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Review on granitic residual soils' geotechnical properties

Article in Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering · January 2012

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 Review on Granitic Residual Soils’
Geotechnical Properties

Asmaa Gheyath Salih

Department of Geotechnical Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia
e-mail: asmaa_g_s@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Knowledge on characteristics of granite residual soil offers important information on soil
strength and its behavior for safe and economic geotechnical structure design. In Malaysia
and Singapore, residual soils were investigated extensively because they are widespread in
tropical areas due to their many applications. Residual soils’ properties depend mainly on
weathering degree of the natural rock. Therefore, this would make the soil geotechnical
characteristics vary according to the degree of weathering. This paper attempts to summarize
the basic geotechnical properties of granite residual soils as obtained by different researchers
that conducted in several sites and conditions. The important geotechnical properties of the
soil such as specific gravity, particles size, clay contents percentage and shear strength of the
soil mass which determine the suitability and ability of the soil for construction. The
significant of collecting such data will develop a clear vision for new researchers and civil
engineering activities by providing the major characteristics and the nature of the composition
of this type of tropical soils.
KEYWORDS: Granite residual soil, geotechnical characteristics, weathering degree,
shear strength, researchers, composition.

INTRODUCTION
Knowing of granite residual soil characteristics will assist in construction of strong bases
such as roads highways, airports, dams, foundations, embankments, slopes, etc...
Intensive rainfall weather cause massive slope failures each year (Taha et al., 1998). Thus,
strong slope development with a large cuttings construction are requires for optimum shear
strength of residual soils in order to obtain safe and economic design.
The residual soil properties are varying in the single original rock although it has same
weather condition. Townsend (1985) stated that residual soil is the result of chemical weathering
and thus the characteristics of engineering residual soil depend on climatic factors, raw materials,
topography, flow and age. These factors will tremendously influence the engineering
characteristics of residual soil. The in situ behavior of soils is complex because it is heavily
dependent on many factors (Ahmed et al., 2006). For that, it is necessary to analyze the factors
through geotechnical engineering and other associated disciplines like geology, geomorphology,
hydrogeology, climatology and other earth and atmosphere related sciences.

- 2645 -
 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2646

This paper provides the basic geotechnical properties of granite tropical residual soils and
discussed the important correlations and facts that related. These data and information gathered
will contribute significantly to the number of active participants in civil engineering and
construction.

RESIDUAL SOIL
Residual soils cover more than three-quarters of the land area of Peninsular Malaysia (Taha et
al., 2000). Granite and sedimentary residual soils cover most parts of the land in Malaysia except
the coastal areas where soft clay dominates (Amin, 1997). The residual soils in Malaysia are
composite soils of sand, silt and clay in varied proportions that depend on the geological setting
of the soil (Nithiaraj, 1996)
There is no standard definition of residual soils. Different researchers gave different
definitions. For example, one such definition says “residual soils are those that form from rock or
accumulation of organic material and remain at the place where they were formed” (Ahmed et al.,
2006). The Public Works Institute of Malaysia (1996) defined it as “ a soil which has been
formed in situ by decomposition of parent material and which has not been transported any
significant distance” and residual soil as “a soil formed in situ under tropical weathering
conditions”.
This research concern about tropical areas residual soils, which are located in zone between
20o N (Tropic of Cancer) and 20o S (Tropic of Capricorn) of the equator.

WEATHERING PROFILE
Weathering is the process that produces change in the surface of rocks exposed to the
atmosphere and/or hydrosphere and produces soil, thus the soil is the product of rock weathering
as Illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Typical profile of residual soil (after Little, 1969)

A typical weathering profile as shown in Figure 1 is a vertical section of the soil layers which
demonstrates the vertical distribution of rock and soil to different weathering grades. Thus,
 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2647

reflecting progressive stages of transformation from fresh bedrock through weathered material to
ground surface.
Soil distributions of tropical area divided into three main types, granite residual soil,
sedimentary residual soil and meta-sedimentary residual soil (Tan, 2004). The residual soils are
composite soils of sand, silt and clay in varying proportions depending on the geological setting
of the soil (Balasubramaniam, 1985). The granite and sedimentary residual soils are the two most
commonly found types of residual soil in Malaysia.

