Indian Civilizations

Name : Taher
Shayerwala
Registration No. :
WRO0715463
Batch : December
2024
Batch No. : 60
 PC No. : 03
Indian civilizations, with their rich cultural heritage
and profound contributions to human history,
flourished in the Indian subcontinent for thousands
of years. The earliest known civilization, the Indus
Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE), demonstrated
advanced urban planning, trade, and sophisticated
craftsmanship, leaving behind iconic structures like
the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
Following this, the Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE)
saw the development of Hindu philosophy, the
formation of social structures like the caste system,
and the composition of sacred texts such as the Vedas.

The Vedic Civilization, also known as the Vedic Age,

was a complex civilization that existed in ancient
India.

It was a period of transition between the end of the

Indus Valley Civilization and the beginning of a
second urbanization in the central Indo-Gangetic
Plain
Over time, the Indian subcontinent became a cradle
for diverse cultures, religions, and empires, from
Buddhism and Jainism to the Maurya and Gupta
Empires, shaping the course of global civilization
with enduring legacies in science, mathematics, art,
and spirituality.
Ancient Indian civilizations can be
categorized into several distinct periods and
cultural phases, each contributing
significantly to the region's rich history. The
major ancient Indian civilizations include:

 Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE)

 Vedic Civilization (c. 1500–500 BCE)
 Mahajanapadas (c. 600–300 BCE)
 Maurya Empire (c. 322–185 BCE)
 Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE)
 Chola, Pallava, and Pandyas (c. 300 BCE–1300
CE)
 सिन्धु-सरस्वती सभ्यता
(Sindhu-Sarasvatī sabhyatā).
 सिन्धु (Sindhu) refers to the Indus River.

 सरस्वती (Sarasvatī) refers to the Sarasvati River, a major river in ancient Vedic texts .

Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE): Also known as the

Harappan Civilization, it is one of the world's earliest urban cultures. It
thrived in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, primarily in
present-day Pakistan and northwest India. Key cities like Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa were characterized by advanced urban planning, drainage systems,
standardized weights, and impressive architecture. The civilization had a
script that remains undeciphered and engaged in extensive trade with other
ancient cultures.
Discovery :
The civilization was first identified in 1921 at Harappa in the Punjab region
and then in 1922 at Mohenjo-daro (Mohenjodaro), near the Indus River in
the Sindh (Sind) region. Both sites are in present-day Pakistan, in Punjab
and Sindh provinces, respectively. The ruins of Mohenjo-daro were
designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980.
The Indus civilization is known to have consisted of two large cities,
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, and more than 100 towns and villages, often of
relatively small size. The two cities were each perhaps originally about 1
mile (1.6 km) square in overall dimensions, and their outstanding magnitude
suggests political centralization, either in two large states or in a single great
empire with alternative capitals, a practice having analogies in Indian
history. It is also possible that Harappa succeeded Mohenjo-daro, which is
known to have been devastated more than once by exceptional floods. The
population was estimated to be 23,500–35,000 in Harappa and 35,000–
41,250 in Mohenjo-daro. The southern region of the civilization, on the
Kathiawar Peninsula and beyond, appears to be of later origin than the major
Indus sites.

Time Period :
 Pre-Harappan era: Mehrgarh
Mehrgarh is a Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE) mountain
site in the Balochistan province of Pakistan,[72] which gave new
insights on the emergence of the Indus Valley Civilisation.[60]
[w] Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of
farming and herding in South Asia.[73][74] Mehrgarh was
influenced by the Near Eastern Neolithic,[75] with similarities
between "domesticated wheat varieties, early phases of farming,
pottery, other archaeological artefacts, some domesticated plants
and herd animals."
  Early Harappan
The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi
River, lasted from c. 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It started when
farmers from the mountains gradually moved between their
mountain homes and the lowland river valleys,[95] and is related
to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River
Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800–2600
BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern Sindh,
Pakistan, near Mohenjo-daro. The earliest examples of the Indus
script date to the 3rd millennium BCE.
The final stages of the Early Harappan period are characterised
by the building of large walled settlements, the expansion of
trade networks, and the increasing integration of regional
communities into a "relatively uniform" material culture in terms
of pottery styles, ornaments, and stamp seals with Indus script,
leading into the transition to the Mature Harappan phase.

