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 Central Chemical Engineering & Process Techniques
Research Article *Corresponding author

Biomass & Bioenergy; case

Inam Ullah Khan, State Key Laboratory of Advanced
Special Steel, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced
Ferrometallurgy, School of Materials Science and

studies Bioresources, chemical

Engineering, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road,
Shanghai 200444, China
Submitted: 06 November 2023

and biological processes, Accepted: 21 November 2023

Published: 23 November 2023

biomass products for

ISSN: 2333-6633
Copyright
© 2023 Khan IU

sustainable, renewable energy OPEN ACCESS

and materials Keywords

• Biomass
• Non-edible
• Biodiesel
Inam Ullah Khan*
• Transesterification
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Special Steel, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced • Renewable
Ferrometallurgy, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University, 99 • Homogenous catalyst
Shangda Road, Shanghai 200444, China

Abstract
Over the next two decades, the proportion of global energy demand attributed to fuel consumption will grow. The escalating costs of fossil fuels and
apprehensions regarding the ecological repercussions of greenhouse gas emissions have rekindled the enthusiasm for the advancement of alternate energy
sources. The Fukushima Daiichi incident was a pivotal moment in the demand for alternative energy sources. Renewable energy is currently seen as a preferable
fuel source compared to nuclear power, primarily because it lacks the potential risks and tragedies associated with it. Since carbon dioxide is the primary
constituent of greenhouse gases, there is a worldwide apprehension regarding mitigating carbon emissions. Various strategies can be implemented to decrease
carbon emissions, including promoting the use of renewable energy and fostering technological advancements. Two primary methods can be employed to
mitigate CO2 emissions and address the issue of climate change: substituting fossil fuels with renewable energy sources to the greatest extent feasible and
improving energy efficiency. This article explores potential solutions to enhance renewable energy deployment and increase energy consumption efficiency.
There is widespread international concern about the utilization of biomass waste as a primary resource for producing biofuel/ biochar and renewable energy.
Pyrolysis is a thermal process used to handle biomass wastes, creating liquid, solid, and gaseous products. Regrettably, a high level of heat is required to
dismantle the intricate composition of biomass resources to obtain useable products. Microwave heating shows excellent potential as a viable alternative to
existing heating technologies. Pyrolysis has recently gained significant popularity due to its user-friendly nature and rapid heating capabilities. Biomass can
be assessed by microwave-assisted pyrolysis, which reduces temperature and minimizes energy use. Nevertheless, the lack of a complete understanding of
low-temperature behaviors and the absence of scale-up demonstrations restrict the potential for industrial utilization. Laboratory investigations have shown that
rice straw pyrolysis-using microwave heating occurs within a temperature range of 250–300 oC. Additionally, the activation energy for this process is around
40–150 kJ/mol lower compared to conventional pyrolysis. The discovery revealed that interlinking had a beneficial effect on reducing activation energy,
temperature, immediate hotspots, and the dielectric loss factor of biomass. A pilot scale microwave-aided pyrolysis auger reactor, capable of processing 80
kg/h, will be created based on the obtained results. The reactor will operate continuously within the temperature range of 200-300 oC, achieving a net energy
ratio of 72%. The practicality of a small-scale operation will be proved by the capacity to generate enough heat and by an economic study. This analysis has
determined that this technology is suitable for a portable and decentralized biomass conversion system.

INTRODUCTION Even though the combustion of biomass derived from

plants results in carbon dioxide emission, this type of fuel is
Biomass refers to any substance derived from plants or nevertheless considered a renewable energy source within the
animals that can be converted into usable forms of energy (such legal frameworks of the European Union and the United Nations.
as electricity or heat) or used in various industrial operations This is because photosynthesis recycles the CO2 back into new
as a raw material for multiple goods. It may be purposefully plant life. This cycling of CO2 from plants into the atmosphere and
planted energy crops (such as miscanthus or switchgrass), wood then back into plants can sometimes even result in a net loss of
or forest leftovers, waste from food crops (such as wheat straw CO2 because a sizeable percentage of the CO2 is transferred from
or bagasse), horticulture (such as yard waste), food processing the atmosphere into the soil throughout each cycle. Co-firing with
(such as maize cobs), animal farming (manure, which is rich in biomass has become more common in coal power plants since
nitrogen and phosphorus), or even human waste from sewage it enables these facilities to reduce their CO2 emissions without
treatment plants [1]. incurring the costs that come along with the construction of new

