UNIT - 5

WHAT IS STRESS ?

Stress can be defined as a state of worry or mental tension caused by a

difficult situation. Stress is a natural human response that prompts us to
address challenges and threats in our lives.

Baum (1981) have defined stress as a “process in which environmental

events or forces, called, stressors, threatens an organism’s existence and
wellbeing”.

Stress can be positive (eustress) in motivating performance or negative

(distress) when it overwhelms an individual’s ability to cope.

Stress involves the activation of the body’s “fight or flight” response, when a
person perceives a situation as threatening or overwhelming, nervous
system responds by releasing a flood of stress hormones like cortisol and
adrenaline, leading to increased heart rate, blood pressure, and heightened
alertness, preparing the body to respond to the threat.

Environmental factors that trigger this reaction are called stressors.

Examples include noises, aggressive behaviour, a speeding car, scary
moments in movies, or even going out on a first date. They can be external,
like work pressure, relationship issues, or financial problems, or internal, such
as self-criticism or unrealistic expectations.

SYMPTOMS OF STRESS

Stress can manifest in various physical, emotional, and behavioural

symptoms. Common signs include:

 Physical symptoms: The physical symptoms of stress include low levels of

energy, stomach upset, headaches, muscle tension, chest pain, rapid
heartbeat, sleep problems, and frequent infections.
 Emotional symptoms: The emotional symptoms include, displaying
frustration, irritability, feelings of worthlessness, loneliness, and
depression.
 Psychological symptoms: The cognitive symptoms related to stress
include constant worry, racing thoughts, poor focus, forgetfulness, and
pessimism.
 Behavioural symptoms: The behavioural symptoms of stress include
decreased productivity, neglecting self care, changes in appetite, social
withdrawal, substance abuse, and procrastination.

TYPES OF STRESS

1. Acute Stress: This is the most common form and is often short-lived. It
occurs as an immediate reaction to a new or challenging situation, like an
upcoming exam or job interview. Once the stressor is gone, acute stress
usually dissipates quickly. This type of stress can be helpful, sharpening
focus and energy.

2. Chronic Stress: This is long-term stress that persists over an extended

period, like from a demanding job, financial difficulties, or a challenging
personal life. Chronic stress can lead to serious health issues, such as
anxiety, depression, cardiovascular problems, and a weakened immune
system.

3. Episodic Acute Stress: Individuals who frequently face acute stressors

or have a lifestyle that repeatedly puts them in high-stress situations
experience episodic acute stress. It’s common among people who live
chaotic lives or constantly feel pressured. It can affect health in a way
similar to chronic stress if not managed.

4. Eustress: Known as “positive stress,” eustress is linked with positive life

events, like starting a new job, planning a wedding, or going on a thrilling
adventure. This type of stress is generally beneficial, as it motivates and
energizes us to meet challenges.

5. Neustress: This is neutral stress, which doesn’t directly affect us but may
come from environmental factors we observe, like hearing news about a
distant event. While it may not cause an immediate response, prolonged
exposure to neustress can lead to other stress types over time.

6. Distress: The counterpart to eustress, distress is negative stress that

arises from unpleasant situations, like relationship conflicts, job loss, or
health issues. It can lead to anxiety, low performance, and decreased
well-being if it continues unaddressed.

7. Hyperstress: This occurs when someone is pushed beyond their

capacity, often in high-pressure environments. Hyperstress is common in
 jobs that demand constant high performance, and it can lead to burnout if
not properly managed.

8. Hypostress: The opposite of hyperstress, hypostress arises from a lack

of mental or physical activity, often leading to boredom or a feeling of
unfulfillment. Those in repetitive or unchallenging roles may experience
hypostress, which over time can diminish motivation and lead to a decline
in mental well-being.

SOURCES OF STRESS Stress can stem from a variety of sources, and different
individuals may experience stress differently depending on their circumstances,
coping mechanisms, and personal resilience.

1. Work-related stress: High workload, tight deadlines, job insecurity,

conflicts with colleagues, lack of control, and long working hours often
lead to burnout and decreased job satisfaction, causing significant stress
over time.

2. Financial stress: Worries about meeting financial obligations, debt, job

loss, or unexpected expenses can create constant anxiety. Economic
instability or financial hardship often impacts self-esteem and triggers
stress in daily life.

3. Relationships: Family issues, conflicts with friends, romantic problems,

or strained relationships with co-worker’s can cause emotional distress.
The breakdown of trust or communication issues can be a significant
ongoing source of stress.

4. Health problems: Dealing with chronic illness, physical pain, or the

health of loved ones can cause stress, particularly when treatments are
ongoing. Uncertainty about health outcomes can lead to constant worry
and fatigue.

5. Major life changes: Big events such as moving, changing jobs,

marriage, divorce, or the death of a loved one can trigger emotional
upheaval. These transitions, while potentially positive, often lead to
feelings of anxiety and stress.

