VL Signature Practice #5:

TEACHING
WITH INTENT

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #!: TEACHING WITH INTENT 59

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #5
TEACHING WITH INTENT
There is no one right way to teach. And no
instructional strategies are guaranteed to
ensure learning for all students. In fact, we
believe that educators should not hold any
teaching strategy in higher esteem than
students’ learning.

The instructional FOCUSED INSTRUCTION

experiences and providing students with information about
strategies must what they will learn as well as input that
impact learning, or they can use during the learning process

they must be changed.

It’s one of the key ideas and
is represented in several
GUIDED INSTRUCTION
mindframes. scaffolding experiences without telling
students what to think, which includes
Intentional, systematic, and responding to errors and misconceptions
targeted teaching suggests
that tools, techniques, and
instructional strategies fit
into four major categories,
including26

Educators should talk

more about learning and
less about teaching.
Source: Used with
However, we recognize that there are
permission of ACSD from
strategies and routines that are more likely Better Learning Through
to ensure that learning occurs. And there are Structured Teaching : A
strategies and routines that have very little Framework for the Gradual
likelihood of having any impact. And there Release of Responsibility,
is a right and wrong time to use specific Fisher, D., Frey, N., 2021;
permission conveyed
teaching strategies.
through Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc.
60 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING
 These four are based on a gradual release of responsibility
framework that acknowledges that some parts of the
lesson require that teachers work harder than the students
and other parts of the lesson involve students working
harder than the teacher. But highly accomplished teachers
are not just gradual; they work on accelerating students’
responsibility for learning. Perhaps this should be called
Accelerating Students’ Responsibility for Learning.

COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
engaging students in peer-to-peer
learning using academic language
and argumentation skills

INDEPENDENT LEARNING
assigning students tasks that allow
for practice and application

Importantly,
there is no prescribed
order to these phases
Teachers can cycle through
of learning, but each these phases several times
of them is important in one lesson, returning to
to close the loop for different phases throughout
students. the experience.

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #!: TEACHING WITH INTENT 61

COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Students teaching and learning with their peers are
much more likely to consolidate their understanding. In
addition, they can practice and develop their academic
language when they interact with others. On average,
the goal is to devote 50% of the instructional
minutes each week to students interacting
with and learning from peers.

This requires classroom routines and

structures that ensure that student-to-
student interaction is effective and
e#cient. And it requires a meaningful
task or question for groups to
explore. Often students need to Sometimes, collaborative learning
be taught how to work and occurs between you and the students.
learn with their peers. Having
several go-to strategies helps
students build their habits
This is known as teacher-mediated
of interacting with you
discussion because you interject often
and each other.
between students speaking, and there is much
turn taking. Other times, it’s peer-mediated
discussion and collaboration, which will also
free to you meet with small groups of students
who need additional learning.

Collaborative learning allows students

to engage with peers in a process of
discovery. But we are not suggesting that
teachers simply turn their classrooms over
to students and have students control
their own learning. Instead, during
collaborative learning, students explore
ideas, propositions, explanations, and
solutions and take subsequent actions.

Reciprocal
teaching
Classroom
Collaborative 0.74 discussion
learning
0.45 0.82
1.20 Jigsaw
Note that students
need sufficient surface
learning to engage
in most collaborative
learning tasks.

62 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

 Inquiry-based
teaching

Problem-based 0.50 Constructivist

learning teaching
0.45 0.92

LOOK-FORS IN COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

• Students have opportunities to engage in discussions
with peers.
Discussion
• The discussion is aligned with the academic learning
and vocabulary of the lesson.

• The collaboration routine is familiar to students. If

the routine is newer to students, it is accompanied
Routines with explicit instruction and modeling of the routine.

• The collaboration routine used is developmentally

appropriate.

• Student thinking is observed and monitored by the

teacher.

• The teacher provides a#rmations and redirection

Monitoring
when needed.

• The teacher and students provide feedback to one

another about the collaboration.

