MODULE INTRODUCTION

This material is intended as a guide to research and writing of history at undergraduate level. It will be
useful for students who want to do historical research. For practicing historians it can be used in the
planning and development of research method in history. The material is organized into six chapters.

The first chapter deals with the essence of historical research and the second chapter emphasize on
sources of historical research. Similarly the third, fourth, fifth and sixth chapters covers fundamentals of
library, archival and oral research, the basics of historical writing and interpretation, preparing a senior
essay, conventions of history writing and referencing respectively.

For each chapter and even section, you have exercises to do on your own. There are pre-test quizzes and
activities at the end of each section. Finally, assignment will be given. The assignment will contribute to
your final grade. You are thus requested to do it thoroughly on your own. Copying from someone or
enabling someone to copy from you would lead to an automatic ‗‘F‘‘ for this course.

2
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Objectives

At the end of course you will be to:

 Identify the basic concepts of historical research
 Explain the steps in the processes of conducting historical research

 Identify the major sources of historical research

 Depict the fundamentals of library, archival and oral research

 Define the basics of historical writing and interpretation

 Preparing a senior essay

 Describe the conventions of history writing

 Illustrate the proper techniques of referencing

3
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

CHAPTER ONE

MEANING OF RESEARCH

Various definitions are available in books of research of one kind or another. Scholars and authorities in
the area commonly use the following phrases to define the concept of research:

 An inquiry to obtain reliable and useful information

 A problem solving activity
 A scientific approach to study a problem and arrive at a conclusion
 A systematic and objective search for reliable knowledge
 A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic
 An art of scientific investigation

The origin of the word research is a French word ―rechercher‖, meaning, ―to look for again.‖ Research
is composed of two syllables, a prefix re and a verb search. ―Re‖ which in the French language means
―again‖ , anew, over again and then ―chercher‖ means ―to look for‖, to examine closely and carefully,
to test and try, to probe. The two words form a noun to describe a careful and systematic study in some
field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles. Therefore, research is an organized and
systematic way of finding answers to questions. Research in common parlance refers to a search for
knowledge.

One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at
learning new facts, testing ideas, etc. It is the systematic collection; analysis and interpretation of data to
generate new knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a problem. There are many accepted
definitions for the term ―research‖:

 In the words of Durotolu {2003),the term research simply implies looking for something again
in other alternative places; putting up ‗new‘ efforts, and taking nothing for granted.

 Bush and Harter {1980} defined it quite simply but broadly as ―the systematic quest for
knowledge‖, while Drew {1993) viewed it as ―a systematic way of asking questions, a
systematic method of inquiry.‖
4
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 As for Leedy {1993} the term research is ―the manner in which we attempt to solve problems
others have presumably solved.‖

 Best and Kahn {19998} took a more comprehensive approach in their own definition of
research as the ―systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations
that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, theories resulting in prediction
and ultimate control of many events that may be consequences or causes of specific activities.‖

 The above probably explains why Osuola {1993} considered the term simply as ―the process
of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection,
analysis, and interpretation of data‖.
 On his own part, Adetoro {1986} took the methodology approach in defining research as ―a
process of discovery that must follow certain rules of conducting investigations and which is
generally based on scientific enquiry where available facts are closely examined or
investigated.‖

 According to the approach of Lawal {1995} in which the term was conceptualized from the
point of view of the various stages involved; as ―identifying a problem, stating the purpose,
collecting and analyzing valid data, and drawing valid conclusion.

 Onyere and Anunmu {2001} took a result-oriented approach in defining research as ―a process
of finding out a solution or answer to problems.‖ They explained further that it is a planning
process towards seeking and getting desirable information leading to the provision of plausible
answers to reasonable questions. This is with a view to enabling people predict future
occurrences and carrying out systematic investigations to solve problems.

 In the words of Odediran {2001}, research is ―a science of knowledge through investigation

that is concerned with systematic way of finding information on an issue, subject or object.‖

 Thus, Issa {2003} deducting from the wide range of opinions as contained in the
definitions above, concluded that the followings are considered as central to the idea of
a research:
i. A process which is systematic and organized rather than haphazard
ii. The existence and proper definition of a problem to be investigated.
5
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

iii. Collection, analysis and interpretation of relevant data towards arriving at

solutions to problems.
iv. Generalizing outcome of findings towards better handling of similar event (s) in
the future.

 According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis, or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis.

 Redman and Mory define research as a ―systematized effort to gain new knowledge.‖ Some
people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown or it is
actually a voyage of discovery.

 The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as ―a
careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.‖

 Finally, D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research
as the manipulation of things, concepts, or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend,
correct, or verify knowledge , whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the
practice of an art.‖

To sum up the above definitions in one way or another are similar and interrelated each other. Generally,
research is a systematic and scientific method consisting of articulating the problem, formulating
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the
form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical
formulation. Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve
problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable. Research is a logical and systematic
search for new and useful information on a particular topic. It is an investigation of finding solutions to
scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge,
that is, a discovery of hidden truths.

6
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

1.2. Objectives of Research

What are the Objectives of Research?

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Each research study has its own specific purpose. The prime objectives of research are:

1) to discover new facts

2) to verify and test important facts
3) to analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship
4) to develop scientific tools , concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and
nonscientific problems
5) to find solutions to scientific , nonscientific and social problems and
6) to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life

1.3. The Importance of Research in Society

Research is considered as one of the most important tools for:

a) Advancing the frontier of knowledge. Research is the fountain of knowledge and provide guide -
lines for solving problems
b) Promoting progress in the society
c) Enabling man to relate more effectively with his environment
d) Assisting man to accomplish his purpose
e) Helping man to resolve his conflicts
f) Providing the basis for nearly all government policies in the economic system
g) Solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry. It is important in
industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the quality of products
h) Studying social relationships and seeking answers to various social problems
i) Identifying the range and applications of existing theories and concepts
j) Only through research can inventions be made
7
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

k) Leading to a new sty le of life and makes it delightful and glorious

Why do we need research?

No person would like to do research unless there are some motivating factors. Some of the motivations
are the following:

1) to get a research degree (Doctor of Philosophy) (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like better
employment, promotion, increment in salary, etc.
2) to get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or university or
become a scientist in a research institution
3) to provide solutions to complex problems
4) to investigate laws of nature
5) to get joy of doing some creative work
6) to acquire respectability
7) to get recognition
8) to make new discoveries or curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event
9) curiosity to find new things or to develop new products
10) to serve the society by solving social problems
11) to sum up in addition to the above mentioned significances, research may mean:
- to students, a careerism or, a way to attain a position in the social structure
- to professionals in research methodology, it may mean a source of livelihood;
- to philosophers and thinkers, it may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
- to literary men and women and women, it may mean the development of new styles and
creative work; and
- to analysts and intellectuals, it may mean the development of new theories

Some students undertake research without any aim possibly because of not being able to think of
anything else to do. Such students can also become good researchers by motivating themselves toward a
respectable goal.

8
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

1.4. Characteristics of a Research

The two important characteristics of research are: it is systematic and secondly it follows a scientific
method of enquiry. Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer
questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must as far as
possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical, and critical.

 Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study in a
way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to
a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a
laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as
research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls are
not possible. Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you
attempt to quantify their impact.

 Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.

 Systematic -this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain
logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must
follow others.

 Valid and verifiable -this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

 Empirical -this means that any conclusion drawn is based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.

 Critical -critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The
process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny. For a process
to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.

From the forgoing conceptualizations of the term research, one can safely make the following summary
as being the characteristics of typical research project writing:
9
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

a. That a typical research project must begin on the basis of a problem in mind for which purpose
the research sets to resolve. Generally speaking, it is believed that there cannot be a research
project in the absence of a problem of interest.
b. That the outcomes/findings of a typical project should help to develop generalizations, principles
and theories, which, when applied in other similar situations in the future, could
produce the same results. That is, the methods employed to arrive at the results/findings should be
reproduce able and yield same results under varying circumstances elsewhere.
c. That the process of conducting the research project must, of necessity, be as systematic and
empirical as possible, through the collection of relevant data for the project. This becomes
imperative if (b) above must be achieved.
d. To achieve both (b) and (c) above, there is the need for carefully and appropriately selected
research plan, otherwise known as design or method, serving as guideline for the research
procedures. In the end, the outcomes/findings of the research project should contribute something
new to the growth of knowledge in that field of study. Thus, every research project must help to
expand further the present frontiers of knowledge.

Z High Quality Research

o It is based on the work of others
o It can be replicated (duplicated).
o It is generalizable to other settings.
o It is based on some logical rationale and tied to theory.
o It is doable!
o It generates new questions or is cyclical in nature.
o It is incremental.
o It is apolitical activity that should be undertaken for the betterment of society.

1.5. Types and Methods of Research

There are confusions regarding types with methods of research. Though sounding similar, the two are not
the same; as types refer to the nature of research while methods are concerned with the process of
carrying out the investigation.

10
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

1.5.1. Types of Research

Scholars classify research depending on their own perspective. Some classify research by objective
purpose, type/nature, while others use methods and still others use techniques. .Research can be classified
into two types-purposes and method. The two ways of classifying research are:

I) One way is to classify research on the basis of its purpose i.e. the degree to which the research
findings are applicable to an educational setting and the degree to which they are generalizable.
II) The other is to classify research on the basis of the method employed in research

A common system of classification is also based on their nature, goal, and application of research study,
objectives and inquiry mode employed. Research is broadly classified into two main classes:Fundamental
or basic research and applied research.

1. Classification of Research by Purpose or Application: From the point of view of application,

taking purpose as the basis of classification, research is considered to be two types-Basic and
Applied (Developmental research).

a. Basic, pure or fundamental research: Basic research is geared toward advancing our knowledge
about human behavior with little concern for any immediate practical benefits that might result

b. Applied research. Applied research is designed with a practical outcome in mind and with the
assumption that some group or society as a whole will gain specific benefits from the research. A special
type of applied research is known as action research whose primary objective is to find solutions to
localized day-today problems.

The most basic distinction between the two researches is that basic research is research that has no
immediate application, whereas applied research is research that does. However, such distinctions are
somewhat ambiguous as almost all basic research eventually results in some worthwhile application in
the long range.

2) Objectives: From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified asunder these two
broad headings, types of research can also be classified into:
 Descriptive
11
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 Analytical
 Explanatory
 Correlation
 Exploratory
 Conceptual
 Empirical

Descriptive research: Descriptive research studies deal with collecting data and testing hypotheses or
answering questions concerning the current status of the subject of study. It deals with the question
―WHAT IS‖ of a situation. It concerns with determining the current practices, status or features of
situations. Descriptive research includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In descriptive
research, the researcher has no control of the variables. The researcher reports only what has happened
and what is happening. For instance, the methods commonly used in descriptive research are survey,
comparative and correctional methods.

What are the characteristics of descriptive research?

Quantitative Research:

Descriptive research is quantitative in nature as it attempts to collect information and statistically analyse
it. Descriptive research is a powerful research tool that permits a researcher to collect data and describe
the demographics of the same with the help of statistical analysis. Thus, it is a quantitative research
method. See how data is collected via demographic survey template
Nature of variables:

The variables included in descriptive research are uncontrolled. They are not manipulated in any way.
Descriptive research mostly uses observational methods and thus the researcher cannot control the nature
and the behaviour of the variables under study.
Cross-sectional studies:

In descriptive research different sections of the same group are studied. For instance, in order to study the
fashion preferences of New York, the researcher can study Gen Z as well as Millennial from the same
population in New York.
12
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Directs future research:

Since descriptive research points out the patterns between variables and describes them, researchers can further
study the data collected here. It guides researchers to further find out why such patterns have been found out and
the association between them. Hence, it gives researchers a direction towards insightful market research.

What are the advantages of descriptive research?

Descriptive research has a wide variety of advantages, such as:

 Primary Data-In a descriptive research the data is collected through primary data collection
methods such as case studies, observational method, and surveys. This kind of data collection
provides us with rich information and can be used for future research as well. It can also be used
for developing hypotheses or your research objective. Multiple Data Collection-Descriptive
research can also be conducted by collecting qualitative or quantitative data. Hence it is more
varied, flexible, and diverse and it also tends to be thorough and elaborate.

 Observational behaviour -Through the observational method of descriptive research, it allows

researchers to observe the respondent‘s behaviour in natural settings. This also ensures that the
data collected is high in quality and honest.

 Cost Effective-Descriptive research is cost-effective and the data collection of this research can
be done quickly.

What are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research?

Descriptive Research also has some disadvantages, they are as follows:

 Misleading Information-Respondents can give misleading or incorrect responses if they feel that the
questions are assessing intimate matters. Respondents can also be affected by the presence of the
observer and may engage in pretending. This is known as the observer effect.

 Biases in studies-The researchers own opinions of biases may affect the results of the study. This is
known as the experimenter effect.

 Representative issue-There is also the problem of representativeness, a case study or the data of a
small sample does not adequately represent the whole population.

13
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 Limited Scope-Descriptive research has limited scope, wherein it only analysis the ―what‖ of
research, it does not evaluate the ―why‖ or ―how‖ questions of research,

Analytical research: uses facts or information already available and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material. Analytical research is a specific type of research that involves critical thinking
skills and the evaluation of facts and information relative to the research being conducted. A variety of
people including students, doctors and psychologists use analytical research during studies to find the
most relevant information. From analytical research, a person finds out critical details to add new ideas to
the material being produced.

Research of any type is a method to discover information. Within analytical research articles, data and
other important facts that pertain to a project is compiled; after the information is collected and
evaluated, the sources are used to prove a hypothesis or support an idea. Using critical thinking skills (a
method of thinking that involves identifying a claim or assumption and deciding if it is true or false) a
person is able to effectively pull out small details to form greater assumptions about the material.

Some researchers conduct analytical research to find supporting evidence to current research being done
in order to make the work more reliable. Other researchers conduct analytical research to form new ideas
about the topic being studied. Analytical research is conducted in a variety of ways including literary
research, public opinion, scientific trials and Meta-analysis.

Importance of Analytical Research

Analytical research brings together subtle details to create more provable assumptions.

Thus, analytical research tells us why something is true. Researching why something happens isn‘t easy.
You need critical thinking skills and careful assessment of the facts. For example, people might use
analytical research to find the missing link in a study. It offers new ideas about your data. Thus, it helps
prove or disprove hypotheses. This type of data helps establish the relevance of an idea or confirm a
hypothesis. It helps identify a claim and find out whether it is true or false.

14
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Students, psychologists, marketers, and more find analytical research useful. In a company, it helps
figure out which ad campaigns work best. Meanwhile, in medicine, it finds out whether a given treatment
works well.

Conceptual Research:

Conceptual research is defined as a methodology wherein research is conducted by observing and

analysing already present information on a given topic. Conceptual research doesn‘t involve conducting
any practical experiments. It is related to abstract concepts or ideas. Philosophers have long used
conceptual research to develop new theories or interpret existing theories in a different light.

For example, Copernicus used conceptual research to come up with the concepts about stellar
constellations based on his observations of the universe. Down the line, Galileo simplified Copernicus‘s
research by making his own conceptual observations which gave rise to more experimental research and
confirmed the predictions made at that time.

The most famous example of a conceptual research is Sir Issac Newton. He observed his surroundings to
conceptualize and develop theories about gravitation and motion.

Einstein is widely known and appreciated for his work on conceptual research. Although his theories
were based on conceptual observations, Einstein also proposed experiments to come up with theories to
test the conceptual research.

Nowadays, conceptual research is used to answer business questions and solve real-world problems.
Researchers use analytical tools called conceptual frameworks to make conceptual distinctions and
organize ideas required for research purposes.

Conceptual Research Framework

Conceptual research framework constitutes of a researcher‘s combination of previous researches and

associated work and explains the occurring phenomenon. It systematically explains the actions needed in

15
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

the course of the research study based on the knowledge obtained from other on-going researches and
other researchers‘ point of view on the subject matter.

Here is a stepwise guide on how to create the conceptual research framework:

1. Choose the topic for research: Before you start working on collecting any research material, you
should have decided on your topic for research. It is important that the topic is selected beforehand and
should be within your field of specialization.

2. Collect relevant literature: Once you have narrowed down a topic, it is time to collect relevant
information around it. This is an important step and much of your research is dependent on this particular
step as conceptual research is mostly based on information obtained from previous researches. Here
collecting relevant literature and information is the key to successfully completed research.

The material that you should preferably use is scientific journals, research papers published by well-
known scientist and similar material. There is a lot of information available on the internet and public
libraries as well. All the information that you find on the internet may not be relevant or true. So before
you use the information make sure you verify it.

3. Identify specific variables: Identify the specific variables that are related to the research study you
want to conduct. These variables can give your research a new scope and can also help you identify how
these can be related to your research. For example, consider hypothetically you want to conduct a
research about an occurrence of cancer in married women. Here the two variables that you will be
concentrating on are married women and cancer.

While collecting relevant literature you understand that the spread of cancer is more aggressive in
married women who are beyond 40 years of age. Here there is a third variable which age is and this is a
relevant variable that can affect the end result of your research.

4. Generate the framework: In this step, you start building the required framework using the mix of
variables from the scientific articles and other relevant materials. The problem statement in your research
becomes the research framework. Your attempt to start answering the question becomes the basis of your
16
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

research study. The study is carried out to reduce the knowledge gap and make available more relevant
and correct information.

Advantages of Primary Research

1. One of the most important advantages is, data collected is first hand and is accurate. In other
words, there is no dilution of data. Also, this research method can be customized to suit
personal requirements and needs of organizations or businesses.
2. Primary research focuses mainly on problem in hand, which means entire attention is directed
to find probable solution to a pinpointed subject matter. Primary research allows researchers to
go in depth of a matter and study all foreseeable options.
3. Data collected can be controlled. Primary research gives a means to control how data is
collected and used. It‘s up to the discretion of businesses or organizations that are collecting
data how to best make use of data to get meaningful research insights.
4. Primary research is a time-tested method; therefore, one can rely on the results that are
obtained from conducting this type of research.

Disadvantages of Primary Research

1. One of the major disadvantages of primary research is, it can be quite expensive to conduct.
One may be required to spend a huge sum of money depending on the setup or primary
research method used. Not all businesses or organizations may be able to spend a considerable
amount of money.
2. This type of research can be time-consuming. Conducting interviews, sending and receiving
online surveys can be quite an exhaustive process and need investing time and patience for the
process to work. Moreover, evaluating results and applying the findings to improve product or
service will need additional time.
3. Sometimes just using one primary research method may not be enough. In such cases, use of
more than one method is required and this might increase both times required to conduct
research and the cost associated with it.

17
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Explanatory research

What is explanatory research?

Explanatory research was carried out to investigate in a timely manner a phenomenon that had not been
studied before, or had not been well explained previously. Its intention is to provide details where a
small amount of information exists. The researcher gets a general idea and uses the research as a tool to
guide him to issues that might be addressed in the future. Its goal is to find the why and what for an
object of study.

Characteristics of explanatory research

Among the most important characteristics of explanatory research are:

 It allows for increased understanding about a specific topic. Although it does not offer
conclusive results, the researcher can find the reasons why a phenomenon occurs.
 It uses secondary research as a source of information, such as literature or published articles that
are carefully chosen to have a broad and balanced understanding of the topic.
 It allows the researcher to have a broad understanding of the topic and can refine subsequent
research questions to augment the conclusions of the study.
 Researchers can distinguish the causes why phenomena arise during the research process,
and anticipate changes.
 Explanatory research allows them to replicate studies to give them greater depth and gain new
insights into the phenomenon.

Types of explanatory research

The most popular methods of explanatory research:
1. Literature research
2. In-depth interview
3. Focus groups
4. Case studies

18
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Literature research: It is one of the fastest and least expensive means of determining the hypothesis of
the phenomenon and collecting information. It involves searching for literature on the internet and in
libraries. It can of course be in magazines, newspapers, commercial and academic articles.

