Biology Part 1

Comprehensive Course on Science &

Technology

By - SanjayKumar H P
About Educator
Sanjay Kumar H P
• B.E. (Mechanical)

• Specialized in Science & Technology & Computer

Literacy

• 7+ Years of Experience in Teaching and Mentoring

CSE aspirants
 Evolution of Life
• Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years
ago and the first form of life appeared only
about 3.8 billion years ago.
• The evolution of life is explained by many
theories as follows:
❑Theory of chemical evolution:
• This theory was proposed by Oparin and
Haldane independently.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
The theory assumes that :-
• the earth’s surface and atmosphere during the first
billion years of its existence were radically different
from those of todays conditions.
• the primitive earth’s atmosphere did not have oxygen.
• the first life arise from a series of chemical reactions.
• solar radiation, ultra violet rays and lightning must
have been the chief sources of energy for these
chemical reactions.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• It is assumed that water vapour condensed and
formed clouds which then resulted in continuous
rainfall for hundreds of years.
• The rain water is said to have filled the hollows and
basins on the surface of the earth to form oceans.
• With further cooling of the earth, the inorganic
molecules combined with one another to form simple
organic compounds. Simple sugars, fatty acids,
glycerol, amino acids and nitrogen bases were
presumed to have been formed at this stage.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Haldane suggested that due to the accumulation of
the complex organic molecules, the sea water
ultimately became a sort of a hot dilute soup. In this
soup, molecules interacted and aggregated to form
more complex molecules called coacervates.
• The coacervates continued to constantly take in new
materials from the ocean and release the degraded
materials. Thus, they exhibited the basic properties
of life such as metabolism, growth and
reproduction.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Coacervates led to the establishment of nucleic acids
as the genetic material.
• Coacervates became established into the first living
systems which have been named protobionts.
• Some of the proteins in the protobionts are said to
have developed the ability to speed up the chemical
reactions, thereby functioning as the first enzymes.
• Protobionts became enclosed in a protein lipid
membrane leading to the formation of first cells.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The appearance of autotrophs in the form of blue green algae, changed
the situation on earth. These organisms released free molecular oxygen into
the atmosphere, gradually transforming it into an oxidizing type.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

❑Organic Evolution
• The primitive cells that resulted from chemical
evolution, gradually gave rise to organisms such as
bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoans.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Theories of Organic Evolution.
❑Lamarckism:
• His theory is based on three main ideas
new needs, use and disuse of organs and
inheritance of acquired characters.
• Lamarck believed that such changes
create new needs in the organisms. If the
organisms fail to make necessary changes
favourably, they cannot survive.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• It may also be necessary for the organism to put a
part of its body into less use or may not use it at all.
This idea came to be known as use and disuse of
organs.
• Lamarck believed that characters acquired by an
organism get transmitted to the future generations.
• The example of giraffe is cited in support of the idea
of overuse of body parts.
• Weismann’s experiment proved Lamarck's theory
wrong by cutting tails of rats for generations.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
❑ Darwinism
• He proposed a theory in 1858 to explain the possible
mechanism of evolution.
• This theory is known as theory of natural selection.
• Darwin found that generally the young ones of an
organism show differences compared to the parent.
He described the differences as variations.
• All organisms have a natural capacity to produce a
large number of young ones. He called this capacity
as overproduction.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Darwin observed there is a struggle for
existence. Hence less adapted and the not
adapted organisms get eliminated and the
fittest will survive
(survival of the fittest).
• Darwin believed that nature selects only
those organisms which have favourable
variations. Darwin described this process as
natural selection.
• Darwin explained the survival of fittest, but
not their arrival. He had no idea of the
mechanism of inheritance.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Victor Hugo Devries in 1902 proposed the
idea that variations are brought about by
sudden changes in the genetic make up of an
organism. Such changes are called mutations.
• The modern theory on organic evolution is
the synthesis of ideas from the theory of
natural selection, the mutation theory and
Mendel’s principles of heredity. It is known
as Neo-Darwinism.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Classification of Living Organisms
ಜೀವಿಗಳ ವರ್ೀೀಕರಣ
• The method of grouping organisms, according to their
similarities and differences is called classification.
• Taxonomy is the branch of biology which deals with the
classification of organisms.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Need of classification is:
• Convenience- easy to study, identify and remember.
• To show relationships among various groups of organisms.
• To show the evolution of organisms from simple to complex
forms of life.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Contributions of Ancient Scientists
1. Charaka : (600 BC)
• Charaka, an ancient Indian sage, was a
philosopher, astronomer and physician.
• Charaka Samhita mentions in minute detail
the gradual development of foetus within the
womb.
• He had listed about 340 plant types and about
200 animal types in his book ‘Charaka
Samhita’.
• Charaka is called Father of Ayurveda.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
2. Aristotle : (384-322 BC)
• Aristotle was a great Greek philosopher and a
biologist.
• Aristotle classified plants and animals into three
groups each:
• Plants :
• Herbs with soft stems.
• Shrubs with several woody stems.
• Trees with a single woody stem.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Animals:
• Aquatic animals (found in water)
• Terrestrial animals, (found on land)
• Aerial animals (found in air)
• Aristotle, because of his contributions, is
popularly known as Father of Biology.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

3. Parashara: (100 BC.)
• Parashara, an ancient Indian sage &
has written ‘Vrikshaayurveda’.
• Vrikshaayurveda had given a clear
description of plants and divided the
plants into several ganas.
• He also wrote ‘Krishiparashara’ for the
benefit of farmers.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

4. Carolus Linnaeus: (1707-1778 A.D.)
• Linnaeus was a Swedish biologist.
• Carolus Linnaeus had recorded about 6000 species
of plants in his book, ‘Species plantarum’
published in 1753.
• He had given a detailed system of his classification
in another book, called ‘Systema naturae’.
• Linnaeus had proposed two kingdoms, kingdom
Plantae and kingdom Animalia in his classification.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• He introduced four categories for grouping organisms - class, order,
genus and species in each kingdom.
• Modern classification adds two more categories, they are-phylum and
family.
• Linnaeus also introduced the scientific method of naming the organisms.
It is called, binominal nomenclature.
• For these contributions Linnaeus is considered “Father of modern
taxonomy”.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Seven levels of classification
ಏಳು ಹಂತದ ವರ್ೀೀಕರಣ
• The basic unit of classification is species.
• The next level is genus and then family. Later come the order, class,
phylum and kingdom.
• Kingdom forms the highest level of classification.
• Classification with seven levels is the modified Linnaean hierarchy.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

ಸಾಮ್ರಾ ಜ್ಯ Kingdom

ವಂಶ Phylum

ವಗೀ Class

ಗಣ Order

ಕುಟುಂಬ Family

ಜಾತಿ Genus

ಪ್ಾ ಭೇದ Species

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Binomial nomenclature
ದ್ವಿ ನಾಮನಾಮಕರಣ
• Binominal nomenclature is the scientific method of naming the living
organisms.
• Scientific name can be used all over the world speaking different languages.
It avoids confusion.
• Ex: Homo sapiens
• Every scientific name has two words. The first word refers to name of the
genus and the second to the name of the species.
• Scientific names are written in Latin and Greek.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Scientific name of mango is Mangifera indica.
Mangifera means sweet fruit; indica indicates its
origin in India. Human- Homo sapiens. Homo
means human; sapiens means wise.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Systematic position of Human
• Systematic position is the description of an
organism in terms of the various levels to
which it belongs.
• Human is an animal, hence human is included
under animal kingdom.
• Human has a notochord in the embryonic
stage, hence human is placed under the
phylum Chordata.
• Humans belong to the class mammalia, as they
have mammary glands, which secrete a nourishing
fluid called milk.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Order Primates because of its erect
posture with binocular vision.
• Family Hominidae because the fore
limbs are shorter than hind limbs.
• Genus Homo which represents human
with large head & tool making capability.
• Species sapiens because of highly
developed brain, capable of thinking and
speaking.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

ಸಾಮ್ರಾ ಜ್ಯ Kingdom

ವಂಶ Phylum

ವಗೀ Class

ಗಣ Order

ಕುಟುಂಬ Family

ಜಾತಿ Genus

ಪ್ಾ ಭೇದ Species

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Systems of classification
• Discoveries of new organisms have led to the
periodical revision of classification from two
kingdom system to five kingdom system.
• Two kingdom classification:
• Introduced by Carolus Linnaeus in 1758.
• He classified the living organisms under two
kingdoms. They are Kingdom Plantae and
Kingdom Animalia.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Three kingdom classification
• In 1674, Leeuwenhoek observed primitive
organisms under a microscope.
• Ernst Haeckel in 1866 proposed a third
kingdom, Protista and included all the
primitive, microscopic organisms like
protozoa, bacteria, algae and fungi under it.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Four kingdom classification
• The development of microscope and electron
microscope in particular, revealed an
important distinction between organisms
containing cells without a definite nucleus
(prokaryotes) and organisms containing cells
with a definite nucleus (eukaryotes).
• To accommodate prokaryotes, Copeland
added another kingdom called Monera and
proposed four kingdom classification in 1966.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• He included bacteria and blue green algae under
this kingdom because, both of them exhibit
prokaryotic type of cells. Blue green algae are also
known as Cyanobacteria.

Bacteria Blue green algae

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Five kingdom classification
• Plants synthesize their own food. But
fungi, unlike plants, do not synthesize
their food.
• Hence Robert Whittaker created another
kingdom called Mycota.
• The kingdoms introduced by Robert
Whittaker are Monera, Protista, Plantae,
Animalia and Mycota.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Modes of Reproduction
ಸಂತಾನೀತಪ ತಿಿ ವಿಧಾನಗಳು
• The production of new individuals from their parents is known as
reproduction.
• Roots, stems and leaves are called as the vegetative parts of a plant.
• Flowers perform the function of reproduction in plants, hence they are
called as reproductive parts.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Plants produce their offspring in
two types:
I. Asexual reproduction.
II. Sexual reproduction.
• In asexual reproduction plants can
give rise to new plants without
seeds.
• In sexual reproduction, new plants
are obtained from seeds.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Asexual Reproduction
ಅಲುಂರ್ಕ ಸಂತಾನೀತಪ ತಿಿ
• In asexual reproduction new plants are obtained
without production of seeds.
• There are many types of asexual reproduction & are
given below:
❖ Vegetative propagation:
• It is a type of asexual reproduction in which new
plants are produced from roots, stems, leaves and
buds.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Since reproduction is through the vegetative parts
of the plant, it is known as vegetative propagation.
• Plants produced by vegetative propagation take
less time to grow and bear flowers and fruits
earlier than those produced from seeds.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

❖Fragmentation:
• Slimy green patches present in ponds, or in other
stagnant water bodies are the algae.
• By the help of water and nutrients the algae grow
and multiply rapidly by fragmentation
• An alga breaks up into two or more fragments.
These fragments or pieces grow into new
individuals and this process takes place in short
period.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Sexual Reproduction
ಲುಂರ್ಕ ಸಂತಾನೀತಪ ತಿಿ
• Flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant. Stamens are the male
reproductive part and pistil is the female reproductive part.
• Flowers which contain either only pistil or only stamens are called unisexual
flowers.
– Corn, papaya and cucumber flowers etc.,
• Flowers which contain both stamens and pistil are called bisexual flowers.
– Mustard, rose and petunia flowers etc.,

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gametes.
• A pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary. Ovary contains one
or more ovules. The female gamete or the egg is formed in an
ovule.
• In sexual reproduction a male and a female gamete fuse to
form a zygote.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Fig:
NotesReproductive parts
by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
❖ Pollination:
• Pollen grains have a tough protective coat which prevents them from
drying up. Since pollen grains are light, they can be carried by wind or
water.
• Insects visit flowers and carry away pollen on their bodies. Some of the
pollen lands on the stigma of a flower of the same kind.
• The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called
pollination.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same
flower or another flower of the same plant, it is
called self-pollination.
• When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma
of a flower of a different plant of the same kind,
it is called cross-pollination.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Stigma
Pollens
Anther