 Mature Harappan
By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan
communities turned into large urban
centres. Such urban centres include
Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in
modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira,
Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and
Lothal in modern-day India.[108] In
total, more than 1,000 settlements have
been found, mainly in the general region
of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers
and their tributaries.
  Late Harappan
Around 1900 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to emerge,
and by around 1700 BCE most of the cities had been abandoned.
Examination of human skeletons from the site of Harappa in the
2010s demonstrated that the end of the Indus civilisation saw an
increase in inter-personal violence and in infectious diseases like
leprosy and tuberculosis.
During the period of approximately 1900 to 1700 BCE, multiple
regional cultures emerged within the area of the Indus
civilisation. The Cemetery H culture was in Punjab, Haryana,
and Western Uttar Pradesh, the Jhukar culture was in Sindh, and
the Rangpur culture (characterised by Lustrous Red Ware
pottery) was in Gujarat.[208][209][210] Other sites associated
with the Late phase of the Harappan culture are Pirak in
Balochistan, Pakistan, and Daimabad in Maharashtra, India.

 Post-Harappan
In the aftermath of the Indus civilisation's localisation, regional
cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of
the Indus civilisation. In the formerly great city of Harappa,
burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture
called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre
Coloured Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the
Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence
for cremation; a practice dominant in Hinduism today.
The inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilisation migrated from
the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the
Himalayan foothills of the Ganga-Yamuna basin.
 वैदिक सभ्यता
(Vaidik Sabhyata)
Vedic Civilization (c. 1500–500 BCE): The Vedic period marked the
arrival of the Indo-Aryans, who brought with them the Vedic texts, the
foundation of Hinduism. This civilization was characterized by the
composition of sacred hymns (the Vedas), the establishment of social
structures such as the varna system (the precursor to the caste system),
and the development of early forms of governance and religious rituals.
The period is divided into the Early Vedic (Rigvedic) and Later Vedic
periods.
Origins :
The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half of the
second millennium BCE. Historically, after the collapse of the
Indus Valley Civilisation, which occurred around 1900 BCE,
groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India
and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The Indo-
Aryans represented a sub-group that diverged from other Indo-
Iranian tribes at the Andronovo horizon before the middle of the
2nd millennium BCE. The Indo-Iranians originated in the
Sintashta culture, from which arose the subsequent Andronovo
horizon. The Indo-Aryans migrated through the adjacent
Bactria–Margiana area (present-day northern Afghanistan) to
northwest India, followed by the rise of the Iranian Yaz culture
at c. 1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into Iran at c. 800
BCE.
Some Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion
of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, and argued for an
indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans. In this view, the Indian
civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes
back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus)
tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE). Though popular in India, and
reflecting Indian views on Indian history and religion, the idea of
a purely indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans is outside the
academic mainstream.
Time Period :
 Early Vedic period (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1000 BCE)
The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas
and the Dasas and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as
people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the
commandments of gods (avrata). Their speech is described as
mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile,
scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their
physical appearance are subject to many interpretations.
However, some modern scholars such as Asko Parpola
connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and
Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-
Aryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before
the Vedic Aryans. Likewise, Bronkhorst has argued that the
central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-
Vedic Indo-Aryan culture, a difference also noted by Samuel.

 Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE)

After the 12th century BCE, as the Rigveda had taken its final
form, the Vedic society, which is associated with the Kuru-
Panchala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan people in
northern India, transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled
agriculture in north-western India. The Vedic religion was
further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom,
systematising its religious literature and developing the Śrauta
ritual. It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture
(c.1200–600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-
Yamuya Doab.
 Towards urbanization
By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into
large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. The process of
urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms, commerce and
travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances
became easy to access. Anga, a small kingdom to the east of
Magadha (on the door step of modern-day West Bengal),
formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture. Yadavas
expanded towards the south and settled in Mathura. To the
south of their kingdom was Vatsa which was governed from
its capital Kausambi. The Narmada River and parts of North
Western Deccan formed the southern limits. The newly
formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying
imperial ambitions.
 महाजनपद काल
(Mahajanpada Kaal)
Mahajanapadas (c. 600–300 BCE): By the 6th century BCE, the Indian
subcontinent saw the emergence of powerful city-states known as the
Mahajanapadas. These 16 kingdoms and republics, including notable ones
like Magadha, Kosala, and Vatsa, played a crucial role in the political and
cultural landscape. This era also witnessed the rise of new religious
movements such as Buddhism and Jainism, which challenged the existing
Vedic traditions.

