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Essentials of Conservation Biology
Fifth Edition
Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers
Sunderland, Massachusetts U.S.A.
About the Cover
Brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) represent a conservation success story.
Pelican numbers had declined in the United States, with the pesticide DDT
identified as the cause of thinning eggshells and a lack of reproduction. Since its
listing under the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1970 and the banning of DDT,
brown pelican numbers have increased substantially. Because of this recovery,
the brown pelican was removed from listing under the Act in 2009. (Photograph
© Tom Vezo/Minden Pictures.)

Essentials of Conservation Biology, Fifth Edition

Copyright© 2010 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.
All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part
without permission from the publisher.

For information, address:

Sinauer Associates, Inc., 23 Plumtree Road, Sunderland, MA 01375 USA
Fax: 413-549-1118
E-mail: orders@sinauer.com; publish@sinauer.com
Internet: www.sinauer.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Primack, Richard B., 1950-

Essentials of conservation biology / Richard B. Primack. - 5th ed.
p.cm.
ISBN 978-0-87893-640-3 (alk. paper)
1. Conservation biology. I. Title.
QH75.P752 2010
333. 95'16-dc22
2010011325

Printed in China

5 4 3 2 1
 To my family, Margaret, Dan, Will, and Jasper,
and the teachers who inspired me,
Carroll E. Wood Jr. {1921-2009} and Janis Antonovics
Brief Contents
PART I Major Issues That Define the Discipline 1
1 What Is Conservation Biology? 3
2 What Is Biological Diversity? 23
3 Where Is the World's Biological Diversity Found? 51

PART 11 Valuing Biodiversity 69

4 Ecological Economics and Direct Use Values 71
5 Indirect Use Value 91
6 Ethical Values 115

PART 111 Threats to Biological Diversity 131

7 Extinction 133
8 Vulnerability to Extinction 155
9 Habitat Destruction, Fragmentation, Degradation, and Global Climate Change 173
10 Overexploitation, Invasive Species, and Disease 215

PART IV Conservation at the Population and Species Levels 245

11 Problems of Small Populations 247
12 Applied Population Biology 273
13 Establishing New Populations 295
14 Ex Situ Conservation Strategies 313

PART V Practical Applications 339

15 Establishing Protected Areas 341
16 Designing Networks of Protected Areas 367
17 Managing Protected Areas 389
18 Conservation Outside Protected Areas 415
19 Restoration Ecology 437

PART VI Conservation and Human Societies 459

20 Conservation and Sustainable Development at the Local and National Levels 461
21 An International Approach to Conservation and Sustainable Development 493
22 An Agenda for the Future 523
Contents

PART I Major Issues That Define the Discipline 1

CHAPTER 1 What Is Conservation Biology? 3
The New Science of Conservation Biology 5 The Origins of Conservation Biology 11
Conservation Biology Complements European Origins 13
the Traditional Disciplines 6 American Origins 16
Conservatton Biology Is a Crisis Discipline 7
A New Science Is Born 19
Conservation Biology's Ethical Principles 7
Conservation Biology: A Dynamic and
BOX 1.1 Conservation Biology's Interdisciplinary Growing Field 19
Approach: A Case Study with Sea Turtles 8

CHAPTER 2 What Is Biological Diversity? 23

Species Diversity 24 BOX 2.2 Kelp Forests and Sea Otters: Shaping an
Ocean Ecosystem 37
What Is a Species? 25
Ecological Succession 39
BOX 2.1 Naming and Classifying Species 27
Species Interactions within Ecosystems 40
The Origin of New Species 29
Principles of Community Organization 40
Measuring Species Diversity 30
Keystone Species and Guilds 44
Genetic Diversity 33 Keystone Resources 47
Ecosystem Diversity 36 Ecosystem Dynamics 48
What Are Communities and Ecosystems? 36 Conclusion 49

CHAPTER 3 Where Is the World's Biological Diversity Found? 51

Two of the Most Diverse Ecosystems on How Many Species Exist Worldwide? 58
Earth 52 New Species Are Being Discovered All the Time 58
Tropical Rain Forests 53 Recently Discovered Communities 60
Coral Reefs 53
BOX 3.1 Conserving a World Unknown:
Patterns of Diversity 54 Hydrothermal Vents and Oil Plumes 62
Variation in Climate and Environment 54 Diversity Surveys: Collecting and Counting
Variation in Topography, Geological Age, and Species 62
Habitat Size 55 Estimating the Number of Species 63
Why Are There So Many Species in the The Need for More Taxonomists 66
Tropics? 56
viii Contents

PART II Valuing Biodiversity 69

CHAPTER 4 Ecological Economics and Direct Use Values 71
Why Economic Valuation Is Needed . 72 Assigning Economic Value to Biological
Diversity 80
Evaluating Development Projects 74
Cost-Benefit Analysis 74 Direct Use Values 81
Natural Resource Loss and the Wealth of Consumptive Use Value 81
Societies 76 Productive Use Value 84
Multiple Uses of a Single Resource:
BOX 4.1 Industry, Ecology, and Ecotourism in
A Case Study 87
Yellowstone Park 79