(b) Cross-pollination
(a) Self-pollination

Fig:
NotesPollination in flower
by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Pollination by different medium
ವಿಭಿನನ ಮ್ರಧ್ಯ ಮದ್ವುಂದ ಪ್ರಾಗಸ್ಪ ಶೀ
• Anemophily or wind pollination is a form of
pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind.
• Entomophily or insect pollination is a form of
pollination whereby pollen of plants, especially but
not only of flowering plants, is distributed by insects.
• Hydrophily is a fairly uncommon form of pollination
whereby pollen is distributed by the flow of water.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
❖Fertilization:
• The cell which results after fusion of the gametes is
called a zygote.
• The process of fusion of male and female gametes (to
form a zygote) is called Fertilisation.
• The zygote develops into an embryo.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Pollen grain

Zygote formation

Fig: Fertilisation (Zygote formation)

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Fruits and Seed Formation
ಹಣ್ಣು ಗಳು ಮತ್ತಿ ಬೀಜ್ ರಚನೆ
• After fertilisation, the ovary grows into a fruit and other parts of the flower fall
off. The fruit is the ripened ovary.
• The seeds develop from the ovules. The seed contains an embryo enclosed in
a protective seed coat.
• Some fruits are fleshy and juicy like mango and orange. Some fruits are hard
like almonds and walnuts.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Ripened Ovary
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Nutrition in Plants
ಸ್ಸ್ಯ ಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಪೀಷಣೆ
• Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals that are present
in our food are called nutrients and are necessary for our body.
• Plants are the only organisms that can prepare food for themselves
by using water, carbon dioxide and minerals. The raw materials are
present in their surroundings.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Nutrition
• Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism
and its utilization by the body.

The mode of nutrition in which Animals and most other

organisms make food themselves organisms take in food
from simple substances is called prepared by plants.
autotrophic (auto = self; trophos = They are called
nourishment) nutrition. Therefore, heterotrophs (heteros =
plants are called autotrophs. other).
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Photosynthesis / ದ್ಯಯ ತಿಸಂಶ್ಿ ೀಷಣೆ
• Leaves are the food factories of plants, hence there is a need of the
raw materials to reach the leaf.
• Water and minerals present in the soil are absorbed by the roots and
transported to the leaves.
• Carbon dioxide from air is taken in through the tiny pores present on
the surface of leaves. These pores are surrounded by ‘guard cells’.
Such pores are called stomata.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Water and minerals are transported to the leaves by the
vessels which run like pipes throughout the root, the stem, the
branches and the leaves.
• The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll. It helps
leaves to capture the energy of the sunlight.
• This solar energy is used to synthesize (prepare) food from
carbon dioxide and water.
• Since the synthesis of food occurs in the presence of sunlight,
it is called photosynthesis (Photo: light; synthesis :to prepare).

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Chlorophyll, sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are
necessary to carry out the process of
photosynthesis.
• It is a unique process on the earth. The solar energy
is captured by the leaves and stored in the plant in
the form of food.
• Thus, sun is the ultimate source of energy for all
living organisms.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Besides leaves, photosynthesis also takes place in
other green parts of the plant — in green stems and
green branches.

• The desert plants have scale- or spine-like leaves to

reduce loss of water by transpiration. These plants
have green stems which carry out photosynthesis.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Life without Photosynthesis
ದ್ಯಯ ತಿಸಂಶ್ಿ ೀಷಣೆ ಇಲ್ಿ ದ ಜೀವನ
• The survival of almost all living organisms directly or indirectly depends upon
the food made by the plants.
• Besides, oxygen which is essential for the survival of all organisms is
produced during photosynthesis.
• In the absence of photosynthesis, life would be impossible on the earth.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Energy of sun into food?
• During photosynthesis,
chlorophyll containing cells of
leaves, in the presence of
sunlight, use carbon dioxide
and water to synthesise
carbohydrates.
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water Carbohydrate + oxygen
Chlorophyll
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• During photosynthesis oxygen is released. The presence of
starch in leaves indicates the occurrence of photosynthesis.
Starch is also a carbohydrate.

Guard Cells
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Stomata
• Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction. It can be
represented with the help of an equation.
• Carbon dioxide + water
Chlorophyll
Sunlight
Glucose +
oxygen + water
• 6CO2 + 12H2O Chlorophyll
C6H12O6 + 6O2+ 6H2O
Sunlight

• Glucose produced during photosynthesis is

stored in the form of starch.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast.
• There are two major regions called grana and Stroma in the
chloroplast. These two regions are involved in two different
phases of photosynthesis called light dependent reaction
which is also called Light reaction and light independent
reaction, which is also called Dark reaction.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Light Dependent Reaction
• Light dependent reaction takes place in the
presence of sunlight, in the grana region.
• During this reaction water is decomposed
into hydroxyl (OH - )and hydrogen (H+)ions
in the presence of light energy. Oxygen is
given out by plants in this phase.
• Light energy is converted in to chemical
energy and is stored in the form of ATP.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Light Independent Reaction
• In this reaction, carbon dioxide is reduced to starch,
utilizing the energy released during light dependent
reaction.
• This reaction takes place in the stroma region.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The leaves other than green also have chlorophyll.
The large amount of red, brown and other pigments
mask the green colour. Photosynthesis takes place
in these leaves also.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Algae
• Slimy, green patches in ponds or
stagnant water bodies. These are
generally formed by the growth of
organisms called algae.
• They contain chlorophyll which
gives them the green colour. Algae
can also prepare their own food
by photosynthesis.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Synthesis of plant food other than carbohydrates
ಕಾರ್ೀೀಹೈಡ್ಾ ೀಟ್‌ಗಳನ್ನನ ಹೊರತ್ತಪ್ಡಿಸಿ ಸ್ಸ್ಯ
ಆಹಾರದ ಸಂಶ್ಿ ೀಷಣೆ
• Carbohydrates synthesised by photosynthesis are made of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. These are used to synthesise other components of
food such as proteins and fats.
• Proteins are nitrogenous substances which contain nitrogen. Nitrogen
fixing bacteria help soil absorb the nitrogen in air and move it to plant by
mixing with water.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Epiphytes
• Some plants growing on trees. These plants capable
of photosynthesis take support on the host tree.
Such plants are called epiphytes.
• Example – Orchids.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Other modes of Nutrition in Plants
• There are some plants which do not have
chlorophyll. They cannot synthesise their
own food & depend on the food
produced by other plants. They use the
heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
• Cuscuta plant does not have chlorophyll
& it takes readymade food from the plant
on which it climbs (host) and this type of
plant is called the parasite.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Insectivorous plants:
• There are a few plants which can trap
insects and digest them.
• Such plants may be green or of some other
colour.
• The pitcher-like or jug-like structure is the
modified part of leaf.
• The insect is trapped & killed by the juices Pitcher plant

secreted in the pitcher and its nutrients

are absorbed. Such insect-eating plants
are called insectivorous plants.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Symbiosis / ಸ್ಹಜೀವನ

• Some organisms live together and share both shelter

and nutrients. This relationship is called Symbiosis.
• In organisms called lichens, chlorophyll-containing
partner, which is an alga, and a fungus live together.
The fungus provides shelter, water and minerals to the
alga and, in return, the alga prepares and provides
food to the fungus.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Replenishment of Nutrients in the Soil
• Fertilisers and manures contain nutrients such as
nitrogen, potassium, phosphorous, etc. These
nutrients need to be added from time to time to
enrich the soil.
• The bacterium called Rhizobium can take
atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into a usable
form.
• Rhizobium cannot make its own food. So it
often lives in the roots of gram, peas, moong,
beans and other legumes and provides them
with nitrogen(symbiotic relationship).
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Modes of Reproduction Used by Single
Organisms
❑ Fission
• In unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission,
leads to the creation of new individuals.
• Many different patterns of fission have been
observed. Many bacteria and protozoa simply
split into two equal halves during cell division.
• In organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of the
two cells during division can take place in any
plane.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Other single-celled organisms, such as the malarial
parasite Plasmodium, divide into many daughter
cells simultaneously by multiple fission.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