In-depth interview: The process involves talking to a person who is knowledgeable about the topic
under investigation. The in-depth interview is used to take advantage of the information offered by
people and their experience, whether they are professionals within or outside the organization.

Focus groups: Focus groups consist of bringing together 8 to 12 people who have information about the
phenomenon under study and organizing sessions to obtain from these people various data that will help
the research.

Case studies: With this method, researchers can deal with carefully selected cases. Case analysis allows
the organization to observe companies that have faced the same case and deal with it more efficiently.

Importance of explanatory research

 Explanatory research is conducted with the aim of helping researchers to study the problem in
greater depth and understand the phenomenon efficiently.

 In carrying out the research process, it is necessary to adapt to new findings and knowledge about
the subject.

 Although it is not possible to obtain a conclusion, it is possible to explore the variables with a
high level of depth.

 Explanatory research allows the researcher to become familiar with the topic to be examined and
to design theories to test them.
 This method is extremely valuable for social research. They are essential when one wants to
convey new data about a point of view on the study.

 Explanatory research allows researchers to find a phenomenon that was not studied in depth.
Although it does not give a conclusion of such a study, it helps to efficiently understand the
problem.

 People, who conduct explanatory research, do so with the objective of studying in detail the
interaction of the phenomenon. Therefore, it is important to have enough information to carry it
out.
19
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Exploratory research

Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly
defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide
conclusive results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this research
as a medium to identify issues that can be the focus for future research. An important aspect here is
that the researcher should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data
or insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often
referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like
what, why and how.

For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that increasing the variety of juices
will enable increase in customers, however he is not sure and needs more information. The owner
intends to carry out an exploratory research to find out and hence decides to do an exploratory
research to find out if expanding their juices selection will enable him to get more customers of if
there is a better idea.

Another example of exploratory research is a podcast survey template that can be used to collect
feedback about the podcast consumption metrics both from existing listeners as well as other podcast
listeners that are currently not subscribed to this channel. This helps the author of the podcast create
curated content that will gain a larger audience.

Types and methodologies of exploratory research

While it may sound a little difficult to research something that has very little information about it,
there are several methods which can help a researcher figure out the best research design, data
collection methods and choice of subjects. There are two ways in which research can be conducted
namely primary and secondary. Under these two types, there are multiple methods which can used by
a researcher. The data gathered from these researches can be qualitative or quantitative.

20
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Exploratory research: Steps to conduct a research

 Identify the problem: A researcher identifies the subject of research and the problem is addressed by
carrying out multiple methods to answer the questions.
 Create the hypothesis: When the researcher has found out that there are no prior studies and the
problem is not precisely resolved, the researcher will create a hypothesis based on the questions
obtained while identifying the problem.
 Further research: Once the data has been obtained, the researcher will continue his study through
descriptive investigation. Qualitative methods are used to further study the subject in detail and find
out if the information is true or not.

Characteristics of Exploratory research

 They are not structured studies

 It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
 It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the problem. What is the purpose of the study?
And what topics could be studied?
 To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research done or the existing ones do not
answer the problem precisely enough.
 It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks associated with it.
 The researcher will have to go through all the information available for the particular study he is doing.
 There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are flexible, broad and scattered.
 The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is not important in the industry the
research carried out is ineffective.
 The research should also have a few theories which can support its findings as that will make it easier
for the researcher to assess it and move ahead in his study
 Such a research usually produces qualitative data, however in certain cases quantitative data can be
generalized for a larger sample through use of surveys and experiments.

Advantages of Exploratory research

 The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as the research progresses.

21
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 It is usually low cost.

 It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further research.
 It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is worth investing the time and
resources and if it is worth pursuing.
 It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the problem, which can be further studied
in detail to find out, which of them is the most likely cause for the problem.

Disadvantages of Exploratory research

 Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is the answer, it is usually
inconclusive.
 The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide qualitative data. Interpretation of
such information can be judgmental and biased.
 Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample, hence the results cannot be
accurately interpreted for a generalized population.
 Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary research, then there is a chance of that
data being old and is not updated.

Importance of Exploratory research

Exploratory research is carried out when a topic needs to be understood in depth, especially if it hasn‘t
been done before. The goal of such a research is to explore the problem and around it and not actually
derive a conclusion from it. Such kind of research will enable a researcher to set a strong foundation for
exploring his ideas, choosing the right research design and finding variables that actually are important
for the analysis. Most importantly, such a research can help organizations or researchers save up a lot of
time and resources, as it will enable the researcher to know if it worth pursuing.

What is correlational research?

Correlational research refers to a non-experimental research method which studies the relationship between
two variables with the help of statistical analysis. Correlational research does not study the effects of
extraneous variables on the variables under study. In terms of market research, a correlational study is

22
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

generally used to study quantitative data and identify whether any patterns, trends, or insights exist between
consumer behaviour and market variables such as; advertisements, discounts, as well as discounts on products.

A correlational research is useful for all kinds of quantitative data sets, but it is commonly used within market
research. Market researchers find it useful to use correlational analysis with Customer Effort Score Surveys
and its association with sales; Customer Experience (CX) and its relationship with customer loyalty, as well
as Net Promoter Score Surveys and its correlation with brand image or management. These surveys include
many relevant questions that make them ideal to study in correlational research. In market research,
correlational studies help in isolating variables and see how they interact with each other.

Examples of correlational research:

Correlation coefficient is used to measure the strength of the relationship between two variables. It is a
statistical measure. There are several types of correlation coefficients, the most popular being Pearson‘s
correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to +1. A correlation coefficient of +1
indicates a perfect positive correlation whereas a correlation coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative
correlation between two variables. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates that there is no relationship
between the variables under study.

For instance, let us consider a hypothetical study on hypertension and marital satisfaction. A researcher is aiming
to study the relationship between disease (hypertension) and marital satisfaction. If the researcher finds a negative
correlation between these two variables indicating that as marital satisfaction increases, experiences of
hypertension decreases. However, this does not mean that marital dissatisfaction is causing hypertension, it just
highlights an association between them. In a correlational research, none of the variables under study are
manipulated or changed. They are just measured and the associations between them are observed or examined.

What are the advantages of correlational research?

 Planning to conduct a correlational study motivates and inspires researchers to ask relevant
questions in the survey for assessing the attitudes of customers.

 It helps researchers to identify the variables that have the strongest relationships and make
better decisions in the long run.

 Correlational studies can also guide future research.

23
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 Correlational studies help researchers determine the direction and strength of the relationship
between different variables.

 Correlational research is easier to interpret, cost-effective, and more applicable in day-to-day

business decision-making.

What are the disadvantages of correlational research?

 Correlational studies don‘t have the scope to imply causation. They only give us information
about the association between two variables.

 It does not omit the likelihood of other extraneous variables affecting the main variables under
study. For instance, stress is not the only variable that has a relationship with happiness. Other
variables such as emotional intelligence, subjective well-being, as well as quality of social
relationships also affect happiness.

 It is not useful when researchers want to see the isolated effects of one variable on another.

Empirical research: Definition

Empirical research is defined as any research where conclusions of the study are strictly drawn from
concretely empirical evidence, and therefore ―verifiable‖ evidence. This empirical evidence can be
gathered using quantitative market research and qualitative market research methods.

For example: A research is being conducted to find out if listening to happy music while working may
promote creativity? An experiment is conducted by using a music website survey on a set of audience
who are exposed to happy music and another set who are not listening to music at all, and the subjects are
then observed. The results derived from such a research will give empirical evidence if it does promote
creativity or not.

Steps for conducting empirical research

Since empirical research is based on observation and capturing experiences, it is important to plan the
steps to conduct the experiment and how to analyse it. This will enable the researcher to resolve problems
or obstacles which can occur during the experiment.
24
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Step #1: Define the purpose of the research

This is the step where the researcher has to answer questions like what exactly do I want to find out?
What is the problem statement? Are there any issues in terms of the availability of knowledge, data, time
or resources? Will this research be more beneficial than what it will cost.

Before going ahead, a researcher has to clearly define his purpose for the research and set up a plan to
carry out further tasks.

Step #2: Supporting theories and relevant literature

The researcher needs to find out if there are theories which can be linked to his research problem. He has
to figure out if any theory can help him support his findings. All kind of relevant literature will help the
researcher to find if there are others who have researched this before or what are the problems faced
during this research. The researcher will also have to set up assumptions and also find out if there is any
history regarding his research problem

Step #3: Creation of Hypothesis and measurement

Before beginning the actual research he needs to provide himself a working hypothesis or guess what will
be the probable result. Researcher has to set up variables, decide the environment for the research and
find out how he can relate between the variables.

Researcher will also need to define the units of measurements, tolerable degree for errors, and find out if
the measurement chosen will be acceptable by others.

Step #4: Methodology, research design and data collection

In this step, the researcher has to define a strategy for conducting his research. He has to set up
experiments to collect data which will enable him to propose the hypothesis. The researcher will decide
whether he will need experimental or non-experimental method for conducting the research. The type of
research design will vary depending on the field in which the research is being conducted. Last but not

25
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

the least; the researcher will have to find out parameters that will affect the validity of the research
design. Data collection will need to be done by choosing appropriate samples depending on the research
question. To carry out the research, he can use one of the many sampling techniques. Once data
collection is complete, researcher will have empirical data which needs to be analysed.

Step #5: Data Analysis and result

Data analysis can be done in two ways, qualitatively and quantitatively. Researcher will need to find out
what qualitative method or quantitative method will be needed or will he need a combination of both.
Depending on the analysis of his data, he will know if his hypothesis is supported or rejected. Analyzing
this data is the most important part to support his hypothesis.

Step #6: Conclusion

A report will need to be made with the findings of the research. The researcher can give the theories and
literature that support his research. He can make suggestions or recommendations for further research on
his topic.

Advantages of Empirical research

There is a reason why empirical research is one of the most widely used method. There are a few
advantages associated with it. Following are a few of them.

 It is used to authenticate traditional research through various experiments and observations.

 This research methodology makes the research being conducted more competent and authentic.

 It enables a researcher understand the dynamic changes that can happen and change his strategy
accordingly.
 The level of control in such a research is high so the researcher can control multiple variables.
 It plays a vital role in increasing internal validity.

26
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Disadvantages of Empirical research

Even though empirical research makes the research more competent and authentic, it does have a few
disadvantages. Following are a few of them.

 Such a research needs patience as it can be very time consuming. The researcher has to collect
data from multiple sources and the parameters involved are quite a few, which will lead to a
time consuming research.

 Most of the time, a researcher will need to conduct research at different locations or in different
environments, this can lead to an expensive affair.

 There are a few rules in which experiments can be performed and hence permissions are
needed. Many a times, it is very difficult to get certain permissions to carry out different
methods of this research.

 Collection of data can be a problem sometimes, as it has to be collected from a variety of

sources through different methods.

Why is there a need for empirical research?

Empirical research is important in today‘s world because most people believe in something only that they
can see, hear or experience. It is used to validate multiple hypotheses and increase human knowledge and
continue doing it to keep advancing in various fields.

For example: Pharmaceutical companies use empirical research to try out a specific drug on controlled
groups or random groups to study the effect and cause. This way they prove certain theories they had
proposed for the specific drug. Such research is very important as sometimes it can lead to finding a cure
for a disease that has existed for many years. Such research is not just useful in science but in many other
fields like history, social sciences, business, etc.

With the advancement in today‘s world, empirical research has become critical as well as a norm in many
fields so as to support their hypothesis and gain more knowledge. The methods mentioned above are very
useful for carrying out such research however; a number of new methods will keep coming up as the
nature of new investigative questions keeps getting unique or changes.

27
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Mode of Inquiry based Types of Research

Mode of inquiry concerns the process one adopts to find answers to his questions. Broadly, there are two
approaches to enquiry.

 The structured approach

 The unstructured approach

Structured approach:

In the structured approach everything that forms the research process – objectives of a research, design
for conducting it in a good way, sample for help, and the questions that you may plan to ask of
respondents that is predetermined. On the other hand approach that s unstructured allows flexibility in all
three aspects of the process. Hence, the approach that is structured is more appropriate to determine the
extent of a particular problem, an out of control issue or a deep phenomenon.

Unstructured approach:

The unstructured approach is predominantly used to explore its nature, in other words, it defines the
diversity in a phenomena, issue, problem or attitude towards an issue. For example, if one wants to
research the different perspectives of an issue, the problems experienced by the people living in a
community or the different views people hold towards an unsolved issue, then these should be better
explored using unstructured enquiries.

To find out answers to particular questions like how many people have a particular problem, one need to
have a structured approach to enquiry. On the other hand, an unstructured enquiry must be undertaken to
ascertain the diversity in a phenomena which can then be quantified through the structured enquiry. Both
approaches have their own importance in research at their places, as both have their positive points and
negative points. Therefore, as a matter of fact one should not lock himself only into structured or
unstructured approach.

28
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Moreover, structured approach to inquire is usually classified as quantitative research and unstructured as
qualitative research. The choice between qualitative and quantitative approaches depends upon:

 Aims of one‘s enquiry that includes exploration, confirmation or quantification

 Use of the findings that involves policy formulation or process understanding

According to the mode of enquiry there are two types with special reference to mode of enquiry, as stated
above as, qualitative and quantitative approaches. These two approaches can also be used as
methodologies for data collection and data analysis while conducting a research

1.5.2. Research Approaches

1.5.2.1. Quantitative

Early forms of research originated in the natural sciences to study natural phenomena such as biology,
chemistry, physics, geology etc. and it was concerned with investigating things which we could observe
and measure in some way. Such observations and measurements can be made objectively and repeated by
other re searchers. This process is referred to as ―quantitative‖ research.

Quantitative is also known as traditional, positivist, experimental, or empiricist as advanced by

authorities such as Comte, Mill, Durkheim, Newton, and Locke. Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena relating to that can be expressed in
terms of quantity. It involves the generation of data that can be subjected to quantitative analysis. It is
more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation

Both quantitative and qualitative research studies are conducted in education. Neither of these methods is
intrinsically better than the other; the suitability of which needs to be decided by the context, purpose and
nature of the research study in question; in fact, sometimes one can be alternatives to the other depending
on the kind of study. Some researchers prefer to use mixed methods approach by taking advantage of the
differences between quantitative and qualitative methods, and combine these two methods for use in a
single research project depending on the kind of study and its methodological foundation.

29
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

1.5.2.2. Qualitative research

What is qualitative research?

Much later, along came researchers working in the social sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology,
history etc. Qualitative research refers to constructivist, naturalistic, interpretive, post-positivist or
postmodern perspective as advanced by Dithey, Kant, Wittgenstein (latter), Foucault, Miles and
Huberman. Qualitative research methods were developed in the social sciences to enable researchers to
study social and cultural phenomena. They were interested in studying human behavior and the social
world inhabited by human beings. They found increasing difficulty in trying to explain human behavior
in simply measurable terms. Measurements tell us how often or how many people behave in a certain
way but they do not adequately answer the ―why‖ and ―how‖ questions. Research which attempts to
increase our understanding of why things are the way they are in our social world and why people act the
ways they do is ―qualitative‖ research.

Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, i.e., studies relating to involving quality or
kind. For instance a research work on motivation is basically qualitative since it aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires or satisfactions using in-depth observation, interview, etc. for the
purpose. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more appropriate to
explore the nature of the problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. The main objective is to
describe the variation in phenomenon, situation or attitude. Other techniques of such research are word
association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioral sciences and humanities where
the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior.

 Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with: why?
How? In what way?

 Quantitative research, on the other hand, is more concerned with questions about: how much?
How many? How often? To what extent? etc.

30
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

1.6. Action Research

Action research is a type of applied or decision oriented research where the researcher is the person as
practitioner who will use the decision. In education action research is done by teachers, supervisors,
administrators, etc. dealing with school or classroom level problems. Action research can also be defined
as ―a type of research that focuses on finding a solution to a local problem in a local setting.‖ Action
research is unique in the approach as the researcher are part of the practitioners group that face the actual
problem the research is trying to address. Action research is a form of applied research where the
researcher attempts to develop results or a solution that is of practical value to the people with whom the
research is working, and at the same time developing theoretical knowledge. Through direct intervention
in problems, the researcher aims to create practical, often emancipatory, outcomes while also aiming to
re-inform existing theory in the domain studied. As with case studies, action research is usually restricted
to a single organization making it difficult to generalize findings, while different researchers‘ may
interpret events differently.

Action research is a type of descriptive research that combines two major aspects: research and action.
Action research is a form of self-reflective inquiry undertaken by participants in educational setting for
the purpose of understanding their practice and solve immediate problematic situation. The aim is to
bring improvement or changing of practices in the immediate environment. In action research, the actors
or the users are doing the research for their immediate consumption.

According to De Luca, Gallivan, and Kock (2008), there are five key steps in action research including:

a. Diagnosing the problem;

b. Planning the action;
c. Taking the action;
d. Evaluating the results; and
e. Specifying lessons learned for the next cycle. During the course of all give steps of the
action research, ―researchers and practitioners collaborate during each step.‖

31
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

1.6.1. Characteristics of Action Research

Action research is characterized by the following features:

 Research is done by the practitioner

 Problem-solving for immediate practices
 Eclectic orientation
 Aimed at developing practitioners professional experts and judgment
 Action oriented practical and directly relevant to an actual situation in the working world. The
subjects are the classroom, students, the staff or others with whom teachers are primarily
involved.
 Action research provides an orderly framework from problem-solving and new developments
that is superior to the intuitive and fragmented approach that otherwise typifies development in
education.
 It is also empirical in the sense that it relies on actual observations and behavioral data, and
doesn‘t fall back on subjective committee studies or opinions of people based on their past
experiences.
 Action research is flexible and adaptive
 Action research is systematic
 Its objective is situational and it has little control over independent variable
 Its findings are useful for practical dimensions of the situation; do not directly contribute to the
general body of knowledge.