CHAPTER 5 Indirect Use Value 91

Nonconsumptive Use Value 91 Environmental Monitors 101
Ecosystem Productivity and Carbon Sequestration 93 Recreation and Ecotourism 101
Protection of Water and Soil Resources 94 Educational and Scientific Value 104
BOX 5.1 Prophecy Fulfilled: How Ecosystem The Long-Term View: Option Value 104
Services Became Front Page News 96 BOX 5.3 Mighty Multitudes of Microbes:
Waste Treatment and Nutrient Retention 98 Not to Be Ignored! 106
Climate Regulation 98 Existence Value 109
Species Relationships 99
Is Economic Valuation Enough? 111
BOX 5.2 How Much Are Bats Worth? A Case Study
of Texas Bats 100

CHAPTER 6 Ethical Values 115

Ethical Values of Biological Diversity 116 BOX 6.2 Religion and Conservation 122
Ethical Arguments for Preserving Biological Enlightened Self-Interest: Biodiversity and
Diversity 117 Human Development 124
BOX 6.1 Sharks: A Feared Animal in Decline 118
Deep Ecology 126

PART Ill Threats to Biological Diversity 131

CHAPTER 7 Extinction 133
Past Mass Extinctions 134 Estimating Extinction Rates with the Island
Biogeography Model 145
The Current, Human-Caused Mass Extinction 136
Extinction Rates and Habitat Loss 147
Background Extinction Rates 141
Assumptions and Generalizations in the Island
Extinction Rates on Islands 141 Biogeography Model 149
Time to Extinction 149
Extinction Rates in Aquatic Environments 142
Local Extinctions 150
BOX 7 .1 Invasive Species and Extinction in Island
Ecosystems 143
 Contents ix

CHAPTER Vulnerability to Extinction 155

Endemic Species and Extinction 156 Conservation Categories 165
Species Most Vulnerable to Extinction 158 Natural Heritage Data Centers 169
BOX 8.1 Why Are Frogs and Toads Croaking? 163

CHAPTER 9 Habitat Destruction, Fragmentation, Degradation,

and Global Climate Change 173
Human Population Growth and Its Impact 174 Pesticide Pollution 197

Habitat Destruction 177 BOX 9.1 Pesticides and Raptors: Sentinel Species
Warn of Danger 198
Threatened Rain Forests 180
Water Pollution 198
Other Threatened Habitats 184
Air Pollution 201
Marine Coastal Areas 185
Desertification 187 Global Climate Change 204
, -
Changes in Temperate and Tropical Climates 208
Habitat Fragmentation 189
Plants and Climate Change 209
Edge Effects 193
Rising Sea Levels and Warmer Waters 209
Two Studies of Habitat Fragmentation 195
The Overall Effect of Global Warming 211
Habitat Degradation and Pollution 196

CHAPTER 10 Overexploitation, Invasive Species, and Disease 215

Overexploitation 215 BOX 10.2 GM Os and Conservation Biology 230
Exploitation in the Modern World 217 Invasive Species in Aquatic Habitats 232
International Wildlife Trade 218 The Ability of Species to Become Invasive 234
BOX 10.1 Endangered Whales: Making Control of Invasive Species 236
a Comeback? 220 Disease 237
Commercial Harvesting 224
Implications of Invasive Species and Diseases for
What Can Be Done to Stop Overexploitation? 225 Human Health 241
Invasive Species 226
Conclusion 242
Invasive Species on Islands 228

PART IV Conservation at the Population

and Species Levels 245
CHAPTER 11 Problems of Small Populations 247
Essential Concepts for Small Populations 248 Other Factors That Affect the Persistence of Small
Minimum Viable Population {MVP} 248 Populations 264
Loss of Genetic Variability 250 Demographic Variation 264
Consequences of Reduced Genetic Variability 254
Environmental Variation and Catastrophes 266
Factors That Determine Effective Population
Size 257 Extinction Vortices 268
BOX 11.1 Rhino Species in Asia and Africa: Genetic
Diversity and Habitat Loss 262
x Contents

CHAPTER 12 Applied Population Biology 273

Methods for Studying Populations 275 Population Viability Analysis 285
Gathering Ecol~gica.l Information 275 Metapopulations 287
Monitoring Populations 276
Long-Term Monitoring of Species and
BOX 12.1 Three Primatologists Who Became Ecosystems 290
Activists 279

CHAPTER 13 Establishing New Populations 295

Three Approaches to Establishing New Learned Behavior of Released Animals 302
Populations 296 Establishing New Plant Populations 305
BOX 13.1 Wolves Return to a Cold Welcome 297 The Status of New Populations 309
Successful Programs with Animals 299

CHAPTER 14 Ex Situ Conservation Strategies 313

Ex Situ Conservation Facilities 316 Botanical Gardens and Arboretums 328
Zoos 316 Seed Banks 330
BOX 14.1 Love Alone Cannot Save the Giant BOX 14.2 Seed Savers and Crop Varieties 333
Panda 317 Conclusion 336
Aquariums 326

PART V Practical Applications 339

CHAPTER 15 Establishing Protected Areas 341
Establishment and Classification of Protected Creating New Protected Areas 349
Areas 342 Prioritization: What Should Be Protected? 351
Existing Protected Areas 343 Determining Which Areas Should Be Protected 352
Marine Protected Areas 345 Linking New Protected Areas to Reserve
BOX 15.1 The Phoenix Islands Protected Area: The Networks 360
World's Largest Marine Park 346 Gap Analysis 361
The Effectiveness of Protected Areas 347

CHAPTER 16 Designing Networks of Protected Areas 367

Issues of Reserve Design 368 BOX 16.1 Ecologists and Real Estate Experts Mingle
at The Nature Conservancy 377
Protected Area Size and Characteristics 369
Reserve Design and Species Preservation 373 Habitat Corridor Case Studies 380