Cite this article: Khan IU (2023) Biomass & Bioenergy; case studies Bioresources, chemical and biological processes, biomass products for sustainable, renew-
able energy and materials. Chem Eng Process Tech 8(2): 1080.
 Khan IU. (2023)

Central

infrastructure. However, co-firing is not without its drawbacks; of conversion processes that typically rely on the activity of
frequently, an improvement to the biomass would be beneficial. microorganisms [9].
Fluctuating fuels to ones of a higher quality can be accomplished
through a variety of processes, the most general of which are Electrochemical conversion
thermal, chemical, and biological [1,2].
Electrochemical (electrocatalytic) oxidation of biomass can
Bioenergy refers to renewable energy that is generated from be used to produce electricity straight from the feedstock. Direct
organic resources. Biomass refers to any organic substance that carbon fuel cells, direct liquid fuel cells like an ethanol fuel cells,
has accumulated solar energy in the form of chemical potential. methanol fuel cells, formic acid fuel cell, vitamin C fuel cell, and
As a fuel, it can consist of wood, wood waste, straw, crop leftovers, even microbial fuel cells are all capable of doing this task directly.
manure, sugarcane, and other by-products derived from different Indirectly, the fuel can be used in a fuel cell system by first being
agricultural operations. As of 2010, the total global bioenergy converted into a combination of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
gas via a reformer [10,11].
capacity for generating electricity was 35 GW (equivalent to
47,000,000 horsepower), with the United States accounting for 7
SOLID BIOMASS
GW (equivalent to 9,400,000 horsepower) [2].
A benefit of biomass fuel is its frequent derivation from by-
In its strictest sense, it is a term that can be used products, residues, or waste-products of various industries, such
interchangeably with biofuel, which refers to fuel that, is obtained as farming, animal husbandry, and forestry. Conceptually, this
from biological sources. In a more comprehensive context, it implies that there is no rivalry between the production of fuel
encompasses biomass, which refers to the organic matter utilized and food, although this is not universally true. When assessing
as a biofuel, along with the social, economic, scientific, and the viability of using biomass as a source of energy, it is important
technical domains linked to the utilization of biological resources to take into account factors such as land usage, current biomass
for energy purposes. There is a widespread misunderstanding companies, and appropriate conversion technologies [11,12].
that needs clarification. Bioenergy refers to the energy derived
from biomass, which serves as the fuel. Bioenergy represents the Biomass refers to the substance obtained from organisms that
energy content within the fuel itself [2,3]. have recently been alive, encompassing plants, animals, and their
byproducts. Manure, yard trash, and crop leftovers are all forms
BIOMASS CONVERSIONS of biomass. Renewable energy is derived from the carbon cycle,
distinguishing it from other natural resources like petroleum,
Thermal conversion
coal, and nuclear fuels. Animal waste is a chronic and inescapable
The use of heat as the primary catalyst in conversion pollution that the animals mostly create kept in large-scale farms
processes makes biomass into a fuel that is superior in quality [10, 13].
and more applicable to real-world applications. Torrefaction,
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF BIOMASS
pyrolysis, and gasification are the three primary options, and
they are distinguished from one another primarily by the degree The process of combustion results in the emission of carbon
to which the chemical reactions involved are allowed to occur dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere from biomass. After an
(this is mainly controlled by the amount of oxygen that is present extended duration spanning from several months to decades,
and the temperature at which the conversion takes place) [4,5,6]. vegetation and trees absorb the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
generated during the combustion process [13]. Nonetheless,
Chemical conversion destructive forestry practices may result in a reduction of
The conversion of biomass into various forms can be the overall carbon storage capacity of forests. Every biomass
accomplished by a variety of chemical processes. These processes produced is a carbon sequester. As an illustration, it has been
might be utilized, for example, to produce a fuel that is easier to noted that the concentration of soil organic carbon is higher
beneath switch grass crops as opposed to cultivated cropland,
store, transport, and use, or they can be used to take advantage
particularly at depths below 30 cm (12 in). McCalmont et al.
of a quality that is inherent to the process itself. The Fischer-
discovered accumulation rates for Miscanthus and giganteus that
Tropsch synthesis is one example of several of these processes
varied between 0.42 and 3.8 tonnes per hectare per year, with an
that are largely derived from coal-based technologies that are
average rate of 1.84 tonnes (0.74 tonnes per acre per year), which
very similar to one another. The conversion of biomass into a
corresponds to 20% of the total carbon harvested annually. The
variety of different commodity chemicals is possible [7,8].
effectiveness of forest-based biomass initiatives in mitigating
Biochemical conversion greenhouse gas emissions has been called into question by
several environmental organizations, such as the Natural
Since biomass is a naturally occurring substance, the Resources Defence Council and Greenpeace [9]. Furthermore,
molecules it is made of are broken down by numerous highly environmental organizations contend that the process of carbon
efficient biochemical processes that can be exploited. Anaerobic capture by newly planted trees from the carbon emissions
digestion, fermentation, and composting are all examples generated during biomass combustion could potentially span