• The task or problem is designed to promote

intellectual interdependence.
Task Design • The task is designed so that students use
interpersonal skills and communication to
successfully collaborate.

• Students set goals before a collaborative task

Links to and monitor their success after the task.
Learning • Students are asked to draw conclusions and
make connections to new or prior knowledge.

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #!: TEACHING WITH INTENT 63

FOCUSED INSTRUCTION
This is the input phase of learning in which students
gain new knowledge, skills, strategies, and concepts.
It’s often focused on surface-level learning, but
teachers can also model complex thinking processes
and ideas. This phase of learning is typically brief,
under 15 minutes (less for younger students), but can
occur many times during a lesson.

Some options teachers have to provide input include:

DIRECT INSTRUCTION INTERACTIVE VIDEO

providing information combining visual and
directly and systematically language to share
for students information

0.56 0.54

0.53 0.47
SIMULATIONS AND WORKED EXAMPLES
EXPERIMENTS thinking aloud about a problem
discovering information that has already been solved and
based on the experience explaining what the teacher sees
designed for students in the example

0.42
READING/READ ALOUDS
obtaining information from
DEMONSTRATIONS texts or having texts read
showing students something aloud and discussed
with an explanation provided

MODELING
sharing examples and
thinking aloud for
students to approximate

64 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

LOOK-FORS IN FOCUSED INSTRUCTION
• The time allotted for input and focus is
developmentally appropriate.

• The input and focus are concise and make

Pacing
e#cient use of time.

• The pace of the lesson is steady and

consistent.

• The input and focus are grade-appropriate

Rigor and
and aligned with standards or expectations
Alignment
for learning.

• The input and focus include a statement of

Statement the goal for the lesson.
of Goals • The teacher names the skill, concept, or
strategy being demonstrated.

• Explanations are clear and developmentally

Explanations appropriate.
and Examples • Examples and non-examples illuminate the
skill or concept being taught.

• The input and focus include modeling the

Modeling
skill or concept and the decisions to use it.

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #!: TEACHING WITH INTENT 65

GUIDED INSTRUCTION Scaffolding
When learners get stuck, teachers must know
how to respond. This response, designed to
improve understanding, correct an error, or 0.52
address a misconception, leaves the student
feeling either successful or helpless.

We call this phase of the teaching and learning Guiding students’ thinking can occur with the whole
process guided instruction. It represents a shared class, with smaller groups of students, or individually
responsibility between the teacher and students. with students who need it. The process is the same,
When guided instruction is done well, students feel regardless of the number of students. The process
supported, and teachers feel rewarded. requires scaffolding of students’ thinking and not
simply telling them what to think.

Guiding and scaffolding learning requires

that the teacher use prompts and cues.

Background knowledge: Reference to content Visual: A range of

that the student already knows, has been taught, graphic hints
or has experienced but has temporarily forgotten that guide students
or is not applying correctly through thinking or
understanding

Process or procedure: Reference to established Verbal: Variations in speech used to

or generally agreed-upon representation, rules, or draw attention to something specific
guidelines that the student is not following due or verbal attention getters that focus
to error or misconception students’ thinking

Reflective: Promotion of metacognition— Gestural: Teacher’s body

getting the student to think about his or her movements or motions
thinking—so that the student can use the used to draw attention
resulting insight to determine next steps or the to something that has
solution to a problem been missed

Heuristic: Engagement in an informal, self- Environmental: Using the

directed problem-solving procedure; the surroundings, and things in
approach the student comes up with does not the surroundings, to influence
have to be like anyone else’s approach, but it students’ understanding
does need to work

66 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

 When prompts and cues don’t work to resolve the issue,
teachers need to resort to additional instruction, which
might include modeling or direct explanation. Students
cannot be left hanging. Teachers must ensure that
students have a successful learning experience, even if
that means giving the student the answer. Following the
direct explanation, the teacher should monitor students’
understanding by asking them to repeat the information in
their own words or share their understanding with a peer.

LOOK-FORS IN GUIDED INSTRUCTION

Grouping • The students are grouped according to similar instructional needs.

