God.
In the metaphysical state of mind, the political authority was based on
the doctrines of abstract right. Divine rights were dropped, and in
their place, natural right determined the political relations of human
beings. The legal aspect of social organization was developed, with
the result that it tended to be formal and structural.

Whereas in the positive stage society enters into an industrial era. At

this stage, the whole of our knowledge is characterized by positivism,
or scientific outlook.
Scientific outlook resulted into material inventions and therefore, into
proper utilization of natural resources.

Characteristics of the Evolution of Society

 Movement from simple to complex society

 Homogeneity to heterogeneity
 Gradual and slow process
 An adaptation to changing environment and social context
 Series of related changes in social system
 Progress towards greater size, coherence and definiteness.
It is unambiguous that society, as it exists today, has come a long way
by registering gradual but continuous changes and modifying itself.
Change in any aspect of society was not introduced abruptly. All the
same, social change has been incessant and the society is an ever-
changing phenomenon, which grows, decays, renews itself and
accommodates itself to changing conditions and undergoing vast
modifications in the course of time.

Check Your Progress I

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this
unit.

1) What do you understand by the evolution of society?

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2) According to Comte, the present society is in which stage of

development?
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2.3 SOCIETY AS A SYSTEM OF

RELATIONSHIP
Aristotle said that man by nature is social animal. Human beings are
animals who live in societies. However, human beings are not the
only creatures who live in societies. Ants, termites, birds, monkeys,
apes and countless other creatures and animals do the same. But mere
life in a group does not mean that these animals have a ‘society’
among them or the society of human beings is the same as animal
society. To differentiate between the animal society and the human
society, it is necessary to define society and social relationships that
exist in human society.

In the context of Sociology, the word ‘society’ refers to a complex

pattern of norms of interaction that arise among a group of people.
Whereas in common parlance, the word ‘society’ is used for
designating the members of a specific group and it is generally
understood in relation to tangible observations. In Sociology, people
are valuable only as agencies of social relationships, which are
intangible. Therefore, society is a system of relationships, the pattern
of norms of interaction by which the members of the society maintain
themselves.

Definition of Society

MacIver and Page defined society as, “It is the web of social
relationships.” T. Parsons says, “Society may be defined as the total
complex of human relationships in so far as they grow out of action in
terms of mean-end relationship, intrinsic or symbolic.”

Giddings defined society as, “Society is the union itself, the

organization, the sum of formal relations in which associating
individuals are bound together.” Lapiere laid emphasis on the
complex pattern of interaction that is seen in the society. He defines,
“The term society refers not to group of people, but to the complex
pattern of the norms of interaction, that arise among and between
them.” Prof. Wright emphasized that a collection of people need not
be called a society. He said, “Society is not a group of people, it is the
system of relationships that exists between the individuals of the
group”.

Generally, there are two approaches while defining society and the
relationships present in the society.

1) Functional approach: Society is defined as a complex of groups

in reciprocal relationship, interacting upon one another, enabling
human organisms to carry on their life-activities and helping
each person to fulfill his wishes and accomplish his interests in
association with other members of the group. The approach takes
social relationship as a tool for a certain end.
2) Structural approach: According to this approach, society is the
total social heritage of folkways, mores and institutions, of
habits, sentiments and ideals. In other words, the entire society
could be divided into systems of social relationships, which are
closely related to one another.
The discussion on society would be simpler once the ‘social’ nature of
relationships is defined. Some Sociologists say that society exists only
when the members know each other and possess common interests or
objects. If two persons are traveling in a train, their relationship of co-
existence in the same compartment, of being at the same time in the
same place, does not constitute a society. But as soon as they come to
know each other, the element of society is created. Therefore, the
reciprocal awareness is necessary for any social relationship.
Besides, physical proximity is not the sole parameter for the social
relationship. By comparing the relationships of inanimate objects like
sun and earth, fire and smoke and typewriter and desk we can
establish that there is a distinguishable difference between the
relationships of inanimate objects and human beings. The typewriter
and the desk are in no intelligible sense aware of the presence of one
another. Their relationship is not in any way determined by mutual
awareness. Without this recognition there is no social relationship and
society. Society exists only when individuals have psychical
awareness of the presence of one another. This is why we call social
relationship as ‘reciprocal awareness’. To further clarify the meaning
and the nature of social relationships it could be said that society
exists only where social beings behave towards one another in ways
determined by their recognition of one another. Any relations so
determined; we may broadly call ‘social’.
Society as a Web of Social Relationships

According to MacIver and Page, society is “a web of social

relationships”, which may be of numerous types. Society, as MacIver
and Page said is a network of diverse social relationships or in other
words, it could be called as the entirety of social relationships that
exist in a group.
Society consists of mutual interactions and mutual interrelations of
the individuals and it is also a structure formed by these relations. The
beings who constitute society must realize their likeness and their
interdependence. They must have a community feeling. Society is not
a mere agency for the comfort of beings but it’s the whole system of
social relationships. The social relation of mother and child for
instance, is revealed in their attitude towards each other. It is the
social fact and not the biological fact, which constitutes the society.
The true nature of society consists not in the external factors of inter-
dependence or likeness or authority but in the state of mind of the
beings who compose society. It is the pattern, not the people, which is
termed as society, and it is not a group but a process of relationships.
Therefore, society is a pattern of social relationships or a system of
social relationships.
All societies involve a certain level of association. Similarly, society
involves more a state or quality of mind than a mere structure. The
beings who constitute society must realize their likeness and their
interdependence. The relationships between individuals must be in
accordance with the norms of the society and therefore, society is not
just a collection of people but is the system of relationships that exists
between the members of that group.
It should be borne in mind that society is a permanent institution. Its
origin goes back to the dawn of history and stretches to those remote
corners of the planet where people are living together. It is a kind of
natural organization, which has emerged out of the natural instincts of
man. That’s why Aristotle truly said that man by nature is a social
animal. This means that society will exist as long as man will exists.
Characteristics of Society
1) Society involves Likeness: Without likeness and the sense of
likeness there could be no mutual recognition of “belonging
together” and, therefore, no society. Society exists among those
who resemble one another in some degree, in body and in mind
and who are near enough or intelligent enough to appreciate the
fact.
2) Society involves Difference: Though likeness serves as the
 basis, society also depends on differences. If people were all
alike, their social relationships would be as limited as those of
the biological organisms like ants and bees. Groups of ants and
bees do not have reciprocity, as every member of is uniquely
similar. In human society, different individuals complement one
another and there is meaningful social interaction. In our society
there is an indefinite interplay of likenesses and differences. The
reciprocal relationship of differences is seen at every level of
society. For example, family rests on the biological difference
between sexes. There are also natural differences of aptitude,
capacity and of interest in the society.

3) Difference Subordinate to Likeness: Society needs likeness and

differences or similarities and dissimilarities. While difference is
necessary to society, difference by itself does not create society.
Difference is subordinate to likeness or likeness gets precedence
while difference or dissimilarity works as the basis for the
reciprocity among the members of the society. As MacIver
observes, “Primary likeness and secondary difference create the
greatest of all social institutions – the division of labour.” The
division of labour which works on the principle of difference is
basically cooperation before it is division. Or, this is a deliberate
attempt to utilize the diverse abilities of individuals for a
common objective.

4) Inter-dependence in the Society: In addition to likeness,

interdependence based on cooperation is yet another essential
element to constitute the society. No society can exist without
the interdependence of its units. Members of society should be
inter-dependent and should cooperate with each other for the
smooth running of the society. Individuals cannot live a
secluded life in
society as society is a necessity for them. Therefore, there has to
be interdependence among the members of society.
5) Multiplicity of Relationships: Society consists of numerous
social relationships, which may be hundreds or thousands of
types. There are as many as fifteen relationships based on age,
sex and generation in a family alone. Outside the family there is
no limit to the number of possible social relationships. Social
relationships are as varied as society is complex. The relations
of voter to candidate, mother to child, employee to employer,
friend to friend, teacher to student, student to student etcare
some of the social relationships to name a few. These social
relationships can be categorized into “economic”, “political”,
“personal”, “impersonal”, “friendly”, “antagonistic” and so on.

These characteristics explain the nature of society and the mode of

social relationships. Besides, the above discussion also clarifies that
the social nature of relationships that exist in the human society
between individuals distinguishes human society from the animal
society.
Check your progress II

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this
unit.

1) Society is not a group of people, it is ……………………..that

exists between the individuals of the group.

2) Society exists only when individuals have ………………….

awareness of the presence of one another.

3) Explain how human relationships are social.

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2.4 INDIVIDUAL AND THE SOCIETY

Society consists of individuals who are social by nature. It explains
that individual and society are inter-dependent. The relationship
between them is not one-sided, both are essential for the
comprehension of either. Neither the individuals belong to the society
as cells belong to the organism, nor the society is a mere contrivance
to satisfy certain human needs. The fundamental attribute of man, i.e.,
his social nature, makes him live in society.

In order to establish the relationship between individual and society, it

is necessary to explain in what sense man is a social animal.
Similarly, there are some other pertinent questions, which need to be
answered. In what sense do we belong to society? In what sense does
society belong to us? What is the nature of our dependence upon it?
How shall we interpret the unity of the whole to which our individual
lives are bound? All these questions are aspects of one fundamental
question – the relation of the unit, the individual, to the group and to
the social system. The following sections will help us answer the
aforesaid fundamental questions.

Human Beings are Social by Nature

Man is social animal by nature and he cannot afford to live alone. No

human being is known to have developed normally in isolation.
Individuals learn social habits and acquire social qualities by living in
the presence of others. There are cases, to show that the normal
development of an individual’s personality is hindered whenever the
individual is secluded from society. MacIver cited a case in which two
Hindu children who were discovered in a wolf-den in 1920 and who
had their abilities seriously retarded. The younger one aged less than
two years died immediately after retrieval from the wolf-den. The
other child, aged eight, could walk only on all fours, possessed no
language except wolf-like growls. She was shy of human beings and
felt scared in the presence of human beings. It took strenuous,
sympathetic and extensive training for making her learn some social
habits. Human nature develops in man only when he lives in society,
only when he shares common life with his fellow beings. Human
traits that are present in the child could only be developed in the
company of human contacts. Society fulfils a vital need in every
individual’s constitution and the social aspect of human life is a
necessity.

Necessity Makes Human Beings Social

Also, human beings live in society because necessity compels them
to. Many of their needs will remain unsatisfied if they do not have the
cooperation of their fellow beings. Every individual is the offspring of
a social relationship established between man and woman. The child
is brought up under the care of his parents and learns the lessons of
citizenship in their company. The child is totally dependent on the
society for his existence. If the newborn baby does not receive
protection and attention of the parents, he would not survive for even
a day. The newborn is so helpless and dependent that it cannot protect
itself for many years. Unlike this, the newborns of other animals are
independent within hours of their birth. It takes barely an hour for a
newborn calf to stand on its legs and within hours it starts eating
grass. This is the same case with the newborns of most of the animals.
Individuals get the needs of food, shelter and clothing fulfilled only
by living and cooperating with others. The importance of society for
physical and mental development is thus obvious and no individual
can become human being unless he lives in society. Sometimes it is
the fear of animals or the urge to get acceptance and recognition from
others or satisfaction of hunger, thirst and sex drives that make
individuals live in a group. The need for self-preservation, which is
felt by every being also makes a man social. Therefore, it is not due to
his nature alone but also due to his necessities that man lives in
society.

Society Determines Personality

It is not just for the survival and fulfillment of needs that man lives in
society, but he lives in society for his all-round mental and intellectual
development. Society preserves our culture and transmits it to
succeeding generations. It liberates and limits our potentialities as
individuals and molds our attitudes, beliefs, morals and ideals. The
mind of a man who would live outside a society would be the mind of
an infant even at the age of adulthood. The cultural heritage, which an
individual imbibes by living as the member of the society, directs the
personality and thus determines the mental equipment of that
individual.
Theories on the Relationship between Man and Society
There are many theories on the origin of society which include, the
divine origin theory, force theory, patriarchal and matriarchal
theories, social contract theory and organic theory. The divine origin
theory says that God had created society. Just as God had created all
the animals and inanimate objects of this world, so he created society
as well. Whereas the force theory makes society the result of superior
physical subjugating weaker, while the patriarchal and matriarchal
theories make society the expansion of family system. Besides, there
are two theories, which are widely accepted by sociologists. These are
Social Contract theory and the Organismic theory. A brief explanation
of these two theories will further explain the relationship between
individual and the society.

1) Social Contract Theory: Since at least the fifth century before

Christ, various philosophers have viewed society as a
contrivance or mechanism deliberately set up by men for certain
ends. According to some, such as Thomas Hobbes society is a
means for the protection of men against the consequences of
their own intolerant and conflicting nature. According to him,
man in the state of nature was in perpetual conflict with his
neighbours on account of his essentially selfish nature. In the
words of Hobbes, “life of man was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish
and short.” Every man was enemy to every man. To protect
himself against the evil consequence, man organized himself in
society in order to live in peace with all. Locke, JJ Rousseau and
Adam Smith also supported this theory. Adam Smith said that
society is an artificial device created to foster a mutual economy.

As a criticism to this theory, it is said that this theory seems to

assume that man as individual is prior to society since man had
deliberately created society for the fulfillment of his objectives.
This notion is untenable as sociality is inborn in man and he can
survive only by living in society.
2) The Organismic Theory of Society: This theory is as old as
Plato and Aristotle. This theory conceives society as a biological
system, a greater organism, alike in its structure and function,
exhibiting the same kind of unity as the individual organism and
subject to similar laws of development, maturation and decline.
Society’s cells are individual persons; its organs and systems are
associations and institutions. According to the Herbert Spencer,
the state is subject to the same laws of growth and decay to
which the human body is. It has its youth, its prime, its old age
and death. Bluntschli and Murray have supported the organic
theory on the origin of the society. As a criticism of the
organismic theory it is said that there are significant differences
between society and individual organism and therefore an
analogy of organism cannot exactly define the relationship
between man and society. In the human society the units are not
fixed in their respective positions while in the case of an
organism its parts are fixed to the body. Yet another criticism is
 that the units of a society are dispersed persons and are not
physically contiguous like cells of an individual or organism.

The relationship between the individual and society is a

complementary one and one without the other will not survive.
Neither the society itself has a value beyond the service, which it
renders to its members, nor can the individuals thrive without society.
Neither the society is inimical to the development of the human
personality nor does it exist in its own right.
Check your progress III

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this
unit.

1) Explain Organismic theory on the relationship between

individual and society.
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2.5 SOCIALISATION
When a human child is born it is a biological organism with instincts
alone. It practically possesses no abilities that an adult normally
possesses. A child knows nothing other than clinging to its mother and
sucking milk. The child is therefore, primarily a biological organism
than a social being. He gradually learns to live in society by learning
the social ways of acting and feeling. With the passage of time, the
child learns many things that it otherwise did not know. It learns to
identify and to read the face of parents, learns to make sounds, stands
up, learns language, receives education and thus the process of
learning continues till the death of the individual.
Meaning of Socialisation

Socialisation, as stated above, is the process by which an individual

learns to conform to social norms, a process that makes possible an
enduring society and the transmission of its culture between
generations. Socialisation has been accepted generally as the gradual
process by which an individual becomes a functional member of
society. It means the process where by an individual become a
functioning member of the society. The individual becomes socialized
by learning the rules and practices of social group. By this process the
individual develops a personality of his own. Socialization also refers
to transmission of culture because man shares it with others a common
culture. Culture includes not only its living members but also
members of past generations.
Ogburn says, “Socialisation is the process by which the individual
learns to conform to the norms of the group”.