❑Regeneration
• Many fully differentiated organisms have the
ability to give rise to new individual
organisms from their body parts.
• That is, if the individual is somehow cut or
broken up into many pieces, many of these
pieces grow into separate individuals.
• For example, simple animals like Hydra and
Planaria can be cut into any number of
pieces and each piece grows into a complete
organism. This is known as regeneration.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Sexual Mode of reproduction
• The creation of two new cells from one
involves copying of the DNA as well as of
the cellular apparatus.
• Variations are useful for ensuring the
survival of the species.
• Only half of the DNA’s are copied from one
organism (23 + 23) to the offspring and this
process is called as meiosis.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Reproduction in Human Beings
• (a) Male Reproductive System
• The male reproductive system consists of
portions which produce the germ-cells and
other portions that deliver the germ-cells to
the site of fertilisation.
• The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes
place in the testes. These are located outside
the abdominal cavity in scrotum because
sperm formation requires a lower temperature
than the normal body temperature.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Testosterone is the male reproductive
hormone.
• Glands like the prostate and the seminal
vesicles add their secretions so that the
sperms are now in a fluid which makes their
transport easier and this fluid also provides
nutrition.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• (b) Female Reproductive System
• The female germ-cells or eggs are made in
the ovaries.
• When a girl is born, the ovaries already
contain thousands of immature eggs. On
reaching puberty, some of these start
maturing. One egg is produced every month
by one of the ovaries. The egg is carried
from the ovary to the womb through a thin
oviduct or fallopian tube.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-
like structure known as the uterus. The
uterus opens into the vagina through the
cervix.
• The sperms enter through the vaginal
passage during sexual intercourse.
• They travel upwards and reach the
oviduct where they may encounter the
egg.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The fertilised egg (zygote) starts dividing
and form a ball of cells or embryo.
• The embryo is implanted in the lining of
the uterus where they continue to grow and
develop organs to become foetus.
• Uterus prepares itself every month to
receive and nurture the growing embryo.
The lining thickens and is richly supplied
with blood to nourish the growing embryo.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s
blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta.
• The developing embryo will also generate
waste substances which can be removed by
transferring them into the mother’s blood
through the placenta.
• The development of the child inside the
mother’s body takes approximately nine
months. The child is born as a result of
rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the
uterus.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 What happens when the Egg is not
Fertilised?
• If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for
about one day.
• Since the ovary releases one egg every
month, the uterus also prepares itself
every month to receive a fertilised egg.
• Thus its lining becomes thick and spongy.
This would be required for nourishing the
embryo if fertilisation had taken place.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Now, however, this lining is not needed any longer.
So, the lining slowly breaks and comes out through
the vagina as blood and mucous.
• This cycle takes place roughly every month and is
known as menstruation. It usually lasts for about
two to eight days.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Digestion in Humans
• The breakdown of complex components of food
into simpler substances is called digestion.
• Alimentary canal (digestive tract):
– (1) the buccal cavity, (2) food pipe or
oesophagus, (3) stomach, (4) small intestine, (5)
large intestine ending in the rectum and (6) the
anus.
– The digestive tract and the associated glands
together constitute the digestive system.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• The mouth and buccal cavity:
• Food is taken into the body through the
mouth & the process is called ingestion.
• Chewing the food with the teeth and to
break it down mechanically into small
pieces is the first step of digestion.
• Our mouth has the salivary glands which
secrete saliva & it contains salivary
amylase which converts starch into
maltose.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• The bacteria break down the sugars present from the
leftover food and release acids ,which gradually
damage the teeth. This is called tooth decay.
• Pharynx is the common passage for both food and air.
During swallowing the food, entry of food into the
windpipe is prevented by epiglottis, a lid.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Food pipe/Oesophagus:
• The swallowed food passes into the
food pipe or oesophagus.
• The foodpipe runs along the neck and
the chest & food is pushed down by
movement of the wall of the
foodpipe.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The stomach:
• The stomach is a thick-walled bag. Its shape
is like a flattened J and it is the widest part
of the alimentary canal.
• The inner lining of the stomach secretes
mucous to protect it, hydrochloric acid is
present to kill bacterias that enter with food
and digestive juices.
• Digestive enzymes such as pepsin and
rennin are also secreted in the stomach.
Pepsin converts proteins into polypeptides.
Rennin converts milk into curd.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• The small intestine:
• The small intestine is highly coiled and is
about 7.5 metres long.
• It receives secretions from the liver and
the pancreas.
• Reddish brown gland situated in the upper
part of the abdomen on the right side is
Liver & is the largest gland in the body.
• It secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac
called the gall bladder. The bile plays an
important role in the digestion of fats.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• The pancreas is a large cream coloured
gland located just below the stomach.
• The pancreatic juice acts on carbohydrates,
fats and proteins and changes them into
simpler forms.
• The partly digested food now reaches the
lower part of the small intestine where
carbohydrates get broken into simple
sugars such as glucose, fats into fatty acids
and glycerol, and proteins into amino
acids.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Absorption in the small intestine:
• The digested food can now pass into the blood
vessels in the wall of the intestine. This process
is called absorption.
• The inner walls of the small intestine have
thousands of finger-like outgrowths called
Villi's which help is absorption.
• Absorbed food is transported through blood
vessels to different organs & complex
substance like protein which is required by the
body is formed & this is called assimilation.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Large intestine:
• The large intestine is wider and shorter than
small intestine. It is about 1.5 metre in length.
• Its function is to absorb water and some salts
from the undigested food material.
• The remaining waste passes into the rectum
and remains there as semi-solid faeces.
• The faecal matter is removed through the
anus from time-to-time. This is called
egestion.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Nutrients
ಪೀಷಕಾುಂಶಗಳು
“A nutrient is anything that nourishes a living
being”.
Major nutrients in our food are named
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. In
addition, food contains dietary fibres and water which
are also needed by our body.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Food / ಆಹಾರ
• Food is a substance that provides nourishment.
• The purposes of food are mainly three fold. Food
promotes growth, supplies energy and furnishes
nutrients for the repair of body parts.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Constituents of Food
ಆಹಾರದ ಘಟಕಗಳು
• Food contains nourishing substances called nutrients. They keep our body
fit and active.
• The food may also contain constituents that do not supply any nutrients.
These non-nourishing materials are however essential to our body.
• Hence, they should form an integral part of our food. They include fibre
and water.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• There are three major nutrients. They are energy
giving nutrients, protective nutrients and body
building nutrients.
❑Energy giving food:
• Carbohydrates & Fats are called as energy giving
foods.
• Our body needs energy even when we are
sleeping.
• Our energy supply comes mainly from cereals.
Sugar, jaggery, some kinds of fruits and potatoes
contain large quantity of carbohydrates.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Carbohydrates are the compounds made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• We also get energy from oils, butter and ghee. Nuts and meat also contain fair
quantity of oils and fats. We refer to oils and fats as lipids.
• Carbohydrates on digestion turn into glucose. Glucose gets into the blood, which
supplies glucose to all cells of the body.
• Insufficient supply of glucose may lead to tiredness, weakness and lack of
concentration.
• Excess of glucose leads to obesity and diseases like diabetes.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Functions & principal sources of Carbohydrates
• The regulation of sugar in the blood stream ensures
adequate supply of carbohydrates to every cell.
• Complex carbohydrates such as cellulose are
excellent source of fibre.
• Fruits, dairy products, jaggery, sugar and vegetables
provide simple carbohydrates.
• Unused carbohydrates in the body are stored up as
fats, leads to overweight & obesity.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• For instant energy generation, sugars and starch are
perfect fuels, hence glucose is provided to sports
persons.
• Fibres containing carbohydrates such as cellulose
keep bowel movement smooth.
• Carbohydrates add to the taste.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Carbohydrate
Rich Food

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Functions and principal sources of lipids
ಲ್ಲಪಿಡ್‌ಗಳ ಕಾರ್ೀಗಳು ಮತ್ತಿ ಪ್ಾ ಮುಖ ಮೂಲ್ಗಳು
• Lipids consist of molecules made of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen.
• They are insoluble in water & are several types of lipids
including oils and fats.
• Lipids help in brain functioning, smooth movement of
joints, clotting of blood and energy production.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Fat helps the body to absorb and to move the vitamins
A, D, E, and K through the bloodstream.
• Cell membranes contain lipids. As a protective barrier, it
controls the movement of materials.
• Lipids store energy and hence help in energy
production, excess lipids may cause heart disease.
• Fats also help to maintain healthy skin and hair.
• Lipids of plant origin are in the form of oils. These are
relatively healthier, compared to animal fats.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Food items rich
in lipids

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Functions and principal sources of proteins
❑ Body Building Nutrients:
• Proteins are very important molecules in our cells &
are involved in all cell functions.
• They are typically formed from a set of 20 simple
compounds called amino acids.
• Most amino acid molecules include atoms of carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), a carboxyl group (-COOH) and an
amino group (-NH2].

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Some proteins are involved in structural support, some in body movement
and yet others assist in building up defence against germs.
• Enzymes are also proteins, which increase the rate of biochemical reactions
inside our body. Eg: Pepsin
• Pepsin works in the stomach to break down proteins in food.
• Similarly, there is another enzyme called lactase. It breaks down the sugar
present in the milk.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Several hormones like insulin are also proteins, which helps in the
metabolism of carbohydrates.
• Haemoglobin is a protein present in our blood, which helps in the transport
of oxygen in our body.
• Some proteins like keratin and collagen are fibrous and tough. They provide
support to tendons and ligaments.
• The body uses these proteins for maintaining healthy growth.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Food items rich in Proteins
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Functions and principal sources of vitamins
❑Protective Nutrients:
• Vitamins and minerals are required in smaller
quantities for maintaining health. They are
called micronutrients.
• Vitamins are essentially organic compounds.
• Some of them like vitamin C and vitamin B are
water-soluble. Others like vitamin A, D, K and E
are fat-soluble.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• We also need certain substances like beta-carotene and folic acid, which get
converted into vitamins in our body. We call such substances as pro-vitamins.
• For example, beta-carotene gets converted into vitamin A in our body.
• Vitamin B6 known as pyridoxine, is a water-soluble vitamin, deficiency can cause
peripheral neuropathy, depression, confusion, and seizures.
• Cyanocobalamin (commonly known as Vitamin B12) is a highly complex, essential
vitamin.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Vitamin B- 4 chemical name – Adenine.
• Vitamin B5 chemical name – pantothenic acid.
• Vitamin H or B7 chemical name – Biotin.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Minerals in our diet
ನಮಮ ಆಹಾರದಲ್ಲಿ ಖನಿಜ್ಗಳು
• Our diet should essentially contain several minerals including calcium,
iron, sodium, phosphorus, zinc and iodine.
▪ Calcium helps to build bones and teeth, helps in the proper functioning of
muscles, heart and nerves, relieves pain and cramps, helps in clotting of
blood. Dairy products, soyabeans, Ragi, sunflower seeds and legumes are
rich in calcium.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

▪ Sodium helps to control blood pressure, regulates the function of
muscles and nerves. Our food invariably contains the required amount of
sodium.
▪ Phosphorus is required for the formation of bones and teeth. It is
involved in metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Phosphorus
is abundant in milk, milk products, whole grains, etc.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

▪ Iron is a constituent of haemoglobin which plays an important role in
oxygen transport. Liver, meat, oysters, oat meal, nuts, beans, wheat germ
and greens contain iron.
▪ Iodine helps in the secretion of thyroxine from thyroid gland. It prevents
goitre. It helps to burn fat, converts beta-carotene into vitamin A &
regulates energy production in our body and maintains hair, nails, skin and
teeth. Seafood's and vegetables are good source of iodine.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Zinc helps to reduce cholesterol deposits, helps in making enzymes and insulin,
supports metabolism of carbohydrates, facilitates the proper functioning of
prostate gland. Eggs, cheese, beef, pork, wheat germ, brewer’s yeast and
pumpkin seeds are some of the good sources of zinc.
• Potassium helps to regulate fluid balance in our body. We also need it for the
proper functioning of nerves and muscles. Peanuts, bananas, green beans,
mushrooms and oranges are a few good sources of potassium.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Cell
• “Cell is the smallest structural and functional
unit of an organism, which is typically
microscopic and consists of cytoplasm and a
nucleus enclosed in a membrane”.
• Cells can be classified as unicellular (consisting
of a single cell; including bacteria) or
multicellular (including plants and animals).

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The number of cells in multicellular organisms
may be from a few hundreds to billions.
• An average adult human body approximately has
trillions of cells.
• Cells perform activities such as nutrition,
respiration and cell division, which contribute to
the overall growth of an organism. Hence, cells
are called structural and functional units of an
organism.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Cell Tissue Organ Organ System Organism

Bone Cell Bone Tissue Bone Skeletal System Wolf

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Discovery of the Cell
• The cell was first discovered and named by
Robert Hooke in 1665.
• The word cell means small room.
• M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann:
• Schleiden, a German botanist and Schwann, a
German zoologist, together put forth the cell
theory in 1839.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Cell theory states
• The body of living organisms is formed of one or
more cells.
• All the cells arise only from pre-existing cells
through
cell division.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Cell Observation
• The cell and its components can be observed
clearly with the help of an electron microscope.
• Micron is the most commonly used unit to express
the size of the cell. One micron is equal to 1/1000
of a millimetre.
• Electron microscopes magnification is about
2,00,000 times as against the compound
microscope which magnifies objects up to 2000
times.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Electron Microscope

Compound Microscope
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Cell Structure
• Cell is made up of mainly cell membrane,
cytoplasm and nucleus.
• Cell membrane:
• A cell is surrounded by a cell membrane. It
is also called plasma membrane.
• It separates the interior of the cell from
outside environment. Cell membrane helps
to maintain the shape of the cell.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Cell membrane controls the movement of
selected substances into or out of the cell.
Hence it is called as semipermeable membrane.
• The movement of molecules across the cell
membrane occurs by two processes.
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

1. Diffusion
• Diffusion is a process in which, molecules of a
substance move from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower
concentration.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

2. Osmosis
• Osmosis is a special kind of
diffusion. It is the diffusion of
water molecules through a
semipermeable membrane.
• osmosis is the movement of
water molecules from a Diluted
region of higher sugar
Concentrated
sugar solution
concentration to a region of solution Water
their lower concentration movement

through a semipermeable
membrane.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Active transport:
• Active transport is the movement of
molecules across a membrane from a region
of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration & this process requires energy.
• For example, in blood, the concentration of
sodium is less and it is more in a heart muscle
cell. Inspite of this, sodium is absorbed into
the heart muscle cell, from the blood.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Plant Cell