Some weaknesses of action research are:

 Lack of detail about data collection methodology and action research lacks scientific rigor
because its internal and external validity is weak e.g. interview questions were not listed out.
 Poor explanation of site selected for research

 Inadequate explanation of where research lies in the knowledge building process, and therefore
inadequate explanation of research purpose
 The use of triangulation to increase reliability of results was seldom encountered
 Longitudinal methodologies seldom used

32
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 Research objectives seldom and poorly stated

 Lack of detail about data sources used

2. Some other Classifications of Research by Methods

The other basis for classifying research is by the method it employs. Research method is characterized by
the techniques employed in collecting and analyzing data. All other types of research are variations of
one or more of the above stated approaches based on either the purpose of research, or the time required
to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other
similar factors. The appropriateness of a given research method is determined mainly by the kind of
investigation being conducted. On the basis of method, research can be classified as:

 Historical research
 Social survey research

 Laboratory research or Simulation research

 Case studies research

 Clinical or diagnostic

 Experimental research

 Content analysis

1.7. Various Stages of a Research

There are well-defined stages involved in this scientific/empirical approach to research undertakings,
which are quite similar to the characteristics of a research project given above. Whenever a problem is to
be solved, there are several important steps to follow. The problem must be stated clearly . The exact
formulation of steps varies from author to author, but the major typical steps, outlined hereunder; provide
useful procedural guidelines regarding the research process. These steps are:

1. Selection of the research topic

2. Definition of a research problem
3. Literature review and reference collection
4. Assessment of current status of topic chosen
5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Research design

33
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

7. Data analysis Actual investigation

8. Interpretation of the result
9. Report
1. Identification of a researchable Problem: Although it is expected that the research project
should emanate from real-life situations, it is equally important to note that not all real-life
situation problems are researchable. There must be a balance between these two. Clear and
concise statement of the research problem: It is the first and most crucial step in the research
process. Main function is to decide what you want to find out about. It is yet another, quite
different thing to be able to put same down very precisely, concisely and clearly. The problem
would seize to be researchable until and unless one has been able to state it so well and good as to
be precise, concise and clear.
2. Formulating Necessary Research Questions and/or Appropriate Research Hypotheses:
A research hypothesis is a definite statement whose supposed truth or practicability is
testable through the scientific method. It is a form of statement, which declares one‘s prediction
on the subject matter intended to help clarify certain ambiguities/doubts. On the other hand, a
research question is an intelligent question posed by the researcher, consequent upon the clear
statement of the problem. The research questions are set in such a way that once answers have
been provided to them, the research problems in question become resolved.
3. Background and extensive review of related literature: This is the stage that the researcher
presents what is known so far about the problem under consideration. Reviewing literature can be
time consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is also rewarding. Its functions are:
-Bring clarity and focus to your research
problem -Improve your methodology;
-Broaden your knowledge;
-Contextualize your findings
4. Developing the objectives: Objectives are your goals you set out to attain in your study.
Objectives should be listed under two headings:
A) General (main) objective: is an overall statement of the thrust of your study
B) Specific or sub-objectives: are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate
within the main framework of your study.
- They should be numerically listed,
34
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

- Wording should clearly, completely and specifically communicate to your readers your
intention.
-Each objective should contain only one aspect of the study.
- Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.
5. Defining research methodology: This is the step that the researcher outlines all the steps that
will be taken to make the investigation.
6. Validating the data gathering techniques (tools): At this stage the researcher decides the type
of tools, instruments, etc. that are to be used in the data gathering process. instruments such as
questionnaire, personal/direct observation, interviews and documentary sources are often used for
the purpose of data gathering.
7. Collection, analysis and interpretation of data: Since the researcher will basically collecting
raw data from the field of study, it is expected that such data are presented first, and then
subjected to discussions and interpretations.
8. Summarizing the findings: This is the stage at which findings are identified and summarized,
and confirmation of or rejection of the hypothesis is made.
9. Drawing conclusions and suggesting possible solutions to the problem. This is where the so-
much-talked-about contribution(s) to knowledge is made manifest and clearly stated. That is,
what the inferences, conclusions and recommendations set out to do; and it is on this basis that
generalizations, principles and theories would be derived. Stakeholders are hereby assigned
responsibilities with a view to ensuring that the present conditions are improved upon
10. Taking Actions: this is a task of either to apply the recommendations or look for a forum or an
opportunity to disseminate the research results.
1.8. Research Methods versus Methodology

Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of
research. Research methods or techniques refer to the methods the researchers use in performing research
operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of
studying his research problem are termed as research methods. At times, a distinction is also made
between research techniques and research methods. Research techniques refer to the behaviour and
instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data,

35
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used
in selecting and constructing research technique.

Methods or techniques are used to collect and analyze data. Participant observation, questionnaires,
interviews and archival records are examples of data collection methods. The methods are the techniques
or processes we use to conduct our research. A research method refers only to the various specific tools
or ways data can be collected and analyzed, e.g. a questionnaire; interview checklist; data analysis
software etc.). A factual statement of how the research was conducted. The design of the research, the
methods of data collection and the techniques of data analysis need to be described. They also need to be
justified as appropriate in relation to the research questions and to broader social, ethical and resource
issues.

There are various methods one can use to obtain research results. The choice of the specific method will
depend on the aim that you have with your research and the results that you want to achieve.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem under investigation. It may
be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various
steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic
behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also
the methodology. A methodology is a recommended set of methods for collecting and analyzing data. It
also has a standard for the validation of findings. The term methodology refers to the overall approaches
& perspectives to the research process as a whole and is concerned with the following main issues:

 Why you collected certain data

 What data you collected

 Where you collected it

 How you collected it

 How you analyzed it

The methodology is the discipline, or body of knowledge, that utilizes these methods. So, for example,
one of the methodologies is ethnography. Methodology connotes a set of rules and procedures to guide
research and against which its claims can be evaluated. It is therefore fundamental to the construction of
all forms of knowledge. While it is too simplistic to liken it to a recipe, it could be thought of as a set of
36
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

guidelines that are widely known and generally adhered to. These procedures as they have been built up
over time help both to define a subject discipline and to differentiate it from others. These rules and
conventions give the researcher a structure of enquiry and a set of rules of inference (drawing
conclusions from evidence). They derive from the logical or philosophical basis of the discipline.
Overall, methodology provides the tools whereby understanding is created. Hence, emphasis is on the
broad approach rather than, as often (mis)understood, just techniques for data gathering and analysis.
One is normally speaking of the design of the research.

Methodology is as centrally concerned with how we conceptualize, theorize and make abstractions as it is
with the techniques or methods which we utilize to assemble and analyze information. These conventions
are neither fixed nor infallible, although they might appear so at times.. It is first of all a set of rules and
procedures for reasoning, a set of logical structures. Facts do not` speak for themselves' but must be
reasoned. Conventions for classification and definition, deduction, induction, sampling procedures and so
forth allow one to proceed systematically through the evidence. The second way of thinking about
methodology is as a form of communication, a language. In order to be able to communicate with others,
especially one's peers, one follows certain conventions. We can say that research methodology has many
dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research
methodology is wider than that of research methods.

We need to differentiate research methodology from research methods:

• Methodology – general approaches or guidelines

• Methods – specific details and/or procedures to accomplish a task

37
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

1.9. Historical Research

1.9.1. Meaning

What is historical research?

It is a systematic process of describing, analyzing, and interpreting the past based on information from
selected sources as they relate to the topic under study. Historical research has been defined as the
systematic and objective collection, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and
draw conclusion about past events. It involves a critical inquiry of a previous age with the aim of
reconstructing a faithful representation of the past. In historical research, the investigator studies
documents and other source that contain facts concerning the research there with the objective of
achieving better understanding of present policies, practices, problems and institutions.

Still historical research is defined as the systematic process of collecting and objectively evaluating data
related to past occurrences to arrive at a conclusion or trends of past events about cause, effect at that
may be helpful in explaining the present and anticipating the future. In historical research the study of
past events is accompanied by an interpretation of past evens and their relevance to present situation sand
what might happen in the future.

 It is not a mere accumulation of facts and dates or even a description of past events.

 It is a flowing, dynamic account of past events which involves an interpretation of the events in
an attempt to recapture the nuances, personalities, and ideas that influenced these events.

 One of the goals of historical research is to communicate an understanding of past events.

1.9.2. Significance of Historical Research

Why would a person want to conduct historical research?
The following gives seven important reasons for conducting historical research:
1. To uncover the unknown (i.e., some historical events are not recorded).
2. To provide perspective for decision making and policy formulation
3. To answer questions (i.e., there are many questions about our past that we not only want to
know but can profit from knowing).
38
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

4. To identify the relationship that the past has to the present (i.e., knowing about the past can
frequently give a better perspective of current events).
5. To provide information to avoid repeating previous mistakes
6. To record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals, agencies, or institutions.
7. To assist in understanding the culture in which we live (e.g., education is a part of our history
and our culture).

1.9.3. Characteristic of Historical Research

Some of the characteristics of historical research can be mentioned as follow:

 It is not a mere accumulation of facts and data

 It is a slowing vibrant report of past events which involves an analysis and explanation of these
occurrences with the objective of recapturing the nuances personalities and ideas that influenced
these events.
 Conducting historical research involves the process of collecting and reading the research
material collected and writing the manuscript from the data collected the researcher often goes
back and forth between collecting reading and in writing. I.e. the process of data collection and
analysis are does simultaneously are not two distinct phases of research.
 It deals with discovery of data that already exists and does not involve creation of data using
structured tools.
 It is analytical in that is uses logical induction.
 It has variety of foci such as issue, events movements and concept. It records and evaluates the
accomplishment of individual agencies and instruction.

1.9.4. Types of Historical Research

A. Historical Events Research

o examines particular events or processes that occurred over short spans of time
o Methodological problems
 Meanings may have changed
 Information may not be complete
39
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

B. Historical Process Research

o focus on how and why a series of events unfolded over some period of time
o Methodological problems:
 May place too much emphasis on the actions and decisions of particular actors
 Not always clear which example represents general pattern
 definitions may change over time
 relies on long-term records and archives

C. Cross-Sectional Comparative Research

o comparing two or more social settings or groups (usually countries) at one particular point in
time
o Methodological problems:
 comparability of measures across countries

D. Comparative Historical Research

 combines historical process research and cross-sectional comparative research

 To understand causal processes at work within particular groups and to identify general
historical patterns across groups

 Methodological problems:

 history has not been recorded accurately or reliably

 difficult to know how to deal with exceptions

 difficult to conclude that one factor (and not others) is what causes some outcome

 groups being compared may not be independent

40
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

1.9.5. Historical Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques in Historical

Research

The process of critically examining and analyzing the records and survivals of the past is called
Historical method. The historical method is based upon historical facts. These are collected from various
sources. Historical research is a type of analytical research. Its common methodological characteristics
include:

l) identifying a research topic that addresses past events;

ii) review of primary and secondary data;
iii) systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrences with the help
of techniques of criticism for historical searches and evaluation of the introduction; and

iv) synthesis and explanation of findings in order to test hypotheses concerning causes and effect.

According to Monaghan and Hanuman there are four major approaches to the study of the past:

 Qualitative Approach: This is what most lay persons think of as history. The search for a story
inferred from arrange of written or printed evidence. The resultant history is organized
chronologically and presented as a factual tale: a tale as a person who created reading text book.
The sources of the qualitative history range from manuscripts such as account book, school
records, marginalia, letters, diaries and memories to imprints such as text book, children‘s books,
journals, and other books of the period under consideration. Most historical studies all largely
qualitative.
 Quantitative Approach : Here rather than relying on ―history by quotation‖ as the former
approach has been negatively called researcher intentionally look for evidence that lends itself to
being counted and that is therefore presumed to have superior validity and generalizability.
Researcher has sought to estimate the popularity of a particular textbook by tabulating the
numbers printed, based on copyright records. The assumption is that broader

41
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

question such as relationship between education and political system in a given country or
between textbooks and their influence on children can thus be addressed more authoritative.
 Content analysis: Here the text itself is the focus of examination. This approach uses published
works as its data (in the case of history of textbook these might be readers or examples of the
content of school textbook in. successive edition) and subject them to careful analysis that
usually includes both quantitative and qualitative aspect content analysis has been particularly
useful in investigating construct such as race caste etc.
 Oral History: Qualitative, quantitative and content approaches use written or printed text as
their database. In contrast the fourth approaches, oral history turns to living memory. For
instance, oral historians interested in women‘s education could ask their respondent about their
early experience and efforts in women‘s education.

1.9.6. Steps in Historical Research

There is no one approach that is used in conducting historical research although there is a general set of
steps that are typically followed.

What are the steps involved in the conduct of historical research?

There are some steps that a researcher should follow although there is some overlap and movement back
and forth between the steps:

1. Identification of the research topic

2. define the research problems / questions to be investigated

3. Locate evidence or data collection or research for sources of data

4. Write background and literature review

5. Evaluation of sources or materials.

6. Organize evidence

7. Analyze, synthesize, summarize and interpreting the data information

42
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

8. Write research report or preparation of the narrative exposition of the findings

Much of the time in conducting historical research involves the process of collecting and reading the
research material collected, and writing the manuscript from the data collected. The researcher often goes
back-and-forth between collecting, reading, and writing.

What type of information is used when conducting a historical research study?

Information include: documents, records, photographs, relics, and interviews.

 Documents and records include, for example, written or printed materials such as diplomas,
cartoons, diaries, memoirs, newspapers, photos, yearbooks, memos, periodicals, reports, files,
attendance records, census reports, budgets, maps, and tests.

 Oral history is another very useful type of information. An oral history is what you obtain when
you interview a person who has had direct or indirect experience with or knowledge of the chosen
topic.

 Relics are also used and include, for example, articles of clothing, buildings, books, architectural
plans, desks, or any other object that might provide useful information about the past.

Where would you find the historical information needed for a historical study?

Most historical information exists in libraries and in archival centers e.g. The National Archives of
Ethiopia. However, historical documents can be found in other places such as local court houses,
provincial or district administrative offices, municipal record offices and school board central offices as
well as individual schools. Conducting an oral history with a person who has experience with the topic of
interest is also a good source of information.

What is the difference between a primary and secondary source?

A primary source: is an original, first hand record or account or artifact that has survived from the past;
it has direct involvement with the event being investigated. They have a direct physical relationship to
the event being studied.

43
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

A secondary source is an account of the past created after the event or created from primary sources. A
secondary source is one in which the eyewitness or the participant i.e. the person describing the event
was not actually present but who obtained his/her descriptions or narrations from rushes person or source.
Secondary sources, thus, do not have a direct physical relationship with the event being studied.

1.9.7. Evaluation of Source Materials

What is the difference between external criticism and internal criticism?

External criticism: - refers to determining the authenticity, validity, or trustworthiness of the source (to
see if the source is what it claims to be). It involves investigating the origin of a particular source - as
opposed to its content, which is the concern of internal criticism. The historian needs to seek out all
possible information regarding the sources origin, as well as possibly restore the source to its original
form. This is in order to establish the authenticity of the source. Determining the authenticity of a source
means establishing that the testimony is indeed that of the person to whom it is attributed, or that it
belongs to the period to which it claims to belong, and that it is what it claims itself to be. Seeking out all
possible information regarding the sources origin is also necessary for establishing the integrity of the
source; i.e., that it has not been corrupted during its transmission to the present time, and if it has, that the
changes are identified.

Internal criticism: - refers to the determination of the reliability or accuracy of the information
contained in the source; it is important for determining what a good interpretation is of the information
contained in the source. It is concerned with establishing the true meaning of a testimony and the
credibility of a witness. Ultimately, the basic principles of source criticism are what lead to the
establishment of facts, or to recognize previously established ones.

Positive criticism: - is a strategy for internal criticism and it refers to making sure that you understand
the meaning conveyed in the source.

Negative criticism: - refers to establishing the reliability or authenticity and accuracy of the content of
documents and other sources of information. You must determine if the content in the document or
source is accurate; this determination is achieved by using the following three issues:

44
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 Corroboration: comparing documents to each other to see if they provide the same information
and lead to the same conclusions.

 Sourcing: identifying the author, date of creation, place of creation, or other information that
identifies the source.

 Contextualization: identifying when and where the event took place and the context in which it

took place.

Some Problems and weaknesses of Historical Research

Some of the weaknesses, problems and mistakes that need to be avoided in a historical research are as
follows:

1) Interpreting sources is very time consuming. The problem of research should not to be too broad.
2) Lack of control over external variables
3) It should be selected after ensuring that sources of data are existent, accessible and in a language
known as the researcher.
4) Excessive use of easy to final secondary sources of data should be avoided. Though locating
primary sources of data time consuming and requires efforts they are usually more trustworthy.

5) Sources of historical materials may be problematic. Adequate internal and external criticism of
sources of historical data is very essential for establishing the authority and validity of the data. It
is also necessary to ascertain whether statement concerning evidence one participant have
influenced opinion of other participant witness.
6) Bias in interpreting historical sources. The researcher needs to be aware of his / her own personal
values interest and biases for this purpose it is necessary for the researcher to quote statements
along with the context the context shows the intention of persuading the readers.
The researcher also need to avoid both extreme generosity or administration as well also needs to
avoid both extreme generosity or administration as well as extreme criticism. The researcher
needs to avoid reliance on beliefs such as ―old is gold‖ ―new is always better‖ or ―change
implies progress‖. All such beliefs indicate researcher bias and personal values.

45
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

7) The researcher needs to ensure that the concepts borrowed from other discipline are relevant to
his / her topic.
8) He / she should avoid unwarranted casual references arising accounting of
a. Over simplification (causes of historical event may be multiple, complex and interactive.
b. Faculty interpretation of meaning of words.
c. Inability to distinguish between facts opinion and situation.
d. Inability to identify and discard irrelevant or unimportant facts and
9) Faculty generalization based on inadequate evidence, faculty logic and reasoning in the analysis
of dates use of wrong analogy and faculty comparison of events in un similar cultures.
10) The report should be written in a logical and scientific manner it should avoid flowery or flippant
language emotional words dull and colorless language or persuasive style.
11) The researcher should avoid projecting current problems onto historical events as this is likely to
create distortions.

Strengths of Historical Method

1. The historical method is unobtrusive

2. The historical method is well suited for trend analysis.
3. There is no possibility of researcher-subject interaction

1.9.8. Themes in History

Any historical research project is generated by a question, or even a set of questions. Certain questions
are easy to tackle, with answers directly at hand. It can be helpful to define and organize historical
subjects, and projects, through various thematic devices, with one of the most useful involving the
following three primary themes:

1. Economic history concerns past human efforts to satisfy material needs and to produce and to
distribute goods, services, and wealth.
2. Political history embraces government, political systems and institutions and public affairs.

46
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

3. Social and cultural history involves past non-economic and non-political human interactions, and
the beliefs, ideas, skills, habits, arts, and institutions associated with or resulting from those
interactions.

Placing your project within one of these themes can help situate it within a wider context, and make it
more interesting and useful. Comparing a subject with other linked subjects can also help provide even
greater context. Following are some traditional historical subjects, grouped by the three themes noted
above:

Economic History

1. hunting and trapping

2. fishing
3. farming (cereal grain, animal, dairy, and special product)
4. fish processing
5. milling, brewing, and distilling
6. meat processing and packing
7. making dairy products
8. processing special agricultural products
9. construction, development of transportation, communication, and energy systems
10. light and heavy product manufacturing
11. professional and business services like banking, financial service

Political History

1. political parties and groups

2. elections, candidates, and elected officials
3. government policies, activities, and decisions
4. government administration
5. legal systems and personnel
6. participation in the military

47
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Social and Cultural History

1. Early Aboriginal communities

2. First Nations and Métis communities
3. Group immigration and settlement
4. Pioneer life
5. Volunteer community organizations
6. Religious life and institutions
7. Teaching and learning, educational life and institutions
8. Domestic life
9. Cultural expression
10. Recreation and sport
11. Science and exploration

Other Themes

1. Military history
2. Feminist history
3. Legal history
4. Intellectual history
5. Urban history
6. Local history
7. Ethno History
8. Great men history
9. Environmental history
10. Women history
11. Diaspora history
12. Art history
13. Religious history
14. Diplomatic history
15. Genealogical/ family history

48
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

CHAPTER TWO

SOURCES FOR HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Introduction

Sources are the historian‘s raw materials. Historical sources encompass every kind of evidence that
human beings have left of their past activities – the written word and the spoken word, the shape of the
landscape and the material artifact, the fine arts as well as photography and film. Among the humanities
and social sciences history is unique in the variety of its source materials, each calling for specialist
expertise. Successful historical research blends imagination and a methodical exploration of the sources.
Historians seek to understand what happened to people, societies and cultures, and places in the past.
Then they explain their conclusions in a clear, organized, and well-written manner. They are always
curious to find more sources while maintaining a healthy skepticism of the sources they do find. One of
the first tasks in conducting any research project is fusing historical imagination and rigorous method to
define a topic, and to locate the necessary sources.

One way to think about the process of historical research is as a series of ongoing conversations:
conversations with you, with peer s, and especially with the evidence. Whenever possible, researcher s should
select a topic of their own choosing, that interests and excites them, that has sufficient evidence to complete
an effective research project, and that is appropriate to a given task or a particular assignment. Limiting the
scope of a topic is often conducted during the research process, as the researcher learns more about the
available sources. Thus, the first questions seek to deter mine an individual‘s research interests.

2.1. Types of Sources

2.1.1. Primary Sources

What is a primary source?