Socialisation according to MacIver “is the process by which social

beings establish wider and profounder relationships with one another,
in which they become more bound up with, and more perceptive of
the personality of themselves and of others and build up the complex
structure of nearer and wider association”.
As the process of socialisation indicates, it is the gradual change of a
biological person to a social person or the process whereby an
individual attains the conventional patterns of human behaviour.
According to Lundberg, socialisation consists of the “complex
processes of interaction through which the individual learns the
habits, skills, beliefs and standards of judgment that are necessary for
his effective participation in social group and communities.”
Socialisation could be conceived as the internalization of social
norms. In other words, individual feels the need of conforming to
society and he internalizes the social rules, in the sense that these
social norms are self-imposed by the individual rather than imposed
by means of external regulation. Hence these norms become part of
individual’s personality. It is an essential element of social
interaction. Every individual wants to live in society and get the social
recognition. Therefore, they guide their own actions to accord with
the expectations of others.

Socialisation is equally essential for individual and the society in

general. On the one hand, socialisation helps the individual to gain
social acceptance and status by learning social ways of functioning
while on the other, process of socialisation helps the society to ensure
its smooth and uniform continuity. Unless the members of the society
behave in accordance with the norms of the group, it is likely to
disintegrate. Hence, it is essential for the society to socialise its
members for ensuring the social order.
Agencies of Socialisation

The process of socialisation begins at birth and continues

interminably until the death of the individual. So, the life of an
individual is an unceasing learning process. Many agencies become
operational in the life of the individual during his life time, and he
learns from these agencies chiefly through imitation and from
suggestion. A child imitates and learns many activities such as
standing, walking and other basic skills. Similarly, it also learns from
the instructions communicated to it through language, picture or any
such medium. As a child, an individual learns social pattern of
behaviour from family, school, playmates etc., while as an adult, the
individual learns from religion, state, work group etc. Agencies of
socialisation are, therefore, those which help the individual to learn
new social ways of life in one way or the other. Let us briefly discuss
the chief agencies of socialisation.
1) Family: The child is born into the family where it is nurtured
and looked after by its parents and immediate relatives. Parents,
with whom the child enjoys physical proximity during its
childhood, are the ones to socialise the child first. He learns
speech and language from his parents. Rightly so, family is
called the cradle of social virtues from where the child gets the
first lessons of love, affection, cooperation, tolerance and self-
sacrifice. Therefore, family works as the foundation for the
socialisation process of an individual.
2) Religion: Religion molds and directs the behaviour of people by
laying down behaviour standards for its followers. Religion is a
system of beliefs and rituals with reference to the sacred and
binds people into social groups. Invariably, all religions cherish a
set of values and teach followers to uphold their principles. The
religious groups, for example, Hindus, Muslims, Christians,
Sikhs, etc, have their own prescribed codes of conduct, which
are to be followed by the followers. Thus, religion regulates the
behaviour of people.
3) Peer Group and Friends: The relationship between a child and
his friends is that of mutual give and take and it is based on
cooperation and understanding. Since friends are mostly of
similar age, the relationship is that of equality between them.
From his friends, a child acquires cooperative morality and some
of the informal aspects of culture like fashion, fad, crazes, modes
of gratification and other such information, are necessary from
the social point of view.
4) Educational Institutions: The learning that an individual obtains
from schools, colleges and other educational institutions with the
help of textbooks, teachers and experiments plays a crucial role
in his life. School is the first place where an individual as a child
learns discipline and formal ways of adjusting with others since
the number of children in school is fairly high. It is the
educational institution, which enables the optimum development
of one’s abilities and skills and, therefore, educational
institutions help the individual to develop his personality in
accordance with the expectations of society.

5) Profession and Employment: Work or profession has a major

role to play in moulding the behaviour of an individual.
Individual brings about changes in his life in accordance with his
aspiration for a job. And, once the job is achieved, there are
many more changes which follow. Profession socialises the
individual by inculcating sense of competition, hard work and
cooperation in him.

6) State: It is an authoritarian agency that formulates laws, which in

other words, lays down code of conduct for the people. Laws
promulgated by the state, for example, traffic laws, property
laws, income tax laws etc. are enforceable and the members of
 society should conform to these norms. If there is a violation of
these laws, punishment is given to those who disobey these
norms. Thus, the state ensures conformity in society by
enforcing these laws while members of society conform to these
in order to avoid punishment by the state. Thereby, the state
promotes consistency in the functioning of society.

Apart from these agencies, neighbourhood, kin-group or relatives,

marriage, cultural institutions such as art, literature etc. also play
decisive role in the life of an individual.

Types of Socialisation

Socialisation can be categorized into mainly four types. They

are:

1. Primary Socialization: It is the most essential and

basic type of socialization. It takes place in the early
years of life of the newborn individual. It focuses on
teaching of language, skills, cultural norms and values,
establishment of emotional roles etc. e.g.; families,
neighbors, peer groups.

2. Anticipatory Socialization: Men not only learn the

culture of the group of which they are members but
also, they learn the culture of group to which they do
not belong. Such a process where by men socialize
themselves into culture of a group with the anticipation
of joining that group. In each developmental stages,
society expect certain behavior modification which ever
group the individuals belongs. This type of socialization
is referred as anticipatory socialization. It takes places
at different times and places throughout life.

3. Developmental Socialization: This kind of learning is

based on the achievement of primary socialization. It
builds on already acquired skills and knowledge's as the
adult progresses through new situations. These require
new expectations, obligations and social roles etc.

4. Re-socialization: Not only two individuals change

roles within groups but they also change membership in
different groups. It’s a change from learned patterns and
substitution to the new one. It takes place when a social
role is radically changed. Eg; after marriage the girl has
to adapt with new culture of her spouse and relations.

Functions of Socialisation
As mentioned earlier in the unit, socialization is a necessity not
only for the society but for the individual as well. The fact that
individual cannot survive in isolation and society cannot sustain itself
without its members implies that there has to be a proper mechanism
to ensure functional coexistence among the members of society.
Socialisation ensures both these purposes. The main objectives of
socialisation are as follows:

1) Develops the personality of an individual and through the

process of socialisation an individual learns to make use of his
full mental and physical capacities. Converts biological being
into social being.

2) Socialisation establishes uniformity in society.

3) It helps in transmission of culture and also individuals to

internalize the culture.

4) Socialisation inculcates basic discipline among the members of

society.

5) It teaches the members the performance of social roles.

6) Contributes the development of personality.
7) Helps to become disciplined.
8) Helps to enact different roles.
9) Provides the knowledge & skills.
10) Helps to develop right aspiration in life.
11) Stability of the social order.
12) Helps to reduce social distance.
13) Provides scope for building the bright future.

Learning about life and its countless demands, opportunities, and

expectations is a lifelong process. As the discussion above points out,
socialisation is a process through which the members of society learn
to live as members of groups and to make necessary adjustments to
the way our lives change from youth through middle age to old age.
Socialisation does not end when one becomes an adult. It is a lifelong
process and involves a number of changes and transitions in life, as
well as a number of agents of socialisation beyond the family. Peer
groups, schools, work groups, and the mass media all represent
important forces shaping the way we adapt to changes in life.

Check Your Progress IV

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this
unit.

1) Explain the meaning of socialization.

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2.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have been introduced to various concepts related to
society. We have discussed some of the important characteristics of
society which will provide basic understanding about the why and
how of the society. The various theories of Auguste Comte, Herbert
Spencer and Thomas Hobbes are discussed in detail.
Some of the theories and principles related to the origin and
functioning of society is explained. Another important aspect of
society which has been discussed in the unit is socialisation — which
is the processes by which society influences its members to follow its
values, rules, laws, etc. Socialisation helps the individual to adopt
oneself to the society. It is important for social workers to know these
concepts as they deal with individuals groups and communities which
are part of society. Often a person has to decide between how much
he/she should stress his/her own desires and needs and how much
he/she should surrender to the larger interests of the community. At
times she/he may feel exploited as she/he feels that she/he is losing
more than she is gaining. Yet in another situation the society may be
making unreasonable demands on the individual which may lead to
abnormal behaviour.

2.7 KEY WORDS

Society : Complex system of social relationships and
not a mere group of individuals.
Primitive society: Primordial or ancient society, the members
of which were largely involved in food
gathering, hunting and very limited
agriculture and animal domestication.
Personality : All qualities and attributes of an individual.
The sum total of an individual including all
his faculties, traits, behaviour patterns and
other characteristics, which are unique to the
individual.

2.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Devis Kingsley (1981), Human Society, Surjeet Publications, Delhi
Maclver, RM and Charles H Page (1971), Society-An Introductory
Analysis, The Macmillan Press Ltd, London and Basingstoke.
Timasheff Nicholas S (1967), Sociological theory: Its Nature and
Growth, Random House, New York.

2.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your Progress I
1) Evolution is a gradual growth or development from simple to
complex form of existence. It is the movement from simple
societies to various levels of compound societies.
2) The Positive or Scientific stage

Check your Progress II

1) System of relationships

2) Psychical

3) Society consists of mutual interactions and mutual

interrelations of the individuals and it is a structure formed
by social relationships. Relationships between individuals of
a society are ‘social’ since they behave toward one another in
ways determined by their recognition of one another. There
is a reciprocal awareness among the members of society and,
therefore, we can call human relationships as social
relationships.

Check your Progress III

1) This theory describes society as a biological system, a greater

organism, alike in its structure and function, with the same
kind of unit as the biological organism and subject to similar
laws of development, maturation and decline. Organismic
theory considers individuals as the cells of society while
associations and institutions are the organs and systems of
society. Society has its infancy, maturation, prime and
decline as organisms have.

Check Your Progress IV

1) Socialisation is the process through which an individual

gradually learns to live in society by learning the social ways
of acting and feeling. In other words, it is the gradual
change of a biological person to a social person or the
process whereby an individual attains the conventional
patterns of huma behaviour. It is the mechanism for making
an individual a functional member of society.
UNIT3 SOCIAL PROCESSES
* Renu Sharma

Contents

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Social Interaction
3.3 Forms of Social Interaction
3.4 Social Control
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Key words
3.7 Suggested Readings
3.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit seeks to help you to understand the nature and

meaning of social processes, which are an integral part of our
social behaviour. After studying the unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the social processes: conflict, competition

and co-operation;

 Know the interrelationship between different types of

social processes; and

 Understand the meaning of social control and related

ideas.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The term ‘social processes’ refers to repetitive forms of behaviour,
which are commonly found in social life. One of the most extensive
treatments of social processes is found in Park and Burgess,
Introduction to the Science of Sociology (1921). This highly
influential textbook of an earlier period is primarily devoted to the
classification and analysis of social processes. In recent decades
sociologists have become less interested in social processes
themselves and more interested in intensive analysis of behaviour in
specific institutional and cultural settings. Yet it remains important
for students to be aware of the major social processes found in all
groups and societies. The most frequent classification of major social
processes is in terms of Cooperation, Competition, Conflict,
Accommodation and Assimilation.
3.2 SOCIAL INTERACTION
Much of the thinking about society is in terms of social relationships.
One thinks of the relation between father and son, employer and
employee, leader and follower, merchant and customer; or, of the
relation between friends, between enemies, between children, etc.
Such relationships are among the most obvious features of society
and consequently it seems an elaboration of the obvious to inquire
into their nature. Social relationship represents fundamental ways of
organizing social data. In short, a society may be viewed, if one
wishes, as a system of relationships.

In analyzing social relationships, one soon finds them more

complicated than they first appear. They involve reciprocal
obligations, reciprocal statuses, and reciprocal ends and means
between two or more actors in mutual contact. They refer to form or
pattern of interaction between individuals.

Any society contains hundreds and perhaps thousands of socially

defined relationships. The immediate family alone may contain as
many as fifteen. How many relationships a society utilizes is simply
a matter of how many criteria it takes into account in defining
behaviour between individuals? The fifteen relationships of the
immediate family rest on three criteria — age, sex and generation.
Outside the family, an infinite number of criteria may be used, so
there is no limit to the number of possible relationships.

It follows that to catalogue all the meaningful relationships in which

human beings are involved would be a never-ending task. Instead,
they may be classified and dealt with as general types. Any
classification, however, must have some point to it. In social
sciences, as in all sciences, classification is worthless unless it seizes
upon traits that are significant, traits that facilitate causal analysis.
For this reason, social relationships have been classified and
discussed in terms of the kind of interaction they manifest. The most
important kinds of interaction singled out for consideration here are
conflict, competition and cooperation. Each of these has several sub-
types, but mention of the main ones alone is enough to demonstrate
that a proper understanding of the forms of interaction is essential to
the understanding of society.

Acc to Merrill, social interaction is the general process where by two

or more persons are in meaningful contact and communication as a
result of which their behavior is modified slightly. There are two
kinds of social interaction. They are contact and communication.

Social interaction by definition involves contact, and contact

necessarily requires a material or sensory medium. It need not of
course require the impingement of one body directly upon another,
but it does require the occurrence of direct or indirect sensory
stimulation between the interacting parties. The material medium,
however, is only a necessary, not a sufficient basis of contact.
Individuals can be in material contact without being in social contact.
For example, two tribes living on opposite sides of swamp and
having nothing to do with each other may nevertheless be bitten by
mosquitoes that continually carry malaria from one tribe to another.
It is not merely physical contact that counts, but meaningful or
symbolic contact. Good will may be expressed by either handshake
or a spoken phrase, a letter or a smile. Added to the sensory stimulus
is a meaningful stimulus. The social behaviour of human beings
consists of acquired responses to the meaningful responses of others.
Human interaction in other words, is communicative interaction. The
social behaviour of human beings consists of acquired responses to
the meaningful responses of others. Human interaction, in other
words, is communicative interaction.
The essential feature of communication is that one person infers from
the behaviour of another (whether speech, gesture or posture) what
idea or feeling the other person is trying to convey. He then reacts
not to the behaviour as such but to the inferred idea or feeling. The
other person then reacts to his response in terms of the idea or
feeling-the meaning behind it. When a girl receives flowers, she
looks at them and smells them, but her main interest is in the person
who sent them and why. Were they sent to end a quarrel, to mark an
anniversary, to cement a promise, to say farewell, to brighten an
illness? Unless she can answer such questions, she will feel a loss,
not knowing what to do. It is the meanings behind the behaviour that
are involved in the system of mutual expectations previously
described as being present in the interacting situation.

Check Your Progress I

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of

this unit.

1) Comment “social relationships are best described in terms

of kinds of interaction” they manifest.
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3.3 FORMS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION

Conflict

The conflict process is little praised but widely practiced. It develops

whenever a person or group seeks to gain a reward not by surpassing
other competitors, but by preventing them from effectively
competing. It is formally defined as the process of seeking to obtain
rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors.