• The lesson goals are stated at the beginning and revisited at the
Goals
end so that students can monitor their success.

• The content of the lesson is complex and challenging for students.

Rigor • The content of the lesson is grade-appropriate and aligned to
standards or expectations.

• The teacher used prompts and cues whenever possible to facilitate

a cognitive lift on the part of learners. Students do the majority of
Scaffolding explaining, making connections, and asking questions.

• The teacher notices students’ needs and is responsive, while

fostering the independence of students whenever possible.

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #!: TEACHING WITH INTENT 67

INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASKS
The goal of our lessons is to ensure that students develop
skills that they can use on their own, and not just when the
teacher is present. There are tasks that students can do
in class on their own and tasks that can be assigned
outside the classroom for students to complete. Homework

There are some tasks that students can do at

school, individually and independently, that 0.29
provide them opportunities to practice and
apply what they are learning.27

• Journal and essay writing. Students can

respond to prompts or tasks that require them
to convey information, entertain readers, share an
opinion, argue a perspective, or share an experience.
• Independent reading. Students can read from
texts that have been assigned or texts that they have
selected.
• Designing, drafting, and completing projects. Longer
projects can be drafted at school, even if they are partially
completed at home.

• Performances and • Preparing for • Research. Time to find

presentations. Sharing discussions, debates, things, including Internet
with the class or wider and Socratic seminars. searchers and visits to
audience allows students Students may need time the library, are useful for
to practice organization and at school to organize students to investigate
public speaking skills as well as themselves and prepare a topic as they prepare
to receive feedback from peers. for tasks that require that to use that information
they interact with others. for another task, such
as writing or debate or
presentation.

There are also tasks that teachers can assign for students to complete outside of class.

The overall effect of homework is below average, but there is a We are not suggesting that
difference in the effect when analyzed by grade bands. Homework independent learning be limited
is much more effective with high school students (ES = 0.48) than to class time. Instead, these out-
with elementary students (ES = 0.15). That is mainly because high of-class tasks should be short and
school typically allows them to practice skills that they have been should not require surveillance by
taught. Elementary students too often get projects, and the impact of adults at home. There are ways
homework is likely to increase if this was changed to opportunities to to develop effective homework
deliberately practice what they have been taught at school. assignments.28
Source: Fisher, Douglas, and Nancy Frey. “Homework and the Gradual Release of Responsibility: Making ‘Responsibility’ Possible.” English
Journal, vol. 98, no. 2, 2008, pp. 40-45. Copyright 2008 by the National Council of Teachers of English. Reprinted with permission.

68 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

 Purpose
Characteristics Reflective Questions
of Homework

Fluency • Multiple opportunities 1. Do students fully understand

building for practice how the skill is performed?
• Focuses on one or two skills 2. Is the di#culty level appropriate so that
• Serves as an access point for they can focus on speed/rate/fluency,
other skills or knowledge instead of how it is performed?

Application • Allows a skill to be used to 1. What rule or principle will the students use
solve a problem, or apply a to solve the problem?
rule or principle 2. Do the students possess the background
• Uses previously learned skill knowledge and prior experiences necessary
for a new situation to understand the new or novel situation?

Spiral review • Student utilizes previously 1. What previously taught skills or knowledge
learned skills or knowledge are important for future learning and
• Allows students to confirm assessment?
their understanding and 2. In what ways will this strengthen students’
assess their own learning metacognitive awareness of how well they
• Related conceptually to use skills and knowledge?
current learning 3. What previously taught skills or knowledge
serve as a basis for current classroom
instruction?

Extension • Potential for development of 1. Does the assignment lead to a new

new understandings knowledge base or set of concepts?
• Results in a new product or 2. Will the students create a new product or
innovation innovation that they have not done before?
• Requires the use of a variety 3. What skills or knowledge will students
of skills or knowledge require to complete the assignment?