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decades. Air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, volatile organic Furthermore, the enhanced utilization of biomass-derived
compounds, particulates, and others are emitted when biomass fuels will play a crucial role in protecting the environment,
is burned [10,14]. creating new employment prospects, promoting sustainable
development, and improving health conditions in rural regions.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF BIOENERGY Efficient biomass handling technology, enhanced agro-forestry
systems, and small and large-scale biomass-based power plant
Several environmental organizations, such as Greenpeace and
installation can significantly contribute to rural development.
the Natural Resources Defence Council, have recently criticized
Biomass energy has the potential to facilitate the modernization
certain types of forest bioenergy due to their detrimental effects
of the agricultural industry [8,13].
on forests and the climate. Greenpeace has recently published
a paper titled "Fuelling a Biomass" that details their worries LIMITS TO GROWTH
over forest bioenergy [15]. Utilizing trees for energy generation
promotes Whole-Tree Harvesting, as any portion of the tree can Various limitations, conflicts, and competition will restrict
be burned. However, this practice extracts more nutrients and the development and use of bio-energy. As bio-energy utilization
soil cover than ordinary harvesting, posing a potential threat expands to become a substantial energy source, it faces escalating
to the forest's long-term well-being. Forest biomass in certain conflict and eventually reaches its maximum capacity. Other
areas is progressively composed of vital components for the purchasers of biomass feedstocks, such as those in the food,
proper functioning of forest ecosystems. These components textile, construction, and paper industries, may be willing to
include intact trees, naturally disturbed forests, and remnants of offer higher feedstock prices than the energy sector. As per the
conventional logging activities that were previously left within National Renewable Energy Lab, food constitutes 62 % of the
the forest [14]. Environmental organizations also reference annual usage of 6 billion metric tonnes of biomass, with wood
products being the majority of the remaining portion [16].
recent scientific studies that have revealed the prolonged
timeframe required for re-growing trees to recapture the carbon Bio-energy faces land use constraints due to conflicts arising
emitted from burning biomass, particularly in areas with low from competing demands for food production and the preservation
productivity. Additionally, logging activities have the potential of natural habitats and forests. There is a limited amount of
to disrupt forest soils and trigger the release of stored carbon. biomass waste and a finite number of unusable "degraded" sites
Given the urgent necessity to promptly decrease greenhouse from which it can be obtained. Wildlife advocates have valid
gas emissions to alleviate the impacts of climate change, several concerns about the potential negative impact of an uncontrolled
environmental organizations object to the extensive utilization of bio-energy business on natural habitats, particularly in nations
forest biomass for electricity generation [15]. with inadequate safeguards [6,9,13].