Minimizing Edge and Fragmentation Effects 374 Landscape Ecology and Park Design 382
Networks of Protected Areas 375 Conclusion 386
Habitat Corridors 375
 Contents xi

CHAPTER 17 Managing Protected Areas 389

Monitoring as a Management Tool 392 Management and People 402
Identifying and Managing Threats 394 BOX 17 .2 Managing Leopards Together
with People 403
Managing Invasive Species 394
Zoning to Separate Conflicting Demands 404
Managing Habitat 396
Regulating Activities inside Protected Areas 407
BOX 17 .1 Habitat Management: The Key to Success
in the Conservation of Endangered BOX 17.3 Is Arctic Wildlife Management Compatible
Butterflies 397 with Oil Drilling? 408
Managing Water 399 Challenges in Park Management 410
Managing Keystone Resources 401

CHAPTER 18 Conservation Outside Protected Areas 415

The Value Qf Unpro_tected Habitat 417 Ecosystem Management 427
Conservation in Urban Areas 420 Case Studies 430
BOX 18.1 In Defense of Wildlife ... Send in the Managed Coniferous Forests 430
Soldiers 421 African Wildlife Outside Parks 432
Conservation in Agricultural Areas 423 Community-Based Wildlife Management
in Namibia 432
Multiple Use Habitat 425

CHAPTER 19 Restoration Ecology 437

Damage and Restoration 439 Restoration in Urban Areas 445
BOX 19.1 Can Many Small Projects Clean Up the Restoration of Some Major Communities 447
Chesapeake Bay? 441
Wetlands 447
Ecological Restoration Techniques 442 BOX 19.2 The Kissimmee River: Restoring a
Practical Considerations 443 Channelized River to Its Natural State 448
Case Studies 445 Lakes 449
Prairies 451
Wetlands Restoration in Japan 445
The Grand Canyon-Colorado River Ecosystem 445 Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica 453
The Future of Restoration Ecology 455
xii Contents

PART VI Conservation and Human Societies 459

CHAPTER 20 Conservation and Sustainable Development at the Local and
National Levels 461
Conservation at the Local Level 463 Conservation Beliefs 478
Land Trusts 463 Conservation Efforts That Involve Traditional
Societies 480
BOX 20.1 How Clean Is "Green"Energy? 465
BOX 20.2 People-Friendly Conservation in the
Local Legislation 467 Hills of Southwest India: Successes
Conservation at the National Level 469 and Failures 485
National Legislation 469 Evaluating Conservation Initiatives That Involve
Traditional Societies 489
The U.S. Endangered Species Act 471
Traditional Societies, Conservation, and
Sustainable Use 477

CHAPTER 21 An International Approach to Conservation and Sustainable

Development 493
International Agreements to Protect Species 495 Reforming Development Lending 511
BOX 21.1 The War for the Elephant: Is the Armistice BOX 21.2 How Much Will the Three Gorges Dam
Over? 497 Really Cost? 512

International Agreements to Protect Funding Sources and Programs 515

Habitat 499 National Environmental Funds 516
International Earth Summits 502 Debt-for-Nature Swaps 517
Marine Environments 518
Funding for Conservation 506
How Effective Is Conservation Funding? 518
The Role of International Development
Increased Funding Is Necessary for the Future 519
Banks 509

CHAPTER 22 An Agenda for the Future 523

Ongoing Problems and Possible Solutions 524 Challenges for Conservation Biologists 531
BOX 22.1 Conservation Education: Shaping the BOX 22.2 Environmental Activism Confronts the
Next Generation into Conservationists 525 Opposition 532
The Role of Conservation Biologists 531 Achieving the Agenda 533

Appendix 539

Chapter Opener Photograph Credits 543

Glossary 545

Bibliography 553

Index 587
Preface

After decades of public interest in nature and the environment, the United Nations
focused worldwide attention on conservation by declaring 2010 to be the Interna-
tional Year of Biodiversity. The general public has absorbed this message and is ask-
ing its political leaders to provide the policy changes needed to address this issue.
Conservation biology is the field that seeks to study and protect the living world
and its biological diversity (or biodiversity in its shortened form). The field emerged
during the last 35 years as a major new discipline to address the alarming loss of
biological diversity. The threats to biodiversity are all too real, as demonstrated by
the recent recognition. that fully one-third of amphibian species are in danger of ex-
tinction. At the same time, our need to remain hopeful is highlighted, for exam-
ple, by increasing sea turtle populations at many locations throughout the world
following comprehensive conservation efforts. Many examples described in this
book show that governments, individuals, and conservation organizations can work
together to make the world a better place for nature.
Evidence of the explosive increase of interest in conservation biology is shown
by the rapidly increasing membership in the Society for Conservation Biology, the
great intellectual excitement displayed in many journals and newsletters, and the
large numbers of new edited books and advanced texts that appear almost week-
ly. International conservation organizations have emerged to tackle conservation
issues with a multi-disciplinary approach, and an Encyclopedia of Life is being de-
veloped as an online resource to provide the needed information for conservation
issues.
University students continue to enroll enthusiastically and in large numbers in
conservation biology courses. Previous editions of Essentials of Conservation Biolo-
gy have provided a comprehensive textbook for this subject. (The Primer of Conser-
vation Biology, in its Fourth Edition, continues to fill the need for a "quick" guide
for those who want a basic familiarity with conservation biology.) The Fifth Edition
of Essentials provides a thorough introduction to the major concepts and problems
of the field. Like its predecessors, it is designed for use in conservation biology
courses, and also as a supplemental text for general biology, ecology, wildlife biol-
ogy, and environmental policy courses. The book is also intended to serve as a de-
tailed guide for professionals who require a comprehensive background in the sub-
ject. Readers should enjoy and benefit from the updated full-color illustration and
photo program. Highlighted synopses of major points in the text have been added
as sidebars and serve as useful study aids.
This Fifth Edition reflects the excitement and new developments in the field. It
provides coverage of the latest information available on a number of topics, includ-
ing the expanding system of marine protected areas and linkages between conser-
vation and global change. It also highlights new approaches culled from the liter-
ature on topics such as species reintroductions, population viability analysis,
protected areas management, and payments for ecosystem services. Also new to
this edition is an Instructor's Resource CD, available to qualified adopting instruc-
tors of the text. This IRCD includes electronic versions of all the figures, photos,
and tables from the textbook.
xiv Preface