MOISTURE CONTENT
Determination of the moisture content of the natural soil is very important because it shows
the ground characteristics that affected by the water content specially the lands that they have a
high fines percentage. However, natural moisture content increases with increasing clay content
due to the ability of clay particles to absorb the water. It was also found that the moisture content
of the soil is increasing with increasing the depth because of the ground top is more exposed to
the sun. Table 1 shows the natural moisture content obtained by previous researchers. It was
found that natural moisture content of granite residual soil in Malaysia is in the range of 5% -
50%. However Komoo (1985) conducted a study that related to the natural moisture content offer
99% availability.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity is the ratio of soil mass to the mass of water at 20 ° C. Determination of
specific gravity of soil is a useful parameter for the calculation of void ratio, porosity or degree of
saturation of a soil. In addition, it is also important in the calculation of compaction,
consolidation, permeability, testing limits shrinkage and particle size distribution using
sedimentation method. Residual soil value of the specific gravity does not change with depth but
it decreases with increasing of initial void ratio in soil. Table 1 shows specific gravity values in
different sites in Malaysia and Singapore (Marto and Kassim, 2003); it also includes recent
research results done by Salih (2012)
According to Table 1, the specific gravity values vary according to various studies based on
samples location. Study conducted by Tan (1995) for a sample of the Karak highway obtained the
specific gravity of a relatively small until 2.30. Also another study conducted by Tan (1995) in
Penang and Sungai area; Chan and Chin (1972) in Kuala Lumpur shows the value of specific
gravity greater than 2.7. Study in Singapore reported a range of specific gravities between 2:55 to
2.75.
However, the specific gravity may also be related to the clay content in the soil as it decreases
with increasing of clay content, this increasing in clay content will result in affecting the value of
the void ratio thus the specific gravity values as described above.
 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2648

Table 1: Specific gravity value of granite residual soil in Malaysia and Singapore
Moisture Specific
Depth
Resource Location content gravity,
(m)
(%) Gs
Taha, et al. (2000) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 31 2.55-2.61
Kasa & Ali (1997) Nilai, Negeri Sembilan 2.66
Sungai Ara, Penang 5.7-28.42 2.50-2.77
Bt.Bendara, Penang 7.9-18.9 2.50-2.62
Banjaran Kledang, Perak - 2.59-2.70
Km 26.5 lebuh raya KL- 9.0-16.0 2.30-2.68
Tan (1995)
Karak
Km 39.9 lebuh raya KL- 7.2-38.7 2.42-2.75
Karak
Kuantan 8.35-25.46 2.57-2.64
Kepli(1994) Melaka, Malaysia 53.49-57 2.42-2.76
Yee & Ooi (1975), Kepli Above 4m-
(1994) Malaysia 2.45
To 4m – 2.67
Suhaimi & Abdul (1994) ITM Shah Alam, Malaysia 13 2.56- 2.69
Tan & Ong (1993) Perak, Malaysia 8
Ramli (1991) Sungai Buluh, Jalan Duta
Damansara, Bukit Lanjan, 2.53-2.75
Tapah dan Skudai
Ali (1990) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 27 2.68
Komoo (1989) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 10-20 12-99
Todo & Pauzi (1989) Malaysia and Singapore To 50 20-50 2.55-2.7
Balasubramaniam, et al.
Malaysia 20-30 2.62-2.64
(1985)
Komo (1985) Selangor, Malaysia 5-20
Chan & Chin (1972) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 18-34 24-31 2.64-2.72
Lee (1967) Cameron Highland, Malaysia 18
Skepper, et al. (1966) and To 30 21.4-34.2
Malaysia
Kipli (1994)
Salih (2012) UTM, Johor, Malaysia 1.5-2.5 26.48 2.59

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Researchers found that soil characteristics are affected by the residual original material, mode
of formation, degree of weathering and the position of the samples at the site, such as depth.
According to Gidigasu (1976), the features of the original texture of the rock types characterize
size of soil particles that are formed. For example, soil formed from granite has high clay content
than soil that formed from the sandstone rocks. However the soil resulting from the rock stone
sandy soil is more uniform than granite.
According to Lee (1967), Tan and Ong (1993) and Zhao (1994), clay content decreases with
depth while content of silt and sand increase with depth. Ting (1976) mentioned that the granite
residual soil can be classified as a composition of sand-silt-clay.
Table 2 shows the particle size distribution and soil classification of granite residual soil
obtained by previous researchers as mentioned in it.
 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2649