LISTEN-FORS IN INDEPENDENT LEARNING

Teacher Knowledge • Students have been taught about the role of deliberate practice
and Decision- (i.e., practice with feedback) in their learning.
Making in • The practice work is based on student learning data, including student feedback.
Deliberate Practice • Practice work includes opportunities for students to set goals and self-assess.

• Submitted practice work is accompanied by timely teacher feedback, usually

Teacher Habits and within one week.
Dispositions About • Student performance on practice work is used to inform future instruction.
Deliberate Practice • A student who struggles to complete practice work is not labeled “unmotivated”
but rather receives additional support to build practice habits.

Student Knowledge • Students know about the role of deliberate practice in their learning.
About Deliberate • Students view deliberate practice as being more than just a form of compliance.
Practice • Students know about the benefits of spaced and deliberate practice.

Student Habits and • Students set deliberate practice goals for themselves.
Dispositions About • Students engage in self-assessments that narrow their focus on what needs to be
Deliberate Practice practiced.

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #!: TEACHING WITH INTENT 69

VL Signature Practice #6:

PRACTICE AND
OVER-LEARNING

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #6: PRACTICE AND OVER%LEARNING 71

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #6
PRACTICE AND OVER-LEARNING
The popular phrase practice makes perfect is not accurate.
Practice can make something permanent, but only some
types of practice ensure that learning occurs. But practice is,
or can be, an important part of the learning process.

We have suggested that instruction should have an

impact. In reality, we should probably say instruction
and deliberate practice should have an impact.
Deliberate practice is practice with feedback. The learning
experiences that teachers design are only part of the
equation. Students must practice, make mistakes, get
feedback, try again, and so on to really learn. In that way,
students move from acquiring concepts and skills to
using them.

Students tend to acquire skills and concepts

from instructional experiences. To move from
acquisition to fluency, students must practice.
To move from fluency to maintenance, more
practice (and feedback) is required. Then to
move from maintenance to generalization (or
transfer), again more practice is required.29

72 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

 Repeated practice can
allow students to over-learn.
Once something has been initially
learned, additional deliberate practice
can protect the memory from
interference or decay. Over-learning
can also help develop automaticity,
the ability to do something without
really thinking about it. However,
engaging in repeated practice in one
sitting probably does not ensure over-
learning. Instead, as we noted in the
section on homework, spiral review
and practicing things over time are
more likely to result in over-learning.

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #6: PRACTICE AND OVER%LEARNING 73

 pes
ifferent ty
DELIBERATE PRACTICE th re e d
There are oseful,
c ti c e s : n aive, purp
of pra
erate.
3(
and delib
e
through th
p r a c t ic e: Going k w it h no goal
• Naive ti o n o f th e tas
repeti
Deliberate practice motions; directed,
l p r a c t ice: Goal-
sefu ack, and
is
• Purpo lu des feedb
s e d , in c
focu
0.49 challengin
g to the
c t ic e : In addition
rate pra is a
• Delibe e fu l p ra c tice, there
f purpos ides
aspects o n d a te a cher prov
a
xpertise, back
defined e it ie s and feed
c e a c ti v
guidan

“We are drawing a clear distinction between purposeful

practice—in which a person tries very hard to push [themselves]
to improve—and practice that is both purposeful and informed.
In particular, deliberate practice is informed and guided by the
best performers’ accomplishments by seeking feedback, and
guided by an understanding of what these expert performers do
to excel. Deliberate practice is purposeful practice that knows
where it is going and how to get there.”31

PRINCIPLES OF DELIBERATE PRACTICE

Principle Description

Push beyond one’s Learning is challenging work, and deliberate practice requires that
comfort zone students push just beyond their current abilities. Students learn to
accept the challenge of learning.

Work toward well- Deliberate practice requires that efforts be aligned to specific,
defined, specific goals measurable goals that focus on a particular aspect of the skill or
content rather than working toward broad general improvement.

Focus intently on Students must learn to direct their energy and focus on meaningful
practice activities tasks rather than simply trying to finish them as quickly as possible.