Conflict is an ever-present process in human relations. It may be

solved at one level as when there is agreement on ends and break out
afresh over the question of means. You may raise a profound
question as to why conflict is such a constant feature of human
society. The answer lies in the basic nature of human society. Human
society is not a tightly compressed affair but instead has a loose
integration. The integration is not on a biological level rather its
mental level. It must be renewed and maintained constantly through
psychological processes such as indoctrination, inspiration and
repetition. It must somehow rest on the possession of common and
extra-personal ends on the part of its members. These ends cannot
come from man’s biological but only from communicative contact
with his fellows. Accordingly, therefore they differ greatly from one
society to another because they are associated with differences of
culture. This, then, gives first basis of conflict – ethnocentrism – the
dislike of people with different culture and different ultimate ends
from one’s own. Those with the same set of ultimate ends cling
together and identify themselves with one another, while those with a
different set of ends also do the same. A social group, furthermore,
has a corporate character a name, a common leadership, a
determinate structure, a sense of familiarity. Individuals identify
themselves with this corporate entity and conceive their ultimate duty
as loyalty to it, whether it be a clan, a tribe, a city-state, a religious
sect, or a nation.

Types of Conflict

Conflict expresses itself in numerous ways and in various degrees

and over every range of human contact. Its modes are always
changing with changing social and cultural conditions. “Social
Conflict” includes all activity in which men contend against one
another for any objective. Its two fundamental types are direct and
indirect conflict.
i) Direct Conflict: When individuals or groups thwart or impede
or restrain or injure or destroy one another in an effort to attain
some goal, direct conflict occurs. Milder thwarting or
frustration of goal attainment is involved in such forms as
litigation, polemic, propagandistic activity and much of the
struggle of the organized economic groups for larger stakes.
ii) Indirect Conflict: When individuals or groups do not
actually impede the efforts of one another but nevertheless seek to
attain their ends in ways which obstruct the attainment of the same
ends by others, indirect conflict occurs. Competition is impersonal
conflict between individuals for attainment of any objects of desire
that are limited in supply, whether income or academic honours or
beautiful women for social prestige. The competition does not as
such directly interfere with the efforts of another to attain such goals
but only indirectly with the other person’s success.
In distinguishing these two forms, the reader should note that not all
struggles in which man is engaged is social conflict of either type.
We are struggling to master difficulties, to overcome obstacles, to
achieve ends in ways other than through conflict with our fellow
human beings. Man’s “battle” with the physical environment is a
case in point. Social conflict, man against man or group against
group, reveals itself wherever there is society. But unless co-
operation penetrates deeper than conflict, society cannot endure.
Mechanisms to Deal with Conflict

There are of course social mechanisms that smoothen conflict. One

of these is humour, which removes the tension that might otherwise
expend itself in physical violence. Another is social distance or
avoidance. A third is sentiment formation, which overcomes the
conflict of interests of the antagonistic parties. A fourth is variety and
change, which for an existing situation is more tolerable if it is
known that it will not last long. A fifth is organized rivalry, which
provides an opportunity for simulated battle, for intense group
loyalty, for the manifestation of prowess in vanquishing others, and
yet because the interaction has a set form and definite conclusion, it
allows the energies to be expended either harmlessly or to the
advantage of the society.
It is clear however that such mechanisms are not universally
successful. Humor, social distance, noble sentiments, social change,
organized rivalry – these may on occasion provoke rather than
prevent conflict. The truth is that there are elements of conflict in all
situations, because the ends of different individuals are always to
some extent mutually exclusive. Conflict is a part of human society
because of the kind of entity that human society is.

Check Your Progress II

Note: a) Use the Space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with the model answers

provide at the end of this unit.

1) Explain meaning of the term ‘conflict’ in your own

words and discuss why it is ever present in human
society.
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Competition

In contrast to conflict, which aims to destroy or do away with the

opponent, competition simply aims to out-do the competitor in
achieving some mutually desired goal. It is thus a modified form of
struggle. It implies that there are rules of the game to which the
competitors must conform and that behind these rules, justifying and
maintaining them, is a common set of values superior to the
competitive interest. It also implies an absence of coercion. The rules
are so arranged that the ends must be obtained by other methods than
fraud or physical force. Consider an example: if a chain stores take
business away from the local merchants by offering goods at cheaper
prices that is competition. If on the other hand, the small merchants
induce the government to tax the chain stores out of existence, that is
not competition because state is then exercising its power of
coercion. The rules of competition limit the means that may be used
to gain the competitive end; they tend especially to eliminate force
and fraud. When competition breaks through the rules it transforms
itself into conflict.
Competition is the struggle for possession of rewards, which are in
limited supply: money, goods, status, power, and love- anything. It
may be formally defined as the process of seeking to obtain a reward
by surpassing other rivals. While competition is present to some
degree in all the societies, it differs greatly in degree from society to
society. The fiercely competitive Kwakiutl and the relatively non-
competitive Zuni offer a striking contrast. The Kwakiutl work very
hard to accumulate wealth, which is used primarily to establish status
rather than to provide material comfort. The competition for status
reaches its height at the famous “potlatch,” in which the chiefs and
leading families come with each other to see how much they can give
away or destroy. A family may spend lifetime accumulating wealth,
then bankrupt themselves in a single potlatch, thereby establishing
the social status of their children. Members of a family who persisted
in keeping their wealth would be criticized for their unwillingness to
do “anything” for their children. The Zuni on the other hand, disdain
any emphasis on the accumulation of wealth or the demonstration of
individual skill. Most wealth is owned by the entire community and it
is bad to demonstrate individual superiority of any kind. Thus, the
Zuni child does not grow up believing that he should make the most
money, get the highest grades or run the fastest race.

Even such strong encouragement of competition as is found among

the Kwakiutl does not mean that cooperation is completely absent.
As the anthropologist Margaret Mead points out—

Nevertheless, no society is exclusively competitive or exclusively

cooperative. The very existence of highly competitive groups implies
cooperation within the groups. Both competitive and cooperative
habits must exist within the society.

Check Your Progress III

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end

of this unit.

1) What do you understand by term the competition and how

it is different from conflict?

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2) Discuss the nature of competition in contemporary society.

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Co-operation

Cooperation is derived from Latin words, co meaning together and

operari meaning to work. It may be formally defined as joint activity
in pursuit of common goals or shared rewards. Cooperation may be
found in groups as small as a dyad (group of two persons) and as
large as United Nations. Cooperation implies a regard for the wishes
of other people and is often regarded as unselfish, but humans may
also find that their selfish goals are best served when working
together with their fellow human beings.

Men cannot associate without co-operating, or without working

together in the pursuit of like or common interests. The modes of
cooperation in social life may be divided into two principal types:

i) Direct Co-operation: Under this category we include all those

activities in which people do like doing things together—play
together, worship together, till the fields together, or even
labour together in myriad ways. In such activities, there may be
minor diversities of task—you wash, l will dry—but their
essential character is that people do work in each other’s
company the things which they can also do separately or in
isolation. They do them together, either because the face-to-face
situation is itself a stimulus to the performance of the task or
because it brings some other social satisfaction. Direct
cooperation is exemplified also when people perform together
 tasks that would be difficult for one of them to perform alone as
when they pull together on a line or together storm a barricade.
ii) Indirect Co-operation: Under this category we include all those
activities in which people do unlike tasks but are directed
towards a single end. Here the principle of the division of
labour comes into play, a principle that is embedded in the very
nature of social life. The division of labour is revealed in the
procreation of life and in the upbringing of a family. It is
revealed whenever people pool their differences for common
ends. In industry, in government, in scientific research, even in
recreational activities, functions tend to become more and more
specialized. This process is more manifest in urban than in rural
life, but the disappearance of the “husking bees” and “thrashing
rings” signal the fact the people have to satisfy in other ways
the need for social stimulation formerly satisfied through direct
co-operation.

The replacement of direct by indirect cooperation has accompanied

our great technological advances, which clearly require specialization
of skills and functions. But in terms of human needs, this is not all
gain. It is often claimed that the individual of modern industrialized
and urbanized society, increasingly separated from face-to-face co-
operative modes of activity and more and more, a “specialist”
detached from close ties of intimate community life, tends to take on
the highly individualized, neurotic characteristics as depicted by a
growing number of writers.

There is also Primary co-operation, which is found in primary group

such as family, peer group, clubs, etc. Here there is the identities
given importance and also each member work for the betterment of
all and rewards will be shared among them. Secondary co-operation
is characteristic feature of modern society because in the relationship
will be highly formalized and specialized. e.g.; in different political
parties different NGO’s, trade unions.

Co-operation is commonly believed to be the opposite of

competition. This is not true if it means that in a given situation one
necessarily excludes the other. A cooperating group is one that is
working together to accomplish a goal that all desire. In many case it
is realized that competition will aid the attainment of this goal and so
a system of competition is allowed or deliberately instituted. The
Soviet government learnt early in its history that competition for high
pay has a stimulating effect on productivity. Since Russia’s great
need was to increase production by leaps and bounds, it developed an
ingenious system of “socialist competition”.

Unless competition enhances the overall goal of the society it will

find critics aplenty. So long as it is controlled and institutionalized, it
is presumably a means by which the cooperation of all is
accomplished. In reality it is conflict rather than competition that is
the opposite of cooperation. Yet cooperation may occur without
making internal use of competition and between two competitors the
overarching elements of cooperation may be lost from sight. In fact,
each of two competitors trying to outstrip each other may view his
organization as cooperating within itself but not cooperating at all
with the other organizations. Often, therefore the ultimate
cooperative effect of competition escapes awareness; the closer and
more intimate cooperation of the organized group is the center of
attention. This is what gives the illusion that competition and
cooperation are necessarily opposed.
The Interrelation of the Forms of Interaction

It should be clear that the forms of interaction discussed here—

conflict, competition and cooperation— are all interdependent. They
are ever-present aspects of human society. Any social system, in fact
any concrete situation, will manifest all three in a complex and
intertwined manner. There is no cooperating group, no matter how
harmonious, which will not contain the seeds of suppressed conflict.
There is no conflict, no matter how bitter, which will not have some
hidden basis of compromise. There is no competition, no matter how
impersonal and ruthless, which cannot claim some contribution to a
larger cooperative cause.
It should also be clear that any analysis of social behaviour in terms
of the forms of interaction is an indispensable mode of approaching
social phenomenon.
Assimilation

Whenever groups meet, some mutual interchange or diffusion of

culture takes place. Even groups who seek to prevent such diffusion
do not fully succeed in protecting their culture from all cultural
interchange. This process of mutual cultural diffusion through
which persons and groups come to share a common culture is
called assimilation. It is always a two-way process with each group
contributing varying proportions of the eventual blend, depending
upon respective group size, prestige and other factors.
The assimilation process is nicely illustrated in the Americanisation
of European immigrants. Arriving in great numbers between 1850
and 1913, many of them settled, in immigrant colonies in the
Northern cities. Within these ethnic colonies—Little Italy, Little
Poland and so on—they practiced much of their native European
culture while absorbing some of the American culture. The
immigrant parents often sought to transmit European culture to their
children, while the children generally sought to become American as
rapidly as possible. This conflict often caused parental anguish,
family disorganisation, and loss of parental care, so that many
second-generation immigrants became confused, rebellious and
delinquent. As the third generation matured, the assimilation
difficulties generally subsided; Americanisation became fairly
complete, and the ethnic colony disappeared as the descendents
scattered over city and suburb (Thomas and Znaniecki, 1927).
Assimilation reduces group conflicts by blending differing groups
into larger, culturally homogenous groups. The bitter riots against the
Irish and the discrimination against Scandinavians in the United
States have disappeared as assimilation has erased the group
differences and blurred the sense of separate group identity.
Anything, which binds people into a larger group, will tend to reduce
rivalry and conflict between them. This is strikingly illustrated by an
experiment, which involved the experimental formation of different
groupings at a summer camp (Sherif and Sherif, 1953). The boys
were all from the same community and were similar in religion,
social class, status, age and national background. For the first
experimental period they were treated as single group, and they
showed no signs of incipient social conflict. In the second
experimental period they were divided into two groups who were
housed separately and encouraged to develop separate programmes
of activities. The groups took the names of “Red Devils” and “Bull
Dogs.” Group antagonism quickly developed and physical violence
between the groups reached the point where it had to be suppressed
by the adult leaders.

This experiment shows how, even when there are no real differences
or issues to fight over, conflict tends to develop wherever separate
group identity is recognized. Assimilation removes some, but not all
possible pressures towards conflict.

Check Your Progress IV

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end

of this unit.

1) Explain meaning of the term assimilation and how it

reduces group conflict in your own words.

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3.4 SOCIAL CONTROL

Social control means the way in which the entire social order coheres
and maintains itself—how it operates as a whole, as a changing
equilibrium.
The study of social control – the means through which people are led
to fill their roles as expected – begins with the study of social order
within which people interact. Consider, for example, the orderly
arrangements, which underlie the bustling confusion of a great city.
Tens of thousands of people take their places and perform their tasks
with no apparent direction. Thousands of vehicles butt their way
through clogged lanes, missing by inches, but seldom actually
colliding. Thousands of kinds of merchandise arrive at the proper
places in the proper amounts at the proper times. Ten thousand
people whom an individual never sees will labor on this day so that
meals will be ready for him when needed, drinking fountains will
flow, drains will carry off the wastes, bulbs will blink and glow,
traffic will part to let him pass, and various conveniences, will meet
his other needs. A hundred people may serve him within an hour,
perhaps without a word from him to any of them.

This is what is meant by social order—a system of people,

relationships and customs operating smoothly to accomplish the
work of a society. Unless people know what they may expect from
one another not much will get done. The orderliness of a society rests
upon a network of roles according to which each person accepts
certain duties towards others and claims certain rights from others.
How is this network of reciprocal rights and duties kept in force?
Sociologists use the term social control to describe all the means and
processes whereby a group or a society secures its members’
conformity to its expectations.
How does a group or a society cause its members to behave in the
expected manner which in a number of ways, whose relative
importance is difficult to measure? Following are different modes of
social control:
1) Social Control Through Socialisation
People are controlled mainly by being socialised so that they fill their
roles in expected ways through habit and preference. How do women
in our society tend to give greater emphasis on their family? How do
men tend to shoulder responsibility of their offspring? Mainly by
cultivating within them a set of roles and responsibilities.
Socialisation shapes our customs, our wishes and our habits. The
members of a society are schooled in the same customs and tend to
develop much the same set of habits. Thus habits and customs are
great standardisers of behaviour within a group. If all members of
society share similar socialization experiences, they will voluntarily
and unthinkingly act in very much the same ways. They will conform
to the social expectations without any conscious awareness that they
are doing so.
2) Social Control Through Group Pressure
Most social scientists see social control as primarily a process of
growing out of the individual’s need for status within his primary
groups. Lapiere (1954) claims that these groups are most influential
when they are small and intimate, when the individual expects to
remain in the group for a long time, and when he has frequent
contacts with them. All the authorities agree that our need for
acceptance within the intimate groups is the most powerful lever for
the use of group pressure towards group norms.