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• In plant cells, in addition to the cell
membrane, there is a cell wall.
• Cell wall is thick, rigid and surrounds the cell
membrane. It is mainly composed of cellulose,
a non living substance.
• Unlike cell membrane, cell wall is a permeable
membrane.
• Cytoplasm is a jelly like substance found
between the cell membrane and nucleus.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Nearly 80% of cytoplasm is water. It is the
site for most of the cellular activities. A
number of smaller components are found in
the cytoplasm, called as organelles.
• Organelles include both non-living
substances and living structures.
• Non-living substances include several
chemicals such as starch grains, oil droplets,
calcium carbonate, resin and gum.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Types of Organelles
• Organelles carry out specific functions. They are
grouped under two categories.
1. Membranous organelles : Organelles covered by
membranes.
– Examples: Endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi
complex, lysosome, plastids.
2. Non membranous organelles : Organelles which
are not covered by membranes
– Examples: Ribosomes, centrioles.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Membranous organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum :
• Endoplasmic reticulum is a
network of branching tubules. It
extends from the cell membrane
to the nuclear membrane.
• It transports substances from one
part of the cell to the other and
from one cell to another.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Mitochondrion:
• Mitochondria occur in various shapes such as-
cylindrical, spherical, oval and rod shaped.
• Mitochondrion is bound by a double membrane.
Outer membrane is smooth but inner one is folded.
Folds are called cristae.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Inner membrane encloses a fluid known as matrix.
• Mitochondria are the sites of respiration in a cell.
They use oxygen to break down glucose into carbon
dioxide and water.
• This process releases energy which is stored in a
molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• Mitochondria are called power houses of the cell.
• Usually, a cell has 30 to 40 mitochondria but the
number of mitochondria in a cell varies and depends
on the function of the cell.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Golgi complex :
• Golgi complex consists of flat discs with
expanded ends (vesicles).
• The main function of Golgi complex is to secrete
chemicals required for cellular activities.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Lysosomes:
• Lysosomes are usually found in an animal cell. They
are spherical, sac like organelles.
• They contain a variety of hydrolytic enzymes, which
help in the digestion of organic substances present
in the cell.
• Lysosomes may also destroy their own cell when it
becomes old, weak, damaged or diseased. Hence
they are often called suicide bags of the cell.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Plastids:
• Plastids are found only in plant cells.
• Some plastids are without colouring pigments
and are called leucoplasts, mainly involved in the
storage of reserve food.
• Plastids are with colouring pigments other than
green. They are called chromoplasts.
• The third type contain green coloured pigments
and are known as chloroplasts.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Granum
Outer membrane

Inner membrane
Stroma
Chloroplast Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Non membranous Cell Organelles
• Ribosomes:
• Grain like structures attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear membrane
are called as ribosomes.
• They play an important role in the synthesis of
proteins. Hence, they are known as protein
factories of the cell.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Centriole :
• Centrioles are found in some algae, fungi and all
animal cells.
• Two centrioles are located usually near the nucleus.
Centrioles help during cell division.
• Vacuoles:
• Membrane covered cavities called vacuoles.
• They are filled with a fluid called cell sap. Vacuoles
are structures which store food, excess water and
waste products.
Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Vacuoles, which store food and help in digestion
are food vacuoles.
• Vacuoles which help in the removal of excess
water are contractile vacuoles.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Nucleus:
• Nucleus is a spherical organelle found in all
eukaryotes.
• Nucleus is the largest organelle in a cell.
• Most of the eukaryotic cells usually have one
nucleus. Some mammalian cells like red blood
cells do not have nucleus at maturity.
• Nucleus is covered by a double membrane called
nuclear membrane.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The membrane encloses a fluid called
nucleoplasm.
• Nucleoplasm has a network of thread like
structures called chromatin.
• During cell division chromatin undergoes coiling
and super coiling and becomes short and thick
to form chromosomes.
• Chromosomes contain genetic material called
Deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA).

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• DNA has genes. Each gene determines a particular
characteristic of an organism.
• Nucleus also has a dense spherical body called
nucleolus. Nucleolus is not covered by a
membrane. Nucleolus forms ribosomes.

Every human cell has 46 chromosomes.

Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Nucleus Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
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Notes by Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Biology Part 2

Comprehensive Course on Science &

Technology

By - SanjayKumar H P
About Educator
Sanjay Kumar H P
• B.E. (Mechanical)

• Specialized in Science & Technology & Computer

Literacy

• 7+ Years of Experience in Teaching and Mentoring

CSE aspirants
 Cell
• “Cell is the smallest structural and functional
unit of an organism, which is typically
microscopic and consists of cytoplasm and a
nucleus enclosed in a membrane”.
• Cells can be classified as unicellular (consisting
of a single cell; including bacteria) or
multicellular (including plants and animals).

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The number of cells in multicellular organisms
may be from a few hundreds to billions.
• An average adult human body approximately has
trillions of cells.
• Cells perform activities such as nutrition,
respiration and cell division, which contribute to
the overall growth of an organism. Hence, cells
are called structural and functional units of an
organism.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Cell Tissue Organ Organ System Organism

Bone Cell Bone Tissue Bone Skeletal System Wolf

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Discovery of the Cell
• The cell was first discovered and named by
Robert Hooke in 1665.
• The word cell means small room.
• M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann:
• Schleiden, a German botanist and Schwann, a
German zoologist, together put forth the cell
theory in 1839.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Cell theory states
• The body of living organisms is formed of one or
more cells.
• All the cells arise only from pre-existing cells
through
cell division.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Cell Observation
• The cell and its components can be observed
clearly with the help of an electron microscope.
• Micron is the most commonly used unit to express
the size of the cell. One micron is equal to 1/1000
of a millimetre.
• Electron microscopes magnification is about
2,00,000 times as against the compound
microscope which magnifies objects up to 2000
times.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Electron Microscope

Compound Microscope
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Cell Structure
• Cell is made up of mainly cell membrane,
cytoplasm and nucleus.
• Cell membrane:
• A cell is surrounded by a cell membrane. It
is also called plasma membrane.
• It separates the interior of the cell from
outside environment. Cell membrane helps
to maintain the shape of the cell.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Cell membrane controls the movement of
selected substances into or out of the cell.
Hence it is called as semipermeable membrane.
• The movement of molecules across the cell
membrane occurs by two processes.
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

1. Diffusion
• Diffusion is a process in which, molecules of a
substance move from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower
concentration.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

2. Osmosis
• Osmosis is a special kind of
diffusion. It is the diffusion of
water molecules through a
semipermeable membrane.
• osmosis is the movement of
water molecules from a Diluted
region of higher sugar
Concentrated
sugar solution
concentration to a region of solution Water
their lower concentration movement

through a semipermeable
membrane.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Active transport:
• Active transport is the movement of
molecules across a membrane from a region
of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration & this process requires energy.
• For example, in blood, the concentration of
sodium is less and it is more in a heart muscle
cell. Inspite of this, sodium is absorbed into
the heart muscle cell, from the blood.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Plant Cell

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• In plant cells, in addition to the cell
membrane, there is a cell wall.
• Cell wall is thick, rigid and surrounds the cell
membrane. It is mainly composed of cellulose,
a non living substance.
• Unlike cell membrane, cell wall is a permeable
membrane.
• Cytoplasm is a jelly like substance found
between the cell membrane and nucleus.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Nearly 80% of cytoplasm is water. It is the
site for most of the cellular activities. A
number of smaller components are found in
the cytoplasm, called as organelles.
• Organelles include both non-living
substances and living structures.
• Non-living substances include several
chemicals such as starch grains, oil droplets,
calcium carbonate, resin and gum.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Types of Organelles
• Organelles carry out specific functions. They are
grouped under two categories.
1. Membranous organelles : Organelles covered by
membranes.
– Examples: Endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi
complex, lysosome, plastids.
2. Non membranous organelles : Organelles which
are not covered by membranes
– Examples: Ribosomes, centrioles.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Membranous organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum :
• Endoplasmic reticulum is a
network of branching tubules. It
extends from the cell membrane
to the nuclear membrane.
• It transports substances from one
part of the cell to the other and
from one cell to another.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Mitochondrion:
• Mitochondria occur in various shapes such as-
cylindrical, spherical, oval and rod shaped.
• Mitochondrion is bound by a double membrane.
Outer membrane is smooth but inner one is folded.
Folds are called cristae.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Inner membrane encloses a fluid known as matrix.
• Mitochondria are the sites of respiration in a cell.
They use oxygen to break down glucose into carbon
dioxide and water.
• This process releases energy which is stored in a
molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• Mitochondria are called power houses of the cell.
• Usually, a cell has 30 to 40 mitochondria but the
number of mitochondria in a cell varies and depends
on the function of the cell.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Golgi complex :
• Golgi complex consists of flat discs with
expanded ends (vesicles).
• The main function of Golgi complex is to secrete
chemicals required for cellular activities.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Lysosomes:
• Lysosomes are usually found in an animal cell. They
are spherical, sac like organelles.
• They contain a variety of hydrolytic enzymes, which
help in the digestion of organic substances present
in the cell.
• Lysosomes may also destroy their own cell when it
becomes old, weak, damaged or diseased. Hence
they are often called suicide bags of the cell.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Plastids:
• Plastids are found only in plant cells.
• Some plastids are without colouring pigments
and are called leucoplasts, mainly involved in the
storage of reserve food.
• Plastids are with colouring pigments other than
green. They are called chromoplasts.
• The third type contain green coloured pigments
and are known as chloroplasts.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Granum
Outer membrane

Inner membrane
Stroma
Chloroplast Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Non membranous Cell Organelles
• Ribosomes:
• Grain like structures attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear membrane
are called as ribosomes.
• They play an important role in the synthesis of
proteins. Hence, they are known as protein
factories of the cell.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Centriole :
• Centrioles are found in some algae, fungi and all
animal cells.
• Two centrioles are located usually near the nucleus.
Centrioles help during cell division.
• Vacuoles:
• Membrane covered cavities called vacuoles.
• They are filled with a fluid called cell sap. Vacuoles
are structures which store food, excess water and
waste products.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Vacuoles, which store food and help in
digestion are food vacuoles.
• Vacuoles which help in the removal of excess
water are contractile vacuoles.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Nucleus:
• Nucleus is a spherical organelle found in all
eukaryotes.
• Nucleus is the largest organelle in a cell.
• Most of the eukaryotic cells usually have one
nucleus. Some mammalian cells like red blood
cells do not have nucleus at maturity.
• Nucleus is covered by a double membrane called
nuclear membrane.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The membrane encloses a fluid called
nucleoplasm.
• Nucleoplasm has a network of thread like
structures called chromatin.
• During cell division chromatin undergoes coiling
and super coiling and becomes short and thick
to form chromosomes.
• Chromosomes contain genetic material called
Deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA).

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• DNA has genes. Each gene determines a particular
characteristic of an organism.
• Nucleus also has a dense spherical body called
nucleolus. Nucleolus is not covered by a
membrane. Nucleolus forms ribosomes.

Every human cell has 46 chromosomes.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Nucleus Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Respiration in Organisms
• All organisms are made of cells and cells need
energy to perform functions like nutrition,
transport, excretion and reproduction.
• The food has stored energy & is released during
respiration, hence all organisms respire to get
energy from food.
• By respiring we inhale oxygen & is transported
to each and every cell of the body.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The process of breakdown of food in the cell
with the release of energy is called cellular
respiration.
• In cells food(glucose) is broken down into CO2
and water, with the release of energy by using
oxygen.
• When breakdown of glucose occurs with the use
of oxygen it is called aerobic respiration.

• Glucose Presence of Water + carbon dioxide + energy

oxygen

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Food can also be broken down, without
using oxygen. This is called anaerobic
respiration.
• Some organisms such as yeast that can
survive in the absence of air. They are called
anaerobes.
• In the absence of oxygen, glucose breaks
down into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

• Glucose absence of alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy

oxygen

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Anaerobic respiration in muscles:
• Our muscle cells can also respire
anaerobically for a short time when there is a
temporary deficiency of oxygen. Ex: During
physical exercise.
• The partial breakdown of glucose produces
lactic acid & its accumulation causes muscle
cramps.