6. Personal expectations: High personal standards, fear of failure,

perfectionism, and self-criticism can generate internal pressure. The
 constant need to meet one’s goals or others’ expectations creates a cycle
of stress and anxiety.

7. Environmental factors: Noise, pollution, overcrowded spaces, and

extreme weather conditions can lead to physical and emotional stress.
Poor environmental quality often creates feelings of discomfort or
helplessness, exacerbating stress.

8. Trauma: Past traumatic events such as abuse, accidents, or witnessing

violence can lead to prolonged emotional distress. Trauma may affect
mental health, leading to anxiety, flashbacks, and other stress-related
responses.

9. Poor sleep and physical health: Chronic sleep deprivation, poor

nutrition, lack of exercise, or illness weakens the body’s ability to cope
with stress. These factors contribute to heightened anxiety, irritability,
and reduced resilience to stressors.

LAZARUS APPRAISAL MODEL OF STRESS

The Lazarus Appraisal Model of stress, developed by psychologist Richard

Lazarus in the 1960s, is a framework for understanding how individuals
experience and respond to stressful events based on their interpretation or
cognitive appraisal, of those events.

This model is foundational in understanding stress and coping mechanisms

and suggests that emotions arise from our interpretations and evaluations of
situations rather than from the situations themselves.

Lazarus believed that stress occurs as a result of an interaction between the

individual and the environment

Lazarus’ theory suggests that the same event can be interpreted differently
by different people, resulting in different stress responses. For example, if
someone thinks an exam is easy, they’ll experience less stress than someone
who thinks it’s difficult.
The model outlines two key stages: primary appraisal and secondary
appraisal, along with a focus on the individual’s coping mechanisms.

PRIMARY APPRAISAL - This is the initial stage, where an individual assess

the significance of an event, whether an event or situation is irrelevant,
positive, or stressful. During this stage, the individual asks, "Is this situation
a threat or challenge to me? “ If the situation is deemed stressful, it is further
categorized into:

 Threat: A perceived harm or potential loss that may have negative

consequences (e.g., a job interview where failure may result in career
setbacks).
 Challenge: An event that is viewed as an opportunity for growth or
mastery, even though it may involve some risk or difficulty (e.g., a difficult
project at work that can lead to career advancement).
 Harm/loss: A situation where damage or loss has already occurred (e.g.,
the death of a loved one).

SECONDARY APPRAISAL - After determining that an event is stressful,

individuals move to the secondary appraisal stage, where they evaluate their
ability to cope with the situation. Questions asked might include, “Do I have
the resources to handle this?” or “How can I cope with this challenge?” This
involves assessing:

 Resources: Available personal, social, and environmental resources that

can help manage the stressor (e.g., emotional support, financial stability,
personal skills).
 Coping mechanisms: The strategies or actions an individual can take to
handle the stress (e.g., problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping,
seeking social support).

If an individual feels they have the resources to deal with the stressor, they
may experience lower levels of stress. If they perceive a lack of resources,
their stress levels are likely to increase.

Coping and adaptation

In response to stress, Lazarus also highlights the importance of coping

strategies—efforts to manage or reduce stress. These strategies can be:
 Problem-focused coping: Directly addressing the problem causing
stress (e.g., planning or taking action to resolve the issue).
 Emotion-focused coping: Managing emotional responses to stress (e.g.,
relaxation techniques, seeking comfort from others).
 Avoidant coping: Ignoring or avoiding the stressor, which may provide
short-term relief but can be harmful long-term.

REAPPRAISAL

It is a continuous process, and as situations change or new information

emerges, individuals can reappraise the situation, updating their emotions
accordingly.

Reappraisal can lead to emotional changes over time. For example, someone
might initially feel anxious about a presentation, but after preparing and
receiving positive feedback, they might reappraise the situation and feel
more confident.

FIGHT - OR - FLIGHT RESPONSE

The fight-or-flight response is a physiological reaction that occurs in response

to a perceived threat or danger. It was first described by American
physiologist Walter Cannon in the 1920s and is essential for survival in
dangerous situations.

The perception of threat activates the sympathetic nervous system and

triggers an acute stress response that prepares the body to either confront
the threat (“fight”) or escape from it (“flight”).

These responses are evolutionary adaptations to increase chances of survival

in threatening situations.

Here's a detailed breakdown of the process:

1. Perception of Threat

The response begins when the brain detects a potential danger. This threat
could be physical, like a predator, or psychological, such as a stressful
situation (e.g., public speaking or an argument). The sensory information
about the threat is processed by the amygdala, the brain region responsible
for emotional responses.

2. Activation of the Hypothalamus

Once the threat is perceived, the hypothalamus (the brain's control centre
for autonomic functions) activates the sympathetic nervous system. The
hypothalamus also triggers the pituitary gland to release hormones that
further activate the adrenal glands.