History :
The 6th–5th centuries BCE are often regarded as a major turning
point in early Indian history. During this period, India's first large
cities since the demise of the Indus Valley civilization arose. It was
also the time of the rise of sramana movements (including
Buddhism and Jainism), which challenged the religious orthodoxy
of the Vedic period.
Two of the Mahājanapadas were most probably gaṇasaṅghas
(aristocratic republics), and others had forms of monarchy. Ancient
Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya make frequent reference to
sixteen great kingdoms and republics that had developed and
flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to
Anga in the east to Asmaka in the southern part of the Indian
subcontinent. They included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region, and
all had developed prior to the rise of Buddhism in India.
Archaeologically, this period has been identified as corresponding in
part to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.
The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places, gives a list of
sixteen great states:
1. Anga
2. Asmaka
3. Avanti
4. Chedi
5. Gandhara
6. Kasi
7. Kamboja
8. Kosala
9. Kuru
10. Magadha
11. Malla
12. Matsya (or Maccha)
13. Panchala
14. Surasena
15. Vajji
16. Vatsa (or Vamsa)
Another Buddhist text, the Digha Nikaya, mentions twelve
Mahajanapadas from the above list and omits four of them
(Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja).
The Vyākhyāprajñapti (or the Bhagavati Sutra), a sutra of
Jainism, gives a different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas:

 Anga
 Banga (Vanga)
 Magadha
 Malaya
 Malavaka
 Accha
 Vaccha
 Kochcha
 Padha
 Ladha (Radh or Lata)
 Bajji (Vajji)
 Moli (Malla)
 Kasi
 Kosala
 Avaha
 Sambhuttara

The author of the Bhagavati Sutra (or the Vyākhyāprajñapti)

has a focus on the countries of Madhydesa and of the far east
and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the
Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the
Bhagvati and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha
"clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and
therefore less reliable."
 मौर्य साम्राज्य
(Maurya Empire)

Maurya Empire (c. 322–185 BCE): Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, the

Maurya Empire became one of the largest empires in ancient India. The
empire's most famous ruler, Ashoka the Great, spread Buddhism across
India and beyond, promoting non-violence and social welfare. The Mauryas
established a centralized administration, built infrastructure, and facilitated
trade across the Indian subcontinent and beyond. The Empire Streched
from Bengal in the east to Afghanistan in the west, and as far south as the
Narmada river. The Capital was Patliputra , which was later renamed Patna.
The name "Maurya" does not occur in Ashoka's inscriptions, or
the contemporary Greek accounts such as Megasthenes's Indica,
but it is attested by the following sources:

 The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman (c. 150 CE)

prefixes "Maurya" to the names Chandragupta and Ashoka.

 The Puranas (c. 4th century CE or earlier) use Maurya as a

dynastic appellation.

 The Buddhist texts state that Chandragupta belonged to the

"Moriya" clan of the Shakyas, the tribe to which Gautama
Buddha belonged.

 The Jain texts state that Chandragupta was the son of an

imperial superintendent of peacocks (mayura-poshaka).

 Tamil Sangam literature also designate them as 'moriyar'

and mention them after the Nandas

 Kuntala inscription (from the town of Bandanikke, North

Mysore) of 12th century AD chronologically mention
Maurya as one of the dynasties which ruled the region.
Timeline :
322 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya conquers the Nanda Empire, founding
Maurya dynasty.[166]

317–316 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya conquers the Northwest of the Indian

subcontinent.

305–303 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya gains territory by defeating the Seleucid

Empire.

298–269 BCE: Reign of Bindusara, Chandragupta's son. He conquers parts of

Deccan, southern India.

269–232 BCE: The Mauryan Empire reaches its height under Ashoka,
Chandragupta's grandson.

261 BCE: Ashoka conquers the Kingdom of Kalinga.

250 BCE: Ashoka builds Buddhist stupas and erects pillars bearing
inscriptions.

184 BCE: The empire collapses when Brihadratha, the last emperor, is killed
by Pushyamitra Shunga, a Mauryan general and the founder of the Shunga
Empire.