• Glucose (in muscle) absence

oxygen
of
lactic acid + energy

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Breathing
• The taking in of air rich in oxygen into the body is
called inhalation.
• Giving out of air rich in carbon dioxide is known
as exhalation.
• The number of times a person breathes in a
minute is termed as the breathing rate.
• On an average, an adult human being at rest
breathes in and out 15–18 times in a minute. Upto
25 times during exercise.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• A large, muscular sheet called diaphragm
forms the floor of the chest cavity.
• Breathing involves the movement of the
diaphragm and the rib cage.
• During inhalation, ribs move up and
outwards and diaphragm moves down.
• During exhalation, ribs move down and
inwards, while diaphragm moves up to its
former position.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Nostrils
Oral Cavity

Trachea

Lungs
Ribs

Diaphragm

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Respiratory system
• Respiratory system consists of nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and
lungs.
• Lungs include bronchioles and alveoli.
• Air passes to the pharynx from where it is
directed into the trachea with the help of
epiglottis.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Trachea is divided into two branches called
bronchi.
• One bronchus enters the left lung and the
other enters the right lung. These bronchi
are further branched into bronchioles.
• Air sacs are present at the terminals of
bronchioles. These are called alveoli.
• Blood circulating around the alveoli gives
out carbon dioxide and collects oxygen.
This process is called Cellular Respiration.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Respiration in Amoeba, Cockroach and human beings

• Respiration in Amoeba takes place by diffusion

through body surface.
• Cockroach has a separate respiratory system
called tracheal system.
• The tracheal system includes Trachea,
Tracheoles and Spiracles.
• There are ten pairs of respiratory openings
called spiracles on the lateral side of the body.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Tubular trachea and tracheoles carry
oxygen from the diffused air to all
parts of the body.
• Cells take in oxygen by diffusion and
give out carbon dioxide to the
tracheoles Haemolymph, the blood
of cockroach, is involved in gaseous
exchange between the cells.
• Carbon dioxide is diffused out of the
body through the spiracles.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Excretory System in Humans
• The process of removal of wastes produced in
the cells of the living organisms is called
excretion. The parts involved in excretion form
the excretory system.
• A mechanism to filter the blood is required to
remove the waste present & it is done by the
blood capillaries in the kidneys.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The human excretory system organs include:
• A pair of kidneys
• A pair of ureters
• A urinary bladder
• A urethra

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Kidneys are bean-shaped structures located on
either side of the backbone and are protected by the
ribs and muscles of the back.
• Each human adult kidney has a length of 10-12 cm, a
width of 5-7 cm and weighs around 120-170g.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Each capillary cluster in the kidney is
associated with the cup-shaped end of a
coiled tube called Bowman’s capsule that
collects the filtrate.
• Each kidney has large numbers of these
filtration units called nephrons packed close
together.
• Some substances in the initial filtrate, such as
glucose, amino acids, salts and a major
amount of water, are selectively re-
absorbed as the urine flows along the tube.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Bowman’s capsule

Structure of a nephron Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The wastes in the blood are removed in the
kidney and dissolved in water as urine.
• From the kidneys, the urine goes into the
urinary bladder through tube-like ureters.
• It is stored in the bladder and is passed out
through the urinary opening at the end of a
muscular tube called urethra.
• The kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra
form the excretory system.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• An adult human being normally passes about
1–1.8 L of urine in 24 hours. The urine consists
of 95% water, 2.5% urea and 2.5% other waste
products.
• Aquatic animals like fishes, excrete cell waste
as ammonia which directly dissolves in water.
• Land animals like birds, lizards, snakes excrete
a semi-solid, white coloured compound (uric
acid).
• Blood is filtered periodically through an
artificial kidney (When Kidneys stops
working) & this is called as dialysis.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Kidney

Ureter

Bladder

Urethra
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Circulatory System
❖ Blood
• Blood is the red fluid which flows in blood vessels.
• It transports substances like digested food from
the small intestine to the other parts of the body.
• It carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the
body.
• It also transports waste for removal from the body.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

❖Composition of Blood:
• Blood is composed of a fluid, called plasma in
which different types of cells are suspended.
• Red blood cells (RBC) which contain a red
pigment called haemoglobin (gives red colour to
blood).
• Haemoglobin helps in transportation of oxygen
to all the cells of the body.
• White blood cells (WBC) is a part of our immune
system & fights against germs or infections that
may enter our body.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Platelets are tiny blood cells that help your
body form clots to stop bleeding.
❖Blood vessels:
• Two types of blood vessels, arteries and veins
are present in the body.
• Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the
heart to all parts of the body.
• The blood flow is rapid and at a high pressure,
the arteries have thick elastic walls.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Pulse: A rhythmical throbbing of the arteries as
blood is propelled through them, typically as felt
in the wrists or neck.
• Pulse rate: The number of beats per minute is
called the pulse rate. Resting person has a pulse
rate between 72 and 80 beats per minute.
• Veins are the vessels which carry carbon
dioxide-rich blood from all parts of the body
back to the heart.
• The veins have thin walls. There are valves
present in veins which allow blood to flow only
towards the heart.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Blood Circulation Oxygen rich blood
CO2 rich blood

Pulmonary Artery
Pulmonary Veins

Veins Artery

Capillaries
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Capillaries: On reaching tissues arteries divide
further into extremely thin tubes called
capillaries. The capillaries join to form veins
which empty into the heart.

• Pulmonary artery carries blood from the

heart, so it is called an artery and not a vein. It
carries carbon dioxide-rich blood to the lungs.
• Pulmonary vein carries oxygen-rich blood
from the lungs to the heart.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
❖Heart:
• ‘The heart is an organ which beats
continuously to act as a pump for the
transport of blood, which carries other
substances with it’.
• The heart is located in the chest cavity with
its lower tip slightly tilted towards the left.
• The heart has four chambers. The two upper
chambers are called the atria (singular:
atrium) and the two lower chambers are
called the ventricles.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• The partition between the chambers helps to avoid mixing
up of blood rich in oxygen with the blood rich in carbon
dioxide.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

❖Heartbeat:
• The walls of the chambers of the heart are
made up of muscles & they contract and relax
rhythmically and this is called a heartbeat.
• Stethoscope is the instrument used to
measure heartbeat.
• The English physician, William Harvey
(A.D.1578–1657), discovered the circulation of
blood.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Tissues
• Cells specialised in one function are often grouped
together in the body & they perform particular
function at a definite place in the body. This cluster
of cells are called as tissues.
– Blood, phloem and muscle are all examples of tissues.
• “A group of cells that are similar in structure and/or
work together to achieve a particular function forms
a tissue”.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Difference b/w Plant & Animal Tissues
• Plants are stationary or fixed – they don’t move.
Most of the tissues they have are supportive, which
provides them with structural strength.
• Most of the plant tissues are dead, since dead cells
can provide mechanical strength as easily as live
ones, and need less maintenance.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Animals on the other hand move around in search of
food, mates and shelter. They consume more energy
as compared to plants. Most of the tissues they
contain are living.
• The growth in plants is limited to certain regions,
while this is not so in animals.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Animal Tissues
• There are different types of animal tissues, such as
epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue
and nervous tissue.
• Blood is a type of connective tissue, and muscle
forms muscular tissue.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Epithelial Tissue
• The covering or protective tissues in the animal
body are epithelial tissues.
• It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems
separate.
• The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood
vessels, lung alveoli and kidney tubules are all made
of epithelial tissue.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• They have only a small amount of cementing
material between them and almost no intercellular
spaces.
• There are two types of epithelial tissues namely
simple epithelium and compound epithelium.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

❑Simple Epithelium
• Simple epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells and
functions as a lining for body cavities, ducts, and tubes.
➢ Squamous Epithelium
• The squamous epithelium is made of a single thin layer of
flattened cells with irregular boundaries.
• They are found in the walls of blood vessels and air sacs of
lungs and are involved in functions like forming a diffusion
boundary.
• The oesophagus and the lining of the mouth are also covered
with squamous epithelium.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
➢ Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Skin epithelial cells are arranged in many layers to
prevent wear and tear.
• Since they are arranged in a pattern of layers, the
epithelium is called stratified squamous epithelium.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

➢Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
• The columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer of
tall and slender cells.
• Where absorption and secretion occur, as in the inner
lining of the intestine, tall epithelial cells are present.
• In the respiratory tract, the columnar epithelial tissue
also has cilia, which are hair-like projections on the outer
surfaces of epithelial cells. These cilia can move, and
their movement pushes the mucus forward to clear it.
This type of epithelium is thus ciliated columnar
epithelium.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

➢Cuboidal Epithelium
• The cuboidal epithelium is composed of a single layer of
cube-like cells. This is commonly found in ducts of glands and
tubular parts of nephrons in kidneys and its main functions
are secretion and absorption.
• Cuboidal epithelium (with cube-shaped cells) forms the lining
of kidney tubules and ducts of salivary glands, where it
provides mechanical support.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

➢Glandular Epithelium
• Epithelial cells often acquire additional specialization as gland
cells, which can secrete substances at the epithelial surface.
• On the basis of the mode of pouring of their secretions, glands are
divided into two categories namely EXOCRINE and ENDOCRINE.
• Exocrine glands secrete mucus, saliva, earwax, oil, milk, digestive
enzymes and other cell products. These products are released
through ducts or tubes.
• In contrast, endocrine glands do not have ducts. Their products
called hormones are secreted directly into the fluid bathing the
gland.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

❑Compound Epithelium
• The compound epithelium consists of two or more cell
layers and has protective function as it does in our skin.
• Compound epithelium is made of more than one layer
(multi-layered) of cells and thus has a limited role in
secretion and absorption. Their main function is to
provide protection against chemical and mechanical
stresses.
• They cover the dry surface of the skin, the moist surface
of buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of
salivary glands and of pancreatic ducts.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

❑Nervous Tissue
• All cells possess the ability to respond to stimuli.
However, cells of the nervous tissue are highly
specialised for being stimulated and then
transmitting the stimulus very rapidly from one
place to another within the body.
• The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of
the nervous tissue.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The cells of this tissue are called nerve cells or
neurons.
• An individual nerve cell may be up to a metre long.
Nucleus

Dendrite

Axon

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Connective Tissue
• Connective tissues are most abundant and widely
distributed in the body of complex animals.
• They range from soft connective tissues to specialized
types, which include cartilage, bone, adipose, and
blood.
• In all connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete
fibres of structural proteins called collagen or elastin.
• The fibres provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to
the tissue.
• Connective tissues are classified into three types: (i)
Loose connective tissue, (ii) Dense connective tissue
and (iii) Specialized connective tissue.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
❑Loose Connective Tissue
• It has cells and fibres loosely arranged in a semi-fluid
ground substance, for example, areolar tissue present
beneath the skin.
• It serves as a support framework for epithelium. It
contains fibroblasts (cells that produce and secrete
fibres), macrophages [a large phagocytic cell at sites of
infection] and mast cells [a cell releasing histamine etc,
during inflammatory and allergic reactions].
• Adipose tissue is a type of loose connective tissue
located mainly beneath the skin. The cells of this tissue
are specialized to store fats. The excess of nutrients
which are not used immediately are converted into fats
and are stored in this tissue.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
❑Dense Connective Tissue
• Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed
in the dense connective tissues.
• Tendons, which attach skeletal muscles to
bones and ligaments which attach one bone
to another are examples of this tissue.
• This tissue is also present in the skin.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

❑Specialized Connective Tissue
• Cartilage, bones and blood are various types of
specialized connective tissues.
• Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, outer ear
joints, trachea, larynx, between adjacent bones
of the vertebral column, limbs and hands in
adults.
• Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is
composed of calcium and phosphorus
compounds.
• Bones have a hard and non-pliable ground
substance rich in calcium salts and collagen
fibres which give bone its strength.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue containing
plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood
cells (WBC) and platelets.
• Areolar connective tissue is found between
the skin and muscles, around blood vessels
and nerves and in the bone marrow.
• It fills the space inside the organs, supports
internal organs and helps in repair of
tissues.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Muscular Tissue
• Muscular tissue consists of elongated
cells, also called muscle fibres. This tissue
is responsible for movement in our body.
• Muscles contain special proteins called
contractile proteins, which contract and
relax to cause movement.
• Muscles are of three types, skeletal,
smooth, and cardiac.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
❑Skeletal Muscle Tissue – Voluntary
Muscles
• We can move some muscles by
conscious will. Such muscles are
called voluntary muscles.
• These muscles are also called skeletal
muscles as they are mostly attached
to bones and help in body
movement.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