Social psychologists (Sherif, 1935; Bovard, 1951) have made a

number of experiments, which show how a person tends to bring his
expressions in line with those of the group. The method in such
experiments usually consists of asking the members for individual
estimates, attitudes or observations on a topic, then informing them
of the group norm, and finally asking for a new expression from each
member. Many of the informants modify their second expression in
the direction of the group norm. Schachter (1951) has also shown
experimentally how the member who sharply deviates from the group
norms in opinion is rejected by the group.
We often notice that a new member of a group is more carefully
conformist and more fiercely loyal than the old members. Meticulous
conformity is a tool for gaining acceptance and status within a group,
while rejection is the price of nonconformity.

Groups are of two kinds, primary and secondary. For our present
discussion, it is sufficient to note that primary groups are small,
intimate, informal, face-to-face groups like the family, clique or play
group, while secondary groups are larger, more impersonal, more
formal and more utilitarian like a labour union, trade association,
church congregation or student body.

a) Social control through primary group

Within primary groups, control is informal, spontaneous and
unplanned. The members of the group react to the actions of each
member. When a member irritates or annoys the others, they may
show their disapproval through ridicule, laughter, criticism or even
ostracism. When a member’s behaviour is acceptable, a secure and
comfortable “belonging” is his usual reward.

Informal modes of Social control —The folkways and mores

represent the norms or modes of procedure in a society or in a
group—they present to us the most frequent or most accepted or
most standardized ways of doing this or that. They are regulative,
exerting pressure upon individual and group to conform to the norms.
Following are the general functions of mores in social life—
i) The mores determine much of our individual behaviour. They
are the compelling and forbidding apparatus of the social world that
constantly exerts pressure on every member.
ii) The mores identify individual within the group. If on the one
hand, the mores exert a pressure upon the individual to conform to
the ways of his community or social class or sex, the individual, on
the other, gains identification with his fellows by conforming. He
thus maintains those social bonds that are clearly essential for
satisfactory living.
In traditional Indian society, three social institutions that used to
exercise great control over conduct of its members are joint family,
caste system and panchayat. Earlier on, in all three contexts any
instance of non-conformity used to be a rarity. Now with the advent
of industrialization and urbanization these social institutions have
started disintegrating and informal social control is gradually
replaced by formal social control.
b) Social Control through Secondary Group

As we shift from primary to secondary group situations, we also shift

from informal to formal modes of social controls. Secondary groups
are generally larger, more impersonal and specialised in purpose. We
do not use
them to meet our needs for intimate human response, but to help us
to get certain jobs done. If a secondary group does not meet our
needs, we can generally withdraw with no greater anguish, for our
emotional lives are not deeply involved. To maintain our status in the
secondary group is desirable but not a desperate emotional necessity
as it is in the primary group. True, it is possible in our society for
people to change their primary groups—leave their families, divorce
their mates, find new friends—but the process is generally painful.
The secondary group is a less compelling control agency than the
primary group.
The secondary group is still an effective control. Some of the
informal controls still operate in the secondary groups. No normal
person wants to appear ridiculous at the union meeting or at the
Chamber of Commerce banquet. Such informal controls such as
ridicule, laughter, gossip and ostracism operate in secondary group
settings but generally with a reduced impact. Meanwhile, other more
formal controls are characteristic of secondary groups are
parliamentary rules of order, official regulations and standardised
procedures, propaganda, promotion and titles, rewards and prizes,
formal penalties and punishments etc.
2) Social Control Through Force
Many primitive societies succeeded in controlling the behaviour of
individuals through the mores, reinforced by the informal controls of
the primary group, so that no formal laws or punishments were
necessary. But with larger populations and more complex cultures,
formal governments, laws and punishments are developed. Wherever
it becomes possible for the individual to get lost in the crowd,
informal controls are inadequate and formal controls are necessary.
For example, in joint family, it is practical enough to exercise control
over conduct of each and every member and punish him/her in case
of any misconduct on his/her part. But in a town of thousands of
people, it would be impossible to keep tab on each person informally.
Some system of assigning work and distributing rewards becomes
necessary. Thus, with larger populations and cultural complexity
comes a shift to impersonal secondary group controls—laws,
regulations and formalised procedures.
When the individual does not wish to follow these regulations, the
group tries to compel him to do so. In such larger groups, he is too
anonymous for informal group pressures to be brought upon him.
Furthermore, in larger groups with complex cultures, some
subcultures that conflict with the culture of the majority are also
likely to develop. The individual who rejects the conventional
regulations of the society may find emotional support from other
persons who think and act as he does. Although he is still subject to
group pressure, it now comes from a non-conforming group, which
insulates him from the pressures of conventional society. So,
conventional society uses force upon him—force in the form of laws
and formal punishments—to compel his conformity.

3.5 LET SUM UP

Social processes discussed above are found in all the societies,
although there is great variation in emphasis. Cooperation may be
personal or impersonal, deliberate or symbiotic in character. Primary
groups demand highly personalized cooperation; secondary- group
cooperation is found in most organized social groups.
Competition serves the function of allocating scarce rewards among
the competitors. It has the additional function of stimulating both
individual and group activity in a manner to increase the total
productivity, but it also discourages the efforts of those who
regularly fail.
Conflict develops when attention shifts from the contest itself to an
effort to eliminate rivals. Different mechanisms of eliminating social
conflict have been discussed in preceding pages. Assimilation is also
one mechanism of reducing conflict between two conflicting groups
through fusion of two cultures.
Further, social control has been discussed in great detail as one of the
mechanism of maintaining social order — how it operates as a
whole, as a changing equilibrium. Further there are different modes
of maintaining this social control. Individuals are led to conform to
social norms through socialization and also through group pressure.
In primary groups, informal modes of social control play prominent
role such as ridicule, laughter, folkways and mores etc. As we move
on to the secondary groups these informal modes of social control
cease to play important role. Here informal modes of social control
are replaced by much formal modes such as formalized rules,
regulations, laws and punishment etc.

3.6 KEY WORDS

Social Control : Social control may be
defined as any social to cultural
means by which systematic and
relatively consistent restraints are
imposed upon individual
behaviour and by which human
being are persuaded and
motivated to behave in
accordance with the traditions,
 patterns and value framework
thought necessary for the smooth
functioning of a group or society.
Social order : A condition/situation of a
society/group characterized by
the predominance of harmonious
social relationships.
Human behaviour : Any response or reaction of an
individual i.e. anything and
individual does, says, things or
feels.

3.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Davis K. (1954), “Human Society”, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
MacIver, R.M. and Page (1964), “Society: An Introductory
Analysis”, Macmillan Press Ltd. London.

3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I

1) Any society contains hundreds and perhaps thousands
of socially defined relationships. The immediate family
alone may contain as many as fifteen. How many
relationships a society utilizes is simply a matter of how
many criteria it takes into account in defining behaviour
between individuals? The fifteen relationships of the
immediate family rest on three criteria-age, sex and
generation. Outside the family an infinite number of
criteria may be used , so there is no limit to the number
of possible relationships.
It follows that to catalogue all the meaningful
relationships in which human beings are involved would
be a never-ending task. Instead, they must be classified
and dealt with as general types. Any classification,
however must have some point to it. In social sciences,
as in all natural and physical sciences, classification is
worthless unless it seizes upon traits that are significant
traits that facilitate causal analysis. For this reason,
 social relationships have been classified and discussed
in terms of the kind of interaction they manifest.
Check Your Progress II
1) Conflict is formally defined as the process of seeking to
obtain rewards by eliminating or weakening the
competitors.
Conflict is an ever-present process in human relations.
It may be solved at one level, as when there is
agreement on ends, and break out anew over the
question of means. One may raise a profound question
as to why conflict is such a constant feature of human
society. The answer lies in the basic nature of human
society. Human society is not a tightly compressed
affair, but instead, has loose integration. The
integration is not on a biological, but on a mental level.
It must be created anew and constantly maintained
through psychic processes such as indoctrination,
inspiration and repetition. It must somehow rest on the
possession of common and extra-personal ends on the
part of its members. These ends cannot come from
man’s biological, but only from communicative contact
with his fellows; they thus differ greatly from one
society to another because they are associated with
differences of culture. This, then, given first basis of
conflict-ethnocentrism- the dislike of people with
different culture and different ultimate ends from one’s
own.
Check Your Progress III
1) In contrast to conflict, which aims to destroy or
liquidate the opponent, competition simply aims to out-
do the competitor in achieving some mutually desired
goal. It is thus, a modified form of struggle. It implies
that there are rules of game to which the competitors
must conform and that behind these rules, justifying and
maintaining them, is a common set of values superior to
the competitive interest. It also implies an absence of
coercion. The rules are so arranged that the ends must
be obtained by other methods than fraud or physical
force.

2) Present day society is characterized by excessive

amount of competition. Today man overlooks the
institutions and rules, which alone make competition
 work- the protection of property, the enforcement of
contracts, the prevention of fraud. He overlooks the
common ends and values which are not competitive, but
which are superior to those that are. He forgets that
competition can be vicious as well as beneficent, that it
can lead to starvation in the midst of plenty, to fear and
insecurity, to instability and panic. Today, we have
forgotten that unlimited competition leads inevitably to
monopoly, that the very success of strong leads to
gigantic power over the weak and creates such
inequality that a mockery is made of free contract.

Check Your Progress IV

1) Whenever groups meet, some mutual interchange or

diffusion of culture takes place. Even groups which
seek to prevent such diffusion do not fully succeed in
protecting their culture from all cultural interchange.
This process of mutual cultural diffusion through which
persons and groups come to share common culture is
called assimilation.
Assimilation reduces group conflicts by blending
differing groups into larger, culturally homogenous
groups. The bitter riots against the Irish and the
discrimination against Scandinavians in the United
States have disappeared as assimilation has erased the
group differences and blurred the sense of separate
group identity. Anything, which binds people into a
larger group, will tend to reduce rivalry and conflict
between them.
UNIT 4 SOCIAL CHANGE: CONCEPT AND
FACTORS INVOLVED IN SOCIAL
CHANGE
*
Prof. Manjit Singh
Contents

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Concept and Definitions of Social Change
4.3 Concept of Social Progress and Social Development
4.4 Factors of Social Change
4.5 Social Attitudes, Social Values and Social Change
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Key Words
4.8 Suggested Readings
4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Know the concept of social change, social progress,

social development and cultural lag;

 Distinguish between social progress and social

development;

 Understand the factors of social change;

 Grasp social change as a universal and continuous

phenomena;

 Understand the role of social change in formation of

social attitude and social values; and

 Understand the effects of social change on day-to-day

human life

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The word ‘change’ immediately brings to mind something different
from yesterday or past. Change is the irrefutable law of nature. It may
be or may not be visible but all things are changing at varying paces.
There are changes in physical environment, flora and fauna, water
table, so on and so forth. Similarly, social environment which has
been created by human beings themselves is continuously in the

*
Prof. Manjit Singh, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab
process of change. A look into the history of society reveals that all
social institutions such as family, religion, marriage, political,
economic, social values and social attitudes have undergone a drastic
change over a period of time. The social life being lived by human
being at present during the dawn of 21st century was not so about
hundred or more years back. Permanence of human society is an
illusion. Human society is in an ever-changing process, growing,
decaying, renewing and adjusting itself to new-found ideas,
inventions and ways of living.

4.2 CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS OF

SOCIAL CHANGE
The concept of social change was introduced by August Comte, a
Frenchman, known as founding father of Sociology. Later on, the
concept of social change was further refined and developed by
Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx and a number of other sociologists. No
human society is static and at the same time it is difficult to predict
the forms and directions of social change. The reason is that the
factors which cause social change do not remain uniform always. The
population changes, expansion of science and technology, ideologies
and social values take on new forms, and as a result of that social
structure, social system, and social institutions change their
functioning. The process of industrialization and urbanization has
changed the whole characteristics of social relationships. The term
social change is used to indicate the changes that take place in human
interactions and interrelations. Society is a web of relationships, so
social change means a change in the system of social relationships.

It is quite visible that the contemporary world is not changing

uniformly and is also manifesting complexities in social change.
Slow and simple forms of social change may intersect with quick and
intricate forms of social change. Migration of illiterate persons from
remote rural areas to metropolitan cities affects the institutions of
family life in it, adding stress and strain of daily living due to fast
pace of city life and new social values required for industrial and
urban living.

From the middle of nineteenth century onwards, a large number of

sociologists have tried to define social change. Some often quoted
definitions of social change are:

August Comte: Societies progress through a series of predictable

stages based on the development of human knowledge.

Anderson and Parker: Social Change involves alterations in the

structure or functioning of social forms or processes themselves.

Davis: By social change it is meant only such alterations as occur in

social organization, that is, structure and functions of society.
 Gillin and Gillin: Social changes are variations from the accepted
modes of life; whether due to alteration in geographical conditions, in
cultural equipment or composition of the population, etc.
Ginsberg, M.: By social change, I understand a change in social
structure e.g. the size of society, the composition or balance of its
parts or the type of its organization.
Koening, S.: Social change refers to the modifications which occur
in the life-patterns of people.
Lundberg and Others: Social change refers to any modifications in
established patterns of inter-human relationships and standards of
conduct.
MacIver and Page: Our direct concern as sociologist is with social
relationships. It is the change in these relationships which alone we
shall regard as social change.
Mazumdar, H.T.: Social change may be defined as anew fashion or
mode, either modifying or replacing the old, in the life of people, or
in the operations of society.

Merrill and Eldredge: Social change means that a large number of

persons are engaging in activities that differ from those which they or
their immediate forefathers engaged in sometime before.
Smelser, Neil J.: Social change is the alterations of the way societies
are organized.

The important features that emerge from the definitions of social

change are:
1) Social change is the effect of certain causes.
2) Social change modifies social structure, social organization and
social functioning.
3) It modifies the life-pattern of people.
4) Technological and cultural changes are different from social
change.
5) Social change is reflected through social attitudes, social values
and ways of living.

Check Your Progress I

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this

unit.

1) Explain social change.

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4.3 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL PROGRESS AND

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Social progress is a relative term in the sense that, to some people,
changes in daily living, social functions, social relationships,
attitudes and values may mean progress and to others, social change
may seem to be an erosion of established social values and social
practices. Social progress refers to forces which make human life
socially and biologically better. Human beings are continuously
making efforts to control the external environment and generate
forces which make their life better. Development in knowledge,
inventions and use of various technologies and gadgets initiates
modified standards of living, social relationships, social functioning,
attitudes and values. To start with evolution and social progress were
considered synonyms but later on, sociologist made a distinction
between evolution, social evolution and social progress. Social
evolution is one aspect of evolution and social progress is a further
associate of social evolution. Some important definitions of social
progress are:

MacIver and Page: By progress we imply not merely direction, but

direction towards some final goal, some destination determined
ideally not simply by some objective considerations at work.
Burgess: Any change or adaptation to an existent environment that
makes it easier for a person or group of persons or other organized
form of life to live, may be said to represent progress.
Lumley: Progress is change but it is change in a desired or approved
direction, not any direction.
Ogburn: Progress is a movement towards an objective, thought to be
desirable by the general group, for the visible future.
Hobhouse: Social progress is the growth of social life in respect of
those qualities to which human beings can attach or can rationally
attach values.
Mazumdar, H.T.: Social progress is a movement based on
following six parameters:
1) enhancement of the dignity of man;
2) respect for each human personality;
3) ever-increasing freedom for spiritual quest and for investigation
of truth;
4) freedom for creativity and for aesthetic enjoyment
of the works of nature as well as of man;
5) a social order that promotes the first four values;
6) promotes life, liberty, the pursuit of happiness with justice and
equity to all.
The above given statements of social progress highlights the
following features:

1) Social progress is a movement towards ideally determined

objectives;
2) Social progress is a movement of adaptation for existing
environment that makes life easier;
3) Social progress is not just a movement in any direction;
4) Social progress is a movement that creates a social order based
on spirituality, dignity of human
beings, liberty, happy life full of moral values;
5) Social progress is limitless and social change is inherent in it.