In keeping with the international approach of conservation biology, I feel it is im-

portant to make the field accessible to as wide an audience as possible. With the as-
sistance of Marie Scavotto and the staff of Sinauer Associates, I have arranged an
active translation program, beginning in 1995 with translations into German and
Chinese in 1997. It became clear to me that the best way to make the material acces-
sible was to create regional or country-specific translations, identifying local scien-
tists to become coauthors and to add case studies, examples, and illustrations from
their own countries and regions that would be more relevant to the intended au-
dience. To that end, in the past 12 years, editions of Essentials have appeared in Ara-
bic, Hungarian, Romanian, and Spanish with a Latin American focus; and the Primer
has appeared in Brazilian Portuguese, Chinese (two editions), Czech, Estonian,
French with a Madagascar focus, Greek, Indonesian (two editions), Italian, Japan-
ese (two editions), Korean (two editions), Mongolian, Romanian, Russian, Spanish,
and Vietnamese. New editions of the Primer for France, South Asia, Pakistan, Turkey,
and the Czech Republic are currently in production. It is my hope that these trans-
lations will help conservation biology develop as a discipline with a global scope.
At the same time, examples from these translations find their way back into the
English language editions, thereby enriching the presentation.
I hope that readers of this book will want to find out more about the extinction
crisis facing species and ecosystems and how they can take action to halt it. I en-
courage readers to take the field's activist spirit to heart-use the Appendix to find
organizations and sources of information on how to help. If readers gain a greater
appreciation for the goals, methods, and importance of conservation biology, and
if they are moved to make a difference in their everyday lives, this textbook will
have served its purpose.

Acknowledgments
I sincerely appreciate the contribution of everyone who helped make this book ac-
curate and clear. Individual chapters in this edition were reviewed by Dana Bauer,
Patrick Bohlen, Katrina Brandon, Sue Bratton, Phil Cafaro, Linus Chen, Richard Cor-
lett, Chris Elphick, Richard Frankham, Elizabeth Freeman, Richard Griffiths, Susan
Jacobson, Christopher Johnson, Jeff McNeely, Michael Reed, Tom Ricciardi, Marcos
Robles, Eric Seabloom, Jodi Sedlock, Howard Snell, and Navjot Sodhi. Les Kaufman
of Boston University provided expertise on marine systems in all chapters.
Numerous people offered specialized input that helped make the boxes and case
studies current and accurate. I would particularly like to recognize the contribu-
tions of Kamal Bawa, Steve Bousquin, Marlin Bowles, David Bray, Jim Estes, Ed
Guerrant, Shen Guozhen, Kayri Havens, Rob Horwich, Daniel Janzen, Lukas Keller,
Cheryl Knot, Tom Kunz, Kerry Lagueux, Laurie Bingaman Lackie, Rodrigo Gamez
Lobo, Kathy MacKinnon, Elizabeth Marquard, Carlos Peres, Tom Power, Robert
Simmons, Lisa Sorenson, Michael Thompson, Sebastian Troenig, David Western,
Tony Whitten, Peter Wrege, Miriam Wyman, and Truman Young.
Rachel Morrison was the principal research assistant and organizer for the proj-
ect, with additional help from Jin Chung, Libby Ellwood, Elysia Heilig, Heather
Lieb, Farah Mohammedzadeh, Rebecca Norklun, Caroline Folgar, and Lily Smith.
Sydney Carroll and Kathaleen Emerson provided invaluable help in the produc-
tion of the book, with numerous suggestions on how to make the book friendlier
to student readers. Andy Sinauer, Chris Small, David McIntyre, Joan Gemme and
the rest of the Sinauer staff helped to transform the manuscript into a finished book.
Special thanks are due to my wife Margaret and my children Dan, Will, and Jasper
for encouraging me to fulfill an important personal goal by completing this book.
I would like to recognize Boston University for providing me with the facilities and
 Preface xv

environment that made this project possible and the many Boston University stu-
dents who have taken my conservation biology courses over the years. Their en-
thusiasm and suggestions have helped me to find new ways to present this mate-
rial. And lastly, I would like to express my great appreciation to my coauthors in
other countries who have worked with me to produce conservation biology text-
books in their own languages, which are critical for spreading the message of con-
servation biology to a wider audience.