❑Smooth Muscle Tissue –
Involuntary Muscles
• The movement of food in the
alimentary canal or the contraction
and relaxation of blood vessels are
involuntary movements.
• They are also found in the iris of
the eye, in ureters and in the
bronchi of the lungs.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
❑ Cardiac Muscle Tissue – Involuntary Muscles
• The muscles of the heart show rhythmic contraction
and relaxation throughout life. These involuntary
muscles are called cardiac muscles.
• Cardiac muscle tissue is a contractile tissue present
only in the heart.
• Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at some
fusion points allow the cells to contract as a unit, i.e.,
when one cell receives a signal to contract, its
neighbours are also stimulated to contract.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Plant Tissues
❑Meristematic Tissue
• The growth of plants occurs only in
certain specific regions. This is because the
dividing tissue, also known as
meristematic tissue, is located only at
these points.
• Depending on the region where they are
present, meristematic tissues are
classified as apical, lateral and intercalary.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• New cells produced by meristem are
initially like those of meristem itself, but as
they grow and mature, their
characteristics slowly change and they
become differentiated as components of
other tissues.
• As the cells of the meristematic tissue are
very active, they have dense cytoplasm,
thin cellulose walls and prominent nuclei.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Apical meristem

Intercalary meristem

Lateral meristem
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Apical meristem is present at the
growing tips of stems and roots and
increases the length of the stem and
the root.
• The girth of the stem or root increases
due to lateral meristem (cambium).
• Intercalary meristem is the meristem
at the base of the leaves or internodes
(on either side of the node) on twigs.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
❑Permanent Tissue
• Meristematic tissue take up a specific
role and lose the ability to divide. As a
result, they form a permanent tissue.
• This process of taking up a permanent
shape, size, and a function is called
differentiation.
• Cells of meristematic tissue
differentiate to form different types of
permanent tissue.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
(i) Simple Permanent Tissue
• A few layers of cells form the basic packing
tissue. This tissue is parenchyma, a type of
permanent tissue.
• It consists of relatively unspecialised cells
with thin cell walls. They are live cells. They
are usually loosely packed, so that large
spaces between cells (intercellular spaces)
are found in this tissue.
• This tissue provides support to plants and
also stores food.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• In some situations simple permanent tissue
contains chlorophyll and performs
photosynthesis, and then it is called
chlorenchyma.
• In aquatic plants, large air cavities are
present in parenchyma to give buoyancy to
the plants to help them float. Such a
parenchyma type is called aerenchyma.
• The flexibility in plants is due to another
permanent tissue, collenchyma. It allows easy
bending in various parts of a plant (leaf, stem)
without breaking. It also provides mechanical
support to plants.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Sclerenchyma is the tissue which makes
the plant hard and stiff. Husk of a coconut
is made of sclerenchymatous tissue. The
cells of this tissue are dead.
• They are long and narrow as the walls are
thickened due to lignin (a chemical
substance which acts as cement and
hardens them).

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Epidermal cells present on the aerial parts of
the plant often secrete a waxy, water-
resistant layer on their outer surface. This aids
in protection against loss of water,
mechanical injury and invasion by parasitic
fungi.
• Small pores are present in the epidermis of
the leaf. These pores are called stomata.
• They are necessary for exchanging gases with
the atmosphere.
• Transpiration (loss of water in the form of
water vapour) also takes place through
stomata.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• (ii) Complex Permanent Tissue
• Complex tissues are made of more
than one type of cells. All these cells
coordinate to perform a common
function.
• Xylem and phloem are examples of
such complex tissues. They are both
conducting tissues and constitute a
vascular bundle.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Xylem consists of tracheids,
vessels, xylem parenchyma and
xylem fibres. The cells have thick
walls, and many of them are
dead cells.
• Tracheids and vessels are tubular
structures. This allows them to
transport water and minerals
vertically.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Phloem is made up of four types of
elements: sieve tubes, companion
cells, phloem fibres and the phloem
parenchyma.
• Phloem is unlike xylem in that
materials can move in both directions
in it. Phloem transports food from
leaves to other parts of the plant.
Except for phloem fibres, phloem cells
are living cells.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 The Human Eye
• The human eye is one of the most valuable
and sensitive sense organs.
• It enables us to see the wonderful world and
the colours around us.
• The human eye is like a camera. Its lens
system forms an image on a light-sensitive
screen called the retina.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Light enters the eye through a thin membrane
called the cornea, which forms the transparent
bulge on the front surface of the eyeball.
• The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape
with a diameter of about 2.3 cm.
• Most of the refraction for the light rays entering
the eye occurs at the outer surface of the
cornea.
• The crystalline lens merely provides the finer
adjustment of focal length required to focus
objects at different distances on the retina.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm present behind
the cornea, that controls the size of the pupil.
• The pupil regulates and controls the amount of light
entering the eye.
• The eye lens forms an inverted real image of the
object on the retina.
• The retina is a delicate membrane having enormous
number of light-sensitive cells.
• The light-sensitive cells get activated upon
illumination and generate electrical signals. These
signals are sent to the brain via the optic nerves.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Human Eye

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Power of Accommodation
• The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-
like material. Its curvature can be modified
to some extent by the ciliary muscles.
• The change in the curvature of the eye lens
can thus change its focal length.
• When the muscles are relaxed, the lens
becomes thin. Thus, its focal length
increases. This enables us to see distant
objects clearly.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• When we look at objects closer to the eye,
the ciliary muscles contract. This increases
the curvature of the eye lens.
• The eye lens then becomes thicker & the
focal length of the eye lens decreases. This
enables us to see nearby objects clearly.
• The ability of the eye lens to adjust its
focal length is called accommodation.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• To see an object comfortably and distinctly, you
must hold it at about 25 cm from the eyes.
• The minimum distance, at which objects can be
seen most distinctly without strain, is called the
least distance of distinct vision or the near point
of the eye.
• The farthest point upto which the eye can see
objects clearly is called the far point of the eye.
It is infinity for a normal eye. You may note here
a normal eye can see objects clearly that are
between 25 cm and infinity.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Cataract:
• Sometimes, the crystalline lens of
people at old age becomes milky and
cloudy. This condition is called
cataract. This causes partial or
complete loss of vision. It is possible to
restore vision through a cataract
surgery.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Defects of Vision and their Correction
• The vision becomes blurred due to the
refractive defects of the eye.
• There are mainly three common refractive
defects of vision. These are (i) myopia or
near-sightedness, (ii) Hypermetropia or
farsightedness, and (iii) Presbyopia(Due to
ageing).

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Myopia
• Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A
person with myopia can see nearby objects
clearly but cannot see distant objects
distinctly.
• This defect may arise due to
(i) excessive curvature of the eye lens,
(ii) elongation of the eyeball.
• This defect can be corrected by using a
concave lens of suitable power.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Myopia

Correction: Concave Lens

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Hypermetropia
• Hypermetropia is also known as far-
sightedness. A person with hypermetropia
can see distant objects clearly but cannot see
nearby objects distinctly.
• This defect arises either because
(i) the focal length of the eye lens is too long
(ii) the eyeball has become too small.
• This defect can be corrected by using a
convex lens of appropriate power.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Hypermetropia

Correction: Convex Lens

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Presbyopia
• The power of accommodation of the eye
usually decreases with ageing. For most
people, the near point gradually recedes
away.
• They find it difficult to see nearby objects
comfortably and distinctly without
corrective eye-glasses. This defect is called
Presbyopia.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Keratoconus
• The cornea has a dome shape, like a ball &
sometimes the collagen which holds the
cornea in place becomes weak, causing
the cornea to become cone shaped. This
condition is called keratoconus.
• This can cause serious loss of vision if not
treated early and quickly. Left untreated,
many people will need a cornea transplant.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Glaucoma
• Glaucoma is a group of eye
conditions that damage the optic
nerve, the health of which is vital for
good vision.
• This damage is often caused by an
abnormally high pressure in your
eye.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Genetics / ತಳಿ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ ರ
• Genetics is a branch of the biology involved with the study of heredity,
its biological process, the study of genes, genome, cell cycle, inherits
genes and lot more.
• Gregor Johann Mendel is known as the “Father of Modern Genetics” for
his discoveries on the basic principles of heredity.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Law of Inheritance by Gregor Mendel
• Garden Pea was the plant that Mendel experimented
on for 7 years. Mendel carefully chose seven distinct
characteristics of garden Pea for the investigation
concerning hybridization. Mendel used true-breeding
lines i.e. those that go through constant self-
pollination and display steady characteristic
heritance.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Heredity / ಆನುವಂಶಿಕತೆ
• Heredity is defined as the procedure by which
characteristics are handed down from one
generation to the other.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Sex Determination / ಲೈಂಗಿಕ
ನಿರ್ಣಯ
• The sex of the children will be determined by what they
inherit from their father. A child who inherits an X
chromosome from her father will be a girl, and one who
inherits a Y chromosome from him will be a boy.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Genetic Disorders
ಆನುವಂಶಿಕ ಅಸ್ತವ ಸ್ತಥ ತೆಗಳು
• Genetic disorders can be the result of genetic abnormalities such as
gene mutation or additional chromosomes.
• Down Syndrome:
• Typically, the nucleus of an individual cell contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, but Down syndrome occurs when the 21st
chromosome is copied an extra time in all or some cells.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Symptoms of Down syndrome include a higher
disposition for congenital heart defects, low muscle
tone, smaller physical stature, and an upward slant
to the eyes.
• Thalassemia:
• Thalassemia is a family of hereditary genetic
conditions that limits the amount of haemoglobin
an individual can naturally produce. This condition
inhibits oxygen flow throughout the body.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