A primary source is a piece of first-hand evidence, a surviving trace of the past available to us in the
present. Primary sources allow direct entry into an historical event. They include but are not limited to:

A. Personal journals, diaries, letters

49
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

B. Interviews and speeches

C. Photographs and maps
D. Manuscripts
E. Historical publications, such as books, pamphlets, treatises, etc.
F. Newspaper articles (often, but not always)
G. Magazine articles (when used for social history or as documentary evidence)
H. Meeting minutes, receipts, or other administrative documents
I. Court transcripts, legal or notarial documents, and legislative documents
J. Video and film

A primary source is any record contemporary to an event or time period. Primary sources may be written,
oral, visual, or physical. Some of these sources were produced wit h the intent of being p reserved for the
future. Such intentional sources include government documents, church re cords, autobiographies, or
memoir s . On the other hand, many primary sources were produced without any intent of future use.
Such unintentional sources may include private correspondence not originally meant for posterity but
which later are deposited in archives and libraries. Physical evidence such as buildings, clothing, tools,
and landscapes may also be labeled as unintentional sources.

Primary sources refer to first-person accounts of events in original documents, letters, diaries,
photographs, art, literature, minutes of meetings, eyewitness accounts in newspapers or other official
documents, court records, maps, artwork, music, observational notes, journals, and. Primary sources
enable the researcher to get as close as possible to what actually happened during a historical event or
time period. Primary sources were either created during the time period being studied or were created at a
later date by a participant in the events being studied (as in the case of memoirs), and they reflect the
individual viewpoint of a participant or observer. Primary sources may be in their original for-mat or may
have been reproduced later in a different format, such as a in a translated document, book, micro-film
collection, or video or on the internet. These original sources of data hold the greatest value in the
validity and reliability of historical analysis.

Generally, a primary source is that was created at or very near the time of the historical event it describes.
These primary sources are also usually the product of either the person (s) involved in the event or an
eyewitness the event. Although primary sources are the most critical data for historical research, the use

50
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

of these sources as data, such as first-person accounts, is not sufficient proof that the described event
even occurred. A critical analysis of primary resources may reveal that the author, writer, or creator of
the primary source reflects the perception of the writer, observer, or witness, and the accuracy of what
occurred is inaccurate. This possibility must be considered and carefully evaluated by the researcher as to
the validity and authenticity of the original source.

Further, historical researchers must recognize that original documents are only a trace of what remains of
a historical event. They are greatly influenced by the perception, biases, and selective survival of the
document and are limited to specific groups of people in society whose accounts have survived, such as
the educated and literate. People who had little power in a culture—such as women, members of the
lower classes, and minorities—have produced few primary resources. This result is primarily because of
illiteracy, because of their use of oral rather than written historical records, or because their work has not
been considered valuable. For example, the trials of witches during the medieval period in Europe reflect
only the officials who conducted the trials and interrogations. There are few first-person accounts from
the perspective of the women themselves, other than forced confessions. The women who were accused,
convicted, and eventually burned at the stake as punishment were usually illiterate, and their stories as
primary sources are unavailable to researchers. As George Orwell once noted, ―History is written by the
winners‖

The primary sources of data can be divided into two broad categories as follows:

i) The remains or relics of given historical period. These could include photographs, corves
skeletons, fossils tools, weapons, utensils furniture, and buildings. Though these were not
originally meant for transmitting information to future generations, they would prove very useful
sources in providing reliable and sound evidence about the past, a last of these relics provide
non-verbal information.

51
HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

52
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Sources: Archaeological source

53
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

ii) Those objects that have a direct physical relationship with the events being reconstructed. This
includes documents such as laws, files, letters, manuscripts, government resolutions, characters,
memoranda, wills, newspapers, magazines, journals, files, government or other official
publications, maps, charts, lay-books, catalogues, research reports, record of minutes of meetings
recording inscription, transcriptions and so on.

Ge‘ez manuscript source

54
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Arabic manuscript source

55
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

The opportunities for beginning researchers to access primary sources used to be more limited. College
libraries or local archives might contain scattered manuscript holdings, sources on microform,
government documents, or newspapers; however, except at major research libraries, such collections
tended to be limited and were normally reserved for scholars. Beginning researchers usually gleaned
what primary evidence they could from edited collections in print or from selected document readers;
thus, access to primary sources remained restricted. Such constraints often determined the kinds of topics
explored and the questions that could be reasonably posed.

Identifying a primary source is far simpler than analyzing such sources effectively. The most common
sources used in historical research are written; any discussion of primary evidence must begin with them.
Before the analytic al process can begin, however, researcher s must read the source closely to make
absolutely certain they understand its content, language, meaning, and thesis—if it has one. Only then is
it possible to begin to analyze. Beg inning historians must learn to adopt a critical or skeptical approach
to thinking about evidence and go beyond basic issues of actual content (who, what, when, where). Such
an approach helps begin an active dialogue with the evidence. All researchers initiate their analyses of
primary written evidence with questions to help them understand particular documents and how groups
of these fit together within the context of other primary sources.

 When analyzing primary evidence, certain questions are standard

 Who authored the source?

 How long after the event is it being described?

 Is the author an eyewitness?

 Who was the intended audience?

 What is the audience‘s relationship to the author?

 What is the purpose of the source?

 What is the tone of the language used?

 Does an obvious point of view color the evidence?

 How reliable is the evidence?

 How does the source fit into the historical context established by other primary sources and
secondary accounts?
 What new information does it provide?
 Does the source help explain causal or other relationships?
56
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 Is the source significant?

 How can the source be used to advance the research project?

Significance

One of the most difficult elements for beginning historians and seasoned scholar sis deter mining the
significance of a written source. Not every primary source is equal in significance to ever y other. I n
examining written sources, a scholar should consider the following:

1. What are the elements that make a particular document important? A useful convention in answering
this question is to think about how the document relates to an understanding of the topic.

 First, how does the source help explain the event or topic being explored? Could the event or
issue be explained as fully without the document?
 Second, does the source offer unique insights or alternative information about the topic?

 Finally, is the explanation or interpretation in this document different from others? To this point,
the discussion has focused on some of the key questions necessary to analyze primary, written
evidence. While such sources are certainly the most commonly used by historical researcher s,
they are by no means the only kinds of evidence available. Depending upon the nature of the
research project, oral, visual, or physical evidence may offer insights and information, and
attention must next turn to these forms.

Secondary Sources

The identification and selection of evidence described in the research trail is only the first step in the
process of writing history. After locating the sources, historians review and evaluate the secondary
literature on a topic. For beginning historians in particular, it is wise to begin scholarly analysis with the
secondary sources. This examination offers researchers a basic vocabulary about the topic, a good sense
of historical context, and an appreciation of the contributions of earlier historians. The questions posed
by these historians, their interpretations of the sources, and the ways in which they supported their
arguments provide a framework for approaching a topic. Once this information is examined, the
researcher is better equipped to add to the body of historical knowledge with new analyses and
interpretations.
57
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Reading the secondary sources begins the exciting chase for historical knowledge. A generation ago,
immersion in the secondary literature required a trip to one or more libraries to locate books, journal
articles, dissertations, reviews, and other materials that offered scholarly interpretations of a past event,
as well as a visit to the interlibrary loan desk to request those materials not readily available. The advent
of the Internet has made a wide and growing array of secondary sources available at the click of the
mouse. Historians still must visit libraries and use the resources of interlibrary loan to find the necessary
secondary materials, but only after searching the vast quantities of secondary literature available online.

A careful review of the secondary literature is essential to historical research and writing on several
levels. As the first part of the research process, it will shape how a historian begins to think about a topic
and the historical context. More subtle and perhaps more important, the final result of the historian‘s
efforts is a contribution to the existing secondary literature. Historians must therefore approach secondary
works critically from the outset, questioning what they read through a conversation with the secondary
literature and, by extension, with the historians who wrote them. This chapter will examine the critical
reading of secondary sources.

What are secondary Sources?

Secondary sources are interpretations of the past written by historians relying on primary evidence,
which are contemporary accounts of an event. This category of sources is significantly easier to define,
under-stand, and access. A secondary source is any item that was created after the events it describes or is
related tour is created by someone who was not directly involved in or was an eyewitness to the events.
Unlike a novel, secondary historical works are nonfiction. Secondary works include monographs,
biographies, and scholarly articles, which offer scholarly interpretations of cause, effect, implication, and
meaning. Researcher s should also be familiar with scholarly reference materials and read them when
necessary. They may include textbooks, historical dictionaries, encyclopedias, and other printed online
materials. Secondary sources also include summaries, personal interpretations, and views and include
simple descriptions of primary sources. Types of secondary sources include

 Scholarly articles
 Monographs (books on specific topics)
 Textbooks

58
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 Popular books
 Reference books
 Biographies
 Published stories or movies about historical events and accounts written years after the event,
even if written by a witness to the event (e.g., a first-person account of a child written as an adult)
 Other examples are scholarly or and articles, , biographies, and textbooks. There should be critical
analysis of secondary sources.

Reading secondary sources should be an active process that involves critical review of all the material.
Initially, historians may seek answers to the basic questions of who, what, where, when, and why.
Eventually the inquiry should become more sophisticated. A review of the secondary works has three
important purposes:

 To provide background material on a topic

 To provide historical context. Historical context can be described as the forces that shaped

people‘s lives, or the beliefs and mindset people possessed during a particular time.

 To provide historiographical context, including the theoretical and methodological approaches

employed by historians. The concepts of historical context and historiographical context need
some explanations. Historiography is the history of how historians‘ interpretations and
methodologies have changed regarding a specific topic. Some of this change is generational;
historians often reflect many of the same values, biases, and perspectives of their own time.

Which secondary sources are best?

By reading guides, bibliographies, abstracts, and book reviews, researchers can save time in determining
which secondary sources are best. In a perfect world where time is not a problem and where deadlines do
not exist, re searcher s could take the time to review all of the extant secondary literature turned up by the
research trail. However, such a world does not exist. One of the most sources of information on
scholarship is the book review.

59
HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

60
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Above, a summary of various sources of historical information both primary and secondary

The Preliminary Review

Despite the usefulness of bibliographies, guides, abstracts, and book reviews, students will ultimately
have to make choices about secondary sources on their own. Some monographs and articles may be too
recent to appear in the reference works listed above. It is not always possible to determine if a book,
article, or website is worthwhile; therefore, it is helpful to understand how to conduct a preliminary
review of a secondary source. The beginning historians should ask several questions of a secondary
source before determining its usefulness.
61
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 Who is the Author?

 Who is the Audience for this work?

 When was the source written?

 Who published the secondary work?

 Does the secondary source include footnotes and a bibliography?

 How complete are the footnotes?

Conversely, a lack of footnotes might mean that the book has been produced for a less-than-scholarly
audience, or that the author‘s reputation is so great that footnotes are deemed unnecessary by the
publisher.

Bibliographies are especially useful if they are annotated or appear as a bibliographical essay. A
researcher should examine the sources in the bibliography. A preprimary source included? Is the
collection diverse? Do most of the sources that appear in the bibliography also appear in the foot notes?
Inexperienced scholars might cite a number of sources in their bibliography, but if few actually appear in
the footnotes, this is likely a disingenuous attempt to ‗‗pad‘‘ the bibliography.

A list of questions that beg inning researchers should keep in mind while reading for historical context
might include the following:

 Who are the important participants in a particular event? How did they respond to events?
 What factor s seemed to condition this response?

 What are their values? Beliefs? Are they at odds with others of the time period? In what ways?

 What is the economic system like? Political system? Social structure? Culture? How do these
function? To what extent are issues such as ethnicity, class, and gender important? Are these
changing?

 What seem to be the major historical forces at work during the time? How do these effect
different groups?

62
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

2.1.3. Oral Sources

Oral history is as old as history itself. It was the first kind of history. But, until the present century, the
focus of history was essentially political: A documentation of the struggle of power, in which the lives of
the ordinary people or workings of the economy, or religion were given little attention except in times of
crisis such as the Reformation, The English Civil War or the French Revolution. Historical time was
divided up by reigns and dynasties his was partly because historians, who themselves belonged to the
administrating and governing classes, though this was what mattered most. They had developed no
interest in the point of view of the laborer, unless he was specifically troublesome; nor- being men-would
they have wished to inquire into the changing life experiences women. Consequently, even as the scope
of history has widened, the original political and administrative focus has remained. Where ordinary
people have been brought in, thus the economic history, social history and labor history, demography,
family history, women history etc. were constructed.

In the most general sense, once the life experience of the people of all kinds can be used as its raw
material, a new dimension is given to history. Oral history provides a source quite similar character to
published autobiography, but much wider in scope. Oral historians may choose as precisely whom to
interview and what to ask about. For m most existing kinds of history, probably the critical effect of this
approach is to allow evidence from a new direction.

Without oral traditions we would know very little about the past of large parts of the world, and we
would not know them from the inside. We also could never build up interpretations from the inside. The
historian interprets from perspectives he knows. Even so, one's interpretation is always steeped in the
intellectual life of one's own times and circle. Written historical interpretations too are documents of the
present! So, unless there were data to tell us otherwise, we would only attribute past evolutions to factors
which make sense to us today, even though the implicit or explicit cultural and social assumptions of our
hypotheses are nonsense in that other day and age.

Where there is no writing or almost none, oral traditions must bear the brunt of historical reconstruction.
They will not do this as if they were written sources. The limitations of oral tradition must be fully
appreciated so that it will not come as a disappointment that long periods of research yield a
reconstruction that is still not very detailed. What one does reconstruct from oral sources may well

63
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

be of a lower order of reliability, when there are no independent sources to cross-check, and when
structuring or chronological problems complicate the issues. This means that particular re-search
questions remain unsettled for much longer periods of time than when a reconstruction rests on massive
and internally independent written evidence. It will take longer to achieve results that are reliable because
they are confirmed by other sources. This is no reason to neglect oral traditions, or to denigrate them. The
research process may be longer, the re-searchers may need more patience and more interdisciplinary
collaboration, but in the end, reliability of a high order can be achieved. During this process oral
traditions occupy the center stage. They tell us which questions to pursue. They set forth basic
hypotheses that must be addressed first. Even if in the end we must overcome the limits that are implicit
in any set of questions, nevertheless, oral traditions remain essential as the force that guided further
research.

Although the format may be different, the same evaluation criteria are applied to all forms of oral
evidence. Thus, the researcher asks essentially the same series of questions about author, point of view,
audience, purpose, language, and significance as for any other primary source.

The historian asks some critical questions of any oral source:

 Why was the oral source produced and why has it survived?
 Is it part of a larger collection?
 Why was the collection gathered? Speeches and television files may be preserved as part of a
station or university archive.
 What is the role of the inter viewer? Oral interviewers play a powerful role in the production of
oral histories. The questions they pose in conducting an interview frame the discussion and may
direct the person being inter viewed to specific topics or themes. Thus, in evaluating oral inter
views, it is important to deter mine the degree to which the inter viewer is in control. In better oral
inter views, the inter viewer is less intrusive, tends to ask broader, more open-ended questions,
and does not try to direct the individual to particular conclusions. When reviewing speeches or
media outtakes, researcher s should also be conscious of the underlying assumptions of a source.
Certain idioms and allusions to places or per sons may not have required explanation in the
original; however, as part of the analysis of a historical source, they become more important. Oral

64
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

evidence has become more widely used in recent decades and may add significant sources to any
project when evaluated critically.

Oral story

2.1.4. Characteristics of Primary and Secondary Sources

The difference between a primary and secondary source is often determined by when they were
originally created and how you use them. The primary evidence is the actual material from which one can
make generalizations and assertions. Secondary sources provide historians, both experienced and
beginning, with two very important types of information:

 Secondary sources are useful in providing background information about a topic.

65
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 Secondary y sources help to provide historical context.

Oral and written sources differ with regard to the subjectivity of the encoder of the message. Oral sources
are intangible, written sources are tangible. Tangible sources survive unaltered through time and are
defined by their properties as objects. If they can be dated, they testify directly to the time of their
manufacture. In this, a written source participates in the advantage of an archaeological source or an
ancient monument. Nothing has altered the source since it was made, and because written sources are the
only ones which are both messages and artifacts, the subjectivity of the encoder of the message is clear
and unaltered since the time of writing. Copyists can add or subtract from the original message and add
yet another interpretation to the message, but even there the sum of interpretations ends at the date of
writing. Here subjectivity is reduced to a minimum: an interpretation encoding the message at the time of
the event and an interpretation of the decoder, the historian.

2.2. Source Evaluation: Reliability and Validity

Establishing authenticity is a challenging and critical aspect of historical research. As has been
previously discussed, artifacts of history are often a result of ―selection bias.‖ The survival of the
documents is significant.

2.2.1. External Criticism

The first step in evaluating a document is to test its authenticity; this is sometimes known as external
criticism. External criticism is validation of documents through determination that each document is
authentic and genuine. Involves determining the where, when, and by who produced for each document .
Are the author, the place and the date of writing what they purport to be? These questions are particularly
relevant in the case .of legal documents.

Validity is related to the external critique of the data. In other words, is the document or artifact an
authentic representation? This answer can be determined by age of the document, such as the paper,
writing style of the author, origin, and consistency with other evidence. Verification by experts is often
included in the external validation process. Data should include at least two or more sources of the same
type of information. These sources can be two primary sources, which concur without conflict or

66
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

disagreement, or one primary source and one independent secondary source, which corroborates with the
primary source and does not contain any substantial contradictory information. The researcher, even with
intense scrutiny of the data sources, must always consider that primary sources have been altered after
the original event.

2.2.2. Internal criticism

The second and usually much more demanding stage is internal criticism that is the interpretation of the
document‘s con-tent. Internal Criticism is the validation of documents through establishment of the
meaning, accuracy, and trustworthiness of each collected document . Focus on material content rather
than on the material itself as a source. This constitutes the reliability of data sources. The researcher
attempts to establish the meaning in the data and the context from which it was derived. Researchers
question the trustworthiness as a source, such as the author‘s biases and perceptions of the event, and if
the authors are reporting from intimate knowledge or from others‘ descriptions of the phenomena. The
researcher must be vigilant about including both positive and negative criticism of all data sources,
including missing accounts, the lack of relevant view points, and persons involved in events.
Understanding the way in which cotemporary words and phrases are used in contrast to past usage and
meanings is a critical aspect in establishing reliability. Abortion, for example, historically has not been
used to describe the present social and medical definitions. Reading and analyzing secondary sources can
often provide the researcher with clarification of language use, artistic interpretations, and alterations of
historical events.

67
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

CHAPTER THREE

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIBRARY, ARCHIVAL AND ORAL

RESEARCH

Documents and Textual Analysis

In social research the term refers to a method of analyzing the contents of documents that uses qualitative
procedures for assessing the significance of particular ideas or meanings in the document. It contrasts
with content analysis.

The Library

For those who know, the library being a research tool itself represents a very significant contributor to
research undertakings. This is to such an extent that no quality research can be done in the absence of a
good library, especially its use. Because it acquires, organizes, preserves and disseminates information
materials on all area of human knowledge, the library became the first place to visit when embarking on
research undertakings. That is, you find the widest range of ideas, opinions, and previous findings on
every subject matter. If you must conduct a worthwhile investigation, you need to know what others have
done in that area; how they have done it and where they stopped. This is the logical beginning for any
investigation and its investigator

Historical study as an approach to library and information science research cannot exist independently of
other research approaches. Historical research is much more synthetic and eclectic in its approach than
other research methods, using concepts and conclusions from many other disciplines to explore the
historical record and to test the conclusions arrived at by other methodologies. Many methods used alone
or in conjunction with other supporting techniques of data collection and analysis can adequately
demonstrate that some particular situation or relationship between variables exist in the present. But the
persistence and permanence of these conclusions will always be questionable without historical
verification. The results of other research can and should act as a guide to the historian, pointing to
68
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

potentially fruitful areas of research that can further test the conclusions of other social science
approaches. While the use of ―analogies and comparisons evoked by some other discipline‖ in historical
scholarship is always questionable unless the analysis stands the test of rigorous history standards,‘ these
borrowings do offer a point where history can participate and perhaps even lead in the search for a
cooperative solution to the research needs of library and information science.