Receive and respond to Students seek feedback and then use that feedback in the next
high-quality feedback iteration of their effort. In doing so, they monitor their progress
toward successfully meeting the goal.

Develop a mental model Students clearly understand the skill that allows them to self-
of expertise monitor and adjust their efforts.

74 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

 To help students focus on the practice
activities, teachers should provide universal
response opportunities (see page 79) and vary their
questioning techniques. There are three options that
should be used strategically and often in the classroom
when students are engaged in practice:

RANDOM SELECTION
using a tongue depressor/stick or an online name generator
to identify which student(s) will share

VOLUNTEERS
inviting students to share their thinking with the group,
keeping track of which students do and do not share

TEACHER CHOICE
identifying specific students, in advance, who will share

AP
SPIDER M is one t
ool for
r m a p ation
A spide t h e particip
rin g opy
monito o m . U sing a c
lassro es
in the c h a r t , d raw lin
c speak.
eating as they
of the s d e n t s
n stu draw a
betwee r s peaks,
ea c h e o the
If the t c h e r , then t
the t e a then
line to t o s p e ak, and
udent erson
next st e t o t h e next p
r lin vides a
anothe . T his pro
e a k s
who sp rsation
l o f t h e conve
visua ss.
the cla
turns in

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #6: PRACTICE AND OVER%LEARNING 75

 SPACED PRACTICE
Spiral review and over-learning across time are examples of spaced
practice rather than mass practice. When teachers plan practice
tasks for students, spacing them out over time, especially after the
initial learning, it increases the likelihood that learning will occur.

Cramming, also known as massed practice, runs counter Spaced

to the idea of learning. In massed practice, tasks are vs. mass
completed in time periods that are close together. Often, the practice
information is lost if not rehearsed thereafter. Conversely,
spaced practice is distributed and rehearsed over longer
periods of time, resulting in sustained retention. 0.59

Of course, we all
forget things. But the curve of
forgetting can be reduced when students
practice over time.32 Notice that the level of retention
is much higher, and less forgetting occurs, with repetition
of practice. The more complex the information the more
students need to practice across time.33

CURVE OF FORGETTING
100
PERCENT MEMORY RETENTION

4th repetition

%rd repetition
50

2nd repetition

1st repetition
Forgetting curve

0 1 2 % 4

WEEKS

76 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

 Interleaved
practice
Interleaved practice can also help students learn and
remember things.3) Interleaving involves mixing together
different topics, subjects, ideas, skills, or forms of practice.
The key is moving back and forth between the practice.

0.46 For example, solving two or more types of problems, so

that you complete a small number of problems of the
same type before switching to the other type of problem,
and then returning to the initial set of problems.

MASSED PRACTICE
A A A A B B B B

C C C C D D D D

SPACED PRACTICE
A B B B A C C C

A D D D A B C D

INTERLEAVED PRACTICE
A C B D D A B C

B C C A D B A D

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #6: PRACTICE AND OVER%LEARNING 77

RETRIEVAL PRACTICE
At the most basic level, learning is about encoding
information and the ability to retrieve that
information. There are many ways to help students
encode information, such as modeling, direct
instruction, and interactive videos. But that’s only
part of the process. Students need to be able to
recall facts, concepts, or events from memory and
then use that information. There is a continual
give-and-take between longer-term memory and
working memory.

ctice
Retrieval pra
is all about
To reconsolidate the memory, students
g must reactivate the original memory
reconstructin trace. Doing so can maintain and
nd
the memory a strengthen the memory and even
g it in
reconstructin stabilize the knowledge in the brain.
s!
di!erent way

Retrieval is part of the learning

process. Retrieval allows us to
use the information that we
have been taught. But retrieval
also facilitates relearning and
reconsolidation.

Part of the learning process

involves acquisition and
consolidation as we learned
in the section on phases of
learning. But learning is more
complex than that.

START HERE

78 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

 Retrieval practice

0.54

Universal response opportunities are one way to

encourage retrieval practice. Students all respond at
the same time to a task or prompt, which also allows
the teacher to check for understanding. Common
universal response opportunities include

Response cards of pre-printed

answers (yes/no, true/false) allow
for quick checks.