“Addressing Health Inequalities Across the Global Thalassemia
Community”.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Turner syndrome: It is a condition that affects only females,
results when one of the X chromosomes (sex chromosomes) is
missing or partially missing. Turner syndrome can cause a variety
of medical and developmental problems, including short height,
failure of the ovaries to develop (sterile) and heart defects.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Sickle cell anaemia (sickle cell disease) is a
disorder of the blood caused by an inherited
abnormal haemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying
protein within the red blood cells). The
abnormal haemoglobin causes distorted
(sickled appearing under a microscope) red
blood cells.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Haemophilia is a mostly inherited genetic
disorder that impairs the body's ability to
make blood clots, a process needed to stop
bleeding.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Hormones / ಹಾರ್ಮಣನುಗಳು
• Hormones are chemicals that function as messengers of the body. These
chemicals are secreted by special glands known as the endocrine glands.
• Hormones control many physiological functions as well as psychological
health. They are also quite important in maintaining homeostasis in the body.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Types of Hormones
Peptide Hormones
• Peptide hormones are composed of amino acids and are soluble in water.
They are unable to pass through the cell membrane& are fat-insoluble
molecules. Insulin is an important peptide hormone produced by the
pancreas.
Steroid Hormones
• Steroid hormones are fat-soluble and are able to pass through a cell
membrane. Sex hormones such as testosterone, estrogen and
progesterone are examples of steroid hormones.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Endocrine Glands
ಎೈಂಡಮಕ್ರ ೈನ್ ಗರ ೈಂಥಿಗಳು
• Endocrine glands lack ducts and are hence, called ductless
glands.
• Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid,
thymus and gonads (testis in males and ovary in females) are
the organized endocrine bodies in our body.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Hypothalamus: It regulates the body temperature, controls
thirst, sleep, hunger, emotions, moods and allow the release of
hormones.
• Pineal: Pineal is also known as the thalamus, it develops
serotonin derivatives of melatonin, which can affect sleep.
• Parathyroid: This gland helps in controlling the amount of
calcium present in the body.
• Thymus: It helps in the functioning of the adaptive immune
system, produces T-cells and maturity of the thymus.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Thyroid: It produces hormones that affect the heart
rate and how calories are burnt.
• Adrenal: This gland produces the hormones that
control the sex drive, cortisol and stress hormone.
• Pituitary: It is also termed as the “master control
gland,”. This is because the pituitary gland helps in
controlling other glands. Moreover, it develops the
hormones that trigger growth and development.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Pancreas: It produces insulin crucial to
maintain blood sugar levels.
• Testes: In men, the testes secrete the male
sex hormone, testosterone. It also produces
sperm.
• Ovaries: In women, the ovaries secrete
estrogen, progesterone and other female sex
hormones.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Hormonal Diseases
• Gigantism: Excess secretion from pituitary gland (Growth
Hormone) in children leads to gigantism.
• Acromegaly: Excess secretion from pituitary gland (Growth
Hormone) in adults leads to increase in bone size of jaw,
nose, hands etc.,
• Infantilism / Dwarfism: Less secretion from pituitary gland
(Growth Hormone) in children leads to dwarfism.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Diabetes insipidus / Water diuresis: Diabetes insipidus is an
uncommon disorder is due to the less secretion from
hypothalamus that causes an imbalance of fluids in the body.
This imbalance makes the person very thirsty. It also leads to
produce large amounts of urine.
• Hyper thyroidism: It occurs when the thyroid gland produces
too much of the hormone thyroxine. Hyperthyroidism can
accelerate body's metabolism, causing unintentional weight
loss and a rapid or irregular heartbeat.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Hypo thyroidism: It occurs when the thyroid gland
produces less amount of the hormone thyroxine.
Hypo thyroidism decreases body's metabolism,
causing unintentional weight growth and a rapid or
irregular heartbeat.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Simple Goitre: A goitre commonly develops as a result of
iodine deficiency & leads to inflammation of the thyroid
gland.
• Diabetes mellitus: It is commonly referred to as
"diabetes“, a chronic disease associated with
abnormally high levels of the sugar glucose in the
blood.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Plant Kingdom
• Kingdom Plantae includes all the plants.
• They are autotrophic, multicellular and
eukaryotic organisms. The plant cell
contains a cell wall made-up of cellulose.
• Plants have chlorophyll pigment, which is
required for photosynthesis.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Classification of Plant Kingdom
❑ Classification of plant kingdom into subgroups is
based on the following criteria:
• Plant body: Presence or absence of a well-
differentiated plant body. E.g. Root, Stem and Leaves.
• Vascular system: Presence or absence of a vascular
system for the transportation of water and other
substances. E.g. Phloem and Xylem.
• Seed formation: Presence or absence of flowers and
seeds and if the seeds are naked or enclosed in a
fruit.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Plant kingdom is been classified into:
1. Thallophyta
2. Bryophyta
3. Pteridophyta
4. Gymnosperms
5. Angiosperms

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Thallophyta
• Plants that do not have well-differentiated
body design fall in this group. The plants in
this group are commonly called algae.
• Examples are Volvox, Fucus, Spirogyra,
Chara, Polysiphonia, Ulothrix, etc.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Bryophyta
• These are called the amphibians of the plant
kingdom. (as they require water for sexual
reproduction.)
• The plant body is commonly differentiated to form
stem and leaf-like structures.
• However, there is no specialised tissue for the
conduction of water and other substances from
one part of the plant body to another.
• Examples are Marchantia, Funaria, Sphagnum,
Antheoceros, etc.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Pteridophyta
• In this group, the plant body is
differentiated into roots, stem and leaves
and has specialised tissue for the
conduction of water and other substances
from one part of the plant body to another.
• Examples are Marsilea, ferns and horse-tails

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• The thallophytes, the bryophytes and the
pteridophytes have naked embryos that
are called spores.
• The reproductive organs of plants in all
these three groups are very
inconspicuous, and they are therefore
called ‘cryptogamae’, or ‘those with
hidden reproductive organs’.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Plants with well differentiated reproductive tissues
that ultimately make seeds are called phanerogams.
• Seeds consist of the embryo along with stored food,
which serves for the initial growth of the embryo during
germination.
• This group is further classified, based on whether the
seeds are naked or enclosed in fruits, giving us two
groups: gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Gymnosperms
• This term is made from two Greek words:
gymno– means naked and sperma– means
seed.
• The plants of this group bear naked seeds
and are usually perennial, evergreen and
woody.
• Examples are pines and deodar
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Angiosperms
• This word is made from two Greek words: angio
means covered and sperma– means seed.
• The seeds develop inside an organ which is
modified to become a fruit. These are also
called flowering plants.
• Plant embryos in seeds have structures called
cotyledons. Cotyledons are called ‘seed leaves’
because in many instances they emerge and
become green when the seed germinates.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• The angiosperms are divided into two groups on the basis of
the number of cotyledons present in the seed.
• Plants with seeds having a single cotyledon are called
monocotyledonous or monocots.
• Plants with seeds having two cotyledons are called dicots.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Animal Kingdom
• These are organisms which are eukaryotic,
multicellular and heterotrophic. Their cells
do not have cell-walls.
• They are further classified based on the
extent and type of the body design
differentiation found.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Porifera
• The word Porifera means organisms with holes.
These are non-motile animals attached to some solid
support.
• The pores leads to a canal system that helps in
circulating water throughout the body to bringing in
food and oxygen.
• These animals are covered with a hard outside layer
or skeleton. The body design involves very minimal
differentiation and division into tissues.
• They are commonly called sponges, and are mainly
found in marine habitats.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
• These are animals living in water. They show
more body design differentiation. There is a
cavity in the body.
• They have two layers of cells: one makes up
cells on the outside of the body, and the other
makes the inner lining of the body.
• Some of these species live in colonies (corals),
while others have a solitary like–span (Hydra).
• Jellyfish and sea anemones are common
examples.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Sea anemone

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Platyhelminthes
• The body is more complex & bilaterally
symmetrical.
• There are three layers of cells from which
differentiated tissues can be made, which is why
such animals are called triploblastic.
• These animals are called flatworms. They are
either free-living or parasitic.
• Some examples are free-living animals like
planarians, or parasitic animals like liverflukes.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Liverfluke Tape worm
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Nematoda
• The nematode body is also bilaterally
symmetrical and triploblastic.
• However, the body is cylindrical rather than
flattened. There are tissues, but no real organs,
although a sort of body cavity or a
pseudocoelom, is present.
• These are known as parasitic worms causing
diseases, such as the worms causing
elephantiasis (filarial worms) or the worms in
the intestines (roundworm or pinworms).
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Ascaris Wuchereria
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Annelida
• They are also bilaterally symmetrical and
triploblastic, but in addition they have a true
body cavity. This allows true organs to be
packaged in the body structure.
• There is, thus, extensive organ differentiation.
• These animals are found in a variety of
habitats– fresh water, marine water as well as
land. Earthworms and leeches are familiar
examples
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Nereis Earthworm Leech
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Arthropoda
• This is probably the largest group of animals.
• These animals are bilaterally symmetrical and
segmented.
• There is an open circulatory system, so the
blood does not flow in properly defined blood
vessels. Colomic cavity is filled with blood.
• They have jointed legs (‘arthropod’ means
‘jointed legs’).
• Some familiar examples are prawns, butterflies,
houseflies, spiders, scorpions and crabs
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Mollusca
• In the animals of this group, there is bilateral
symmetry. The coelomic cavity is reduced.
• There is little segmentation. They have an
open circulatory system and kidney-like
organs for excretion.
• There is a foot that is used for moving
around. Examples are snails and mussels

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Echinodermata
• In Greek, echinos means hedgehog, and derma
means skin. Thus, these are spiny skinned
organisms.
• These are exclusively free-living marine animals.
They are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity.
• They also have a peculiar water-driven tube system
that they use for moving around. They have hard
calcium carbonate structures that they use as a
skeleton. Examples are starfish and sea urchins.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Holothuria
Antedon (sea cucumber)
(feather star)

Echinus (sea urchin) Star fish

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Protochordata
• These animals are bilaterally symmetric,
triploblastic and have a coelom.
• Moreover, they show a new feature of body design,
namely the notocard, at least at some point in
their lives.
• Notocard is a long rod-like support structure that
separates the nerve tissue from the intestine in the
back of the animal.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• It provides a place for muscles to attach for ease
of movement. Protochordates may not have a
proper notochord present at all stages in their
lives or for the entire length of the animal.
• Protochordates are marine animals.
• Examples are Balanoglossus, Herdmania and
Amphioxus