History can never aspire to be a primary methodology in library and information science research. The
community of library historians looks at much library and information science research as if ―some
rough beast, its hour come around at last, slouches towards Bethlehem to be born,‖ while other
researchers have tended to discount the value of historical study as mere antiquarianism. Both groups
have ignored the fact that the value of research is not determined by the approach, but by results and
conclusions.

It has been often asserted that libraries do not exist in a vacuum. They are not isolated from other
institutions of information and culture in which they have their organizational existence. Library history
has been criticized-often correctly-for its lack of rigor. This charge is no different from that leveled
against history written by the professional historian. Compared with the forms and language adapted
from the natural sciences to the social sciences and from there to library and information science, history
is at best an impressionistic form of research more closely akin to literary research than physics. But
empirical research has come to be widely recognized as useful to the historian. As a ―somewhat
uncritical and even complacent discipline,‖ history should benefit from the results of other disciplines
applied to library and information science to at least force library ―historians to criticize their
assumptions, to expose their premises, to tighten their logic, to pursue and respect their facts, [and] to
restrain their rhetoric.

Each of the hypotheses advanced by other forms of research is testable as an historical phenomenon.
Historical phenomena are also testable by any number of survey and other methodologies commonly
used in library and information science research. The role of historical study must be interactive with
other forms of research. The very looseness of historical methods allows the historian to explore a vast
number of problems that are approachable only in one or two aspects by other methodologies. It is in this
capacity that is found both the strength and weakness of historical study in library and information
science.

69
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

History at least as much and perhaps more than other research methods provides librarians with a
context. It is only through understanding history that we can begin to make sense of the environment in
which we work. Too frequently, library collections and services are incomprehensible in terms of present
users and only make sense when we find that the service or collection begun by an early librarian in
response to some real or imagined need-or simply as a ―hobby horse‖ the librarian happened to ride

The data upon which historical analysis rests generally fall into two classes of documentary records-
primary and secondary. Primary sources compose the evidence closest to the event under investigation.
These documents usually are manuscript diaries or letters but they can be printed reports of the events as
recounted by observers or participants. Secondary sources are usually printed reports of the event that use
primary and other secondary sources as bases for data collection and are reported by a person other than a
direct observer or participant in the events. They must be evaluated in parts based on the documentation
upon which each section builds. Further, in some forms of historical analysis, the secondary source
becomes the focus and thus gains the authority of primary evidence.

While the emphasis of most historical research is on the discovery and use of primary sources, in many
cases the existence of a body of published proceedings, such as those of the American Library
Association, represents a primary resource for the collective values of a profession that cannot be
overlooked by the library historian. Libraries are excellent at keeping records of housekeeping statistics,
but the information that would make history real and meaningful is too often lacking. Secondary sources
provide a different sort of problem. History is not a unified discipline-however; it is articulated and
organized in academic institutions. It is essentially a research methodology, and secondary sources
directly relating to the history of libraries, information centers and all other aspects of the field may be
found anywhere.

The researcher utilizing historical methods has one advantage over other researchers in the number of
potential publishing outlets available. Most library and information science research is limited to a small
number of core journals and monograph publishers in the field with only the occasional publication in
outside sources of research with direct library implications and applications. History, however, is a
generalized field. Any phenomenon is fit for the historian‘s scrutiny, and there is

70
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

little or no arcane vocabulary beyond that inherent in the subject of the study itself that would detract
from the essential clarity of good historical rhetoric and research. History is accessible to the general
reader, and, because of this, library history may be published in a wide variety of sources.

Historical research can help establish the context in which librarians work and it can fulfill their functions
in society. The status of women in librarianship, for example, has been topic of increasing concern in
recent years. Substantial advances in our knowledge of this important area can be made through other
methods; but without historical depth, research tends to drift off into prescriptive conclusions that do not
recognize the tremendous inertia of the surrounding society. History offers each librarian a direct
opportunity to participate in the cooperative research effort. The writing of history requires no facility
with esoteric research tools. The proper use of sources requires care, intelligence, patience, and,
frequently, pure luck.

The importance of the contextualization of any issue is well addressed by Neustadt and Ernest (1986).
They point out that only when knowledge is contextualized may it be used effectively. Understanding the
history provides the contextualization. In this respect knowledge of history may be seen as having
substantial practical potential. But learning from the past is never simply a one-way process. As Carr

(p.68, 1967) pointed out:

To learn about the present in the light of the past means also to learn about the past in the
light of the present. The function of history is to promote a profounder understanding of both
past and present through the interrelation between them.

Any understanding of a phenomenon or a situation will usually have to be based on a knowledge and
appreciation of the trajectory of circumstances which have lead up to it. It is this ability of the past to
inform the present and which makes historical studies interesting to the business and management studies
scholar.

Historical context is helpful in the understanding of not only the past but also the present. it unravels the
social values & relationships over which the present social values & relationships are molded. one also
comes to know the changes & the organizations which give society its present

71
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

form. Society‘s past is responsible for its present. The historical method acquaints us with the special
forces of the past responsible for the changes.

Content analysis: Here the text itself is the focus of examination. This approach uses published works as
its data (in the case of history of textbook these might be readers or examples of the content of school
textbook in. successive edition) and subject them to careful analysis that usually includes both
quantitative and qualitative aspect content analysis has been particularly useful in investigating construct
such as race caste etc.

72
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

CHAPTER FOUR:

THE BASICS OF HISTORICAL WRITING AND INTERPRETATION

Elements of Effective Writing

Inexperienced historians still believe that writing is a process that begins after the research has been
completed. For the uninitiated, this means after spending hours and hours reviewing the pertinent primary
and secondary y sources, the beginning researcher sits in front of a computer, notes in hand, and bangs
out an essay that is ‗‗complete‘‘ with few revisions . Such approach might be common, but it is seldom
good writing. Nor is it good history. As the central component to the critical thinking process, writing
should consume considerably more time than the hours spent researching. The final product is, after all,
what is read and judged by others.

All historians must ask themselves several questions as they begin to write. What is the Purpose of the
Writing Assignment? Writing a book review is different from writing a research paper or analyzing a
document or preparing annotated bibliography. Some writing assignments have limitation. Historical
writing is initiated in the ‗‗early writing ‘‘ stage. As the beginning researcher reads the general and
secondary sources on a subject, the ideas about atopic begin to take shape and should begin to evolve into
a group of written questions. For many historians, this is a useful time to formulate a prospectus.

Writing well is not a trait one is born with, although some individuals may have more innate ability in
this area than others. Effective writing is the result of drafting, editing, rewriting, and polishing. While
effective writing is difficult to describe, most readers know it when they see it. Most good writers
developed an eye for good writing through a love of reading. The more that an individual reads the more
attuned they become to clear writing. A beg inning researcher might improve his or her writing skills by
emulating the writing style and tone of a favorite historian.

73
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

While there is no simple set of suggestions that can easily turn a weak writer into a good one (except
practice through repetition), all types of effective writing share certain elements in common.

 Know the audience

 Avoid First and Second Person in academic writing
 Be clear and concise
 Check for agreement
 Be organized
 Quote appropriately
 Write in sentences and paragraphs
 Use proper punctuation
 Vary words, sentences, and paragraphs
 Proofread and Edit

Types of Writing

All historians make use of four basic approaches to writing. While they go by a variety of names, for our
purposes, they are narration, description, interpretation, and analytical. The first two, narration and
description, are often closely related and provide a visceral sense of an event or period. The second two,
interpretation and analytical, are similarly interdependent, but function on a more intellectual level.
Historical writing requires all four methods to be effective. Although each method is different, they often
overlap and inter twine. For that reason, a brief explanation of the four methods and their usefulness is
necessary.

4.1. INTERPRETATION

What are historical interpretations and why should pupils study them?

Interpretation is the process by which meaning is attached to data. Interpretation is a creative enterprise that
depends on the insight and imagination of the researcher, regardless of whether he/she is a qualitative analyst
working closely with rich in-depth interview transcripts or `thick description' based upon intense observation
or, at the other extreme, a quantitative researcher carrying out a complex multivariate

74
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

statistical analysis of a massive dataset. In both instances, interpretation, the way in which the researcher
attaches meaning to the data, is not mechanical but requires skill, imagination and creativity

Understanding historical interpretations involves thinking critically about the diverse ways in which
human groups and societies make sense of time and change. Subject disciplines exist to enable us ‗to
approach questions of importance in a systematic and reliable way‘ and the study of historical
interpretations. Historical interpretations are a key component of the history curriculum.

This method of writing, which is intertwined with persuasion, explains or analyzes the meaning of events
or ideas. Interpretation most often involves a close analysis of primary sources to deter mine, as best as
possible, why something happened. The beg inning researcher defines terms or ideas in a historical
context and seek s to explain past writings and actions for the present day reader to understand. Such
analysis often produces different interpretations of past events, based on the weight of the primary s
source evidence. The goal is to advance a convincing interpretation supported by such evidence. The
beginning researcher should consider the following elements in interpretative writing.

 Interpretation is central to historical writing. The analysis of human actions is often complex and
must be fully explained. There are often contradictions or exceptions that must be considered and
evaluated. Such critical thinking requires marshaling evidence to support an interpretation, while
also acknowledging and sometimes refuting—other existing viewpoints.

 Historians are critical readers of the scholar ship on their topic. They must be alert to the
interpretations that are presented. Sometimes it is best to write down a brief description of the
scholar‘s i interpretation, as it will be helpful in developing a historiographical footnote or
annotated bibliography. Remember be skeptical of the sources. Understanding the various
scholarly interpretations will enable the beginning researcher to confidently develop an
interpretation based on the weight of the primary source evidence.

 Beg inning researcher s should present their interpretations carefully and in an organized and
logical manner. Make sure that the interpretation is consistent throughout the paper. Make use of

75
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

evidence to support the interpretation, while also acknowledging that other interpretations and
contradictions in the primary sources exist.

Historical writing is characterized by a wide range of literary forms. The three basic techniques of
description, narrative and analysis can be combined in many different ways, and every project poses
afresh the problem of how they should be deployed.

4.2. Historical Narration: Narration

Narration is a critical element of history that tells what happened in the past—the series of events that
when combined narrates the story. Thus, the historian must resurrect past events and organize these
events in a manner that the reader can follow. The key to narration is to tell a good story about what
happened. The beg inning researcher should consider several ideas when narrating events.

 Narration has a purpose beyond simply telling what happened. Like the thesis statement, narration
must create curiosity in the reader to want to continue reading. It introduces information that will
be explained later.

 The beg inning researcher should tell the story in a manner that enables the reader to understand
what happened. Be efficient in this presentation: what to include or not include are critical
decisions. Too much detail will burden the reader with unnecessary information, while too little
will leave the reader wondering what actually transpired. Provide sufficient information so that
the reader can make connections later in the paper, or so they can understand the analysis of
events.

 Tell the story from multiple perspectives, if possible. This is particularly important if various
viewpoints are to be addressed, or if historians provide differing interpretations of the events.
Where possible, the beg inning researcher should reveal the contradictions and tensions in the
sources, while trying to remain faithful to retelling what happened.

Like other forms of story-telling, historical narrative can entertain through its ability to create suspense
and arouse powerful emotions. But narrative is also the historian‘s basic technique for conveying what it
felt like to observe or participate in past events. The forms of narrative which achieve the effect of re-
creation most successfully are those that approximate most nearly to the sense of time that we experience
in our own lives: whether from hour to hour, as in an account of a battle, or from day today, as in an
76
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

account of a political crisis, or over a natural life-span, as in a biography. The great exponents of re-
creative history have always been masters of dramatic and vividly evocative narrative.

But this traditional literary technique in fact imposes severe limitations on any systematic attempt at
historical explanation. The placing of events in their correct temporal sequence does not settle the
relationship between them. As Tawney put it: time, and the order of occurrences in time, is a clue, but no
more; part of the historian‘s business is to substitute more significant connections for those of
chronology.

Those events which in retrospect appear to have been phases in a continuing sequence are deemed
especially significant by the historian. The questions ‗what happened?‘ and ‗what were conditions like at
such-and-such a time? ‘ are preliminary – if indispensable – to asking ‗Why did it happen?‘ and ‗What
were its results?‘

The problem is twofold: in the first place, narrative cans take the reader up a blind alley. Because B came
after A does not mean that A caused B, but the flow of the narrative may easily convey the impression
that it did. (Logicians call this the post hoc propter hoc fallacy.) Secondly, and much more importantly,
narrative imposes a drastic simplification on the treatment of cause. The historical understanding of
particular occurrence proceeds by enlarging the inventory of causes, while at the same time trying to
place them in some sort of pecking order. Narrative is entirely inimical to this pattern of enquiry

The result is that historical writing is now very much more analytical than it was a hundred years ago. In
historical analysis the main outline of events tends to be taken for granted; what is at issue is their
significance and their relationship with each other. The multiple natures of causation in history demands
that the narrative be suspended and that each of the relevant factors be weighed in turn, without losing
sight of their connectedness and the likelihood that the con figuration of each factor shifted over time. As
historical writing becomes more geared to problem-solving, so the emphasis on analysis has increased, as
a glance at any of the academic journals will show. However, this does not mean that narrative is
completely at a discount. For undiluted analytical writing raises its own problems. What it gains in
intellectual clarity, it loses in historical immediacy. There is an inescapably static quality about historical
analysis. Explanations that seem convincing at an analytical level may prove unworkable when measured
against the flux of events.

77
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

The truth is that historians need to write in ways that do justice to both the manifest and the latent, both
profound forces and surface event. And in practice this requires flexible use of both analytical and
narrative modes: some-times in alternating sections, sometimes more completely fused throughout the
text. This in fact is the way in which most academic historical writing is carried out today. Today‘s
historians are learning new ways of deploying narrative. Narrative is now the subject of critical scrutiny
by scholar‘s affair with literary studies.

Historical Description:

Description

Description is a vivid presentation that appeals to the senses. It describes the way things smell, look, feel,
taste, and sound. Description provides a sensory perception of the situation in the past so that reader s can
relate to these past events through their own experiences. Description can also help the reader visualize
different circumstances.

One way of talking about the past is to describe past circumstances as accurately and fully as possible.
Words can describe the confusion, the jumble of a battlefield, the acrid smell of gun-powder. They can a
present the loneliness of life on the frontier. Description can also be used to explain geography. Any
discussion of European colonialism in East Asia must address the geographical importance of cities such
as Shanghai and Hong Kong.

 Narration and description should not dominate a paper. They are devices, methods to draw the
reader into the topic and to provide the reader with enough information to understand the
situation.

 The beg inning researcher should provide sufficient information, but not overwhelm the reader
with a blizzard of excessive detail. The basic question at this juncture is, ‗‗what does the reader
need to know at this point in the paper in order to understand later sections?‘‘

 Description should be based directly on the sources or what can be inferred from them. Never
make up information. Be a historically accurate as possible.

78
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Descriptive history has its limitations, so much so that it is usually to be found in children‘s history books
rather than presented as satisfying in itself to the mature intellect. Yet it should not be neglected for it can
achieve at least three objects worthy of recognition.

Firstly, it can satisfy one‘s curiosity regarding the particularity of the past; any description is potentially
interesting, even fascinating, when dealing with things long past and gone. Moreover it satisfies one‘s
curiosity in a concrete way, by offering direct information of a positive, generally non-controversial
nature, such that what such knowledge lacks in analytic or explanatory sophistication is perhaps
compensated for by the directness of its impact.

Secondly, in addition to satisfying one‘s curiosity descriptive history can excite further curiosity,
prompting a host of questions ranging from the particular to the increasingly analytic and abstract. To the
extent it can excite the imagination and stimulate the intellect, it can supersede what may be its only
intended function—namely, to satisfy curiosity. It cannot make a potent contribution to knowledge of the
past as well as give a rich stimulus for further enquiry into it.

Thirdly, to the extent that a descriptive account of some aspect of the past—for instance, a city, a landed
estate, a fleet of warships, domestic circumstances—is sufficiently generous to provide a cameo of
particular modes of life rather than isolated aspects, then it ‗brings to life‘ an awareness of ‗what it was
really like‘. Such awareness may not be particularly perceptive or complex; for example, it may not
explain important political trends or the social significance of class-structures. Yet in ‗bringing the past
to life‘ through its necessary concentration on particulars (as with any description), it serves the function
of realistically locating one in that past.

Limitations

o It is not applicable to problems, which cannot satisfy the required criteria mentioned earlier.
o The researcher may make description an end in itself. Research must lead to discovery of
facts.
o Although social science problems are continuous and have a past and a future, the researcher
may lose himself in current conditions only.
o The researcher may tend to over-use statistics. In making statistical analysis, its limitations
should be recognized
79
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Historical Analysis

History is an account of some past event or combination of events. There‘s a method for tackling
historical problems, a method for reaching relatively solid conclusions more quickly and more efficiently
than you might have thought possible. That method is based on the analysis of what historians call
secondary sources—not documents and other ―primary‖ or ―original ―sources produced at the time,
but books and articles written mainly by the historians themselves.

Historical analysis is, therefore, a method of discovering, from records and accounts, what happened in
the past. In historical analysis, researchers consider various sources of historical data such as historical
texts, newspaper reports, diaries, and maps. The method is commonly used by historians to gain insights
into social phenomena. Designers can similarly use historical analysis to identify themes embedded in
their work, avoid re-inventing systems that already exist, and establish background prior to user
observation or interviewing. As we will describe below, in our work, we drew on three particular kinds of
sources to establish common themes and design opportunities for housework: we reviewed the historical
literature to find trends that historians have already identified as relevant to domestic technology; we
studied patents to identify previously attempted technologies and to spark inspiration for new design, and
we immersed ourselves in primary sources from popular literature that give an experiential sense of the
past and provide design resources.

Why study history, if our goal is to design the future?

One answer can be found in philosopher George Santayana‘s famous proclamation, “Those who cannot
remember the past are condemned to repeat it‖. This quotation is widely used to argue that exploring
the past helps us understand who we are today and where we are going. For ubiquitous computing,
historical awareness can deepen designers‘ understanding of the context they are designing for. In
addition, history can spur designers‘ imaginations by revealing the contingency of the present situation,

80
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

rendering it less obvious and inevitable. As Bell et al. suggest using history to defamation the present
supports designers in envisioning future domestic life less constrained by present-day cultural
assumptions embedded in technology.

Understanding how technology has changed for better or worse in the past suggests new options for
contemporary technology design. We believe using historical analysis could benefit other designers by
providing an additional way to understand context and by spurring their imaginations.

81
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

UNIT FIVE:

PREPARING A SENIOR ESSAY

Writing a Thesis or Senior essay in history includes not only preparation of a comprehensive report of
one's investigation of a worthwhile problem but all activities beginning the initial selection of such a
problem. One's ability to make a constructive contribution begins to increase at the moment when he first
explores his interest in search of a problem which has not been completely solved. When that state of
developing a thesis arrives at which definite results are at hand, much of the writing in the broad sense
has been accomplished. Experience has shown that many students are unfamiliar with the significant
steps that must be taken in the development of a thesis.

Proposal Writing:

The Research Proposal is an important aspect of research writing. Once a research topic had been chosen,
what the project supervisor/advisor demands of the student researcher is the writing and presentation of a
proposal. This represents a kind of plan, which helps to reveal the intention as well as the understanding
the student has about the chosen topic. It is a sort of insight into how well the student understands the
surrounding issues relating to the chosen topic.