Whiteboards for students

allow them to write and hold
up their answers.

Nonverbal hand signals

Digital polls are great for
give you a way to conduct
checking understanding.
a quick check. Ask students
After answering, ask students
to hold their hand signal
to explain to a neighbor why
close to their chest so you
they chose the answer, then
can see, but others can’t.
ask it again. HINT: turn off
functions that award points
Four corners give students a way to based on response time.
determine and discuss their opinions
about a topic. Post opinions in the
four corners of your classroom.

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #6: PRACTICE AND OVER%LEARNING 79

VL Signature Practice #7:

FEEDBACK

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #&: FEEDBACK 81

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #7
FEEDBACK
Learning is fueled by feedback. The verbal and written comments created for
students should represent your best thinking about how they can move forward
in their learning. Feedback is not advice (“Maybe you could add something to
this part?”), and it is not grades, which do almost nothing to influence future
learning. Here are seven qualities to consider when formulating feedback.35

Feedback

0.51

1. Goal-referenced. Your feedback should help

students advance toward their stated learning goals.
2. Tangible and transparent. If they’re having di+culty
doing something, record it for them so they can see
and hear it. This works great for disfluent readers.
3. Actionable. Outline next steps and give them the
chance to strengthen their work.
4. User friendly. Don’t use jargon. Make sure they can
understand it. Great feedback
5. Timely. Delayed feedback gets stale quickly, but is that which is
sometimes immediate feedback makes students too
heard, understood,
dependent on you.
6. Ongoing. The best feedback occurs throughout the
and actionable
learning so that students can adjust their performance. by students.
7. Consistent. Align your feedback to the rubrics,
exemplars, and teacher modeling you use to explain
success criteria.
8. Future focused. Students are improvement engines
and see the value of feedback as information to help
them improve.

82 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

 The acceptance of feedback is impacted by the relationship you have with students.
There are four conditions that improve the likelihood that feedback will work.

CARE CLARITY
A learning atmosphere of trust and respect. When The understanding that there are things worth
care is absent, students are guarded and may not learning, what that learning is, and what it means to
expose their misunderstandings or be willing to learn successfully. When these conditions are present,
accept feedback as a growth-producing event. learners are much more likely to accept the feedback
because they see it as valuable for the goals they have
agreed to and desire to accomplish.
CREDIBILITY
The belief that the other person is worthy of
listening to and learning from. Essentially, COMMUNICATION
students ask themselves, “Can I learn from this The way in which the message is sent and whether
person?” If the answer is yes, then feedback is or not learners can understand, and act on, the
much more likely to have an impact. information shared.

Care and credibility set the foundation for who is giving, receiving, and integrating
the feedback. Clarity sets the foundation for what feedback is given, received, and
integrated. Communication sets the foundation for how the feedback is given.36

1. Identity Trigger. Identity triggers are not about the

There are certain triggers that substance of the feedback or the person delivering the
cause our students, and us, to feedback. Identity triggers are all about the receivers’
disregard feedback.37 These perception of themselves. If the feedback challenges our
perception of our own strengths and weaknesses or how
triggers are a natural part of
we think about ourselves, we turn our attention to saving
being human. Recognizing
face and not to receiving and integrating the feedback.
potential triggers and
adjusting the feedback 2. Truth Trigger. If the feedback given to us is perceived
delivered can increase the as untrue, we will tune it out. A truth trigger can occur
because our belief about the process or product is
potential for the feedback
different from that of the person giving the feedback or
to be received and
as a result of the giver of the feedback not knowing about
integrated through some aspect of the process or product. Truth triggers are
the feedback loop. all about the substance of the feedback and have nothing
to do with the person delivering the feedback.
3. Relationship Trigger. Relationship triggers have all to do
with who is giving the feedback. If the person giving and
the person receiving the feedback do not have a strong
relationship, the feedback will probably not be used to
make change.