IMPORTANCE OF BIOMASS & BIOENERGY Optimal efficiency is essential when utilizing any biomass
for energy purposes. Although utilities frequently attempt
Biomass is a sustainable and environmentally friendly to convert, outdated and inefficient coal plants into biomass
energy source that has the potential to significantly enhance our facilities, this strategy results in excessive wastage of valuable
environment, economy, and energy stability. Biomass energy biomass resources and poses complex logistical challenges.
exhibits significantly lower air emissions than fossil fuels, An optimal biomass plant efficiently generates thermal energy
diminishes the quantity of waste directed to landfills, and lessens and electricity, incorporates particulate scrubbers to capture
our dependence on foreign oil [9,10]. Biofuels are crucial as they fine particles, and relies on a sustainable and locally sourced
serve as substitutes for petroleum-based fuels. Biomass and feedstock [12].
biofuels can be an alternative to fossil fuels for producing heat,
electricity, and chemicals [8]. THE ROLE OF BIOMASS AND BIO-ENERGY IN THE
FUTURE
ADVANTAGES OF BIOMASS ENERGY
The European Commission has established a 2050 objective
Bioenergy systems have the potential to significantly reduce to cultivate a competitive, resource-efficient, and low-carbon
greenhouse gas emissions by replacing fossil fuels in energy economy. The bioeconomy is anticipated to significantly impact
production. Biomass mitigates emissions and improves carbon the low-carbon economy [5, 10]. This research study offers
sequestration by allowing short-rotation crops or forests an analysis of the policy framework in place for developing a
to deposit carbon in the soil of abandoned agricultural land bioeconomy in the European Union. The areas covered include
[7,11,15]. Bioenergy often permanently reduces carbon dioxide energy and climate, agriculture and forestry, industry, and
emissions by decreasing them at the origin. However, it has the research. Europe is home to several established traditional bio-
potential to release more carbon per unit of energy compared to based industries, including agriculture, food, feed, fiber, and
fossil fuels unless the production of biomass fuels is done in an forest-based sectors. This report aims to analyze the present
unsustainable manner. Biomass has the potential to significantly state of the bioeconomy in the European Union and globally,
decrease dependence on fossil fuels through the utilization of up until 2020 and beyond [11]. The current valuation of the bio
thermochemical conversion technology. economy market is approximately €2.4 billion, encompassing

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sectors such as agriculture, food and beverage, agro-industrial Based on fuel characteristics and metal analysis, the research
products, fisheries and aquaculture, forestry, wood-based will be compare plant biofuel to HSD (High Speed Diesel).
industry, biochemicals, enzymes, biopharmaceuticals, biofuels,
and bioenergy. This market utilizes around 2 billion tonnes of This study aims to thoroughly assess the pros and cons
resources and employs 22 million individuals [12,14]. Emerging associated with synthesizing biodiesel from non-edible plant
sectors, such as biomaterials and green chemistry, are now being seed oil. Initial investigations suggest that the production of
developed. The shift towards a bioeconomy will hinge on the plant seed oil that is unsuitable for consumption holds significant
progress in technology across various processes, the attainment promise for the manufacture of biodiesel; however, it does come
of a significant improvement in terms of technical capabilities with certain obstacles.
and cost efficiency, and will be contingent upon the accessibility
THIS RESEARCH AIMS TO ANSWER THE
of sustainable biomass [16].
FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
HIGHLIGHTS
1. Does non-edible plant seed oil biodiesel possess the
The European Union has established the objective of characteristics of a high-quality biodiesel fuel?
cultivating a low-carbon economy by 2050.
2. What is the comparative analysis between biodiesel derived
The bioeconomy has the potential to be a significant from non-edible plant seed oil and biodiesel produced
contributor to the development of a low-carbon economy. from other energy crops?