The Research Proposal is quite similar to an architectural plan, which gives an insight into what the
building will look like on completion. It is in this plan that every conceivable detail about the house to be
built is underscored. It is in the same way that the research proposal seeks to highlight the nature, essence
and method of carrying out the investigation; a kind of action-plan.

Thus, from the proposal, the researcher gets his focus sharpened; as he deploys his intellects to
conceiving the plan of his research from the scratch through to the end. That way, himself and his
supervisor have a tremendous gain from the proposal, serving as the foundation of the building. From
here, all the perceived structural defects that could so fundamentally affect the construction are corrected
once and for all. By so doing, both of them are assured of a solid structure in terms of what
82
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

comes on the solid foundation afterwards. Indeed, the proposal is a sort of master plan, which helps to
guide towards perfection of the conduct of an investigation. It is a kind of summary score-sheet revealing
the plans that are involved in carrying out a research work. Thus, Akinwumiju (2000) defines it as ―an
estimate of what an investigator intends to do, what others have done in the area and how you intend to
do your own.

Elements of proposal

Although there is no one generally acceptable standard on what goes into a Research Proposal, the
following are considered as critical to historical research proposal:

1. The Research Topic

2. Abstract (Optional)
3. Statement of the Problem
4. Background to the Study
5. Literature Review
6. Purpose/Objectives of the Study
7. Significance of the Study
8. Sources and Methodology
o Research Design/Method
o Population, Sample and Sampling Procedure
o Data Analysis Procedure.
9. Timescale or Action Plan
10. Budget Plan
11. References

Writing a Research Paper

A research paper is the result of original research into a historical problem. It is an unpublished version of the
sort of research that historians publish as articles in specialized journals or as books called historical mono-
graphs. Webster‘s Dictionary defines monograph as ―a learned treatise on a small area of study,‖ which may
sound pompous but serves as a good reminder that a research paper should not be too

83
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

ambitious in the topic it takes on. Doing original research requires close analysis of historical sources and
documents. If you choose too vast a topic, you will not be able to do the kind of close analytical work
that is necessary to formulate an original argument and demonstrate its validity to your reader.

Research papers come in all shapes and sizes, but they have certain characteristics in common. They
necessarily begin by setting out the historical problem that is their subject. The author explains why the
problem is significant and suggests what we might learn from investigating it more closely. The body of
the paper consists of the presentation and analysis of evidence concerning the problem. It leads the reader
to view the problem from a certain perspective and to draw certain conclusions about it. The paper closes
by reinforcing these conclusions with a clear restatement of how our understanding of the problem has
been altered or refined by this investigation. The best subjects for investigation in research papers come
out of the reading of historical monographs.

Before you get too far in the research, it is advisable to look at other secondary works—other books and
articles—on the general subject that you are researching. Have other people already looked at the
problem you have defined for you? If so, what have they said about it? If they have already written
exactly what you had in mind to say, you had better give up on the project now. You don‘t want just to
repeat what someone else has already said, especially if they have said it as well or perhaps even better
than you can

How to Write an Abstract

In a more professional sense, the term abstract connotes a short account of something much longer such
that only the salient issues contained are brought to the fore. It is a sort of synopsis. This is also an
important aspect of the preliminaries. It is at providing a summary of the entire research work. This is
from the perspective of its dictionary meaning implying ―a shortened form of a statement, speech etc.‖
This definition only gives a basic understanding of what abstract is, from a general perspective, which
will not serve the required purpose for writing an abstract in a project work or even conference. Unlike
the summary, the synopsis aims at certain specifics, which in the case of project/thesis/dissertation
writing include. An abstract consists of three parts which often are embodied in one or two paragraphs
and thus may not be clearly demarcated. The first part describes what the author tried to door states the
problem investigated. In the second part he outlines his procedures. In general, more space is required to

84
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

describe procedures than to present the purpose or problem of a study. The third part describes the
findings and states his conclusions. Abstract Writing in Conferences, Seminars and Journal Paper differs
from those of projects, theses and dissertations in a number of ways.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing means rephrasing the words of an author, putting his/her thoughts in your own words. A
paraphrase can be viewed as a ―translation‖ of the original source. When you paraphrase, you rework
the source‘s ideas, word s, phrases, and sentence structures with your own. Paraphrased text is often, but
not always, slightly shorter than the original work. Like quotations, paraphrased material must be
followed with in-text documentation and cited the on the Bibliography page. Paraphrase when:

 You plan to use information on your note cards and wish to avoid plagiarizing
 You want to avoid overusing quotations

 You want to use your own voice to present information

When you paraphrase someone, you use your words to convey another author‘s ideas. The words and the
sentence structure must all be yours.

Summarizing

Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) of one or several writers into your own words, including
only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source.
Summarized ideas are not necessarily presented in the same order as in the original source. Summaries
are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material. Summarize
when:

 You want to establish background or offer an overview of a topic

 You want to describe common knowledge (from several sources) about a topic

 You want to determine the main ideas of a single source

Quotation

85
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

You can borrow from the works of other writers as you research. Good writers use three strategies
summarizing, paraphrasing and quoting—to blend source materials in with their own, while making sure
their own voice is heard.

Quotations are the exact words of an author, copied directly from the source word for word. Quotations
must be cited! Use quotations when:

 You want to add the power of an author‘s words to support your argument
 You want to disagree with an author‘s argument

 You want to highlight particularly eloquent or powerful phrases or passages

 You are comparing and contrasting specific points of view

 You want to note the important research that precedes your own

Long Quotations

When a quotation is fairly long, more than two sentences, set it off from the text by indenting. Indent the
full quotation one-half inch (five spaces) from the left margin. Quotation marks are not needed when a
quotation has been set off from the text.

Common pitfalls of Historical Writing: Plagiarism

Plagiarism is intellectual theft and is punishable by expulsion from the university; consequently, it is of
fundamental importance that you understand precisely what plagiarism is, how it can occur, and why it is
wrong. In general, plagiarism consists of stealing other people‘s ideas and words, and passing them off as
your own. This appears in his grossest and most flagrant form in the direct copying of whole papers
(whether borrowed from a friend or purchased from a ―paper-mill‖) or in the replication of chapters,
articles, or passages from published materials. But subtler forms of plagiarism exist too. Piecing together
snippets of material from a wide number of sources is one example. Taking others‘ ideas or
interpretations, but not necessarily their specific wording, can also be plagiarism. Plagiarism is using
data, ideas, or words that originated in work by another person without appropriately acknowledging
their source. It is generally regarded as a form of cheating in academic and publishing contexts, and
papers will be rejected if plagiarism is detected.

86
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Failure to footnote appropriately may result in charges of plagiarism, which is academic dishonesty of the
highest order. Plagiarism is when an author claims words, thoughts, ideas, or interpretations that are not
his or her own. Plagiarism means using the words of another person without duly acknowledging this
through quotation marks or, if you are summarizing someone else‘s ideas, through a footnote referring to
the specific work(s).This act may be committed consciously or inadvertently; either way, it is plagiarism.
In most instances, plagiarism involves carelessness in paraphrasing, quoting, or citing evidence.

Two simple steps provide the best way to avoid plagiarism: first, understand what it is and why it‘s
wrong. The second step has just been illustrated: that is, cite your sources whenever you present material
that is not your own. You do this generally by providing footnotes or endnotes.

Guidelines for Writing Senior Essays and Historical Research

How to Approach Research and Writing

A. in a Short Guide to Writing about History Richard Marius outlines fourteen steps that every student
should follow in writing a historical research paper.

1. Identify your audience.

2. Have a sharply focused and limited topic
3. Present an argument
4. Base your paper on primary sources and a thorough reading of secondary sources.
5. Build your paper step by step on evidence
6. Provide a good title for your paper
7. Get to the point quickly and stick to it
8. Tell a good story
9. Document your sources
10. Write dispassionately
11. Reach independent conclusions

87
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

12. Consider counter-evidence

13. Use standard English and observe the common conventions of writing
14. Let your first and last paragraphs mirror each other

B. The Historians Mindset

1. Questioning
2. Who questions
3. What questions
4. When questions
5. The Use of Statistics
6. Your Source Where questions
7. The Use of Inference
8. Why questions

Professional historians have generally, agreed on a number of conventions, or practices that distinguish
history writing from writing in other academic disciplines. As you compose or revise your history paper,
consider these guidelines:

 Write in the past tense

 Avoid vague generalizations

 Avoid presents or anachronisms

 Treat your historical subject with respect

 Write in a formal academic voice;

 second person (e.g., ―I‖ and ―you‖)

 Provide necessary context

 Employ responsible and consistence citation style

 Paraphrase if you can, quote if you must

 Proofread, proofread, and proofread.

 Avoid using the first or

88
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing

1) Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.

2) Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.
3) Failure to cite landmark historical works in your proposed area of study.
4) Failure to stay focused on the research question.
5) Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
6) Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.
7) Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense of direction.
8) Sloppy or imprecise writing.

7.6. Presentations and Discussions

7.6.1. Writing Your Rough Draft

If you have done your research carefully and correctly, writing the paper will be much easier than you
think. Pace yourself - space out your work over time. What You Need:

 A quiet place to work

 Lots of time
 Your outline
 Your note-cards
 Any sources that you still have in your possession
 A dictionary and thesaurus (most word processing programs have these built in)

Some Tips:

89
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

 Sort your note-cards into piles according to subject heading. As you sort, be sure your notes are
relevant and usable
 Arrange all of the note-cards in a logical sequence that corresponds to your outline
 You may find some gaps or questions. If so, go back and do some more research

 Write your original outline and rewrite it and elaborate as necessary. You may need to change the
order of topics. Add more subtopics and details in the form of phrases or whole sentences.
 Keep in mind your schedule of due dates!!!

 Write your final Bibliography before you begin to write the paper. All endnote content will come
from the Bibliography

At this stage of developing a thesis, it is assumed that the student has collected his materials and is ready
to plan the order of presenting his results. Logical organization requires understanding of the various
parts of the material collected with respect to their relationship. At this stage of his progress the student
should consider the essential parts of a thesis, which consist of the introduction, the body of results, and t
summary and conclusion.

The Introduction/ General Background

The introduction/background describes what the author has tried to do and the procedure used. In this
part the researcher should highlight the change and continuities on the geographical setting, the peopling,
socio-economic and cultural conditions in the study area by tracing some to the previous period. A
student may outline his/her plans for developing the study, indicate sources of data, both original
secondary, and make additional statements that will enable the reader to obtain a clear picture of the
procedure followed. Difference of opinion exists with respect to labeling the introduction as a separate
chapter. Some authorities believe that the introduction should not constitute one of the chapters of a
thesis.

Body

The most important part of any historical essay is the body. Here, the historian narrates the story of what
happened, describes the sights and sounds that can make the past come to life, elaborates on points that
would otherwise remain obscure, explains and interprets the significance of various points point s , and
presents the core of evidence that supports the argument or rebuts evidence that might point to other
90
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

possible conclusions. The organization of this part of the paper is critical to presenting a clear and
coherent argument. Historians generally have two choices for organizing a paper—chronological or
thematic. The findings or results of the study may be presented in one or several chapters according to
their length and complexity. Historical theses making use of qualitative methods are usually longer than
those using quantitative methods. When the body of the thesis contains several chapters, a short summary
at the end of each chapter is appropriate. In the body of results the investigator organizes his materials
systematically and presents closely related data grouped in sections under appropriate heading.

Three modes of presenting results in a thesis are: textual, tabular, and graphic. The investigator who
presents his results in the form of explanation, description, or narration uses the textual form. The pre-
dominant mode of presentation in qualitative theses is textual. In developing qualitative theses graphs or
tables may not be needed. The writer of a thesis involving the historical method may compile tables to
indicate the trends supported by his data. In an integrative study presentation of research data may be
arranged in tabular form for more orderly presentation. In such cases, however, the investigator uses
tables and graphs in order to present data obtained by other investigators who have used Quantitative
methods and does not derive such data himself.

Conclusions

The conclusion is the researcher‘s last opportunity to make his or her point. It is the lasting impression of
the research paper. Most conclusions offer a summary of the major points made in the paper. They often
contain a restatement of the thesis. Some historians like to include this restatement in either the first or
last paragraph of their conclusion. A conclusion should also tie up any loose ends, elaborate on the points
that support the thesis, and may offer suggestions for further research on the topic.

91
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

CHAPTER SIX

BASIC TECHNIQUES IN HISTORICAL WRITING (SENIOR ESSAY)

Acknowledging, Paraphrasing and quoting sources

What is paraphrased or quoted? Published, unpublished and speeches of a person. Why it is necessary to
quote or paraphrase? It is to avoid plagiarism. What is meant by plagiarism?

 Plagiarism is copying without proper acknowledgement or

 It is the use of another person's words, ideas or specific information without referencing.
 It is passing off someone else‘s work as your own or
 It is the use of another person‘s ideas or words without giving them the proper credit.
 It is academic dishonesty (crime) and incurs serious penalties in all university departments.
Therefore, you must acknowledge (recognize) their work. Generally, plagiarism can occur when you use
someone else‘s exact words without giving them credit, taking credit for someone else‘s ideas, or even
presenting your own past work as a new idea.

How can we avoid plagiarism? Mention the Mechanisms. In order to avoid plagiarism you should
mechanisms such as paraphrase, Quote or indent. These mechanisms should also be followed by
proper citations. When to quote or indent or paraphrase one’s work?

Quote- When to use a quotation? A good rule is that you should never use a quotation merely to
convey factual information or commonplace facts. Instead, use a quotation to give an example or
illustration from a primary source, or to encapsulate another historian‘s view-point or research finding.
Quotations are best used to convey ideas or opinions rather than facts, or to set up another historian for
analysis or criticism. Some historians use quotations mainly to support their own arguments, but an
alternative approach is to use a quotation only when you want to disagree with it. The first rule is DON‘T

92
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

copy a whole sentence unless you are fairly sure you want to use it as a quotation. Quotations should be
used very sparingly in an essay. Quotations must be exact and accurate, down to the last comma and full-
stop, they must be enclosed in quotation-marks, and they must have a numbered footnote which gives the
exact page-reference for the sentence quoted.

At any rate, if you use an author's specific word or words, you must place those words within quotation
marks and you must credit the source. Direct ideas of the author are put in Quotation mark if it is not
more than four lines. Direct quotes more than four lines are indented.

N.B. Don’t quotes a quote!

What is indentation? – It is a lengthy direct quotation. Why indentation? Indentation is quite important if
the author‘s ideas are very important to your theme of study and if the sentences or statements are more
than four lines. Indentation should be italicized and single spaced. Normally its font size should also be
less in one from the other writings. Theme font is in New Times Roman and the Font size is 12.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is used when you take someone else‘s direct quote and state their idea in your own words.
Changing a few words here and there is still considered plagiarism even if you do cite the author.
Paraphrasing means that you expressed the author‘s information or ideas in your own words and have
given that person credit for that information or idea. Or Paraphrasing is often defined as putting a passage
from an author into ―your own words.‖ But what are your own words? How different must your
paraphrase be from the original? You can prevent plagiarism by closing the document and restating the
idea in your own words.

General advice on how to paraphrase

1. When reading a passage, try first to understand it as a whole, rather than pausing to write down
specific ideas or phrases.

93
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

2. Be selective. Unless your assignment is to do a formal or ―literal‖ paraphrase,* you usually don‘t
need to paraphrase an entire passage; instead, choose and summarize the material that helps you make a
point in your paper.

3. Think of what ―your own words‖ would be if you were telling someone who‘s unfamiliar with your
subject (your mother, your brother, a friend) what the original source said.

4. Remember that you can use direct quotations of phrases from the original within your paraphrase and
that you don‘t need to change or put quotation marks around shared language.

Activities on Paraphrasing

Citing Your Sources: You have three popular referencing methods to choose from: footnotes, endnotes
and in-text (parenthetical) references. History and the other humanities use either footnotes or endnotes,
while the social sciences prefer parenthetical referencing. Should your instructor not indicate a
preference, you could check with him/her. Otherwise, ensure that you are consistent with whichever
style you use.

FOOTNOTES

What is a Footnote?

Footnotes are linked numbered references that point from a particular sentence (or sentences) of your
essay to the location of the sources of your direct quotations, figures and statistics, factual material, and
ideas or arguments you have taken from other authors. They are placed at the 'foot' of the page, in
contrast to ‗endnotes‘, which appear at the end of your document. In your history essay writing, use
footnotes rather than endnotes or in-text referencing. In-text referencing, in which the source appears
between parentheses at the end of a sentence, is a type of referencing used only in a few specialized
economic history or history of science journals, and thus is not standard historical practice.

Varieties of applying this form

Most experts agree on this point. David Murray, for example observes that: By1860, the average price of
a slave exceeded 1,000 Spanish dollars. . . . Only the . . . richest . . . could afford to outfit a slave-trading

94
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

expedition, but the enormous profits to be made and the unceasing demand for slaves [and indentured
labor] offered tempting incentives for those with the necessary capital (Murray 1980, 298-99).

David Murray (1980, 298) believes that the sugar revolution in Cuba concentrated the sugar industry
into fewer hands of huge capitalists who alone were able to cope with the increasingly exorbitant capital
and labor costs.

Footnotes are an important craft to master as they represent expertise, rigour and accuracy in your use of
evidence. They provide a basis for your essay's argument, and should provide sufficient information to
allow the reader to find your sources. The key to footnoting, as with so many other aspects of essay
writing, is accuracy and consistency.

In a footnote, the author‘s surname is preceded by initials or first names. In the bibliography the author‘s
surname comes first and all entries are arranged alphabetically by surname.

What to put in a footnote? Remember that the primary purpose of a footnote is to tell the reader the
source of your information, not to show off how clever you are. (Some academics seem to prefer the
latter.) Don‗t use footnotes to pile on additional information to get around the word limit. If the point is
important, it should be in the main body of your text. One of the key skills tested by essay-writing is your
ability to select evidence and to judge the importance and relevance of information.

When to use Footnote?

You must provide footnotes for direct and indirect borrowing. Specifically, whenever:

(i) You quote another author. For example, to use a quote from the sample reading, you must give a
footnote. 'Anderson states that ‗[t]he Virginia Company aimed to supply its fledgling colony with all the
"domestically" beasts it needed.‘ (FOOTNOTE REQUIRED HERE)

(ii) You present figures, number, percentages, or other statistics. For example, In 1851 Governor Grey
estimated that the Māori population of the colony was 120,000. (FOOTNOTE REQUIRED HERE)

(iii) When summarizing detailed factual material from your sources. For example, over the course of his
life Francois Viète correctly expanded the estimation of pi out to thirty five places, the value of which his
wife placed on his tombstone. (FOOTNOTE REQUIRED HERE)
95
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

(iv) to acknowledge a summary of an argument or opinion of an author, even when the exact words are
not used. For example, Anderson argues that lengthy voyages between England and America weakened
livestock shipped on board. (FOOTNOTE REQUIRED HERE)

Note: this is the summary of an argument, not factual material, as Anderson is not merely stating
verifiable facts, but rather making an argument about a subject and supporting it with evidence. Hint: if
you find that most of your footnotes are of type (i), it indicates that you are over-quoting or not
recognizing your use of other authors' ideas. You should do more summarising of others' ideas in your
own words, so more of your footnotes become type (iv).

You do not need to footnote matters of common knowledge. You do not need to footnote your own
opinions and ideas. This is often the hardest part of footnoting to work out, as your ideas often come
from your reading. However, new connections and concepts that you have made regarding the topic, even
though they are based on your reading, are considered your own.

The Style of Footnotes

The main requirements for your footnotes are consistency and clarity in identifying a text. The specific
information required in each footnote depends on the material being referenced. In general this is the
author name, text title, publisher, place and year of publication, and the page number(s) of the text to
which your writing refers. The various details of footnotes for specific sources are detailed below.

Note: Your footnotes should be numbered continuously throughout your essay. (1,2,3,...,n).