Table 2: Distribution of particle size of granite residual soil

Clay Silt Gravel Classification /
Resource Location Sand (%)
(%) (%) (%) Symbol
Taha, et al. Cheras, Kuala 49 13 38 0 CH
(2002) lumpur
Anuar & Faisal Nilai, Negeri 34.3 31.1 34.6 Sandy loam or silt
(1997) Sembilan
Sungai Ara, Penang - 2.38- 51.5-96.5 0-19.6 CL/ML
47.4
Bt.Bendara, Penang - 3.2- 50.7-89.2 1.6- ML/CL
43.7 22.95
Banjaran Kledang, 1.5- 10.3- 19.8-51.9 7.8- CL-CH, ML-MH
Tan (1995) Perak 56.9 37.1 43.6
Km 26.5 lebuh raya 0-15 0.3- 34.9-82.3 0-64.9 ML-MH
KL-Karak 46.2
Km 39.9 lebuh raya 0-27 20.8- 20.2-72.4 0-12.7 ML-MH, CL-CH
KL-Karak 65.8
Kuantan 0-23 3-36 25-74 0-60 ML-MH, CL-CH
Affendi, et al. lebuh raya Karak 32-48 8-10 44-54 0-4
(1994a)
University Malay 36 40 18.8 5.2
Affendi, et al. Bukit Idaman 38.2 10.8 37.5 13.5
(1994b) KL-Karak 40.1 11.3 47.1 1.5
Kepli(1994) Melaka, Malaysia 10-45 32-50 10-53 - MH, CH
Yee & Ooi 10-43 23-49 35-40 1-2
(1975), Kepli Malaysia
(1994)
Suhaimi & ITM Shah Alam, 22-23 77 -
Abdul (1994) Malaysia
Tan & Ong Perak, Malaysia 20-35 10-30 30-38 12-20
(1993)
Komoo (1989) Kuala Lumpur, 5-55 35-70 10-25 SC, SM, CS
Malaysia
Salih (2012) UTM, Johor, 52.81 11.93 35.26 MH
Malaysia
From Table 2, it is found that the percentages of clay, silt, sand and gravels vary for different
sample and is not uniform based on the depth at which they collected.

ATTERBERG LIMITS
Water within the voids of a soil can affect the engineering behavior of fine soil.
Determination of natural moisture is important, but the relationship between water content and
some aspects of engineering standards are required. Therefore, determination of Atterberg limits
is an important experiment to find out relationship and the behavior of soil engineering.
Tan and Ong (1993) had shown that the liquid limit and plastic limit of residual soil decrease
with depth due to reduced content clay with increasing depth. Their study also showed that the
granite residual soil of grade VI has a high plasticity to plasticity very high and most point lies
below the line 'A' as shown in Figure 2. According to Todo et al., (1994), this result is caused by
 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2650

differences in composition of the original rocks and minerals in varying degrees of chemical
weathering.

Figure 2: Plasticity chart of granite residual soil (Tan & Ong, 1993)
Atterberg limits of granite residual soil obtained by previous researchers from Malaysia
presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Atterberg limits of granite residual soil

Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Plasticity Index
Resource Location LL (%) PL (%) PI (%)
Taha, et al. (2002) Cheras, Kuala lumpur 67.8 34.2 33.6
Anuar & Faisal (1997) Nilai, Negeri Sembilan 25.5 20 5.5
Sungai Ara, Penang 29-54 18-43 5-24
Bt.Bendara, Penang 37-58 23-48 4-24
Banjaran Kledang, Perak 44-96 23-49 19-53
Km 26.5 lebuh raya KL-
31-76 18-49 6-36
Karak
Km 39.9 lebuh raya KL-
Tan (1995) 43-66 15-45 1-36
Karak
Kuantan 36-79 21-42 12-38
Affendi, et al. (1994a) lebuh raya Karak 90-102 46.5-55.1
University Malay 56.2 30
Affendi, et al. (1994b) Bukit Idaman 72.8 36
KL-Karak 98.7 50
Kepli(1994) Melaka, Malaysia 68.5-75.0 30.07-33.01 36.62-41.99
Yee & Ooi (1975),
Kepli (1994) Malaysia 60-100 41-48
Suhaimi & Abdul ITM Shah Alam,
45-50 28.2-29.4 16.8-20.6
(1994) Malaysia
 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2651

Tan & Ong (1993) Perak, Malaysia 68-96 40-50 30-50

Sungai Buluh, Jalan Duta
Damansara, Bukit
20-90 5-56
Lanjan, Tapah dan
Ramli (1991)
Skudai
Ali (1990) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 73 36 37
Komoo (1989) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 27-78 - 2-32
Balasubramaniam, et al.
Malaysia 35-110 - 15-70
(1985)
Ting & Ooi (1976) Malaysia 37-115 15-70
Chan & Chin (1972) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 33-50 19-33 12-18
Salih (2012) UTM, Johor, Malaysia 68.4 42.8 25.6
Table 3 shows that the granite residual soil in Malaysia has a liquid limit, plastic limit and
plasticity index respectively ranged between 25-110%, 18-50% and 1-74%.