Richard Primack
Boston, Massachusetts
April, 2010

Media and Supplements to accompany Essentials of

Conservation Biology, Fifth Edition
Instructor's Resource Library (ISBN 978-0-87893-638-0)
(Available to qualified adopting instructors.)

The Essentials of Conservation Biology Instructor's Resource Library includes all of

the textbook's figures (including photos) and tables, in several formats. Each fig-
ure has been formatted and optimized for excellent legibility when projected in the
classroom. Images are provided as both low-resolution and high-resolution JPEGs,
and a PowerPoint® presentation of all figures and tables is provided for each chap-
ter, making it easy to quickly incorporate figures into lecture presentations.
Other documents randomly have
different content
 [1018] P. C. S. M., I., 126.
[1019] Ibid., 130.
[1020] Ibid., 128.
[1021] Ibid., 145.
[1022] Ibid., 216.
[1023] Ibid., 221.
[1024] Ibid., 239.
[1025] Ibid., 266.
[1026] Ibid., 288.
[1027] Ibid., 276, 277, 279.
[1028] P. C. S. M., I., 309.
[1029] Ibid., 288.
[1030] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg. 7-30-1779, 151.
[1031] Ibid. (An extract of the report to the monthly meeting is
given on page 71ff., chapter on Philadelphia, showing the state of
schools in 1784.)
[1032] Ibid., 1-30-1784, 123ff.
[1033] Ibid., 1-25-1793, 184.
[1034] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 2-23-1798, 149.
[1035] Quoted in Jenkins’ Hist. Collections of Gwynedd, 396-7.
[1036] The works from which the notices were taken: Watson,
Annals of Philadelphia; Simpson, Lives of Eminent
Philadelphians; Jordan, Colonial Families of Philadelphia;
Oberholtzer, Philadelphia City and Its People; W. Thompson,
History of Philadelphia.
[1037] Vaux, Memoirs, p. 7; also Keyser, Old Germantown, I,
79.
[1038] P. C. S. M., I, 33.
[1039] Ibid., 117.
[1040] Oberholtzer, I, 233.
[1041] P. C. S. M., I, 117.
[1042] Vaux, Memoirs, p. 8
 [1043] P. C. S. M., I, 114.
[1044] Ibid., 115.
[1045] Ibid., 161.
[1046] Ibid., 244.
[1047] Ibid., 311.
[1048] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 5-31-1782, 28.
[1049] For list of his works, see Hildeburn or Smith.
[1050] P. C. S. M., I, 21.
[1051] Pa. Gaz., No. 673, 1741.
(Advertising for pupils in newspapers was not the usual rule
among Quaker masters in early Pennsylvania, though some
cases occurred. 345 advertisements from 1730 to 1790 have
been noted in various newspapers of the period. Of a list of
seventy Quakers who are known to have taught school, only 15
were found in the list of advertisers. The papers examined were
the Weekly Mercury, Pennsylvania Gazette, Freeman’s Journal,
Evening Post, Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser, Pa.
Packet, and the Pa. Chronicle; also the Courrier Francais (which
is not mentioned in the bibliography).)
[1052] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-30-1784, 123.
[1053] Ibid., 1-25-1793, 184.
[1054] Ibid., 2-23-1798, 149.
[1055] Ibid., 11-28-1800, 300.
[1056] Oberholtzer, I, 181.
[1057] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-29-1700, 254.
[1058] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 2-24-1702, 329.
[1059] Ibid., 6-27-1703, 376.
[1060] Am. Wk. Mercury, Nov. 29, 1733.
[1061] Watson I, 287.
[1062] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 3-29-1691, 146.
[1063] Collections of the Protestant Episcopal Historical Soc.,
1851, Vol. I, XIX to XX.
[1064] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-30-1784, 123ff.
 [1065] Moses Patterson was the first teacher in the Negro
School. Phila. Mo. Mtg. Min., 6-29-1799, 398.
[1066] P. C. S. M., I, 274.
[1067] P. C. S. M., I, 208.
[1068] Ibid., 272.
[1069] Ibid., 288.
[1070] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 6-26-1748, 64.
[1071] P. C. S. M., I, 101.
[1072] Ibid., 84.
[1073] Ibid., 122.
[1074] Ibid., 131.
[1075] Ibid., 133.
[1076] Pa. Gaz., No. 1403, 1755.
[1077] P. C. S. M., I, 133.
[1078] P. C. S. M., I, 106.
[1079] Ibid., 122.
[1080] Ibid., 131.
[1081] Ibid., 141.
[1082] Ibid., 188.
[1083] Simpson, 912-13.
[1084] P. C. S. M., I, 175.
[1085] Ibid., 234.
[1086] Ibid., 334.
[1087] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-30-1784, 123.