The European Union possesses several firmly established 3. Some legal and market difficulties that limit biodiesel
conventional bio-based sectors. production from non-edible plant seed oil include
regulatory restrictions and barriers, as well as challenges
The EU's current bioeconomy market has been projected to related to market demand and competition.
be approximately €2.4 billion.
4. Can non-edible plant seed oil be utilized for extensive
The success of the bio-economy hinges on advancements in biodiesel production?
technology, economic efficiency, and biomass availability.
5. What are some suggestions to tackle the obstacles impacting
THE RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES ARE AS biodiesel manufacture from non-edible plant seed oil?
FOLLOWS: FOR NON-EDIBLE VEGETABLE OIL
BIOFUEL AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: FOR ALGAL BIOFUEL
This research aims to create and evaluate a specialized
Using morphological and palynological characteristics, verify
impact assessment tool for algal biofuel production technologies.
plant species' correct identification and taxonomic classification.
The tool will be used to identify and compare potential impacts
To evaluate the output, byproduct, and characterization of oil and assess the effectiveness of current biofuel policy in managing
from plant species to assess their biofuel potential. risks. The UK is a significant benchmark because of its current
position as a leader in technology advancement in this field,
We need to look into the viability of new plant species that along with its well-established environmental regulation
provide oil for use in biofuels and biodiesel. structure. To achieve this goal, it was necessary to tackle several
interconnected objectives:
To optimize the transesterification process for biodiesel
production, learning the effects of using homogenous solid-base This research aims to create and evaluate a specialized
catalysts is necessary. impact assessment tool for algal biofuel production systems to
detect and compare potential effects.
Optimum biodiesel/biofuel yield can be achieved by analyzing
the effects of various reaction factors. (i) To evaluate the prospective ecological and broader
sustainability consequences and hazards associated
Using GC-MS, LC-MS, FT-IR, NMR, and AAS, characterize with algae biofuel production by analyzing literature,
the composition and confirm the prepared biodiesel/biofuel pertinent policy frameworks, and interviews with
synthesis. specific experts. The effects have been widely classified
and encompass biodiversity effects, water discharges,
Oil extracted from non-edible plants will be tested using the
water consumption, global warming potential, waste, air
aforementioned methods to ensure its authenticity and quality.
pollutants, and accidents.
To assess the fuel compatibility of prepared biodiesel in
(ii) Create a weighted quantitative matrix as an analytical tool
comparison with mineral diesel utilizing ASTM D6751 and
to estimate the impact of prospective impacts.
EN14214 biodiesel standards for future deployment in diesel
engines. (iii) Utilise this impact assessment technique to evaluate