SOIL SHEAR STRENGTH

Shear strength is one of the most important features in geotechnical engineering. Shear
strength of the land usually involved in geotechnical problems like stability of slopes, or in
shallow foundations, cuts, fills, dams, pavements design and the stresses on the walls.
Engineering structures and building must be stable and robust when subjected to the expected
maximum load. In a design, determining the shear strength of soil is required.
Soil shear strength is derived from two main components of the resistance to prevent the
sliding friction between the particles and the cohesion between particles. It is also affected by
moisture content, pore pressure, disturbance of the structure, the ground water level fluctuations,
stress history, time and environmental conditions (Cernica, 1995)

SHEAR STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF GRANITE

RESIDUAL SOIL
Shear strength of soil is one of the most important geotechnical engineering aspects. Shear
strength is a vital component in the stability of slopes where most of the slopes, either natural or
cut slopes, consist of residual soil. However, determination of residual soil shear strength is
difficult due to the diverse composition of the soil as well as difficulties of obtaining undisturbed
samples of good quality. The quality of the sample can affect the shear strength of soil.
Disruption in the stability of the soil samples results of a lower value of shear strength due to the
collapse of soil structure and increases the value of effective friction angle (Ø')
When the effective shear strength parameters c 'and Ø' are determined, saturation of the
specimen is required. As indicated by Fookes (1997), the high pressure needed in the process of
saturation of specimens can increase soil moisture content and saturation level which cause the
value of c' to be reduced due to reduction of soil suction. However, Bressani and Vaughan (1989)
claimed that the value of Ø' is not affected by soil saturation. Moreover Brand (1982) stated that
the effective cohesion (c') measured is very small.
Study observed in Malaysia by Todo et al. (1989, 1994) concluded that the soil shear strength
in Malaysia is in the range of 30-20 kPa. In general, the effective stress parameters of the granite
 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2652

residual soils reported in the past publications at tested location were ranged between c' = 7 – 77
kPa and Ø' = 17 – 40o.
Also, another study carried out by Gue and Tan (2006) illustrated the relationship between
the peak effective angle of friction (Ø' peak) and the percentage of fines (silt and clay) in the
residual soils obtained from thirteen (13) different sites, as shown is Figure 3.

Figure 3: ϕ' peak versus percentage of fines for residual soils

Figure 3 observed that the value of Ø' peak generally falls between 26o to 36o and there is a
trend showing reduction of Ø' peak with increased fines content. Also Figure 4 shows c' obtained
from these thirteen (13) different sites.

Figure 4: c' versus percentage of fines for residual soils.

 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2653

It is obvious that the c' value is generally less than 10 kPa or zero for soil with low fines
content. However, for weathered rock, the c' value could be higher due to the increasing in clay
content.
Table 4 illustrates the soil shear strength parameters of the prior study to the direct shear tests
and triaxial tests in different sites in Malaysia and Singapore.