[1088] Robert Proud Ms. Col., No. 20, 27.
[1089] Watson, I, 282.
[1090] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 7-30-1779, 151.
[1091] The Public School Gazetteer, 1777, in Norris Ms.
Collections, H. S. P.
[1092] P. C. S. M., I, 90.
[1093] Ibid., 117.
 [1094] Ibid., 198.
[1095] Ibid., 199.
[1096] Ibid., 266.
[1097] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 7-30-1779, 151.
[1098] Ibid., 1-30-1784, 123f.
[1099] Watson, I, 290f.
[1100] Ibid., 292.
[1101] Ibid., 290.
[1102] Ibid., 291.
[1103] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 7-30-1779, 151.
[1104] P. C. S. M., I, 24.
[1105] Ibid., 165.
[1106] Pa. Gaz., No. 1951, 1766.
[1107] Ibid.
[1108] Pa. Gaz., No. 1865, 1764.
[1109] P. C. S. M., I, 164.
[1110] Ibid., 173.
[1111] The last eight mentioned are named as teachers in
Gwynedd neighborhood school, by Joseph Foulke. (Jenkins, 396-
7.)
[1112] Min. Abington Mo. Mtg., 4-25-1711, 73.
[1113] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 2-27-1722, 83.
[1114] Min. Abington Mo. Mtg., 10-29-1753, 111.
[1115] Pa. Gaz., No. 2371, 1774. Ibid., No. 2147, 1770. Ibid.,
No. 2118, 1769. Ibid., No. 1821, 1763.
[1116] Wickersham, 26.
[1117] Ibid., 27.
[1118] Prowell, I, 539.
[1119] Ibid., 541
[1120] Name found in the account book for the Jonathan
Walton Fund used for that meeting, p. 1. (Deposited at Friends
Meeting House in Quakertown, Pa.)
[1121] Min. Horsham Mo. Mtg., 4-28-1784.
[1122] Ibid.
[1123] Min. Horsham Sch. Com., 1-11-1793.
[1124] Min. Horsham Mo. Mtg., 4-28-1784.
[1125] Min. Exeter Mo. Mtg., 4-28-1784, 510f.
[1126] Ibid.
[1127] Ibid., 10-31-1787, 60f.
 [1128] Pa. Mag. Hist., XXV, 3.
[1129] Proud, Hist. of Pa., I, 233 and 109f. See Ms. description
of the province of Pennsylvania written by William Penn relating
to the first settlement written 1682. A copy in Logan Ms.
Collections, Vol. 1.
[1130] 2 Pa. Archives, XVI, 234.
[1131] Hazard, Annals of Pa., 331. N. Y. Col. Doc. II, 213-14.
[1132] Col. Rec., XII, 99.
[1133] Laws of Pa., III, 269-272; 3 Pa. Archives, XVIII, 303-430.
[1134] Ms. Ancient Rec. of Phila., July 28, 1702.
[1135] Turner, The Negro in Pa., 79.
[1136] London Yr. Mtg., Epistles, 1772, 394.
[1137] 3 Pa. Archives, XVIII, 303-430.
[1138] Turner, The Negro in Pa.
[1139] Stat. at Large of Pa., II, 107, 285.
[1140] Ms. Bd. of Trade Papers, Proprieties, IX, Q, 39, 42; Stat.
at Large of Pa., II, 543-4.
[1141] Watson, Annals of Phila., II, 264.
[1142] Ms. Bd. of Trade Papers, Proprieties, IX, Q, 39, 42; Stat.
at Large of Pa. II, 543-4.
[1143] Votes and Proceedings, 1726-1742, 31.
[1144] Smith, Hist. of Del. Co., 261; Kaln, Travels, I, 391.
[1145] Pa. Gaz. and Wk. Advt., 1779, No. 2580.
[1146] Col. Rec., XII, 99.
[1147] The quality of the clothing on their backs does not
necessarily mean they enjoyed a good location. It was in many
cases stolen goods.
[1148] Pa. Gaz., No. 2568, 1779.
[1149] Watson, Annals, I, 406.
[1150] Heatwole, Hist. of Ed. in Va., 299.
[1151] Pa. Mag. of Hist., XXIX, 363.
 [1152] Smith, H. W., Life of W. Smith, I, 238.
[1153] Pa. Gaz., 1740, 624; Am. Wk. Mer., 1740, No. 1097.
[1154] Am. Wk. Mer., 1722-3, IV, 16.
[1155] Ibid.
[1156] Pa. Archives, XVIII, 303-430. Ibid., XXI, 165-324. Ibid.,
XVII, 489-685.
[1157] Christian Doc. Prac. and Dis. Relig. Soc. of Friends,
1727, 122, (published 1861). Ibid., extract of 1758.
[1158] Friends’ Lib., I, 79.
[1159] Woolman’s Works, 15.
[1160] Turner, Negro in Pa., 67.
[1161] Woolman’s Words, 156-7.
[1162] Ibid., 78.
[1163] Ibid., 44.
[1164] Woolman’s Works, 96-7.
[1165] Ibid., 244.
[1166] Most significant works are given in the bibliography.
[1167] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-30-1784, 128.
[1168] Ibid., 6-29-1770, 398.
[1169] Benezet, A Short Account of the People Called Quakers,
81-2.
[1170] Vaux, Memoirs of Lay and Sandiford.
[1171] Pa. Mag. of Hist., XIII, 265; Old Germantown,
Lippincott’s Mag., Feb., 1884, 118ff., containing an account of the
protest; Phila. Quarterly Meeting would not take action, it being
considered too weighty a question (Min. Phila. Q. Mtg., 4-4-1688,
136.)
[1172] Pa. Mag. of Hist., 266, 268.
[1173] Christian Doc. Prac. and Discipline, 1727, pub. 1861,