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and compare the potential risks associated with five should provide practical advice for utilizing biochar. We shall
hypothetical scenarios involving distinct production sites concisely examine and evaluate the presented themes from
(land, intermediate coastal and offshore). This assessment multiple perspectives, encompassing any possible ecological
will be conducted statistically to determine which option apprehensions and recommended areas for further research
has a higher level of risk. [7]. While there are numerous readily available sources of raw
materials for biochar synthesis, these materials must undergo
(iv) The objective is to evaluate the effectiveness of existing initial processing (such as grinding, washing, and drying) before
policies in controlling these related effects and provide pyrolysis. To achieve optimal sorption, additional modification
suggestions on areas where current rules may need to be steps are required. Implementing these treatments will
modified to promote the long-term viability of the future inevitably lead to an increase in the production cost of biochar
algal biofuel business. compared to conventional activated carbon. Hence, to minimize
expenses, forthcoming investigations should aim to achieve
This paper will provide a comprehensive overview of algae
an equilibrium between augmenting the utilization of biochar
as a biofuel, including the rationale behind the solid commercial
and optimizing the manufacturing procedure [9]. It is crucial to
interest and the notable consequences associated with the algal
carefully analyze the choice of feedstock’s, production conditions,
biofuel business. The existing policy will be evaluated on five of
and modification procedures to achieve biochar with enhanced
the most extensively debated prospective algal biofuel production
performance. Compiling a substantial amount of previous study
systems. The review will provide a summary and evaluation of
findings can assist in pursuing the most efficient solutions. For
the current policy's sufficiency in relation to the microbiological
example, when carbonized at the same temperature, cellulose
level of the organization. It will identify any shortcomings and
biochar had a greater micropore area (280 m2g-1) compared to
provide recommendations for improvement. The subsequent
lignin biochar (200 m2g-1) due to lignin's resistance. This suggests
primary sections of this report are delineated in the subsequent
that cellulose biomass is more suitable than lignin biomass for
literature review, materials and techniques, results, discussion,
biochar formation [13]. Moreover, the biomass/plant straw
and conclusions [14,15,16].
(pinewood) biochar that underwent pyrolysis at elevated
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES REVISITED FOR ALGAL temperatures exhibited increased surface area and total pore
BIOFUEL volume. When utilizing biochar in actual scenarios, it is crucial to
consider its stability. Research has found that organic materials'
The research aimed to thoroughly assess the limitations that strong aromaticity and durability can lead to the dissolution of
policies impose on major industrial projects, such as algal biomass organic matter from biochar when it interacts with heavy metals.
production systems [4]. The purpose of environmental policy is to This process has the potential to increase the carbon content in
uphold environmental standards. While commercial algal biofuel water. Moreover, it is plausible that the biochars, especially those
interest groups may not see these regulatory limits favorably, derived from sewage sludge, may include substantial amounts of
they are essential for preserving a sustainable planet [1,2]. The heavy metals that have the potential to leach out during usage,
findings of this paper indicate that policy may not always be as resulting in additional heavy metal contamination [11]. In the
impervious as it should be. This study explores the variation in context of biochar-based composites, inadequate fixation of the
governance across different levels of organization as a recurring embedded components may result in the potential leaching of
subject. This is particularly significant when analyzing the policy some of these components from the biochar matrix. Considering
explicitly implemented to uphold microbial-level standards in that the stability of biochar is closely linked to the stability of its
a maritime environment [7,8,9]. Here, a higher level of care is carbon structure [9, 13], it is imperative to conduct a study on
necessary to ensure sufficient management of algal modification. the impact of carbonization conditions on the carbon content
This research aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of and structure. Hydrothermal carbonization yields biochar
the diverse effects linked to the algae biofuel business and the with a higher carbon content [14] when compared to biochar
key policies involved. It also highlights areas where legislative produced through gasification and pyrolysis. Furthermore, it is
adjustments may be necessary to facilitate the transition towards highly recommended to consistently monitor the water quality
this kind of commercial energy generation [10]. throughout the whole lifespan of the sorbents' application. In
order to assess toxicity or leaching, it is recommended to use
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS AND FUTURE
water fleas, algae, fish, or luminous bacteria as indicators to
DIRECTIONS
determine if the biochar contains any hazardous compounds
From a critical perspective, there is ongoing research on [15]. Prior research has primarily focused on the adsorption
biofuel/biochar, although its widespread implementation has not of a particular pollutant in water-based systems. However, in
yet been achieved. The limited adoption of biochar is mostly due real-world water scenarios, many contaminants are present
to significant environmental concerns and the lack of adequate simultaneously, leading to the observation of both synergistic
industrial infrastructure in many underdeveloped countries and antagonistic sorption effects. The presence of various
[3,6,7]. To effectively tackle potential environmental concerns contaminants can lead to ionic interference and competition
and promote the adoption of biochar in developing countries, for sorption sites, resulting in a decrease in removal efficiency.
extensive and rigorous research is necessary. This research Currently, there is a scarcity of empirical investigations on co-

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contaminant sorption. This makes simultaneous sorption models Conflicts of interest

appealing since they have the potential to reveal the synergistic or
antagonistic sorption mechanisms involved. Reports on biochar I (Dr. Inam Ullah Khan) confirm as an author and declare
sorption should provide comprehensive information regarding that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this
the sorption conditions and properties of the sorbent to facilitate publication.
future research. Several endeavors to create prospective sorption
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