Table 4: Shear strength parameters of granite residual soil

Triaxial Test
Direct Shear
Depth Test Unconsolidat Consolidated Consolidated
Resource Location ed Undrained Undrained Drained
(m)
(UU) (CU) (CD)
C ϕ C ϕ C' ϕ' C ϕ
(kN/m2) (o) (kN/m2) (o) (kN/m2) (o) (kN/m2) (o)
Anuar & Ali Nilai, Negeri 113- 31-
(1997) Sembilan UD UD
84-D 35-D
Kepli(1994) Melaka, 10-33 <10 9.5-28 8-
Malaysia 17.
5
Suhaimi & ITM Shah C' = 28 Φ' =
Abdul Alam, 39
(1994) Malaysia
Todo, et al. Kuala Lumpur 25-
(1994) 180
Ramli (1991) Sungai Buluh, 0-40 14-
Jalan Duta 36
Damansara,
Bukit Lanjan,
Tapah dan
Skudai
Todo & Malaysia and 15 27-87 <11
Pauzi (1989) Singapore
Balasubrama Malaysia 15-44 21-32 73- 1-
niam, et al. 117 9.5
(1985)
Ting & Ooi Malaysia 5-21 15- 21-32 61.8- 1-
(1976) 43.5 117 9.5
Lee (1967) Cameron 0.85-10 1-5 25-
Highland, 35
Malaysia
Rahardjo Yishun, 4.5-19 6-50 28-
(2002) Singapore 33
Mandai, 1.5-28 0-14 27-
Singapore 31
Winn, et al Bukit Timah, 10- <10 20-
(2001) Singapore 150 40
Salih (2012) UTM, Johor, 1.5-2.5 10 -13 31- C'= 8- Φ' =
Malaysia 33 9 28-30
 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2654

Studies by direct shear test method concluded that the value of cohesion ranged between 0
and 113 kPa, while the friction angle was 21o - 43°. For UU triaxial tests; cohesion and friction
angle respectively ranged from 10-180 kPa and 1o -11°. While the CU triaxial tests showed that
the value of each effective cohesion and effective friction angle ranged from 0-17 kPa and 25o -
41°.
Also other results obtained by Salih (2012) for CD triaxial tests, effective cohesion and
friction angle were found in the range C'= 8-9 kPa and Φ' = 28°-30° respectively.

Figure 5: Mohr's stress circles at failure and failure envelope:

(a) for CD test (b) for CU test (Taha, 1998)

Samples of granite residual soil classified as "clay with high plasticity" (CH) were tested by
(Taha, 1998). These samples were taken just 8 km southeast Kuala Lumpur. The Mohr stress
circles at failure and the strength parameters for CD test of undisturbed granite soil are shown in
Figure 5a. On other hand; The Mohr's circle at failure and the strength parameters for CU test are
shown in Figure 5b.
Figure 5a illustrated that, the cohesion interception was 10 kPa and the internal frictional
angle was 28.1°, whether Figure 5b undisturbed sample were had been cohesion intercept of 15
kPa and an internal friction angle of 30.9°.
The range reported for the respective properties are large and probably indicative of the
heterogeneity resulted from weathering. However, as noted by Komoo (1985), the variation of
index properties with depth for the various weathering grades exhibited increasing or decreasing
trends and were indicative of the relative engineering within a weathered profile.
The effective stress parameters reported from the different studies do show a wide range of
values. A possible explanation can be attributed to wide range in particle size distribution. Irfan
and Tang (1992) preformed a study on the effect of coarse inclusion content on the effective
stress parameters and found that beyond a particular coarse inclusion content, the behavior of
samples tend to be cohesionless.
 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2655

CORRELATION OF SOIL ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

Winn, et al., (2001) conducted a research on hill of granite residual soil in Timah, Singapore.
They had made some correlation between the angle of friction with percentage of fines and
plasticity index as shown in Figure 6.

(a) (b)
Figure 6: Effective friction angle versus: (a) clay content for residual soils (b) plasticity
index (Winn, et al., 2001)
Figure 6a shows the relationship between effective friction angle ( φ ') with clay content. The
value of φ ' is obtained mostly valued at between 20 º and 37 º. In addition to the value of φ ' is
found decreases with increasing clay content with the following equation:

φ ' = 0.14 (234.5 - % clay) (1)

Figure 6b shows the relationship between φ ' and the plasticity index; φ ' decreases with
increasing plasticity index with the following equation:
φ ' = 0:32 (117 – PI) (2)
where φ ' is effective friction angle for granite residual soil and PI is plasticity index.
 Vol. [2012], Bund. T 2656

CONCLUSIONS
The intensive investigations through many researches show that, the degree of weathering
process and clay content has a significant influence on the engineering properties of the granite
residual soils. The integration of the engineering properties information obtained that, the granite
soil has similar properties to the same ground depth. However, these properties vary gradually at
different depths depends on the pore-size distributions, which is vary in contrast with weathering
process degree. The conducted studies confirmed that, a higher degree of weathering process
would cause higher pore volume with larger range of pore-size distribution. These studies also
showed that, the clay content has a large influence in determining granite residual soil properties.
Thus, it can be concluded that residual soils properties are deeply affected by clay content
percentage and they are a function of depth for various degree of weathering.

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