122.
[1174] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 4-30-1756, 215.
[1175] Epistles London Yr. Mtg., 1772, 394.
 [1176] Christian Doc. Prac. and Discipline, 1758, pub. 1861,
122.
[1177] Extracts Buckingham Mo. Mtg., 12-6-1762, 107.
[1178] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 4-30-1756, 215; Concord Mo. Mtg.,
6-9-1779, 86; Horsham Sch. Com, 8-17-1792; Chester Mo. Mtg.,
10-25-1779, 31; Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 9-9-1779, 65f.; Sadsbury, 7-
17-1782, 340.
[1179] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 4-30-1756, 215 and 1-25-1765, 7.
[1180] Ibid., 7.
[1181] Ibid., 1-26-1770, 371; (Proud in his Ms. History of
Philadelphia gives Benezet the whole credit of establishing the
Negro school. There were two branches, one for boys and one for
girls, taught by different tutors. He says the successful outcome of
this school of Benezet’s was the incentive which caused the
Abolition Society to establish others.) See Proud’s Ms. History, p.
64. H. S. P.
[1182] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 2-23-1770, 376.
[1183] Ibid., 3-30-1770, 379.
[1184] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 3-30-1770, 379.
[1185] Ibid.
[1186] Ibid., 1-25-1771, 430.
[1187] Ibid., 6-29-1770, 398.
[1188] Ibid., 1-25-1771, 430.
[1189] Ibid., 2-28-1777, 438.
[1190] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 5-31-1782, 28; 1-25-1793, 184; 3-
30-1770, 379.
[1191] Ibid.
[1192] Ibid.
[1193] Ibid.
[1194] Ibid.
[1195] Dewey, p. 39.
[1196] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 3-30-1770, 379.
[1197] Ibid., 4-26-1771, 444, and 21-25-1772, 145.
[1198] Ibid., 7-28-1786, 271.
 [1199] Ibid., 1-30-1784, 128.
[1200] Ibid., 1-25-1793, 184.
[1201] Ibid.
[1202] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 1-25-1793, 184.
[1203] For an insight to the real value of the money see note p.
212 of this work; also Dewey, p. 39.
[1204] Ibid.
[1205] Ibid., 2-23-1798, 149.
[1206] Ibid.
[1207] Ibid.
[1208] Ms. Minutes of the Committee on Negro Education, I,
19; other expenditures mentioned are for copy books, ciphering
books, child’s spelling books, lessons for youth, writing paper, red
blotting paper, slates, quills, ink, tutors’ assistants, Cheap
Repository, 4 volumes, and one set Murray’s Introduction, I, 138.
[1209] Min. Phila. Mo. Mtg., 11-28-1800, 300; Ibid., 2-23-1798,
149.
[1210] Ibid.
[1211] Min. Exeter Mo. Mtg., 7-26-1764, 519.
[1212] Min. Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 9-9-1779, 65; Min. Sadsbury
Mo. Mtg., 7-17-1782, 340.
[1213] Min. Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 9-9-1779, 65f.
[1214] Ibid.
[1215] Min. Deercreek Mo. Mtg., 7-24-1779, 304.
[1216] Ibid., 11-23-1776, 274.
[1217] Ibid.
[1218] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 7-17-1782, 340.
[1219] Min. Chester Mo. Mtg., 10-25-1779, 31.
[1220] Extracts, Buckingham Mo. Mtg., 12-6-1779, 202; (this
was a part of the discipline).
[1221] Ibid., 12-6-1762, 107.
[1222] Min. Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 9-9-1779, 65f.
[1223] Cf. Report on Philadelphia, pp. 68f.
 [1224] Min. Exeter Mo. Mtg., 7-26-1764, 519.
[1225] Ibid., 10-26-1758, 301.
[1226] Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., 10-12-1756, 287.
[1227] Ibid., 1-11-1757, 300; 4-10-1759, 28; 6-8-1764, 54; 7-8-
1766, 139.
[1228] Ibid., 7-8-1766, 139.
[1229] Min. Radnor Mo. Mtg., 7-12-1768, 209.
[1230] Ibid., 7-10-1770, 286.
[1231] Ibid.
[1232] Ibid., 10-8-1776, 102; 8-13-1779, 171; 11-12-1779, 179.
[1233] Ibid., 12-10-1778, 145.
[1234] Ibid., 11-13-1778, 140.
[1235] Ibid., 7-1-1780, 198.
[1236] Ibid., 7-13-1790, 7.
[1237] Ibid.
[1238] See p. 228ff.; also Davis, Hist. Bucks Co., II, 294.
[1239] Col. Rec. XII, 99.
[1240] Davis, Hist., II, 297.
[1241] Davis, Hist., II, 295.
[1242] Ibid.
[1243] Min. Middletown Mo. Mtg., 8-1-1782, 535.
[1244] Ibid., 8-7-1783, 557.
[1245] Extracts, Min. Buckingham Mo. Mtg., 12-6-1762, p. 107.
[1246] Ibid., 11-2-1778, 181.
[1247] Min. Bucks Q. Mtg., 8-28-1777, 29.
[1248] Min. Buckingham Mo. Mtg., 12-6-1779, 202.
[1249] Min. Bucks Q. Mtg., 2 vols., 1684-1804. Newtown First
Nat’l Bank.
[1250] Ibid., 6-27-1730.