3. Release of Stress Hormones

The adrenal glands, located on top of the kidneys, release hormones into the
bloodstream. These include:

 Adrenaline (epinephrine): It increases heart rate, dilates airways, and

boosts energy by releasing glucose from the liver. This prepares the
muscles for quick action.
 Noradrenaline (norepinephrine): This hormone increases blood flow to
muscles and sharpens focus.
 Cortisol: Often called the “stress hormone,” it increases blood sugar
levels and suppresses non-essential functions (like digestion or immune
responses) in order to divert energy to the muscles and brain.

4. Physiological Changes

The body undergoes several changes to optimize its ability to respond to

danger:

 Rapid breathing: To increase oxygen intake, allowing muscles to perform

efficiently.
 Increased heart rate and blood pressure: To supply more oxygen to
muscles and vital organs.
 Dilated pupils: To enhance vision, particularly for detecting movement.
 Sweating: Helps to regulate body temperature and prepare for exertion.
 Trembling: Muscles prepare for quick action, often leading to shaking or
trembling.
 Pale or flushed skin: Blood shifts from the skin to essential muscles and
organs, making the skin look pale or flushed as the body prepares for
action.
5. Decision to Fight or Flee

The body now has the physical capabilities to either fight the threat or flee
from it:

Fight: If the brain perceives the threat as something that can be confronted
(e.g., an attacker), the body is prepared for physical confrontation. The
release of hormones increases strength and endurance.

Flight: If the threat seems overwhelming or too dangerous to confront (e.g.,

a larger predator), the body prepares to run by redirecting blood flow to the
legs and increasing speed and agility.

6. Return to Homeostasis

Once the threat or stressful situation is over, the parasympathetic nervous

system takes over to help the body relax and recover. It works to undo the
changes made by the sympathetic nervous system, such as slowing the
heart rate, lowering blood pressure, and reducing stress, helping the body
return to a calm and balanced state known as homeostasis.

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is a physiological response to stress,

proposed by Hungarian endocrinologist Hans Selye in 1936. It describes how
the body reacts to stressors over time and helps explain how stress can
affect health.

GAS outlines how the body reacts to stress over time in three stages: the
alarm stage, the resistance stage, and the exhaustion stage.
1) ALARM STAGE - The alarm stage is the initial response to a stressor,
often referred to as the “fight or flight” reaction. When the body perceives
a threat, the brain signals the hypothalamus to activate the sympathetic
nervous system. This leads to the release of stress hormones such as
adrenaline, noradrenaline, and cortisol. These hormones cause several
physiological changes: increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure,
faster breathing, and heightened alertness. The body’s energy is
mobilized to face the challenge, and the immune system is temporarily
boosted to prepare for potential injury or infection. This stage lasts for a
short time, and the body prepares to either confront or flee from the
stressor.

2) RESISTANCE STAGE - Following the initial alarm, if the stressor

persists, the body enters the resistance stage. During this phase, the
body attempts to adapt to the prolonged stress and restore balance.
The physiological responses triggered by stress hormones, such as
elevated cortisol levels continue but the body works to sustain
homeostasis despite the ongoing stress.
During this stage as well, a lot of energy is required, thus, the
nonessential functions related to digestion, immune system and even
reproductive system do not receive any energy.
Energy is diverted towards managing the stressor. However, the body’s
resources are being used up, and continued exposure to stress hormones
may suppress immune function and other bodily systems. People may
appear to cope with the stress effectively at this stage, but long-term
stress can cause wear and tear on the body.
3) EXHAUSTION STAGE - The exhaustion stage occurs when the body’s
ability to cope with stress is overwhelmed, leading to depletion of its
physical and emotional resources. If the stressor persists beyond the
body’s adaptive capacity, vital systems begin to fail. The immune system
becomes weaker, leaving the body vulnerable to illness. Mental and
physical fatigue set in, and the individual may experience burnout,
anxiety, depression, or a general decline in health. At this point, the
body’s resistance to stress diminishes, making it more difficult to recover
from injuries or illness. Without proper recovery or relief from the stressor,
 this stage can lead to serious long-term health problems, such as chronic
disease or mental health disorders.

Criticisms of General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

i. Overemphasis on physiology: GAS focuses primarily on the body’s

physical response to stress and neglects the psychological and cognitive
factors involved in stress perception.

ii. Limited scope of stressors: It mainly addresses physical stressors, not

psychosocial ones like work or relationship stress, which may have
different effects.

iii. Individual differences: GAS assumes a universal response to stress, but

people react differently based on personality, coping skills, and past
experiences.

iv. Underestimation of coping mechanisms: The model doesn’t fully

account for how coping strategies or social support can reduce or prevent
stress from progressing to exhaustion.

v. Focus on survival, not well-being: The GAS model emphasizes the

body’s survival mechanisms (i.e., “fight or flight”) but overlooks the
broader concept of well-being