गुप्त साम्राज्य
(Gupta Samrajya)
Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE): Known as the "Golden Age" of ancient India,
the Gupta Empire saw advancements in science, mathematics, astronomy,
literature, and art. This period witnessed the creation of key concepts like
the decimal system and the zero, major progress in medical sciences, and
the flourishing of classical Sanskrit literature. The Gupta rulers, such as
Chandragupta I and Samudragupta, are also remembered for their strong
governance and promotion of Hindu culture. Many Hindu epics and literary
sources, such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, were canonised during
this period. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural
centre and established the region as a base that would influence nearby
kingdoms and regions in India and Southeast Asia. The empire eventually
died out because of factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial
authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion
by the Huna peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia.[30][31]
After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again
ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.

Origin :
The homeland of the Guptas is uncertain. According to one
theory, they originated in the present-day lower-Doab region of
Uttar Pradesh, where most of the inscriptions and coin hoards of
the early Gupta emperors have been discovered. This theory is
also supported by the Purana, as argued by the proponents, that
mention the territory of the early Gupta emperors as Prayaga,
Saketa, and Magadha areas in the Ganges basin. The recently
found silver coin of Sri Gupta in Uttar Pradesh further attest the
origin of Guptas around Kāśī–Kannauj region and his rule was
only limited to Kāśī (present day Varanasi).
Another prominent theory locates the Gupta homeland in the
present-day Bengal region in Ganges basin, based on the account
of the 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing. According to
Yijing, king Che-li-ki-to (identified with the dynasty's founder
Shri Gupta) built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi-li-kia-si-
kia-po-no (apparently a transcription of Mriga-shikha-vana).
Yijing states that this temple was located more than 40 yojanas
east of Nalanda, which would mean it was situated somewhere in
the modern Bengal region. Another proposal is that the early
Gupta kingdom extended from Prayaga in the west to northern
Bengal in the east.
 चोल, पल्लव & पांड्य
साम्राज्य
(Chola, Pallava, and Pandyas
empire)

Chola, Pallava, and Pandyas (c. 300 BCE–1300 CE): In southern India,
several powerful dynasties such as the Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandyas rose
to prominence. The Chola Empire, in particular, was known for its maritime
power, art, and architecture. The construction of grand temples like the
Brihadeeswarar Temple and the spread of Tamil culture were significant
during this time. The Cholas also had vast influence over Southeast Asia
through trade and cultural exchange.

These civilizations, along with others like the Satavahanas, Kushans, and
Mauryas, contributed to the development of the Indian subcontinent’s
cultural, philosophical, and political landscape, leaving a lasting legacy on
the world.
The Cholas
 Maritime Power: The Cholas were renowned for their naval prowess
and extensive maritime trade. They established colonies in Southeast
Asia and maintained a strong presence in the Indian Ocean.
 Temple Architecture: The Chola period witnessed the construction of
magnificent temples, particularly those dedicated to Shiva. The
Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur is a prime example of Chola
architectural brilliance.
 Administrative Efficiency: The Cholas developed a sophisticated
administrative system, with a well-organized bureaucracy and a strong
military.
 Cultural Contributions: The Cholas made significant contributions to
literature, music, dance, and sculpture. The Chola period is considered
a golden age of South Indian culture.
The Pallavas
 Patronage of Arts: The Pallavas were great patrons of art and
literature. They made significant contributions to the development of
South Indian temple architecture and sculpture.
 Naval Power: The Pallavas also maintained a strong naval force and
engaged in maritime trade.
 Administrative Reforms: The Pallavas introduced several
administrative reforms, including the establishment of a well-organized
revenue system.
The Pandyas
 Maritime Trade: The Pandyas were skilled sailors and traders. They
engaged in extensive maritime trade with Southeast Asia and the
Middle East.
 Pearl Fishing: The Pandyas were famous for their pearl fisheries,
which were a major source of wealth.
 Cultural Contributions: The Pandyas made significant contributions
to Tamil literature, music, and dance.
These three dynasties played a crucial role in shaping the history and culture
of South India. Their legacy continues to inspire and amaze people to this
day.

The Mughal, Rajput, and Maratha empires are not part of the
ancient Indian civilizations, but rather belong to the medieval
and early modern periods of Indian history. Each of these
empires played significant roles in shaping India's political,
cultural, and social landscape during the medieval and early
modern eras.