The concept of social development is further improvement of

social progress. The concept of social development is based on long
history but recent emphasis on it, is mainly due to following three
factors:
1) Decolonization process which started during twentieth century
and got accelerated after the end of Second World War;
2) Growing concern with developed countries;
3) The desire of people and of newly established governments to
achieve the objective of welfare state.
The review of literature on social development reveals two
interrelated dimensions. First, the development of capacity of people
to work continuously for their own and society’s welfare. Secondly,
the alteration of institutions so that human needs are met at all levels
especially the lowest, through the process of improving the
relationships between expression of needs and the means to attain
them.

Social development is a comprehensive concept which means

structural changes introduced deliberately to transform society.
Social change is a value- free, objective description of societal
processes, whereas social development is value-laden term which
refers to subjective statement of desired direction of social change.
Therefore, the goals of social development are:

1) To create a society where living conditions of the people are

better. They do not suffer from hunger and they are not denied
basic necessities of life.
2) To remove regional imbalances and rural-urban disparities.
3) To create infrastructure where basic needs of the people are met
at all levels, including those who constitute the poorest and
deprived sections of society.
These views were also endorsed by the General Assembly and the
World Summit for Social Development (1995) of United Nations.
The important highlights of the Summit were:
1) To leave no section of the population outside the scope of social
development;
2) To effect structural change which favours social development
and activate all sectors of the population to participation in the
social development process;
3) To aim at social equity;
4) To give high priority to the development of the human
resources, including vocational and technical training.

It may be made clear that in order to achieve social development the

economic development is necessary which means increase in
production leading to high rate of growth as measured through Gross
National Product.

Keeping in view the comprehensiveness of social development M.S.

Gore has rightly said that social development means social, cultural,
economic, political and environment development.

Check Your Progress II

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this
unit.

1) Explain how social change is inherent in social progress

and social development.

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4.4 FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Physical Environment and Social Change

Physical environment is the most important aspect which influences

social life. There are slow as well as fast changes in physical
environment. Disasters in the form of storms, floods, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, fire, seasonal variations etc. determine the form
of social life. The prevalence of flora and fauna creates a social order
based on it. Physical environment promotes and limits the growth of
civilization. At poles and deserts, there will be a limited social life
due to hostile climatic conditions for human living. The forces
generated by the physical environment determine the form, growth
and change in human society.
Some historians have expressed the view that even great civilizations
of Egypt and Mesopotamia disappeared due to unfavourable physical
environmental conditions. Availability of natural resources necessary
for human life lead to settlement of human society around them. The
depletion of natural resources after their exploitation leads to
disintegration and change in human settlements. Misuse of physical
environment by human beings resulted in green house effect,
pollution, shortage of potable water and non-availability of land for
houses in urban areas and so on.
In the present Indian scenario, intensive agriculture operations
resulted in green revolution and sufficiency in food production but at
the cost of erosion in soil fertility and depletion of water table.
Economic and technological developments led to ecological
imbalance and damage to it. Physical environmental compulsions
such as famines, droughts, floods, earthquakes led to human
migration to distant places with a consequence of disruption to
settled human life . Physical environmental compulsions affect social
life by producing new ways of living and set of social relationships.
It is now evident that physical environmental factors induce social
change.

Demographic Factors of Social Change

Demography is the study of human population. ‘Demos’ is a Greek

word which means people. Demographic factors that induce social
change are fertility, mortality, migration, changing age structure, sex
ratio, age at marriage, patterns of marriage, child bearing age, life
expectancy, use of contraceptives , levels and types of morbidity.
These factors have a far reaching effect on society with the pressure
to produce changes in social and political institutions.
In the developed countries of the world, the population growth is
negative or stable but in developing countries such as India it is
alarmingly high. Both the trends cause social transformation. The
countries where fertility and mortality is low, their standard of living
is high and in the countries where it is high, their standard of living is
low. The societies with high fertility rate are choked with over-
population, infant and maternal mortality rate, child labour,
unemployment, rural-to urban migration, shortage of services
required for the sustainability of social life, family violence, marital
breakdown, criminality and slums etc. In order to check high fertility
rate, family welfare and planning measures were introduced. To start
with, these measures were opposed and considered as irreligious,
immoral and acquired social acceptance only with the passage of
time. The social acceptance of family planning measures led to
change in social attitudes and social values for forming a new society
based on small family. Similarly, improvement in health measures,
knowledge and awareness generation resulted in reduced mortality.
Another demographic factor of social change especially with
reference to Indian society is the declining sex ratio. In traditional
Indian society, female infanticide was a known unhealthy practice
due to preference for a male child. The girls were considered a
negative property, a burden on the family. The situation has further
deteriorated in modern India with the introduction of pre-birth tests.
Sex determination tests are being misused to kill the female foetus.
The misuse of these tests has spread like wild fire in Indian society
despite the ban on it through Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act,
1994 (PNDT, 1994). Declining sex ratio will bring in disastrous
demographic, social, economic and even political consequences.
There will be more violence against women.
Changing age structure in all societies due to longevity and improved
health measures will have its own fall out. In the past, it was young
who made bulk of the population and there were relatively few old
persons. Increase in the population of old persons will require more
social and economic support systems. Failing health, loneliness,
isolation and marginalization of old persons are creating new social
problems. In nutshell, we can say that the whole social life is
operationalized through demographic factors and changes in them
will lead to social change.
It is an established fact that social and economic life of human beings
is integral part of each other. Economic aspect of social life is a
primary feature of society. Human society, starting from hunting and
gathering stage has passed through various stages to reach the present
stage which is being dominated by industrial production, trade and
commerce along with agriculture production and its distribution
based on latest scientific techniques. Each successive stage brought
with it, its own form of social life, social relationships and social
functions.
Engels rightly said that “the ultimate causes of all social changes and
political revolutions are to be sought not in the minds of men, in their
increasing insight into the external truth and justice, but in changes in
the mode of production and exchange.” Elaborating the idea further
Marx said, “The sum total of these relations of production constitutes
the economic structure of society – the real foundation, on which rise
legal and political super structures and to which correspond definite
form of social consciousness. It indicates that economic influences
are powerful and penetrating on social life.” The prevailing economic
system determines the social relationships and social functions. The
agriculture system of production had a different type of social life as
compared to industrial system of production. It has been found that
countries with high per capita income tend to have lower fertility rate
than those with lower incomes. Since high income is linked to
industrial, technological, and educational development, this fact
supports the argument that people tend to have fewer children when
they are prosperous. The poor, uneducated, people living in slums
and rural areas had high fertility rate resulting in population
explosion throughout the world.
In subsistence economies, people produced their own household
goods, distributed and consumed them as compared to modern
market economy where work is something, people carry out to earn
money. It means work is not only social activity but also economic
activity. In earlier times, village was considered a self-sufficient unit
but in market economy, total village life is dependent on outside
market forces resulting in new social attitude, social values and social
relationships. In the modern world, economic disruption brings set of
social problems along with it.
Technological Factors of Social Change

Technological changes have converted the world into a global village

and produced profound social changes. Industry, agriculture,
transportation, communication, sources of energy, food processing,
housing, and physical environment are influenced by technological
changes. Almost all the technological developments brought about
changes in social living, interaction-patterns and social life.
Some of the major influences of technological factors on social life
are as follows:
1) Changes in the institution of family such as from joint family
system to nuclear family system; employment of females outside the
household; change in the role and relationship of husband and wife;
changes in the patterns of courtship; inter-caste and late marriage;
increase in divorce rate; small family size due to the use of
technological devices for birth control; reduced role of family in
social control and neglect of the elderly due to changes in the social
attitudes and social values.
2) Changes in the very basis of social stratification; reduced effect of
caste system on employment and day-to-day living; development of
individualization and decline in community life; commercialization
of recreation; problems related to migration and developments of
slums in urban areas; stress and strain as a result of competition and
fast-paced life; reduced role of superstitions in day-to-day life;
emotional instability and occasional economic disruption and
insecurity.

4.5 SOCIAL ATTITUDES, SOCIAL VALUES

AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Social attitudes and social values are invisible though they govern the
whole gamut of human life in an important manner. In modern day
terminology, social values and social attitudes are software for
running the affairs of human society. Social relationships, social
functioning and social behaviour are the outcome of social attitudes
and social values. Acceptance and resistance to social change is
actualized through social attitudes and social values.
Social attitude is an orientation towards a person, situation,
institution or social process that is held to be indicative of underlying
values and beliefs. Social attitude is manifested through social
behaviour, social relationships, and social functioning. MacIver and
Page explained social attitudes as “subtle, complex and changeful
modes of consciousness. They are constantly being modified by our
training, our reflection, our health, our circumstances of every sort.
When we attribute an attitude to a person, we can judge its character
only by certain external signs – looks, gestures, words. These signs
suggest to us fear, love or pity”. MacIver and Page classified social
attitudes in three types which tend to prevent, to limit or to promote
social relationships. Accordingly, they named these attitudes as
dissociative, restrictive and associative. These social attitudes
produce a feeling and social interaction reflecting “inferiority,
superiority, neutrality, association or dissociation.” The detail of
social attitudes as given by MacIver and Page are as follows:-

1) Attitudes implying sense of inferiority in the subject with

respect to the object of attitude:
a) Dissociative: Dread, fear, terror, envy, rashfulness.
b) Associative: Gratitude, hero-worship, emulation.

c) Restrictive: Awe, veneration, worship, devotion, humility,

submissiveness, modesty, snobbishness.
2) Attitudes implying sense of superiority in the subject:
a) Dissociative: Disgust, Abhorrence, repugnance, scorn,
contempt, disclaim, intolerance, arrogance.
b) Associative: Pity, protectiveness
c) Restrictive: Pride, patronage, tolerance, forbearance.
3) Attitudes implying neither sense of inferiority nor superiority
but neutrality in the subject:

a) Dissociative: Hate, dislike, aversion, distrust, suspicion,

spitefulness, malice, cruelty.
b) Associative: Sympathy, affection, trust,
tenderness, love, friendliness, kindliness, courtesy,
helpfulness.
c) Restrictive: Rivalry, competitiveness, jealousy.
MacIver and Page also expressed the view that the classification of
social attitudes is just illustrative not exhaustive. “An attitude is not a
static possession of the individual. It is always a change valuation.”
No doubt social attitudes and social values are interlinked but still
these differ from each other so far their explanation and application is
concerned. Social values are ideas held by the members of society
about ethical or appropriate social behaviour. Social values depict
what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable. Smelser defined
social values as “shared beliefs about the goals towards which human
should strive. They are at the core of moral doctrines.”
The features of social values are:
1) These cannot be proved
2) These are held to be desirable.
3) These are guides to social behaviour.
4) These grow out of personal experience.
5) These are modified as experiences and accumulate.
6) These are evolving in nature.
In present day society the important social values are:

1) Achievement and Success.

2) Activity and work.
3) Moral responsibility.
4) Concern for people who are suffering as a result of some
disaster.
5) Efficiency and pragmatism.
6) Progress, material comfort, freedom and
independence.
7) Nationalism, patriotism, democracy and worth of a person etc.
Acceptance and Resistance to Social Change
Acceptance and resistance to social change are two sides of a coin.
By and large there is a criticism of innovation leading to social
change. In modern industrial societies, there is a diversity of social
norms and social values which permit the new generation to choose
different ways of life or to reorganize the existing social practices
which in various ways oppose the social and cultural values of older
generation. There is always inter-generation gap. There is historical
evidence of resistance to social change from time to time either by
individual, groups or both. Generally, resistance to change can be
expected when persons or groups of people have different
perceptions of the outcome. It is easier for people to use old form,
than to get adapted to new ones. People resist social change due to
desire for stability, illiteracy, ignorance, economic cost, vested
interest, inertia, lack of awareness and fear of new things. People
resist social change fearing that it may go against time-honoured
values and traditions. Inter-racial, inter-country and inter-religious
caste marriages are opposed as this goes against established social
values and traditions. Some of the important examples of resistance
to social changes can be cited from present day developed world:
American’s slavery system took a long and devastating war to get
abolished. Racial equality is being resisted even today. In England,
the introduction of woman suffrage was opposed for a very long
time. Similarly in England, the locomotive in the early days of rail
road was called a “hell on wheels” and the “devil wagon”.

In India, Sati Pratha, child marriage, preference for female child,

women education, human rights and democratic ways of functioning
are being resisted even today. S.C. Dube’s study of India’s changing
villages is a fine example of resistance and acceptance of social
change. Dube shows that whereas, technological innovations, such as
improved seeds, fertilizers, improved breed of animals and so on,
were accepted fairly, readily, especially where the effects became
apparent in a short time, as for example higher cash prices for crops.
But, the innovations which had, or were likely to have repercussions
on the social structure, or the cultural values, met with resistance.
Some new agricultural techniques, co-operative methods of farming,
measures to improve sanitation and education ventures, aroused
much less interest and in some case opposed. Dube observed that
people are slow and extremely cautious in accepting innovations, but
these innovations had long-lasting effects which ultimately changed
the social life. Another classic example of Indians’ resistance and
acceptance of social change is adoption of small family norms and
technology associated to it.
The development of modern capitalist economy based on
liberalization, privatization and globalization brought into existence
some social waves and social movements which hit the traditional
Indian social and cultural life. These social waves and modernization
tend to reform and modernize the Indian society. The traditional
social institutions such as joint family system and caste system are
incompatible with the rationality, mobility and egalitarianism of a
democratic society. Acceptance and resistance to social change is a
continuous phenomenon and not a one time affair.
Cultural Lag

Cultural lag concept was introduced by American Sociologist

William Fielding Ogburn during 1922. Ogburn studied the impact of
technological change on culture and found that various parts of
culture changed differently.
Ogburn described culture consisting of two parts; one is material and
the other non-material. Material culture includes manufactured
goods, factories, houses, cars- in short, all material objects, as well as
inventions and technological changes. For non-material culture
Ogburn used the term adaptive culture. It includes social institutions,
such as family, religion, education, economic and political. The non-
material culture also includes value systems based on customs,
modes and folkways.
Ogburn’s basic thesis is that non-material culture tends to change
slower than material culture. The reason for the rate of slow change
is based on prevailing social practices being supported by religious
groups, social values and social attitudes. Ogburn gave an example of
family within which some adjustments are made to material change.
With the progress of industry certain manufacturing activities such as
weaving, soap making and tanning etc. moved out of the household
to the factory system. The factory system required more females to
work outside the house. At the same time females were expected to
continue to fulfil their traditional domestic responsibilities. This
resulted in wide gap between the demand for female workers and the
pressure on them to stay back at home. This phenomenon caught the
attention of Ogburn to which he coined the term cultural lag, that is
the delay between a change in the material culture and response of
the adaptive culture.
Ogburn expressed the view that a change in one part of society
especially a technological advance requires a corresponding change
in other parts. Until such an adjustment is made, the society or at
least certain parts of it, will face a number of problems. The reasons
for cultural lag are habits and inertia. People would not like to adapt
to new changes quickly. Inertia to change also comes from the fact
that modern societies consist of different types of pressure groups
catering to different interests which resist change. Less rigid
immigration laws are desired by people who want to migrate to
developed countries but these are being strongly opposed by the
people from developed countries who are afraid of losing jobs to new
arrivals or being required to provide social support through welfare
funds and allowances.