Place the referring footnote number slightly above the line of text, a little smaller than the main text
(Microsoft Word does this automatically). The referring footnote number should be placed after the full
stop of the sentence to which the sources relate.

For example, most livestock shipped by the Virginia Company in the 1620s died on the Atlantic voyage,
6
exacerbating food shortages in the colony. [This would refer to the sixth footnote of the essay.]

4.3 Page Number References

96
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Page numbers are written as 'p.' for a reference from a single page or 'pp.' for material that spans two or
more pages. If the footnote refers to two distant separate pages then each page must be listed separately
as the reference does not refer to the intervening pages.

For example,

(i) For a reference from page nine, p.9.

(ii) For a reference for material that spans pages nine, ten and eleven, pp.9-11.

(iii) For a reference that takes material from page nine and page eleven (but not page ten), pp.9,11.

Please note: do not use 'pg' to abbreviate ‗page‘ or ‗pages‘.

There are different conventions for citing books, periodicals, edited collections and translations, et cetera.

a) Citing books:
1= First citation in footnote

2 = Subsequent citations in footnote

3 = Bibliographical format

a) Citing books:

Author First Name Last Name, Book Title (Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication), pp.
XX. Cite the exact page(s) where you found the material.

For example, (AUTHOR) (TITLE) (CITY)

6 Mark Alrich, Death Rode the Rails: American Railroad Accidents and Safety, 1828-1965 (Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006) pp.134-5.

(PUBLISHER) (YEAR) (PAGES)

97
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

b) Citing printed journal articles:

Author First Name Last Name, 'Article Title' (in single quotation marks), Journal Title (in italics),
Vol. x, no. y, Month (if there is no month provided give whatever information listed, such as a season)
year, pp. XX.

For example, (AUTHOR) (ARTICLE TITLE IN INVERTED COMMAS) Erik Olssen, 'Mr Wakefield
and New Zealand as an Experiment in Post-Enlightenment Experimental Practice', The New Zealand
Journal of History, Vol. 31, no. 2, October 1997, p.210.

(JOURNAL TITLE) (VOLUME) (NUMBER) (DATE) (PAGE)

Although most printed journal articles now have been digitalised and are sourced from the University
Library‘s online databases, you need not list a database URL in your footnotes or bibliography so long as
you follow the above rules. If in doubt, consult your lecturer or course coordinator. Exception: electronic
journals that do not appear in print—see e) below.

c) Citing articles from edited collections: Author First Name Last Name, 'Article Title' (in single
quotation marks), in editor First Name Last Name (ed.), Book Title, (Place of publication: Publisher,
Year), pp. XX.

For example, (AUTHOR) (ARTICLE TITLE) (EDITOR) (BOOK TITLE) (PLACE)

13
C. Davis, 'Clio's Lost Sheep', in Jock Phillips (ed.), Biography in New Zealand (Wellington:
HarperCollins, 1985), pp.9–12.

(PUBLISHER) (DATE) (PAGES)

Even when the author of the article is the same person as the editor of the collection you should still list
the names in both places. For example, (AUTHOR) (EDITOR)
14
Jock Phillips, 'Introduction', in Jock Phillips (ed.), Biography in New Zealand (Wellington:
HarperCollins, 1985), p.l.

98
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

d) Citing films and videos -Give the producer‘s and/or director‘s name (or names), the title, the
distributor, the year of production.

For example, (PRODUCER) (TITLE) (DISTRIBUTOR) (YEAR)

15 Ken Burns et al., The West (PBS Video, 1996).

(PRODUCER) (WRITER/INTERVIEWER) (TITLE)

16 Gaylene Preston and Judith Fyfe, War Stories Our Mothers Never Told Us (DISTRIBUTOR)
(YEAR) (Ronin Films, 1995; released on video, 1996).

e) Citing digital-only material from the internet: Each day more and more useful historical material
appears only in digital versions and is placed on the internet. In referencing such material, determine
whether the source is unchanged or unchangeable or may be changed. The content in a journal article
in the Electronic Journal of Australian and New Zealand History, for instance, would never be changed;
the content on a website such as www.slavevoyages.org may be edited and updated.

(i) Unchanged or unchangeable sources

If you use material from a digitalised journal article or e-book, you must provide a full, first reference
that contains: author’s name (first name comes first); title of work of the list/site as appropriate; and
access path (Universal resource locator, URL).

For example, (AUTHOR) (TITLE OF WORK)

18 Graeme Davison, ‗On History and Hypertext,‘ Electronic Journal of Australian and New Zealand
History; www.jcu.edu.au/aff/history/new.htm (URL)

Note: Some of these e documents now have DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers). Since these identifiers are
unique and permanent, you may use DOIs rather than URLs for sources that supply DOIs.

(ii) Changeable sources

If you use material from the Internet from a changeable website, you also must give your access date.

99
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

For example, (AUTHOR) (TITLE OF WORK)

18 David Eltis, ‗A Brief Overview of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade‘, Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic
Slave Trade Database; www.slavevoyages.org; accessed 22 July 2011.

(URL) (ACCESS DATE)

f) Citing revised editions:

If a book is a revised edition then you should note the current edition you are using and that edition's year
of publication.

For example, (AUTHOR) (TITLE) (EDITION) (CITY) (PUBLISHER) (YEAR ED. PUB.) (PAGE)

7 E. H. Carr, What is History?, 2d ed. (London: Macmillan, 1987), p.88.

(AUTHOR) (TITLE)

8 Maurice Meisner, Mao's China and After: A History of the People's Republic, rev. ed. (New York:
Free Press, 1986), p.1

(EDITION) (CITY) (PUBLISHER) (YEAR REV. ED.) (PAGE)

g) Citing translations:

If a source has been translated also include the translator's name. For example,

(AUTHOR) (TRANSLATOR) 32 Fernand Braudel, On History, trans. Sarah Matthews (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1980), p.114.

h) Citing lectures:

Footnoting notes from a lecture should only be done if the information or argument cannot be found in
more conventional sources. Avoid using lecture notes as references where possible, as they are likely to
be incomplete and possibly inaccurate; often they have been taken in a rush. You should include the
lecturer's name, the 'lecture title', the course, the place, and the date.

100
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

For example,

(AUTHOR) (TITLE) (COURSE) (PLACE) (DATE)

37 Steve Behrendt, 'Sugar in World History', HIST120 lecture, Victoria University of Wellington, 23
March 2011.

i) Citing works quoted in another work:

If you are footnoting a quote or idea from a book that does not belong to the author of the book, you must
identify not only the original author, but also note the text in which you found the excerpt (or else seek
out the original source).

For example, if you wanted to use a quote from St. Augustine from Alfred Crosby's book The Measure
of Reality, you must show that while the author of the quote may be St. Augustine, you did not obtain the
quote from the original work. So the footnote would expand to include all this information.

(DETAILS OF SOURCE YOU ARE USING)

40 St Augustine, Confessions, trans. R. S. Pine-Coffin (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1961), p.114, in

Alfred W. Crosby, The Measure of Reality: Quantification and Western Society, 1250-1600 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1997), p.134.

(DETAILS OF BOOK IN WHICH SOURCE WAS FOUND)

j) Citing a Book of Readings:

This is the same as footnoting a cited work. The key is to remember that it is the original author and
initial source of the text you are using that you must acknowledge first. Ask yourself, ‗Who wrote the
text I am using, and where did it come from?‘ Then note that the material was 'in' the Book of Readings
(or seek out the original source).

For example, if using the text on page 361 of the HIST117 Book of Readings you must note the original
author, publication, and page numbers, and then note that you took this from the Book of Readings.

101
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

41 Nini Rodgers, 'Equiano in Belfast: A Study of the Anti-Slavery Ethos in a Northern Town',
Slavery and Abolition, Vol. 20, no. 3, December 1999, p.74, in HIST117: Europeans, Africans and
Americans Book of Readings (Wellington: 2006), p.361.

Note: a Book of Readings does not list an editor, so you cannot give the editor name. Do not assume the
editor is your lecturer. Where there is no information given, you cannot make it up.

k) Citing multiple sources:

If you have two or more sources that give the same information or argument you can footnote all of them
in the same footnote. Entries for each title follow the same rules as other footnotes, and each source is
separated by a semi-colon ';'.

For example, for the same (or very similar) argument found in the following two books you could
footnote both.

10 Francois Crouzet, The Victorian Economy, trans. A. S. Forster (London: Methuen, 1982), p.15; S.
Pollard and D. W. Crossley, The Wealth of Britain, 1085-1966 (London: Batsford, 1968), p.241.

Citing Primary Sources

l) Citing newspaper articles:

Give the author of the article (where possible), the 'article title' (in single quotation marks), the
newspaper title (in italics), date of publication (date month year), and the page number where you found
the material.

For example,

(AUTHOR) (TITLE) (NEWSPAPER) (DATE)

6 Vernon Small, ‗US Envoy Defends Frank Talk in Leaked Cables‘, Dominion Post, 1 December 2010,
p.A5.

m) Citing archival sources:

102
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Give the author of the source (where possible), the addressee (if a letter) or the title of the document (if
any), the date of the source, the collection title, the archival reference number, and the archival
repository and its location (you can abbreviate this in subsequent references).

For example,

(AUTHOR) (ADDRESSEE) (DATE) (COLLECTION TITLE)

3 M. Fraser to The Secretary, New Zealand Seamen‘s Union, 20 October 1921, STATS Series 1, Box 29,
Record 22/6/15, Archives New Zealand (ANZ).

(ARCHIVAL REFERENCE NUMBER) (ARCHIVAL REPOSITORY)

18 Karamea Store Book, 1875-1876, NP Series 23, Box 5, item 6, ANZ.

n) Citing legislation:

Give the short title of the Act, the date of theAct, the section you are referring to, and the line reference
(where relevavant). Cite Bills (legislation yet to be passed by Parliament) in the same way, but remember
that they consist of clauses (cl.) rather than sections (sec.).

For example,

(SHORT TITLE & DATE)

21 Electoral Act 1993, s.60(a)(ii)

(SECTION)

o) Citing from the Appendices to the Journal of the House of Representatives:

103
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Give the title of the document (in single inverted commas), the title of the source (you can abbreviate to
AJHR in subsequent references), the date of the source, the session, the section, and the page number.

For example,

(TITLE) (AJHR)

7 Further Papers Relative to Mr Buller‘s Leave of Absence‘, Appendix to the Journals of the House of
Representatives (AJHR), 1872, Session 1, G-19, p.2.

(DATE) (SESSION) (SECTION) (PAGE)

p) Citing Parliamentary Debates

Give the speaker, the title of the source (can abbreviate to NZPD on subsequent references), the date of
the source, the volume number, and the page number.

For example,

(SPEAKER) (TITLE) (DATE) (VOLUME) (PAGE)

8 Richard Seddon, New Zealand Parliamentary Debates (NZPD), 1894, Vol. 82, p.965.

There are many other types of sources that require specialized footnoting (and bibliographical) details.
This booklet cannot give a complete list. The basic principles of footnoting can be found here. If you
encounter a source that does not seem to fit into any of the above categories you can ask your tutor or
lecturer for advice. Footnoting may seem difficult and cumbersome at first, but it becomes routine with a
little practice.

Page Number References

Page numbers are written as 'p.' for a reference from a single page or 'pp.' for material that spans two or
more pages. If the footnote refers to two distant separate pages then each page must be listed separately
as the reference does not refer to the intervening pages.

For example,

104
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

(i) for a reference from page nine, p.9.

(ii) for a reference for material that spans pages nine, ten and eleven, pp.9-11.

(iii) for a reference that takes material from page nine and page eleven (but not page ten), pp.9,11.

Please note: do not use 'pg' to abbreviate ‗page‘ or ‗pages‘.

Abbreviating Footnotes

In order to avoid an essay becoming overwhelmed with long footnote references throughout, historians
and publishers of History use two main conventions to shorten some footnotes: the short version and the
short title. You can never shorten the first reference to any work you are citing, so the short version or
short title format apply to the second or subsequent time you cite a particular work.

Footnoting: the short version

In an essay where you have already given a footnote to, for example,

2 Greg Dening, Mr Bligh's Bad Language - Passion, Power and Theatre on the Bounty (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1992), p.27.

Then for subsequent footnotes you could use the short version that lists only the author's surname and
the page(s) referenced.

13 Dening, p.27.

Footnoting: the short title

However, if you are citing more than one work by the same author, or two authors with the same
surname, you should also provide a short title to avoid confusion. The short title should be the first few
key words of the full title, enough to uniquely identify that text in your essay. Thus in using the short
title footnoting convention you would drop definition or indefinite articles, such as ‗the‘ or ‗an‘.

For example, if you have already given a full footnote references for,

105
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

1 Charles Webster, The Great Instauration: Science, Medicine and Reform 1626-1660 (London:
Duckworth, 1975), p.163. and

4 Charles Webster, 'Alchemical and Paracelsian Medicine' in Charles Webster (ed.), Health, Medicine
and Mortality in the Sixteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp.301-3.

Then you should shorten both in subsequent footnotes with a short title to identify each distinctly:

8 Webster, 'Alchemical and Paracelsian Medicine', p.312.

9 Webster, Great Instauration, p.14.

Because your aim in footnoting is to provide accurate reference information for your reader, to avoid
any confusion use the short title footnoting method.

In reading works of History, you may see other footnote referencing methods, including the use of the
word ‗ibid‘. The term 'ibid.' is a specialised designation derived from the Latin word 'ibidem', which
means 'in the same place'. The footnote reference ‗ibid‘. applies to footnotes of the same work that
immediately follow each other. Despite being derived from a foreign word (and being an abbreviation
too) 'ibid.' does not need to be italicised.

Instead of using a full or short version you can substitute 'ibid.'.

For example,

5 Witold Rybczynski, Waiting for the Weekend, New York, 1991, p.89.

6 ibid. (SAME BOOK, SAME PAGE)

7 ibid., p.78. (SAME BOOK, DIFFERENT PAGE)

8 Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy, London, 1946, 2nd edition, 1961, p.668.

9 ibid., p.191. (NOW REFERS TO Russell's, History)

10 Rybczynski, p.16. (BACK TO FIRST BOOK, THIS TIME IN SHORT TITLE)

106
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Take care in using ‗ibid‘ as in the process of editing a draft essay, you may move main text words
around by cutting and pasting. Shifting words or sentences also will re-order your footnotes, and could
therefore create instances when ‗ibid.‘ does not refer to the work previously cited.

Tip: It is often wise to make all footnotes in your draft full references, and then shorten those that can be
shortened only in the final copy. Remember, you must give the first citation of any work in your
footnotes in complete, full format.

Advanced Footnoting Techniques

If, as noted in (6.3k), you reference multiple sources in the same footnote, it must be clear to the reader
where the information in the sentence/ paragraph came from. You can add clarity by specifying
geographical locations or the names of authors in your text.

For example, this author specified geographical locations in the paragraph, enabling the reader to match
the historical information to each source.

In 1703, a Massachusetts law stated that after nine o‘clock in the evening, no ‗Negro or mulatto servant
or slave‘ should be out in the streets without specific permission from his or her master. Rhode Island,
which would eventually use gang slavery in the farms around Narragansett Bay, in spite of its early
prohibition of slaveholding, also established curfew for ‗Negroes‘ or Indians in 1703. In New York, a
brutal slave law was enacted in 1712 after a bloody slave insurrection left nine whites dead. 1

1 R. C. Twombley and R. H. Moore, Black Puritan: The Negro in Seventeenth Century Massachusetts,‛
William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 24, no. 3, 1967, pp.224-42; Records of the Colony of Rhode Island
and Providence Plantations, 10 vols. (Providence, 1856-1862), Vol. 3, p. 492; K. Scott, ‚The Slave
Insurrection in New York in 1712,‛ New York Historical Quarterly, Vol. 45, no. 1, 1961, pp.16-18.

Another method of indicating how your references relate to the information in your text is to specify
authorship, as in the following example:

In the early twentieth century, ‗the plantation school‘ of Southern historians worked on the assumption
that the ‗Negro‘ was only fitted for a subordinate position in American society, and that the plantation
107
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

was the ideal vehicle for his or her civilization. Ulrich Bonnell Phillips was the leading advocate of this
‗school‘, and he and his followers stressed how blacks, who were by nature ‗inferior‘, needed the
nurturing environment of the plantation to survive in an increasingly capitalist world. Richard Hofstadter
first challenged this thesis, and economists Conrad and Meyer further undermined the ‗plantation
school‘, by demonstrating that the standard of living of blacks 49 declined precipitously on plantations.
In the 1960s, Genovese led a reappraisal of Phillips‘ studies on plantation slavery.

31 Ulrich B. Phillips, American Negro Slavery (New York, 1918); T. J. Wertenbaker, The Old South: The
Founding of American Civilization (New York, 1942); R. Hofstadter, ‗Ulrich B. Phillips and the
Plantation Legend‘, Journal of Negro History, Vol. 29 (1944), pp.109-124; A. H. Conrad and J. R.
Meyer, ‗The Economics of Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South‘, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 66
(1958), pp.95-130; E. D. Genovese, ‗Race and Class in Southern History: An Appraisal of the Work of
Ulrich Bonnell Phillips‘, Agricultural History, Vol. 16 (1967), pp.345-58.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

What is a Bibliography?

A bibliography is simply the alphabetical listing of the sources you have consulted to write your essay.
The purpose of a bibliography is to allow a reader of your work to trace your sources. You should record
the information to complete your bibliography as you read (1) and take notes (2). An essay is not
complete without a bibliography. Take care to include the relevant information as detailed below.

The Style of Bibliographies

Your bibliography should be the final page(s) of your essay, and should begin on a separate fresh sheet of
paper. The first page of your bibliography should be headed 'Bibliography'.

You should list all relevant books and journal articles you consulted to write the essay. Do not include
works you have not consulted. Essays are marked on the assumption that you have used all the books
listed in your bibliography.

Bibliographical entries are similar in style and content to footnote references with some important
exceptions.

108
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Bibliography vs. Footnote Style: Bibliography Last name, First name,

Footnotes First name Last name,

A bibliography is an alphabetical listing, by surname of the authors. Author names are therefore listed by
surname first, then by first names (or initials). It is customary to separate your bibliography into two
distinct alphabetical lists; one of primary material (if any), and the other of secondary material.

The bibliographical entry for a book requires the author (surname first), title, place of publication,
publisher and year of publication.

For example,

McPhee, Peter, The French Revolution, 1789-1799 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

The bibliographical listings of articles a journal should contain the author (surname first), article title
(in quotation marks), journal title (in italics), volume number, issue number, year of publication, and the
page range of the full article.

For example,

Dasgupta, Jyotirindra, ‗Community, Authenticity, and Autonomy: Insurgence and Institutional

Development in India's Northeast', The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 56, no. 2, 1997, pp.345-70.

For an article from an edited collection the bibliographical entry requires, the author (surname first), the
article title (in quotation marks), editor'(s) name(s), collection title (in italics), place of publication,
publisher, year of publication, and the full page range of the article.

For example,

Goodman, Dena. ‗Women and the Enlightenment‘, in Renate Bridenthal, Susan Mosher Stuart and
Merry E. Weisner (eds.), Becoming Visible: Women in European History, 3rd ed. (Boston and New
York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998), pp.233-62.

The basic style principles for other texts are the same as for footnotes (see (6.4) for more details). The
only differences to remember are to place the surname first (and list the entries alphabetically), and, if
109
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

referring to an article or chapter, include the full page range. A sample bibliography, following the
presentation guidelines given in section (8), is given below.

A Sample Bibliography

Primary sources

‗Medieval Land Laws‘, Ashburton Guardian, 27 February 1894, p.3.

St Augustine, Confessions, trans. R.S. Pine-Coffin (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books), 1961.

Secondary sources

Alrich, Mark. Death Rode the Rails: American Railroad Accidents and Safety, 1828-1965 (Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006).