[1251] Ibid.
[1252] Ibid., 8-28-1766.
 [1253] Ibid., 8-27-1772.
[1254] Ibid., 8-28-1777, 29.
[1255] Min. Bucks Q. Mtg., 8-28-1777, 29.
[1256] Ibid., 11-27-1777, 33.
[1257] Ibid., 8-27-1795.
[1258] Ibid., 2-28-1799, 289.
Ibid., 2-7-1758.
[1259] Min. Falls Mo. Mtg., 2-2-1757.
[1260] Ibid., 8-7-1771, 86; 8-5-1772, 105; 9-6-1780, 275; 8-6-
1783, 350.
[1261] Ibid., 8-1-1781, 301; 3-2-1763; 2-4-1767; 7-2-1769.
[1262] Min. Buckingham Mo. Mtg., 11-2-1778, 181; 8-1762,
107.
[1263] Davis, Hist. Bucks Co., II, 297.
[1264] Ibid., 296.
[1265] Ibid., 297.
[1266] Min. London Mo. Mtg. 1792, I (deposited at L. G. Mtg.).
[1267] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 8-16-1770—439.
[1268] Ibid., 10-16-1777, 619.
[1269] Ibid., 1-14-1779, 658.
[1270] Min. Kennett Mo. Mtg., 8-14-1788, 887.
[1271] Futhey and Cope, 424.
[1272] Min. New Garden Mo. Mtg., 12-5-1778, 419 (committee
had been appointed in 1774).
[1273] Ibid., 5-5-1781, 108.
[1274] Ibid., 9-1-1781, 119.
[1275] Ibid., 8-6-1785, 256.
[1276] Ibid., 9-5-1789, 419.
[1277] Futhey and Cope, Hist. of Chester Co., 424.
[1278] Min. Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 3-1-1765, 66.
[1279] Min. Uwchlan Mo. Mtg., 9-9-1779, 65f.
 [1280] Ibid.
[1281] Ibid.
[1282] Min. Middletown Mo. Mtg., 1-7-1699, 113.
[1283] Min. Sadsbury Mo. Mtg., 7-17-1782, 340.
[1284] Ibid.
[1285] Ibid.
[1286] Col. Rec., XII, 99; Laws of Pa., III, 268-272.
[1287] Futhey and Cope, 424.
[1288] Min. Chester Mo. Mtg., 10-25-1779, 31.
[1289] Ibid.
[1290] Ibid., 7-30-1781, 73f.
[1291] Ibid., 9-23-1785, 177.
[1292] Min. Concord Mo. Mtg., 6-9-1779, 86.
[1293] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 10-18-1756.
[1294] Ibid., 7-18-1757.
[1295] Ibid., 7-17-1758.
[1296] Ibid., 2-5-1762.
[1297] Ibid., 8-6-1762.
[1298] Ibid., 2-10-1764.
[1299] Ibid., 4-5-1776.
[1300] Ibid., 3-7-1777.
[1301] Min. Goshen Mo. Mtg., 7-10-1778.
[1302] Ibid., 12-11-1778.
[1303] Ibid., 8-11-1780.
[1304] Futhey and Cope, 424.
[1305] This statement is based on the results of G. Cope’s
study of local history.
[1306] Bunting, Recs., Mtg. Phila. Yr. Mtg., 24.
[1307] Rec. Horsham School Com., 11-15-1793.
[1308] Martindale, Hist. of Byberry and Moreland, 49.
 [1309] Ibid., 50. (The sources used by Martindale are not
found.)
[1310] Min. Byberry Prep. Mtg., 9-15-1779.
[1311] Min. Gwynedd Mo. Mtg., 4-25-1756, 215.
[1312] Min. Gwynedd Mo. Mtg., 7-27-1756, 164.
[1313] Ibid., 7-28-1767, 13.
[1314] Ibid., 7-26-1768, 40.
[1315] Min. Gwynedd Mo. Mtg., 8-27-1775, 202.
[1316] Ibid., 5-25-1779, 306.
[1317] Ibid., 8-26-1783, 172.
[1318] Ibid., 7-27-1790, 112.
[1319] Kaln, P., Travels into North America, I, 390, 394.
[1320] Min. Warrington and Fairfax Q. Mtg., 9-16-1776, 11.
[1321] Ibid., 9-20-1779, 73. (Warrington Meeting, in the County
of York.)
[1322] Applegarth, Quakers in Pa., Johns Hopkins Univ.
Studies, VIII-IX, 56.
[1323] Mention should also be made of the Friendly Ass’n for
Preserving Peace with the Indians. For reference see Vol. 3,
Penn’s MS., relating to Indian Affairs, pp. 17-18, an address to
Governor Dewey, 1757; also p. 89, an address to Proprietaries
Thomas Penn and Richard Penn on same subject.
[1324] Col. Rec. II, 16.
[1325] Ibid., III, 356.
[1326] Bowden, II, 70.
[1327] London Yr. Mtg. Epistles, 1795, 487.
[1328] Conduct of the Society of Friends towards Indians, 98-
99.
[1329] Ibid.
[1330] A brief account of the Committee’s proceedings (pub. in
Phila.), 7.
[1331] Ibid.
[1332] Ibid.
 [1333] Ibid.
[1334] Conduct of the Society of Friends towards Indians, 10.
[1335] Ibid., 8, 9, 10.
[1336] Ibid., 11.
[1337] See page 263.
[1338] No summary is given of conditions in each of the
meetings; if desired, see in index, “negro education.”
[1339] The digest of the standards to be attained may be seen
on pages 172f.
[1340] Bowden, II, 247ff. (tables showing the particular monthly,
and quarterly meetings, etc.).
[1341] See in index: Merion and Valley, for example.
[1342] Bowden, II, 157.
[1343] Ibid., 156; quoted from Oldmixon, I, 304.
[1344] 6,200 new settlers came in 1729 (Bowden, II, 156).
[1345] Ibid., 157.
[1346] Winterbotham, II, 438-439; also, census report, 1790.
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