Various technological developments creating cultural lag are latest

electronic equipments. These are resulting in a terrible impact on
social life. Ogburn concluded that many and frequent technological
innovations of our modern age by occurring prior to the social
change precipitate the cultural lag. What Ogburn said in the
beginning of twentieth century does not merely continue to be
applicable instead its relevance has increased even further.
Limitations of Social Change

All available knowledge and information indicates that the material

world existed before human beings arrived the scene. Once the
human beings came into existence, may be through design or chance
or process of evolution, they started manipulating the physical
environment for their betterment. In the process, human beings
invented the instruments and started developing technology for their
material and non-material progress. These developments were out of
the compulsions of human beings required for their existence,
continuation and making life more comfortable and happy. Human
beings manipulated the physical environment for the gratification of
their needs. All these actions and interactions constructed and
produced a human society which is undergoing changes since its
inception. The changes, of which major part is social in nature are
not without limitations like any other phenomenon. The major
limitations are:

1) social change is complex in nature.

2) social change is pluralistic.
3) social change brings social isolation in certain cases.
4) social change brings uncertainties.
5) social change in certain situations brings conflict with it.
6) sometimes, it may lead to social disintegration, and
7) it is difficult to predict the outcome of social change.

4.6 LET US SUM UP

For the last three hundred years or so social change has been a
concern of prime importance for social scientists, especially for
sociologists from the middle of nineteenth century onwards. No
sociological analysis is complete without reference to social change.
It is a change in the institutional and normative structure of society.
Social evolution, social progress, social development, changes in
physical environment, technological developments, innovations,
changes in economic and political institutions are all having bearing
on social change. Social change is inherent in all the physical and
social environmental changes. To sum up social change, MacIver and
Page has said rightly that social structure cannot be placed in a
museum to save it from the ravages of time.

4.7 KEY WORDS

Adaptive Culture : W.F. Ogburn’s term for non-

material culture, including social
institutions, value systems and
political institutions.

Fertility : A number of children a woman

bears during her life time.

Human Society : a geographic unit bound together

by a legal system and having
certain national identity.

Inertia : Indisposition to action, motion or

change

Migration : Movement of persons or groups

across symbolic or political
boundaries into new residential
areas, communities or societies.

Morbidity : the rate of disease or proportion

of diseased persons in a society or
community.

4.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bottomore, T.B. (1995), Sociology: A Guide to Problems and

Literature, Blackie & Sons (India) Ltd., Bombay.
Brown, L, Selzmic, P. and Dalroch, D.B. (1981),
Sociology: A Text with a Adaptive Readings, Harper &Row
Publishers, New York.
Davis, Kingsley (1980), Human Society, The Macmillan
India Ltd., Delhi.
Gillin and Gillin (1950), Cultural Sociology, The Macmillan
Company, New York.

Ginsberg, Morris (1949), Studies in Sociology, Methuen,

London.
Johnson, H.M. (1984), Sociology, Allied Publishers,
Bombay.
Koening, S. (1981), Sociology: Man and Society, Balnes and Noble,
New York.
MacIver, R.M. and Page, C.H. (1996), Society: AnIntroductory
Analysis, Macmillan India Ltd., Delhi.
Ogburn, W.F. and Nimkoff (1960), A Handbook ofSociology,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
Smelser, Neil J. (1993), Sociology, Prentice Hall of India Private
Ltd., New Delhi.

4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I

Social change is a universal and ever-continuing social phenomenon.
Rate of social change may be different in different societies at
different times but permanence of human society is an illusion. The
historical evidence reveals that all forms of social life, social attitude,
and social values have undergone drastic changes over a period of
time. Human society is always dynamic, in the changing process,
decaying, renewing and adjusting itself to new-found ideas,
inventions and ways of living.
Social change is a modification or alteration in social structure, social
system and life-patterns of people. Social change is reflected through
social attitudes, social values and new ways of living, social
relationships and social interactions among the members of society.
Social change is complex, limitless and value-neutral.
Check Your Progress II
1) To start with, it was evolution may be biological or social which
caught the attention of human being. With the development of
knowledge and refinement in thought structure the distinction
between the two types of evolution was made. During nineteenth
century, along with social evolution the concept of social progress
was added and during twentieth century there was further
improvement in understanding though analysis and interpretation of
social life and the concept of social development was identified. The
concept of social development is more comprehensive than social
progress. No doubt, through social progress and social development
change in a direction is sought, but the methodology and fallout is
different.
Social progress may be natural outcome of social change but social
development is an effort to achieve the pre-planned goals. Like
social change, social progress can also be value-free whereas social
development is value-laden social phenomenon. Social development
is a focused activity for bringing deliberate transformation of society.
The goal of social development is to ensure that no one in society
suffers from hunger and denied basic necessities of life. Social
development is required to create an infrastructure where there is no
exploitation, injustice, discrimination, social inequality, rural-urban
and regional disparities.
Economic development is an integral part of social progress and
social development. Economic development is an increase in all
sectors of productions leading to high rate of growth. In order to
ensure increased production human resources are to be developed
though vocational and technical training. All this indicates a highly
inter-linked phenomenon. In the words of M.S. Gore, social
development is a social, cultural, economic, political and
environmental development. Development in all these areas will
ensure better quality of life. Therefore, issues of social changes are
inherent in it.
Check Your Progress III
1) Physical environment, technology, economic development
and demographic changes induce social change. There are
continuous developments in these areas leading to social
change. As it is difficult to predict social change, similarly, it
is difficult to say which of these factors is most crucial in
social change. All these factors individually as well as
collectively influence the social life, social structure, social
system, social relations, social attitudes and social values
leading to social change.
Physical environment promotes and limits the growth of
social life as is clear from the patterns of social life at poles,
deserts and mountains covered with snow. There is historical
evidence that great civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia
disappeared under the unfavorable physical conditions.
Physical conditions. Physical environment changes through
various forms of disasters, convulsions, eruptions, produces
new ways of living, social relationships, social attitudes,
social values related to disaster-management sub-culture.
Social and economic lives of human beings are deeply attached to
each other. Economic aspect of social life is primary in human
society. Development of human society from hunting and gathering
stage to latest means of production and distribution brought within,
its own forms of social and economic life. This fact has also been
highlighted by various social scientists specifically by Engles and
Marx. Human being are what they do and accordingly constitute
their social and economic life. The world-wide trends show that
economically prosperous persons have low fertility rates. Economic
affluence ensures from industrial development based on
technological and educational advancement. The poor and the
uneducated people living in slums and rural areas usually have high
fertility rates. Standard of living is dependent on economic factors.
Technological factors which accelerated economic development have
converted the world into a global village producing tremendous
changes in social life. There is no area which has not been touched
by technological developments. Technology has transformed the
total human social life. Technological developments led to
industrialization and urbanization which resulted in fast changes in
all social institutions of social life. Technological factors have also
led to cultural lag.
Demographic studies have revealed that factors such a fertility,
mortality, sex ratio, changes in age structure, age at marriage,
proportions marrying and migrating also induce social change.
Development of contraceptive technology and its use have had a far
reaching effect on society. The societies with high fertility ratio are
choked with population, unemployment, child labour, migration,
family violence high marital breakdown along with high infant
mortality rate. Increase in the number of old persons requires larger
and stronger social and economic support systems to check
loneliness, violation and family health of old persons. Small family
norm adopted by human beings has changed the demographic and
social environment throughout the world.
UNIT 5 SOCIAL CONTROL
*
Dr. Raj Kumar Singh

Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Meaning and Definition of Social Control
5.3 Social Control, Self-Control, Socialization, and
Maladjustment
5.4 Purpose of Social Control
5.5 Need and Importance of Social Control
5.6 Forms of Social Control
5.7 Means of Social Control
5.8 Agencies of Social Control
5.9 Let Us Sum Up
5.10 Key Words
5.11 Suggested Readings
5.12 Answers to Check Your Progress.

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to know:

 The meaning and definition of social control,

self control, socialization and maladjustment;

 The purpose of social control, need and

importance of social control; and

 The forms, means and agencies of social

control.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In the early prehistoric days, men used to lead an isolated nomadic

life in caves, rock-shelters, forests and stations of river banks. They
lived in small groups in solitude in the midst of unfriendly

*
Dr. Raj Kumar Singh, Lucknow University, Lucknow
environment and often indulged in relentless wars against the
tyrannies of nature. In their quest to overpower the nature, they
wanted to form the human association. The human beings saw the
ferocious and gigantic animals as their enemies and constant threat to
their safety and security. In Neolithic stage, men could succeed in
forming larger human congregations. A sort of stability in socio-
economic life could be established with the invention of agriculture
and domestication of useful animals. The formation of larger
congregations could instill a sense of safety and security in human
beings but unforeseen problems did accost the human beings every
now and then. Group conflicts and clashes became an everyday
affairs. Human beings by their very nature are selfish individualistic,
barbarous, hedonistic, power hungry and conflicting. If they are
allowed to act freely, no group or society can function. This gives rise
to the need on the part of society to frame certain rules and
regulations to restrain the undesirable human conduct and promote
the desirable ones. By effective enforcement of the societal rules and
regulations every society controls its human force.

5.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF SOCIAL

CONTROL
The term social control is used in many ways. To compel the
individuals to conform to societal norms and standards is generally
thought to be the be-all and end-all of social control. However, it is a
narrow meaning of social control. In broader sense, social control
encompasses the regulation of entire social order aiming to achieve
social ideals and objectives.
Social control has been defined as “the way in which the entire social
order adheres and maintains itself-how it operates as a changing
equilibrium” (MacIver & Page) , “the patterns of pressure which a
society exerts to maintain order and establish rules” (Ogburn and
Nimcoff), the process by which social order is (i) established, and (ii)
maintained” (Landis), “a collective term for those processes, planned
or unplanned, by which individuals are taught, persuaded, or
compelled to conform to the usages and life values of
groups”(Roucek). According to E A Ross,” Social control refers to
the system of devices whereby society brings its members into
conformity with the accepted standards of behaviour”. According to
G A Lungberg, “social control refers to those social behaviour which
influence individuals and groups towards conformity to establish or
decide norms”. According to Manheim, “ Social control is the sum of
those methods by which a society tries to influence human behaviour
to maintain a given order”.

Thus social control may be defined as any social or cultural means by

which systematic and relatively consistent restraints are imposed
upon individual behaviour and by which human beings are persuaded
and motivated to behave in accordance with the traditions, patterns
and value framework thought necessary for the smooth functioning
of a group or society.
Social control operates at three levels: group over group-when one
group determines the behaviour of the other group; the group over its
members- when the group controls the conduct of its own members,
and individuals over their fellows- when the individuals influence the
responses of other individuals.

5.3 SOCIAL CONTROL, SELF-CONTROL,

SOCIALIZATION, AND
MALADJUSTMENT
Although social control and, self-control are closely related, yet they
differ and can be clearly distinguished. While at the individual level,
social control refers to attempts made to influence others according
to the established social norms and standards, self-control refers to
the individual’s attempts to guide and regulate his own behaviour-
obviously in the light of some previously established ideal, goal or
purpose. Undoubtedly, the goal is determined by the values and
folkways of the group of which the individual is a member. The two
also differ in their approach. Self-control relates to the individual
and, therefore, is individualistic in nature, while social control relates
to the whole society and is institutional in nature. Social control and
self-control should be treated as complimentary to each other and
latter may be treated as a small part of the former because self-
control is derived from and originates in social control.

Social control and socialization are closely interrelated. Social

control plays a vital role in the socialization process and socialization
helps in maintaining social control. In the process of socialization,
individuals are motivated to behave in accordance with the social
values, ideals and standards and they are prepared in such a way as to
be ready to shoulder their responsibilities as per society’s
expectations. This process continues throughout the life. The socially
undesirable human behaviour is discouraged and sometimes also
punished. Thus the social control acts during the socialization
process itself. Social control is an extension of the socialization
process.

Socialization with the accompanying internalization of social norms

and values provides an essential sources of social control.
Sometimes, both social control and socialization use common
techniques to regulate the human behaviour (appreciating and
rewarding the socially desirable human behaviour and actions and
condemning and punishing the undesirable human behaviour and
actions are common to both).
Inspite of the similarities visible in social control and socialization,
differences are not missing. Socialization relates to the persons who
are made to learn the culture of the group and society. Social control
is related to all persons, groups and entire social system, and thus its
approach is wider than that of socialization. Primary groups play an
important role in shaping the human personality while secondary
groups and state apparatus assume major responsibility in
maintaining social control. Socialization is more concerned with the
development of ‘self’ of the human beings while social control is
directed to regulate the external behaviour of individuals, even if the
individual is internally unwilling. In the process of socialization, a
person himself informally and unconsciously learns many things
which become a part and parcel of his personality but in the process
of social control, persons are forced to behave in accordance with the
formally and consciously described norms and values of society.
Socialization is always in line with social and cultural values of a
particular society but social control quite often may not be akin to the
values of the established socio-cultural milieu. Though there is a
marked commonality in many of the means and agencies of
socialization and social control, yet the provisions for regulating the
human conduct of non-followers may vary. In the socialization,
maximum punishment for a person may be his social boycott but in
the process of social control, a person of deviant behaviour may be
given rigorous imprisonment or even may be hanged to death.
Social control and social maladjustment have been closely
interrelated. Whenever the agencies of social control are unable to
discharge their functions effectively, the behaviour of individuals and
their groups change threatening the stability and continuity of the
established social order. Since society is dynamic, changes do take
place-sometimes planned and sometimes un-planned, as also
sometimes these changes are noticed or remain unnoticed in the
behaviour of the individuals and their groups.
Maladjustment indicates a condition or process which involves the
inability or unwillingness of an individual or group to fall in line with
prevailing psychological, social or cultural standards – either their
own or those of an external system. Maladjustment of an individual,
group or institution is not necessarily an absolute condition. While
maladjustment may result in conflict or conditions that are
destructive of the cherished feelings and values, it must be accepted
that maladjustment is as constant a social phenomenon as adjustment
is. Social and psychological life is a process of continual change.
Adjustment is an illusory condition following a preceding spell of
maladjustment or a threat of maladjustment.