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #&: FEEDBACK 83

TYPES OF FEEDBACK
There are at least four types of feedback that teachers can
give to students.38 Note that some are more effective than
others and that they can be combined to increase students’
learning. Also note that you can praise students, but the
praise should be specific. Although students deserve praise,
it does not directly impact future learning.

Level of Feedback Example Level of Effectiveness

“You answered the first and Effective for feedback about mistakes,
third questions correctly. The learning facts and ideas, and building
About the task
second question isn’t right and knowledge.
(corrective feedback)
you might want to re-read
section 2.”

About the “I can see that you’re graphing Very effective, as it labels cognitive and
processing data to analyze it. That seems metacognitive strategies the learner is
of the task to be working well for you.” using or should be using.

“I saw you were frustrated Very effective, as it helps learners to

when you got it wrong, and self-assess their ability, actions, and
About self-
I noticed that you reviewed knowledge.
regulation
the task sheet and found
your error.”

“Well done.” Ineffective, because it doesn’t yield task-

About the person
specific information.

One of the best ways to ensure that feedback is effective is to teach

students to seek out feedback. You can model seeking feedback from
your students and have them use their success criteria to ask for
feedback. Ask them about what they understood from your
feedback, and how they could use it. If they can’t answer these
two questions, then the feedback is unlikely to have an impact.

If a tree falls in a forest and no one is

near, does it make a noise? If feedback
is given in a class, and no one hears or
understands it, is it of value?

84 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

The evidence on
feedback has been
divided into several Feedback – Reinforcement and cues (ES = 1.01).
1.01 When teachers offer reinforcement for students’
areas to better explain
the impact of each. efforts and cues to the next steps in learning,
students perform better. These cues are just-in-time
and focused on the current needs of the learner.

Feedback – Timing (ES = 0.89). When students

0.89 wait for feedback, the value of the feedback
decreases. More immediate feedback is powerful
because feedback has a shelf life and will expire.

Feedback – Technology (ES = 0.55). Feedback

0.55 delivered as part of computer-based instruction can
be effective, especially since the computer does not
get tired, does not react to the students with praise,
and gives consistent feedback.

Feedback – From students to teacher (ES = 0.47).

0.47 When students have opportunities to provide
feedback to teachers, and even rate the quality of
teaching, they learn more. This is because teachers
can thus see learning through the eyes of their
students and adjust in their teaching.

Feedback – From tests (ES = 0.41). Learning

0.41 increases when tests are used formatively, and
students are given feedback based on their
performance on the test. Tests are not simply for
grades and used summatively, but rather for
ongoing learning.

VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #&: FEEDBACK 85

A FEEDBACK MODEL
FEEDBACK AS A CONTINUOUS LOOP

Where am
I going?
What is my goal?
What am I trying to achieve?
Feed up is about that first question: Where am I going?
What is the learning intention? What is the learner trying
to achieve? If our goal is to help students close the gap
between where they are and where we want them to
be, feedback will not lead to closing the gap if the goal is
undefined because the gap will not be clear to students.
Therefore, they won’t see a reason to attempt to reduce
it. So first and foremost, we must establish the goal, and
learners need to be clear on what that goal is.

Where to next?

What specific actions do I Feed forward helps us

with the question: Where to next?
need to take to reduce the
Or, how do I close the gap? What
gap between my goal and my specific actions do I need to take to
current level of performance? reduce the gap between my goal and
my current level of performance?

86 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO VISIBLE LEARNING

 How am I going?
or Where am I now?

What is my current
level of performance in
relation to my goal?
Feedback really answers that second
question: How is the learner performing
in relation to the goal? This is where
success criteria are important in helping
both the teacher and the student
monitor progress in relation to the goal.

This feedback can come in many different forms:

It can give more It can give suggestions It can be aimed at increasing

information about for more strategies or student fluency or automaticity, or
what is understood processes to utilize to it can give enhanced challenges
or not understood. complete tasks. to push learners to deeper
understanding.
VL SIGNATURE PRACTICE #&: FEEDBACK 87