Carr, E.H., What is History? (London: Macmillan, 1961, 2nd edition, 1987).

Crouzet, Francois, The Victorian Economy, trans. A.S. Forster (London: Methuen, 1982).

Goodman, Dena, ‗Women and the Enlightenment‘, in Renate Bridenthal, Susan Mosher Stuart and
Merry E. Weisner (eds.), Becoming Visible: Women in European History, 3rd ed. (Boston and New
York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998), pp.233-62.

PRESENTATION AND STYLE GUIDE

Below are guidelines for the presentation of your essay. Other sections in this booklet also provide
specific details of presentation, particularly.

These presentation guidelines are designed to help make your essay easy to read and mark. The ability to
present your essay to a set standard is a skill that will be expected whether in the workforce or in another
department.

Type Size and Fonts

A good size and style of font is twelve point Times New Roman. Use standard font types, such as Times
New Roman, Calibri, Palatino Linotype, or Helvetica. Fancy fonts are hard to read.
110
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Doubling Spacing and Margins

Double spacing your essay makes it easier to read and leaves room for your marker. Double spacing
means leaving a full blank line after each written line.

For example, On a computer double-spacing can usually be set up in the paragraph settings, under line
spacing. Even in exams it is often a good idea to double-space your answers, as it makes reading and
marking your work easy.

Leave a wide left-hand margin in your final copy. Margins are important as they give room for your
marker to comment on your work. A good margin is about thirty-five to fifty millimetres (35-50mm). See
the sample page (8.10) for an example.

Paragraph Indents Rather than Line-Spaces

To separate paragraphs, indent the first line of each paragraph rather than leaving a line of space between
paragraphs. A formal essay should flow continuously from one idea to the next. Using an indent keeps
the new idea (paragraph) spatially connected to the previous one and reminds you to connect the
paragraphs conceptually. Add a connecting clause to the new topic sentence to smooth the transition.

For example, start a new paragraph following one from the sample reading:

'Colonists had little reason to expect anything other than the easy transfer of animal husbandry to the
Chesapeake, for the region appeared to be nothing less than an earthly paradise for livestock'.

As the colonists expected animal husbandry to transfer easily, the Virginia Company

sought to furnish them with sufficient livestock.

Page Numbers

Your submitted essay must have page numbers on the top right-hand corner of each page. Use your
word processors ‗insert page number‘ feature.

Italics

111
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Foreign words, book titles and journal titles should all be either italicised or underlined in your essay.

Sometimes you must italicize a title that already has italicized words. For instance, for a title that appear
on the cover of a book as ‗Class structure in Machiavelli's The Prince', the convention is that the italics
of an italicized word is in normal type. In other words two italicizations cancel each other out. So the title
given above would be written in your essay as: Class structure in Machiavelli's The Prince.

Numbers, Centuries and Years

Numbers less than one hundred (100) should be spelled out in words. For example: ten; eighty-three;
ninety-nine. Numbers greater than one hundred can be given in numerical form.

Centuries should be written out in words. For instance: the sixteenth century; the fifth century BCE; the
nineteenth century.

Years are normally given in numerical form: so 1848, 1998, and 1066. However, full dates should be
written out with the day in numerical form, and the month in words: 22 November 1998; 4 July 1066; 12
March 49 BCE.

Footnotes

As noted in section (6), you can use either the footnote or endnote format in your essay. Footnotes must
be placed at the bottom (or 'foot') of the page they relate to. Footnotes should be written in a slightly
smaller type than the main text of your essay, and they do not have to be double spaced. See the sample
page (8.10) for examples.

Bibliography Format

Your bibliography will be the last page(s) of your essay. Remember that your bibliography must start on
a fresh page, and be titled, 'Bibliography'. Bibliography entries should follow the layout guidelines for
your main text with one important exception: do not indent the first line of each paragraph (or entry).

Bibliography: You must list the published and unpublished sources that you consulted at the end of your
essay in a separate section. It should be divided into sub-sections for primary and secondary sources.

112
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Your bibliography should follow current library practice, which is to give first names in full and to
include the publisher‘s name. (When citing an article in a journal, however, you do not give the place or
publisher; just the name of the journal.)

If you list only sources cited in the essay, you could entitle this section ―Reference List‖ or ―List of
Works Cited‖ instead of ―Bibliography,‖ as bibliography refers to all sources you have consulted
whether or not they are cited.

Notes and bibliographies follow different rules. Consult pages one to four for detailed examples. The
following are distinctive features of the bibliography:

• The bibliography should begin on a separate page at the end of the paper (after the endnotes).

• The first author of each work is listed last-name-first.

• The entries are arranged alphabetically by the author‘s last name (or the title of an anonymous work).

• The first line of each entry begins at the left margin. Subsequent lines are indented.

• When an author appears more than once in a bibliography the ditto sign for his or her name appears as a
line of six hyphens followed by a period: ------.

• The punctuation and style differs from the notes. Periods replace many of the commas found in note
entries. Some parentheses are omitted. For books, no page numbers are provided. For articles, the entire
page range is provided.

Retain a Copy of Your Essay

Before handing in your essay make sure you have saved a copy on disk, by emailing the essay to yourself
(thus keeping in on the server), by photocopying the final copy, or printing out two copies of the final
version. You will have the work to refer to, and you have a backup in the unlikely event that you mislay
your essay.

GRAMMAR, SPELLING, AND OTHER TECHNICAL BITS

General Grammar
113
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Correct grammar helps your essay flow smoothly and makes your meaning clear. Poor grammar is
distracting and frustrating to the reader. If you doubt the punctuation and grammar of a sentence, then re-
write it in a simpler manner.

(a) Sentence construction: Remember that a sentence requires a verb, not just a subject, and should be a
complete thought. If a sentence is hard to punctuate, re-write it in a simpler manner.

(b) Do not use contractions. Do not use 'don't'; contractions are not formal language, and are best
avoided in an essay. Write words out in full: 'cannot' not can't; 'have not' not haven't; 'it is' not it's.

Contraction masquerading as a preposition: 'could of' and 'might of' are really the contracted verbs
'could've' and 'might've'. In a formal essay, use 'could have' and 'might have'.

(c) No abbreviations or symbols. Write: 'for example' not e.g.; 'that is' not i.e.; 'and' not &; 'percent' not
%; 'New Zealand' not N.Z. Spell centuries out in full: 'the seventeenth century' not the 17th century.

(d) Plurals: Normally English plurals simply require 's', so that 'ship' becomes 'ships'. For words ending
in 'y', the 'y' is changed to 'ies' 'colony' - for example, becomes 'colonies'. A small group of nouns, such as
the military term 'corps', retain the same form in both singular and plural. Remember that the plural of
Māori is Māori, not 'Māoris', and of Pākehā is Pākehā, not 'Pākehās'.

(e) Apostrophes: Apostrophes are only used to indicate possession and contractions (not to make a word
plural). As noted above, history essays should not use contractions. Below are guidelines for the use of
the apostrophe to indicate possession.

(i) Possession may be expressed equally well by 'of' or by using the apostrophe and shifting the word
order

The dress of the girl, the girl's dress

So too for a plural possessor

The dresses of the girls, the girls' dresses

(ii) The rule is to put the apostrophe after the possessor and add an's' if the possessor is in the singular

114
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

The girl's dress this class's teacher the quiz's difficulty

(iii) If the possessor is in the plural simply put the apostrophe after the plural possessor

All the girls' dresses all the classes' teachers

The rule for a plural possessor remains the same with both a singular and a plural object of possession.
So the idea of all the students and the ideas of all the students will both be expressed with an
apostrophe as

All the students' idea and all the students' ideas

(iv) The only exception to these rules for the use of the apostrophe indicating possession is for personal
pronouns, which do NOT have an apostrophe his hers theirs ours yours its

Note: ‗It's‘ is a contraction from ‗it is‘ or ‗it has‘ and is not the possessive.

(v) Proper nouns (names of people, places, etc and usually capitalised) which end in's' are treated like
singular nouns ending in 's'. Add an apostrophe ‘s‘ to form the possessive.

Keats's poetry Jesus's life

(f) Commas: The comma has more uses than any other punctuation mark. We include here the uses that
often bemuse students.

(i) A comma and conjunction together can join two independent clauses, clauses that could each stand
on their own as sentences.

Incorrect Congress passed the law, the president vetoed it.

Correct Congress passed the law, but the president vetoed it.

Coordinating conjunctions: and, or, but, nor, for, so, yet

Subordinating conjunctions: although, because, while, since, if, as, until

(ii) After an introductory element, a comma signals the subject of the sentence:

115
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Introductory Subordinate clause Since you asked, I will admit that I am exhausted.

Introductory Modifying phrase In a wave of enthusiasm, the audience rose to its feet.

(iii) A comma separates the items in a series: bananas, cherries, and peaches

Test: Comma before and ( , and ) : What follows the and?

An

The final the comma

Anything

(g) Semi-colons the semi-colon creates a pause longer than a comma and shorter than a full stop.

(i): The semi-colon ';' is a punctuation mark that separates clauses that could function independently as
sentences. No conjunction is necessary. It keeps two closely related statements within the same sentence.

For example, some of those painters influenced Cézanne; others were influenced by him.

Semi-colon Test: Replace the semicolon with a period. Do you have two complete sentences? If not, use
a different punctuation mark.

(ii): The semi-colon ';' also separates items in a list, when the items themselves contain commas.

For example, The Company has offices in San Francisco, California; Portland, Oregon; and Vancouver,
British Columbia.

(h) Colons: The colon ':' shows equivalence between the items on either side of it. It introduces a
restatement, a list, or a quotation. Make sure you have a complete statement before the colon.

For example, Lunch arrives: a tuna fish sandwich and a cup of tea.

The mosquito has four life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult.

116
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

George Percy enthusiastically reported: 'I have seen many great and large meadows having excellent
good pasture for any Cattle'.

Test: To test a colon, insert namely after it:

The results of the poll were surprising: 7 percent in favour, 11 percent opposed, and 82 percent no
opinion.

Namely works, and so does the colon.

We slaved for years: we remained as poor as ever.

Namely does not fit, because the second clause makes a new point.

Use a semicolon.

(i) Parentheses: '( )' are used to enclose remarks not intended to be in the main statement, or to
insert a phrase or explanation not belonging to the main statement. It is important to open '('
and close ')' parentheses. Parenthetical statements should be used sparingly. If something is
important it should be in your main text, if it is unimportant then consider deleting it.
(ii) For example, From Grimm‘s tales the child (or adult) learns that wishing is not a substitute
for action.
Larry (to Moe and Curly): ‗You knuckle-heads!‘

(j) Dash: There are two types of dash in common usage: the en dash (–) and the em dash (—). Beware of
using either where other punctuation will do. To insert them in a Microsoft Word document, go to Insert,
Symbol, Special Characters. Alternatively, the'F1' key will generate an en dash (–).

The dash (–) is used between numbers expressing a range (pp.3–5, 1998–2002). Where you can use the
word 'through'(Pages 3 through 5, years 1998 through 2002), use an en dash. The en dash also shows a
relationship between two entities (the Liberal–Labour coalition).

117
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

The em dash (—) is shows a break of thought. It provides a longer break than those provided by commas
or parentheses. When using it this way, it is important to open and close the dashes, as you would
commas and parentheses.

For example, ... In post-colonial Nigeria the largest ethnic groups in each region—the Hausa, Yoruba,
and Igbo in the Northern, Western, and Eastern regions respectively—therefore came to dominate local
politics and to contest for power at the federal level.

(k) That vs. Which: That and which are commonly considered interchangeable, yet there is a subtle
difference in the way they should be used. That introduces a restrictive clause, while which introduces a
non-restrictive clause. Use the following test to determine whether a clause is restrictive or non-
restrictive.

Test: Can you remove the clause without changing the meaning of the sentence?

No The clause is restrictive: it restricts the meaning of the sentence.

Use that with no preceding comma to introduce the clause.

Example: Sports that involve physical contact should not be played at school.

Yes The clause is non-restrictive. Introduce it with a comma and a witch.

Example: Contact sports, which are played in schools throughout New Zealand, often cause preventable
injuries.

Remember: no comma before that; comma before which

(l) Capitals:

(i) Should be used for names and titles of persons, for political and legislative terms, and for many
historical terms. Capitals show that the named entity is specific.

For example, the New Zealand Government; the Ross Dependency; the Province of Quebec; Labour
Party; Copyright Act; Minister of Social Welfare; Mr Speaker; First World War; Indian Mutiny; the
Reformation; the Depression; ANZUS Pact.
118
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

(ii) In titles and subtitles of books and articles, capitalize the first word. Capitalize every subsequent
word that is not an article (a, an, the), a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, nor, for, so, yet), or a
preposition (of, by, from, after, etc.).

The Mismeasure of Man

'Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914'

(m) Foreign words: (i) do not translate well known terms such as raison d'etre, coup d'etat, Realpolitik.
The French parlement, for example, is entirely different from the English 'parliament', and should not be
translated. (ii) Foreign words should be put in italics or underlined (see (8.5) for more details). Māori
words are not considered foreign, and should not be italicised.

(n) Past tense: As a rule it is a good idea to keep the past in the past tense. Avoid confusing statements
such as ‗Reading is slow as scribal Latin can be difficult to understand‘. Keeping the past in the past
tense avoids confusion, so a more appropriate version would be, ‗Reading was slow as scribal Latin
could be difficult to understand.‘

(o) No offensive language: There is no excuse for offensive, racist, sexist or insulting stereotypical
language in your essays.

(p) Avoid mixed metaphors, as they are usually impossible, and at best silly.

For example, you cannot ‗Grasp the nettle firmly in one hand, and take the bull by the horns‘, unless you
have three hands, or want to get gored by the bull. Similarly, ‗To stand firmly together while forging
ahead in new directions‘ is just ridiculous.

Metaphors can add interest to your writing, but use them wisely, and one at a time.

(q) Avoid journalese, or hackneyed phrases such as 'meaningful' or 'credibility'. These only obscure
meaning and make a critical reader suspicious.

(r) Avoid colloquial expressions. Remember an essay is a formal piece of writing. Use formal language,
not every day street talk.

119
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

6.9.2—Paraphrasing Evidence

Remember to footnote (6) your paraphrase. To paraphrase, rewrite information in your own words.
Historians often paraphrase in order to briefly summarize some aspect of a complex idea; most
paraphrases will be significantly shorter than the original text.

Students frequently paraphrase incorrectly. Paraphrasing requires a complete rewording of the author‘s
ideas. Consider a sample text,

By 1850 there was hardly a trading or a manufacturing town in England, which was not in some way
connected to overseas markets. The profits obtained from overseas trade provided one of the main
streams of that accumulation of capital in England which financed the Industrial Revolution.

The text below is not paraphrased, but plagiarized, as the writer has only substituted a few synonyms into
the sentences, and hence has stolen the author‘s sentence structures:

By the mid-1800s there was hardly a commercial or a manufacturing city in England, which was not
linked to overseas markets. The profits obtained from overseas trade provided one of the principal
streams of capital in England, which funded the Industrial Revolution.

An acceptable paraphrase might look like this: In the first half of the nineteenth century, foreign
exchange earnings provided sufficient capital to sustain England‘s industrial revolution.

Tip 1: If you read the source sentence(s) aloud and then your sentence(s) aloud, and they sound the same,
then you probably have not paraphrased sufficiently.

Tip 2: Try to write sentences without looking at your sources.

Students found guilty of plagiarism can be given zero for the essay. When to Footnote?'

120
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Using Quotes as Evidence

As in our sample reading (1.2), judicious use of quotations can effectively support your argument. Place
the words in quotation marks (‗ ‗) and footnote (6). Use quotes sparingly and accurately.

Primary material (1.3), or key secondary material, makes for the best quotations. The sample reading
(1.2) is a good example. Anderson quotes only from primary sources; she paraphrases the arguments of
her secondary sources.

Use an author‘s words in your final essay only when they say something in a particularly striking
manner or summarise their thesis succinctly. There is almost no need for long quotations, and quotations
should not dominate your own words.

Quotations must be accurate. Reproduce the words, spelling, capitalisation and punctuation of your
source, exactly. If you use a quotation that contains an obvious misprint or mistake you must not alter it
yourself. It is assumed that all quotes are reproduced accurately; however, if you want to stress that any
mistake or error is not yours but your source's, you can place the word ‗sic‘ in square brackets
immediately after the incorrect item. Sic, a Latin word, means ‗thus‘ or ‗so‘. In its essay-writing usage, a
good meaning is ‗intentionally so written‘.

For example, Abbot notes that ‗there is no single winning formula four *sic+ a suck-cessful [sic]
academic argument‘.

Occasionally you may need to add in your own words or letters to a quotation. Additional material must
be enclosed in square brackets to distinguish it clearly from the quotation. You can use this method to
replace a capital letter with the lower case equivalent, or to add in clarifying phrases that give context to
the quote.

For example, taking some quotes from our sample reading (1.2) you can replace a capital letter with a
lower case equivalent;

Anderson states that ‗*t]he Virginia Company aimed to supply its fledgling colony with all the
"domesticall" beasts it needed‘.
121
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Or add in a descriptive and clarifying phrase, ‗These animals arrived in a land [Northern Virginia] with
seemingly limitless amounts of natural meadow and a temperate climate roughly similar to England‘s.‘
However, it would not be acceptable to change the meaning of the quote by additions such as, ‗These
animals arrived in a land [the Waikato] with seemingly limitless amounts of natural meadow and a
temperate climate roughly similar to England‘s.‘

Long quotations, more than four or five lines, are seldom justified: as quotes increase in length they
increase in complexity and in amount of information they contain. So your reader may have difficulty
understand the main point of the quote.

If you cite long quotations (more than three lines) then the accepted format is to indent the quotation (left
and right margins) and omit the quotation marks. You also may indent quotations of particular
importance, to highlight the words for your reader.

For example, The Deputy Prime Minister, J. R. Marshall, chose to emphasize other reasons for the New
Zealand commitment in the House of Representatives:

The crux of the matter for us is that Communist aggression in Vietnam is a threat to us. If South Vietnam
is overrun and becomes a Communist State it becomes the base for the next move in the Communist plan
for world revolution.... Our security and way of life are at stake and we cannot stand aside.

Reference to Avoid Plagiarism

Plagiarism is copying without proper acknowledgement. It is the use of another person's words, ideas or
specific information without referencing. It is passing off someone else‘s work as your own. Plagiarism
is academic dishonesty and incurs serious penalties in all university departments.

Writing a history essay requires you to use the words and ideas of other authors, and there is nothing
wrong with this use, if they are referenced correctly. Referencing, in the form of footnotes (6) is the
method of acknowledging your use of other people‘s ideas and phrases. If you use the words of anyone
other than yourself, you must use quotation marks. For example, if you were writing an essay that used
ideas from our sample reading, then you would need to reference it with a footnote, even if it is
paraphrased (written in your own words). If you were to use words directly from the sample reading in

122
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

a sentence then they must be placed in quote marks, such as: Anderson states that ‗the first English
colonists in the Chesapeake celebrated the discovery of a very different resource: hay'.4

123
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

Debre Berhan University History and Heritage Management

Assignment I for the course historical research method II

1. Discuss the significance of conducting historical research.

2. Discuss the way how we employ action research in history.
3. Explain steps of historical research by raising manifestation.
4. What is the difference between external and internal criticism in historical sources.
5. Discuss some of the limitations of conducting historical research.

Debre Berhan University History and Heritage Management

Assignment II for the course historical research method II

1. Compare and contrast primary and secondary sources in historical research.

2. Explain the essence, significances and ways of using oral sources in historical research
method.
3. What is/are interpretation and elements of interpretative writing?
4. What is abstract writing?
5. What is the similarity and difference between footnote and Bibliography?

124
HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD II

125