Individuals’ failure to cope with the existing social system leads

them to maladjustment. Since pressure of societal norms and
standards on various groups of society is not uniform, the possibility
of individuals’/ groups’ unequal response towards existing means of
social control increases. Moreover, if the agencies of social control
are too harsh in their use of control mechanisms or are supportive of
the exploitative nature of the state, the chances of maladjustment in
society are probably more. On the contrary, if the agencies of social
control are soft towards individual/group behaviour and give
reasonable and fair chance to mould their behaviour as per changing
norms and standards of society, the chances of inverse relationship
between social control and maladjustment are likely to be more
perceptible.
5.4 PURPOSE OF SOCIAL CONTROL
Social control aims at bringing about conformity, solidarity and
continuity of a particular group or society. Social control attempts to
achieve the following purposes.
 To bring the behaviour of individuals and groups
in tune with the established norms of society.
 To bring solidarity and uniformity in the social organizations.

 To establish stability in the social relations.

 To exercise control over social tensions and

conflicts.
 To provide fair and equal chances for cooperation and
competition to all individuals, groups and institutions to realise
their goals.
 To facilitate appreciation and rewarding of champions of social
cause and take punitive actions against anti-social elements.
 Bringing desired modifications in the social milieu, especially
effecting required changes in the means and agencies of social
control.
 Establishing primacy of social and humanitarian values over
individualistic and separatist list ends.
 Providing for the protection and promotion of the interests of the
weak and vulnerable sections of society.
 Forging alliance among the various groups and institutions of
society.

5.5 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL

CONTROL
The progress of any society depends upon the effective functioning
of its various groups, organizations and institutions, which is often
jeopardized by the clash of interests of its members. Individuals as
well as groups want to serve their interests without caring for others.
The lack of opportunities for all aggravates the problem further and
the dominant group members/ groups want to monopolize and
maintain their hegemony over limited societal resources. Also, the
various types of ‘isms’ prevailing in society hamper the smooth
social system, and therefore, exercise of some sort of control on the
part of society to limit the fissiparous and selfish tendencies of
human beings become imperative. It will be difficult to maintain
social equilibrium without proper adjustment among various social
units and therefore, arises the need to control the deviant behaviour
of people and promote the socially desirable actions of others. Social
control helps us to achieve stability in the social organization, as
individuals are not allowed to act contrary to the norms of society.
They are persuaded and motivated to behave in accordance with the
established social norms and values. Consequently, the instability
and uncertainty make room for the regularity and continuity in the
society.

Social control is also necessary to maintain the healthy traditions of

our society and to transfer them from one generation to another.
Traditions are the safe custodians of our heritage and culture.
Through social control people are motivated and compelled to follow
the traditions.
The unity in group can only be maintained by the effective system of
social control. The group members belong to different socio-cultural
backgrounds and want to achieve different personal objectives. To
keep all the members united by striving towards group goals is made
feasible by social control which does not allow selfish interests of the
individuals to come in the way of group goals.
Social control is also required to bring compatibility in thoughts,
ideas, behaviour patterns, attitudes and perceptions of the
individuals, because devoid of it, society cannot function effectively.
Cooperation is the key of all success. If society is to survive, the
desired cooperation of all people is required. In case of lack of this
cooperation, no unit or group can function. It is indeed the strength of
the human groups. Social control helps us in achieving the
cooperation of all.
Social control provides social security to the people. Human beings
are so helpless and weak that their existence is not possible without
the help of others. Social control keeps a check on the forces
endangering the safety and security of the people and prepare them to
face the realities of the world. Social control is badly needed to bring
the selfish nature of man under control because normally, nobody
feels happy being controlled, subordinated and directed by others.
Everyone wants to control, exercise authority on the
subordinates and direct as many persons as possible, but the fact of
the matter is that society is a mix of persons who direct and those
who are directed, those who guide and also those who are guided. In
fact, social control, by keeping the ‘free will’ of people under a
corrective restraint, facilitates the smooth functioning of society.
It is vividly clear that because of social control society comes into
existence, social order is maintained and aspirations of the people are
fulfilled.

Check Your Progress I

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end

of this unit.

1) What do you understand by social control?

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2) What is the importance of social control?

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5.6 FORMS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Every society exercises control over its members in order to maintain
the social order. However, forms of social control are not uniform in
all the societies due to inherent differences in their cultural
background, in the nature of personal relations, social relations and
social conditions. As members of society have different objectives,
interests and ideology, regulations of their behaviour by one set of
means of social control becomes almost impossible. We have urban
as well as rural societies; closed and open societies; traditional and
modern societies; societies following democratic as also the
autocratic norms. Therefore, variations in the types of social control
is but natural. Society keeps its grip over the members sometimes by
rewarding and sometimes by punishing them, at times society uses its
formal and organised means while at times it adopts informal and
unorganised means to exercise its power. Based on the classification
given by various authors, following forms of social control can be
described.

i) Conscious and Unconscious Control

The American sociologists C.H. Cooley and L. L. Bernard have

described the forms of social control as conscious and unconscious.
The human behaviour can be mainly categorized as conscious and
unconscious. The conscious behaviour of human beings refers to
such acts and actions as are done deliberately and in a planned way
e.g. a subordinate employee does not sit in the chair of his boss and
also, while talking to his boss he remains alert and attentive. On the
other hand, some human actions are done unconsciously and the
person himself does not know why he is doing so because repeated
behaviour pattern becomes a part and parcel of his personality, e.g.
while putting on our clothes, we follow a certain pattern (eg. we put
on our undergarments first and not after having put on upper
garments). In short, in the situation where we behave cautiously and
deliberately, the system is termed as conscious social control, and in
the situations we behave spontaneously and unconsciously, the
system of control is termed as unconscious social control. In the first
type, we can include the prevalent patterns of eating and taking
water, untouchability, and marriage within the caste system. In the
latter type, we can include the control which is exercised under the
influence of traditions, sanskars and religious prescriptions.

ii) Direct and Indirect Control

Karl Mannheim has discussed the direct and indirect forms of social
control. Whenever control on human behaviour is exercised by very
close persons such as parents, friends, teachers, neighbours, etc. it is
direct type of social control. Indirect social control refers to the
control which is done by the social and physical environment,
different groups and institutions. The impact of direct type of social
control is more and durable while the impact of indirect type of
social control is less and short lived.

iii) Positive and Negative Social Control

Kimball Young has described positive and negative forms of social

control. Positive social control depends on the positive motivation of
the individual to conform. Such type of control can be effected
through promise of rewards ranging from tangible material benefits
to the social approval. A more fundamental form of positive social
control depends on the individuals’ internalization of social norms,
value and role expectations during the process of socialization. The
individual’s belief in social norms motivates him to conform.
Appreciation letters given to the students teams on their success in
the examination/games, conferment of gallantry awards to soldiers
vigilantly engaged in guarding national boundaries against enemies
from across the borders, kissing babies by parents for understanding
their signals are, examples of positive social control.
In the process of negative forms of social control, deviant behaviour
of individuals is discouraged and punished. Violation of societal
rules and regulations often invites the wrath of law protecting
agencies and infliction of punishment may range from simple threat
to threat of life, imprisonment and fines. At times, negative social
control is very useful as persons know that if they are caught, they
will be surely punished for their wrong doings. Punishment, ridicule,
criticism, excommunication, imprisonment, fine and capital sentence
are the examples of negative social control.
iv) Organised, Unorganised and Automatic Social Control
Gurvitch and Moore have discussed the forms of social control as
organised, unorganised and automatic. Under the process of
organised social control human behaviour is influenced by a set of
social agencies having clearly defined ‘do’s and don’ts’ for
individuals. Educational institutions, family, state, etc. exercise such
type of social control. Unorganised social control influences the
personality of human beings through the means of rites and rituals,
customs and traditions, folkways and mores, etc. In the automatic
social control, individuals are themselves motivated to act in order to
meet their felt needs. Persons themselves embrace control over their
immediate and long-term needs based on their experiences, values,
ideals, thinking and mores. Religious prescriptions are examples of
such type of social control which are not imposed upon individuals
but are willingly and automatically adopted by them. Such type of
control is enduring.
v) Autocratic and Democratic Social Control

Lapiere has identified autocratic and democratic forms of social

control. Whenever any administrative agency or the authority uses its
force to attain the objectives other than those defined and recognized
by society, autocratic form of social control comes into picture.
Authorities often exploit the material and human resources to serve
their vested interests and do not hesitate to indulge in inhuman acts.
Military ruled states under despotic leadership are the living
examples of autocratic social control wherein people’s wishes are
crushed. If the control is exercised by the agencies or authorities
established by the people themselves and if their wishes are taken
into consideration while framing rules and regulations, the
democratic social control comes into effect. People are motivated to
behave in accordance with the democratic norms. Persuasion,
motivation, discussion, consultation and participation are the
commonly used techniques in democratic social control as compared
to autocratic social control wherein compulsion, intimidation,
exploitation, threat and torture are the often used techniques.
vi) Formal and Informal Social Control

Some sociologists have categorized the forms of social control as

formal and informal. In fact, the classification of social control-
organized and unorganized as given by Gurvitch and Moore can be
termed as formal and informal. The formal social control has the
sanction of state whose authority is used to regulate the human
behaviour. It adopts written and well defined set of rules and
regulations, lays down a formal system of punishment for those who
do not conform and establish the laws, police, jails and judicial
institutions for the trial and punishment. Informal social control
influenced by belief, customs, traditions, criticism, public opinion,
religion etc. is exercised by society. In the primitive tribal and simple
rural societies, informal social control has been more influential
while in the modern and complex societies, formal social control is
more effective and visible.

Check Your Progress II

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the

of this unit

1) Write in brief about formal and informal forms of social

control.

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5.7 MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Social control is exercised in a number of ways by the authorities

concerned. The ways or methods used by the authorities to
implement their rules and regulations are known as the means of
social control. Customs, traditions, mores, folkways ridicules,
sarcasm, propaganda, public opinion, law, reward and punishment
etc. are the means of social control by which society maintains the
social order. An attempt is made here to describe some of the notable
means of social control.

1) Belief

Beliefs approved by society play an important role in the control of

human behaviour. To abide by social rules is a belief valued by the
people because those who abide by the social rules get appreciation
and reward while those who do not are punished. It is also believed
that some supernatural force keeps an account of the good and bad
deeds of human beings, and that soul is immortal and people get
pleasure and pains according to their performance (Karmas) in the
previous birth. That, people are rewarded and punished according to
their actions in their present life, is also believed. Likewise, people
also believe in heaven and hell. The persons doing good deeds are
supposed to join heaven after their death and the persons doing bad
deeds are believed to be dumped into the hell. People also undertake
good actions as they believe their good actions will bring name and
fame to their forefathers. Thus, belief is one of the potent means of
social control.

2) Social Suggestions

Society regulates the behaviour of its members by giving many types

of suggestions e.g., society publicizes the good deeds of great leaders
and wishes its members to follow suit. The statues of great leaders
are installed and people are told that they should internalize the
values and life philosophy of the great leaders. People are also
suggested that they should develop their personality in a healthy way.
Social suggestions are also given through verbal means (words) as
also through writings (articles and books). Since, people find social
suggestions worthwhile, they take inspirations from these
suggestions to regulate their behaviour.
3) Social Ideals

Social ideals regulate the conduct of human beings. The life stories
of great leaders and the paths shown by them become ideal for us.
The call given by Mahatma Gandhi, Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhash
Chandra Bose aroused a feeling of patriotism in the hearts of the
people of India. People accord a great value to social ideals. In fact a
country like India inhabited by people who follow different religions,
speak different languages have developed and followed the notion of
‘unit in diversity’ as an ideal.
4) Sanskars that are Ordained by Religion

In the Indian society, particularly Hindu Society, our life is a chain of

a number of sanskars. Sanskars are the prescribed norms and
regulations. And we have to go through many sanskars from womb
to tomb. Sanskars motivate people to perform a work in a particular
way having acceptance of the concerned society. Since people follow
a set pattern of sanskars, it greatly helps to maintain social order.
People willingly follow instructions of sanskars because they fear
that if they violate, something unnatural and undesirable will happen.
The Hindus in our society perform many sanskars relating to birth,
family, marriage and death. In a similar fashion, a number of rites or
sanskars also characterize the life patterns of other communities like
Christians, Muslims, Sikhs, Parsis, etc.
5) Art

Art relates to the feeling of individuals and by giving a direction to

the feelings, art maintains social control. In art we can include
sculpture, painting, drawing, weaving, architecture, pottery, dress
designing, metal work, poetry, literature, music and dance etc. Art
motivates people strongly to do socially desirable actions and avoid
undesirable ones. National anthem and national song are supposed to
be sung by every citizen. Cartoons and caricatures too convey a lot of
meaning having everlasting effect. Art thus keeps our heritage alive
and human civilization is vividly expressed through it. Human
actions are, therefore, encouraged and discouraged through art.
6) Leader

Leaders are an effective means of social control. They help in various

ways because through their experiences, understanding, conduct,
intelligence and hard work, they can mould groups of people as per
their desires and wishes. Leaders become role models for their
followers. Our political leaders played an important role by directing
the people to make sacrifices for attaining independence. Likewise,
social and religious leaders help in maintaining social control by
inspiring their followers to conform to social norms and to eradicate
the social vices.
7) Humour and Ridicule

Humour and ridicule have been instrumental in maintaining social

control from the very beginning of civilization. The humour and
ridicule, control human behaviour both indirectly and collectively.
The persons are mocked at and ridiculed for their anti-social actions
and appreciated for their socially desirable actions. People are much
afraid of social scorn and ridicule. Therefore, they conform. (ex:
Satire in theatre works)
8) Fashion

Fashion is an expression of the internal and external desire of the

human beings at a particular point of time. Fashion gives an identity
to the citizens of a country. It brings freshness and freshness and
smartness to the people. People get fed up with a particular mode of
self- presentation and want to look different and new. Fashion thus
helps to maintain social control by changing the old patterns and
bringing in the new ones. By representing the emergent human
desires, it smoothens the process of social change.
9) Ahimsa

Ahimsa (non-violence) means an attitude of not hurting anybody

either by words or deeds even if the person troubles you or is your
enemy. This is indeed a negative meaning. Ahimsa positively means
affection, kindness, generosity, self sacrifice and simplicity. The
father of the nation, Mahatma Gandhi, propounded and experimented
with the principle of Ahimsa. He says that the person who kill others
with sword is undoubtedly brave but one who faces such attack is
braver still, especially when he displays no fear of death even in the
face of gravest danger. Thus, one who shows love to everyone, wins
wickedness by goodness, is courteous to all beings, does not bow his
head before cruelty, follows the principles of Ahimsa. It is in this
manner that even the attitude or value of Ahimsa acts as a potent
mechanism of social control.

10) Language

Language gives medium and meaning to the feelings of people. It is

because of language that human beings have advanced on the path of
progress. Language keeps a watch on human behaviour. The laws,
customs, traditions etc. are all expressed through language. Language
helps in social control by socializing individuals, transferring culture,
enabling person’s adjustment to the society, bringing emotional
integration, self controlling and disseminating ideas that express
social values, norms and standards.