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Balanoglossus

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Vertebrata
• These animals have a true vertebral column and internal
skeleton, allowing a completely different distribution of
muscle attachment points to be used for movement.
• Vertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic,
coelomic and segmented, with complex differentiation
of body tissues and organs.
• All chordates possess the following features:
(i) have a notochord
(ii) have a dorsal nerve cord
(iii) are triploblastic
(iv) have paired gill pouches
(v) are coelomate.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 (i) Pisces
• These are fish. They are exclusively aquatic
animals & skin is covered with scales.
• They obtain oxygen dissolved in water by using
gills.
• The body is streamlined, and a muscular tail is
used for movement. They are cold-blooded and
their hearts have only two chambers.
• They lay eggs. Examples Shark, tuna or rohu etc
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 (ii) Amphibians
• These animals differ from the fish in the lack
of scales, in having mucus glands in the
skin, and a three-chambered heart.
• Respiration is through either gills or lungs.
They lay eggs.
• These animals are found both in water and
on land. Frogs, toads and salamanders are
some examples Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 (iii) Reptiles
• These animals are cold-blooded, have scales
and breathe through lungs.
• While most of them have a three-chambered
heart, crocodiles have four heart chambers.
• They lay eggs with tough coverings and do not
need to lay their eggs in water, unlike
amphibians.
• Snakes, turtles, lizards and crocodiles are few
examples.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 (iv) Aves
• These are warm-blooded animals and have
a four-chambered heart. They lay eggs.
• There is an outside covering of feathers,
and two forelimbs are modified for flight.
• They breathe through lungs. All birds fall in
this category.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 (v) Mammalia
• Mammals are warm-blooded animals with
four-chambered hearts.
• They have mammary glands for the production
of milk to nourish their young. Their skin has
hairs as well as sweat and oil glands.
• Most mammals familiar to us produce live
young ones. However, a few of them, like the
platypus and the echidna lay eggs, and some,
like kangaroos give birth to very poorly
developed young ones.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Blood
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue and the most
crucial component of the circulatory system. In a
healthy person, approximately 4.5 to 5.5 litre (7
percent of body) of blood circulates throughout
their body.
• It transports substances like digested food from
the small intestine to the other parts of the body.
• It carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the
body.
• It also transports waste for removal from the body.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Body Fluids and Circulation
• Plasma
• Plasma is a yellowish viscous fluid constituting
nearly 55% of the blood.
• 90-92 %of plasma is water and proteins
contribute 6-8 per cent of it.
• Fibrinogen, globulins and albumins are the
major proteins.
• Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or
coagulation of blood.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Globulins primarily are involved in
defence mechanisms of the body
• Albumins help in osmotic balance.
• Plasma also contains small amounts of
minerals like Na, Ca, Mg, HCO3, Cl, etc.
• Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc., are also
present in the plasma.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Red Blood Cells (RBC)
• Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most
abundant of all the cells in blood.
• A healthy adult man has, on an average, 4.7 to 6.1
million cells per microliter (mcL) of blood.
• RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in the
adults. RBCs are devoid of nucleus in most of the
mammals and are biconcave in shape. (In the
embryo, the liver is the main site of red blood cell
production.)
• They have a red coloured, iron containing complex
protein called haemoglobin.
• RBCs have an average life span of 100-120 days after
which they are destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of
RBCs) & Liver.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• White Blood Cells (WBC):
• Leucocytes are also known as white blood
cells (WBC) as they are colourless due to
the lack of haemoglobin. They are
nucleated and are relatively lesser in
number which averages 4,000 and 11,000
per microliter of blood.
• Leucocytes are generally short lived (13 to
20 days). We have two main categories of
WBCs – granulocytes and agranulocytes.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are
different types of granulocytes, while
lymphocytes and monocytes are the
agranulocytes.
• Neutrophils are the most abundant cells
(60-65 %) of the total WBCs and basophils
are the least (0.5-1 %) among them.
• Neutrophils and monocytes are phagocytic
cells which destroy foreign organisms
entering the body.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin,
heparin, etc., and are involved in
inflammatory reactions.
• Eosinophils (2-3 per cent) resist infections and
are also associated with allergic reactions.
• Lymphocytes (20-25 per cent) are of two
major types – ‘B’ and ‘T’ forms. Both B and T
lymphocytes are responsible for immune
responses of the body.
• Monocytes are the largest cells of the blood
(averaging 15–18 μm in diameter), and they
make up about 7 percent of the leukocytes.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Platelets:
• Platelets also called thrombocytes, are cell
fragments produced from megakaryocytes
(special cells in the bone marrow).
• Blood normally contains 150,000 to
450,000 platelets per microliter of blood.
• Platelets can release a variety of
substances most of which are involved in
the coagulation or clotting of blood.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Coagulation of Blood
• This is a mechanism to prevent excessive loss of
blood from the body.
• Dark reddish brown scum is formed at the site of a
cut or an injury over a period of time. It is a clot or
coagulum formed mainly of a network of threads
called fibrins in which dead and damaged cells of
blood are trapped.
• Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive
fibrinogens in the plasma by the enzyme thrombin.
• An injury or a trauma stimulates the platelets in
the blood to release certain factors which activate
the mechanism of coagulation.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Lymph
• It is also a type of fluid also involved in
transportation.
• Through the pores present in the walls of
capillaries some amount of plasma, proteins
and blood cells escape into intercellular
spaces in the tissues to form the tissue fluid or
lymph.
• It is similar to the plasma of blood but
colourless and contains less protein.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries from
the intercellular spaces, which join to form large
lymph vessels that finally open into larger
veins.
• Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from
intestine and drains excess fluid from extra
cellular space back into the blood.
• Lymph is a colourless fluid containing specialized
lymphocytes which are responsible for the
immune responses of the body. Lymph is also
an important carrier for nutrients, hormones,
etc.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Blood Groups
• ABO grouping:
• Landsteiner discovered the blood groups.
• ABO grouping is based on the presence or
absence of two surface antigens (chemicals that
can induce immune response) on the RBCs
namely A and B.
• Similarly, the plasma of different individuals
contain two natural antibodies (proteins
produced in response to antigens).
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Blood Group Antigens on Antibodies Donor’s
RBC in Plasma Group

A A Anti B A, O

B B Anti A B, O

AB A,B Nil AB, A, B, O

O Nil Anti A , B O
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• From the above mentioned table it is
evident that group ‘O’ blood can be
donated to persons with any other
blood group and hence ‘O’ group
individuals are called ‘universal donors’.
• Persons with ‘AB’ group can accept
blood from persons with AB as well as
the other groups of blood. Therefore,
such persons are called ‘universal
recipients’.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I.
The plasma membrane of the red blood cells has
sugar polymers that protrude from its surface
and the kind of sugar is controlled by the gene.
The gene (I) has three alleles IA, IB and i.
• The alleles IA and IB produce a slightly different
form of the sugar while allele i does not
produce any sugar.
• Because humans are diploid organisms, each
person possesses any two of the three I gene
alleles.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• IA and IB are completely dominant over i,
in other words when IA and i are present
only IA expresses (because i does not
produce any sugar), and when IB and i are
present IB expresses.
• But when IA and IB are present together
they both express their own types of
sugars: this is because of co-dominance.
Hence red blood cells have both A and B
types of sugars.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• There are 6 Genotypes and 4 Phenotypes
[A, B, AB and O]
• During blood transfusion, any blood
cannot be used; the blood of a donor has
to be carefully matched with the blood of
a recipient before any blood transfusion to
avoid severe problems of clumping
(destruction of RBC).

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Blood Type Mother

Father A B AB O

A A or O AB, A, B or O AB or A or B A or O

B AB, A, B or O B or O AB or A or B B or O

AB AB or A or B AB or A or B AB or A or B A or B

O A or O B or O A or B O
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Rh Grouping
• Another antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one
present in Rhesus monkeys (hence Rh), is also
observed on the surface of RBCs of majority
(nearly 80 per cent) of humans. Such
individuals are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and
those in whom this antigen is absent are called
Rh negative (Rh-ve).
• An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood,
will form specific antibodies against the Rh
antigens. Therefore, Rh group should also be
matched before transfusions.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• A special case of Rh incompatibility (mismatching) has
been observed between the Rh-ve blood of a pregnant
mother with Rh+ve blood of the foetus.
• Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the
Rh-ve blood of the mother in the first pregnancy as the
two bloods are well separated by the placenta.
• However, during the delivery of the first child, there is
a possibility of exposure of the maternal blood to
small amounts of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus.
• In such cases, the mother starts preparing antibodies
against Rh antigen in her blood.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• In case of her subsequent pregnancies, the
Rh antibodies from the mother (Rh-ve) can
leak into the blood of the foetus (Rh+ve)
and destroy the foetal RBCs.
• This could be fatal to the foetus or could
cause severe anaemia and jaundice to the
baby. This condition is called
erythroblastosis foetalis.
• This can be avoided by administering anti-
Rh antibodies to the mother immediately
after the delivery of the first child.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Bombay Blood Group
• The Bombay blood group (also called hh), is
deficient in expressing antigen H.
• It means the RBC of hh blood group has no
antigen H.
• Often the hh blood group is confused with the O
group. The difference is that the O group has
Antigen H, while the hh group does not.
• The rare Bombay blood group was first discovered
in Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1952 by Dr Y M
Bhende.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Globally, the hh blood type has an incidence of one in four million,
this blood type is more common in South Asia than anywhere else
because of inbreeding and close community marriages.
• In India, one person in 7,600 to 10,000 is born with this type.
• Due to the rarity of hh blood type, patients face problems during a
blood transfusion, often leading to death due to non-availability of hh
blood.
• The individuals with Bombay blood group can only be transfused
blood from individuals of Bombay hh phenotype only which is very
rare.
• In contrast, hh blood group can donate their blood to ABO blood
types.
• This group is generally not stored in blood banks, mainly because it is
rare and the shelf life of blood is 35-42 days.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Plasma Compatibility Table

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 P null Blood Group
• A team of doctors, led by Shamee Shastry from the
Blood Bank of Kasturba Medical College (KMC) in
Mangalore, has identified a rare blood group called
“pp” or “P null” phenotype.
• A blood type is considered rare if fewer than one in
1,000 people have it.
• A person is said to have rare blood group when he
lacks the high frequency antigen or multiple
common antigens.
• There are more than 200 minor blood group
antigens that are found very rarely, other than the
common ones- A, B and Rh
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are the compounds made of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• Carbohydrates are essential nutrients which
include sugars, fibres and starches. They
are found in grains, vegetables, fruits and
in milk and other dairy products.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• The food containing carbohydrates are
converted into glucose or blood sugar during
the process of digestion by the digestive
system.
• Our body utilizes this sugar as a source of
energy for the cells, organs and tissues. The
extra amount of energy or sugar is stored in
our muscles and liver for further
requirement.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Classification of Carbohydrates
• The carbohydrates are further classified into simple
and complex which is mainly based on their chemical
structure and degree of polymerization.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

1. Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharide carbohydrates are those
carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed further to
give simpler units.
• Glucose is an example of a carbohydrate monomer
or monosaccharide.
• Other examples of monosaccharides include
mannose, galactose, fructose, ribose etc. The
structural organization of monosaccharides is as
follows:

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
2. Disaccharides
• Two monosaccharides combine to form a
disaccharide.
• Sucrose is one of the most common
disaccharides & on hydrolysis it gives
glucose and fructose.
• Maltose and Lactose (also known as milk
sugar) are the other two important
disaccharides.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
3. Oligosaccharides
• Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates made of
maximum of 2 to 10 Monosaccharides.
• So trioses, pentoses, hexoses are all
oligosaccharides.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
• Complex carbohydrates have two or more
sugar molecules & they are called as starchy
foods.
• In complex carbohydrates, molecules are
digested and converted slowly compared to
simple carbohydrates.
• They are abundantly found in lentils, beans,
peanuts, potatoes, peas, corn, whole-grain
bread, cereals, etc.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates
formed by the polymerization of a large
number of monomers.
• Examples of polysaccharides include starch,
glycogen, cellulose, etc.
• It is a polymer of α glucose and consists of
two components-Amylose and
Amylopectin.
• Amylose forms the linear chain and
amylopectin is a much-branched chain.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Starch Cellulose

Glycogen

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Sources of Carbohydrates
• Simple sugars like fructose is found in many
fruits & in honey.
• Galactose is present in all dairy products.
• Lactose is abundantly found in milk and other
dairy products.
• Maltose is present in cereal, beer, potatoes,
processed cheese, pasta, etc.
• Sucrose is found in sugar and sugarcane &
contains small amounts of vitamins and
minerals.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Name Type of compound Sweetness

Lactose Disaccharide 0.16

Maltose Disaccharide 0.33 – 0.45

Glucose Monosaccharide 0.74 – 0.8

Sucrose Disaccharide 1.00 (reference)

Fructose Monosaccharide 1.17 – 1.75

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
 Body Movements / ದೇಹ ಚಲನೆಗಳು
Human body is composed of around 305 bones at birth – this total
decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused
together.

There are different types of joints in our body to help us carry

out different movements and activities.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Ball and socket joint:
– Such a joint allows movements in all
directions.
– Ex: Arm with shoulder and leg with hip
bone.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Pivotal Joint:
– The joint where our neck joins the head is a pivotal. It
allows us to bend our head forward and backward and
turn the head to our right or left.
– In a pivotal joint a cylindrical bone rotates in a ring.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Hinge joints:
– The elbow has a hinge joint
that allows only a back and
forth movement.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

• Fixed joints:
– Some joints between bones in our head are different and
bones cannot move at these joints. Such joints are called
fixed joints.
– Ex: Joint between the upper jaw and the rest of the head.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

X- ray is used to know about the shape & health of
bones in our body.

• Wrist is made up of several

small bones called carpals.
• Ribs join the chest bone and
the backbone together to
form a box. This is called the
rib cage. There are 12 ribs
on each side of chest.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Backbone is made up of
many small bones called
vertebrae. The
backbone consists of 33
Vertebrae.
• some additional parts of
the skeleton that are not
as hard as the bones
and which can be bent.
These are called
cartilage.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
• Muscle help in the movement of bones in the joints.
• A muscle can only pull. It cannot push. Thus, two
muscles have to work together to move a bone.

Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629

 Gait of Animals Earthworms breathe
• Earthworm: through their skin.
– Earthworm does not have bones &
its body is made up of many rings
joined end to end.
– During movement, the earthworm
first extends the front part of the
body, keeping the rear portion fixed
to the ground. Then it fixes the front
end and releases the rear end.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote the book –
“ Gait of Animals “.
Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629
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Notes by - Sanjaykumar H P 7892674629