11) Punishment and Reward

Punishment aims to reform behaviour of individuals for their well-

being. Socially unaccepted human actions are discouraged and
punished so that persons may not repeat them. Individuals are
sometimes punished for not bringing desired improvements in
themselves. The severity of punishment depends upon the nature of
crime.
Rewards are given to those who imbibe societal norms and values.
To desire appreciation and patting for one’s good and exemplary
work is human nature. Rewards thus act as effective motivator and
inspire the persons to put in their mite in the attainment of societal
goals. It also works as a tonic for those who fear to initiate any work
just because of the fear of failure. Rewards can be given in many
ways starting just from the words of appreciation to cash and
conferment of medals and honours.
Thus punishment and reward are important means of social control.
12) Folkways

Folkways play an important role in social control. These are

developed by their repeated use. Folkways are indicative of social
norms or standards of behaviour that are socially approved but not
considered necessarily of moral significance. Folkways provide
traditional definitions of proper ways of behaving in a particular
society or group. Individuals conform to folkways automatically
without rational analysis. They are based primarily upon customs,
passed on from generation to generation through the socialization of
children. Folkways are not enforced by law but form part and parcel
of informal social control. Since the people in society follow them,
the children also follow. Thus, folkways help as a means of social
control.
13) Mores

When a feeling of group’s well-being is attached to folkways, they

take the form of mores. Mores refer to those social norms that
provide the moral standard of behaviour of a group or society.
Conformity to mores is not optional and non-conformity is severely
sanctioned. Group members feel an emotional attachment to the
mores and their safe preservation is thought to be essential to the
group’s welfare. In common parlance, the term is confined to those
standards of behaviour that depend upon informal sanctions and have
not been enacted into law. Mores may be categorized as positive and
negative. Under the category of positive mores, people are instructed
to follow certain things; for example, “always speak truth, take pity
on poor, be honest to the core, obey your parents and teachers, etc.”
Negative mores check us from doing certain things—e.g. “don’t
commit theft, don’t tell a lie, don’t hurt anybody, etc”. Mores are the
means of informal and unorganized form of social control. Individual
cannot dare not to abide by mores as they feel that their group’s
welfare will be in peril. Mores are more influential and powerful to
the formally laid down rules and regulations.

14) Propaganda

Today, propaganda is one of the important and effective means of

social control. It controls human beings by providing them useful
information about good and bad and helps organisation/institution to
get feedback from the social groups. Propaganda is a conscious,
systematic and organized effort designated deliberately to manipulate
or influence the actions, decisions, thinking patterns or beliefs of the
people in a specified direction on an important issue. Generally,
propaganda is thought to be an exercise in manipulating public
opinion by presenting false or rosy pictures, trying to hide the
underlying facts. Newspapers, magazines, literature, radio, television,
cinema, exhibitions, fairs, meetings, hats, festivals, etc. are the
important devices of propaganda. Propoganda can also serve a
positive social purpose. For example, by propaganda, we have
successfully made the masses aware of the prevalent social evils and
contemporary issues. The messages of great leaders are also
conveyed to the masses by propaganda. Information about the
schemes and projects started by government also reaches the people
through propaganda. Human behaviour to a large extent is controlled
and regulated by effective use of propaganda.
15) Customs

Custom is a folkway having been in practice for a long time,

transferred from one generation to other and well established in
human societies. Customs become the habit of people and they
spontaneously follow them. Psychologically, customs influence the
minds of the people and they unhesitatingly follow them. Customs
are often seen as ideal and essential; people perceive a sense of
inherent goodness in them and feel morally bound to follow them.
Customs constitute a set pattern of group behaviour, practised by a
large number of people. Customs are a powerful means of social
control. In the informal, unorganised and simple human societies,
they have a great bearing on human conduct and behaviour.
Anthropologists often give expression to this fact by saying that in
simple societies ‘custom is the king’.

16) Public Opinion

Public opinion means a conclusion or judgement of the people about

a particular event, object or situation. It is a specific manifestation of
the people’s attitude towards a particular problem. Public opinion can
be termed as the most important means of social control. Public
opinion has always been a prime concern for the policy makers in all
the systems of governance. In fact, the success or failure of any
scheme or plan largely depends upon the favorable/ unfavorable
public opinion. However, it may be borne in mind that public opinion
is not always rational; sometimes it finds expression in opposition to
the legal or constitutionally laid down provisions. It may also be
mentioned that it is not a conclusive decision of all the people or
majority of the people or a single person. But even then, it is
important because it affects the collective interests of the group in
questions. The press, radio, television, newspapers, magazines,
leaders, political parties, religious and educational institutions all
play a decisive role in the formation of public opinion. Public
opinion by making the wishes of the people known to the policy
makers facilitates effective policy making, leading to larger public
happiness.

17) Religion and Morality

Religion and morality are closely associated having bearing upon

each other. Religion is a universal and pervasive institution in human
society. It is a system of beliefs, emotional attitudes, philosophical
values and practices, by means of which a group of people attempts
to cope with ultimate problems of human life. Religion is viewed as
essentially an institutionalized or traditionally believed path to
salvation. All human beings in all societies, at one point of time or
the other, must face certain life problems, alone and all by himself,
despite all efforts from others to help. Religion is a social
phenomenon as well as a psychological one, because it underlines
fellowship in the development, teaching and perpetuation of certain
religious beliefs, insights and knowledge. It is concerned with the
common plight of people at all times, regardless of age, sex, or status
within a society. The concept of supernatural or a way to salvation
binds men to follow the dictates of limited contemporary social
values and social groups. Religion not only relates men to men but
also relates men to heaven. Religion includes the gods and
goddesses, evil spirits, soul, pap (evil deeds) and punya (good
deeds), heaven and hell, etc. All these concepts are greatly valued by
the people and they think that their due attention to religious
prescriptions will protect their lives and property. People abide by
the religious norms because they are afraid that their wrong doings
or violation of religious instructions may land them into hell. The
practice and form of religion may vary from society to society but
generally speaking, human beings are not in a position to disobey
some of the basic dictates of the respective religious systems in
which they are located. This is also so because, as believed by the
people, salvation from the woes of life is possible only by practising
some of the basic religious tenets.

Morality also controls human behaviour by directing their actions on

appropriate lines. Morality involves the feeling of just and unjust. It
is more akin to human psyche. It is considered that a decision based
on the voice from within is always right.
Religion and morality both control human behaviour. Both prescribe
‘dos’ and don’ts and make people conscious about duties and rights.
Both inspire human beings for making efforts to attain ultimate goal
and thus contribute to the social control.
18) Law

Law is a formal and systematic means of social control. A law is a

general rule of external action enforced by a sovereign authority. It
refers to the rules regulating human behaviour. Law is broadly
categorised into moral and political laws. If the rules of law relate to
motives and the internal acts of the will, they are termed as moral
laws. On the other hand, if they relate to external conduct, they are
known as social or political rules or laws. Law in its very nature is
binding. Laws are backed by the state power and, therefore,
individuals and their groups have no option but to abide by them.
Even if persons do not repose faith in them or even if the laws are
entirely opposed to their interests, they have to follow them. And
those who do not, are punished by the laws of the state. Since laws
are made keeping in view the welfare of larger sections of the
society, they are liked by the people. Law functions positively as
well as negatively. When people are asked to do certain acts within
the purview of law and for doing so they are rewarded, honoured,
decorated with medals, given status and prestige, it is the positive
function and control of law which comes in play. However, when
people are asked not to do certain acts, but they still continue to
engage in those acts they are punished- jailed, fined and even hanged.
This is a negative function of law. But, whether law performs a
positive or negative function, it continues to act as an important
means of social control because it checks people from behaving
against the interests of some people in particular, and society in
general.

5.8 AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Agencies are the instruments by which social control is exercised.
Agency refers to those groups, organisations and authorities that are
responsible for implementing social control in an effective manner.
They have the ultimate say as to what is to be implemented and what
is not to be implemented. Agencies use both the means- formal as
well as informal. Agencies have power to reward or punish the
individuals. Family, educational institutions and the state are the
agencies of social control. A brief discussion of these is attempted
below:

1) Family

Family is the most fundamental agency of the social control. Family

refers to the smallest social grouping whose members are united by
bonds of kinship. Family consists of two mature adults of opposite
sex who live together in a union (marriage) accepted by the society,
along with their unmarried children. It may also be defined as a
social group characterized by common dwelling, economic
cooperation and reproduction. Family is universal in the sense that
there has never been a society in which family in one form or the
other has not existed. Family discharges the important function of
institutionalization of mating with its attendant control over sexual
outlet, cooperative division of labour between male and female,
nurturing of the young in an atmosphere of intimacy and inculcation
of some basic values in the coming generation. It is the primary
institution of socialization. The person is born in a family and also
dies in a family. Family does not only play an important role during
an individual’s lifetime but also plays its role before the person is
born and after the person is dead. Parents in the family control the
behaviour of their children by making them learn what is right and
wrong. They tell them which behaviour of theirs is desirable and
which is undesirable. Family also inculcates the social values in the
child. At various stages of life, family comes to the rescue of a
person. Family as a primary group moulds the behaviour of the
children as the parents are the first to influence the child’s behaviour
and development. Appreciating the members for doing good and
condemning their ill deeds family teaches a lot of lessons to them.
High values of - selflessness, sacrifice, tolerance, mutual coexistence,
kindness, honesty and hard work are internalized in the personality of
children by the family. Children are brought up under the supervision
of the parents/guardians who are very affectionate to them. By
making many types of bonds compulsory to its members family
controls the human beings and directs them to be socially productive.
2) Education

Educational institutions are another important agency of social

control. Transmission of knowledge by either formal or informal
methods is the function of education. Although education is usually
thought of in terms of formal schooling, effective training for the
individual’s role as both of a group member and independent person
is a continuous process. The primary function of the process of
education is to pass on the knowledge from generation to generation-
a process thought necessary for the development of culture. In all
periods of human society, a stimulus to creative thinking and action,
which accounts in part for culture change, has been inherent.
Education develops individual’s personality and makes him/her learn
behaviour patterns. Further, it equips an individual to distinguish
between just and unjust, right and wrong. Man is what he is only
because of his socialization and education. Educational institutions
play an important role in children’s development. How to interact
with their fellow beings, how to present oneself before one’s seniors,
how to regard family members, teachers and other persons in society,
how to develop health ,traditional practices and habits, how to make
adjustment with others in life, are all learnt through education by the
persons. Education also develops power of self-control. It transforms
human beings into ideal citizens by acquainting them with the social
facts. It rationalizes the human behaviour and increases the analytical
capacity of humans. It empowers people to face the hardships of life.
In nutshell, the human qualities and traits are developed by
education. Thus, education plays an important role in controlling
human behaviour throughout the life of the individuals.
3) State

State is one of the secondary agencies of social control. It is a

political form of human association by which society is organized
under the agency of government that has legitimate sovereignty over
a territorial area, authority over all the members of the society and
absolute right to use force whenever necessary in order to control the
behaviour of its members. State is an organised and formal system of
social control. State controls the human behaviour by an arrangement
of law, police, jail, judiciary, government, military and intelligence
department. It crushes the power of those who do not conform. It
gives the welfare of its members as a top priority and arranges for
their livelihood-employment. In the complex societies of today, the
role of state in maintaining social control is paramount. People obey
the state orders because they either know that these are in their
interest or that if they don’t obey, they will be penalised and
punished as per law of the state. Thus they act in conformity with the
orders of the state which helps in maintaining social control.
Besides these public opinion, propaganda, coercion, customs,
folkways and mores, religion, morality and sanctions also are agents
of social control.

Check Your Progress III

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) List your answers with those provided at the end of

this unit.

1) List out the major means of social control.

…………………………………………………………………
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5.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have given the meaning and definition of social
control. The purposes of social control have also been pointed out.
Social control viz-a-viz self control, socialization and maladjustment
has also been examined. The need and importance of social control
i.e. why social control is required have also been discussed. Various
forms of social control-conscious and unconscious; direct and
indirect; positive and negative; organized, unorganized and
automatic; autocratic and democratic; formal and informal have also
been described. Lastly, various means and agencies through which
social control is exercised and maintained have also been dealt within
this Unit.

5.10 KEY WORKDS

Social order : A condition/situation of a
society/group characterized by
the predominance of harmonious
social relationships
Conformity : Behaviour that is in accord with
the expectations of a social group.
It reflects compliance to the rules
or social norms and is expressed
in responses that are prescribed
by group customs or norms.
Human Behaviour : Any response or reaction of an
individual i.e. anything an
 individual does, says, thinks or
feels.

5.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Cohen, Stanley (1985), Visions of Social Control, Polity
Press, Cambridge.
Davis, Kingsley (1987), Human Society, Surjeet
Publications, Delhi.
Landis, P.H. (1939), Social Control, Social Organisation
and Social Disorganization in Process, J.B.Lippincott Co.,
Philadelphia.

MacIver, R.M. and Page C.H. (1992), Society: AnIntroductory

Analysis, Macmillan & Co. Ltd, London.
Ross, E.A. (1901), Social Control, The Macmillan Co.,
New York.
Roucek, Joseph S (1955), Social Control, University of Bridgeport,
Bridgeport, Conn.
Scott, John Paul & Scott Sarah F. (eds.) (1971), SocialControl and
Social Change, The University of ChicagoPress, Chicago.
Sites, Paul (1973), Control: The Basis of Social Order,
Dunellen Publishing Co., New York.

5.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I
1) Social control may be defined as any social or
cultural means by which systematic and relatively
consistent restraints are imposed upon individual
behaviour and by which human being are persuaded
and motivated to behave in accordance with the
traditions, patterns and value framework necessary
for the smooth functioning of a group or society.
2) First of all, social control maintains social
equilibrium without which proper adjustment
among various social units is not possible. Second,
there is a need to control the deviant behaviour of
the people on the one hand, and promote the
socially desirable actions on the others. Thirdly,
social control helps us to achieve the stability in the
social organization as individuals are not allowed to
 act contrary to the norms of the social system.
Fourthly, social control is also necessary to
maintain the healthy traditions of our society and to
them from one generation to another. Fifthly, unity
in group members belonging to different socio-
cultural background can only be maintained by the
effective system of social control.
Check Your Progress II
1) The formal social control has the sanction of state
and state authority is used to regulate the human
behaviour. It adopts written and well defined set of
rules and regulations, lays down a formal system of
punishment for those who do not conform. The
state also, establishes the laws down a formal
system of punishment for those who do not
conform. The state also, establishes the laws,
police, jails and judicial institutions for the trial and
punishment. Informal social control influenced by
belief, customs, traditions, criticism, public opinion,
religion etc., is exercised by the society. In the
primitive tribal and simple rural societies, informal
social control has been more influential while in the
modern and complex societies, formal social
control is more effective and visible.
Check Your Progress III
1) Social control is exercised in a number of ways by
authorities concerned. Some of these are: belief,
social suggestions, social ideals, art, leader, humour
and ridicule, fashion, language, punishment,
rewards folkways mores, propaganda, custom,
public opinion, religion and morality, law.