Historical and

Social Perspectives
in Environmental
Problems

BLOCK 4
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENT
AND SOCIETY

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Environment
and Social BLOCK 4 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN
Justice
ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY
Welcome to the M.Sc. Environmental Science programme of IGNOU. This is
the last block in the course on Environment and Society. The block has four
units, and the details of each unit is explained in the following paragraphs.
Unit 12 introduces the learners to the Theories of Evolution. The unit details
on the Origin of species, concept of Darwin, Lamarckism. It discusses the
viability of Darwin’s theory in the modern perspective with special reference
to survival of fittest and struggle for existence.
Unit 13 deals with Environment in Ancient and Modern Societies.The unit
details on the role of environment in ancient societies: Greek, Roman and
Indian societies. The unit also discusses on patenting of indigenous
knowledge and biodiversity. Finally the unit discusses the various issues
related to transnational migration, Environmental Justice, policy and action.
Unit 14 deals with Environmental Ethics and Resource management. The
unit discusses on the issues pertaining to Common Property Resources and
Joint Resource Management. Finally, the concepts of Social ecology and
Eco- spiritualism is detailed.

Unit 15 deals with Population and Environment. The unit discusses on

population explosion and its impact on environment. The unit is explicitly
detailed with examples and case studies on food security;materialism and
consumption.

Overall, this block in the elective course Environment and Society will equip
you well with knowledge on contemporary issues in environment and
society.

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UNIT 12 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION Theories of
Evolution

Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 The Origin of Species
12.2.1 The concept of species

12.2.2 The Origin of Species

12.3 The Concept of Darwin
12.3.1 Darwin and his voyage of the Beagle

12.3.2 Evolution by Natural selection

12.3.3 Darwin’s Inventiveness

12.3.4 Evidence for the Theory of Evolution

12.3.5 Examples of Natural Selection in Real Time

12.3.6 Recent Research on evolution and Natural Selection

12.4 Lamarckism
12.4.1 Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters

12.4.2 Evidences in favour of Lamarckism

12.4.3 Criticism of Lamarckism
12.5 Relevance of Survival Of The Fittest and the Struggle for Existence
12.6 Let Us Sum Up
12.7 Terminal Questions
12.8 Keywords
12.9 References and Suggested Further Readings
12.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

12.0 INTRODUCTION
Evolution is among the most important concepts in science and is regarded as
the unifying theory of biological science. Speciation, the origin of new
species, is the key concept of evolutionary theory. A good understanding of
speciation can greatly help to understand the dynamics and pattern of
biodiversity. Charles Darwin (British naturalist and biologist, 1809-1882),
“On the Origin of Species by Means of NaturalSelection”, first published his
masterwork in 1859.In his book, Darwin elaborated that organisms gradually
evolved through a process called 'natural selection', often known as survival
of the fittest.Biologists have since observed numerous examples of natural
selection influencing evolution. The process of evolution by natural selection
profoundly describes that variations exist among individual organisms that
make up a population, the heritable characteristics of populations change
over time, and individuals with specific heritable traits are more likely to
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becoming increasingly relevant in practical contexts, including the fields of
and Society medicine, agriculture, and resource management.

12.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• Explain the origin of species and causes of speciation: reproductive
isolating mechanisms;
• Describe the Mechanisms of Speciation;
• Describe The Concept of Darwin: Evolution by natural selection;
• Explain the Evidence for Evolution;
• Discuss Lamarckism the Theory of Acquired Characteristics; and
• Explain the Relevance of Survival of the Fittest and The Struggle for
Existence.

12.2 THEORIGIN OFSPECIES

12.2.1 The Concept of Species
The evolutionary geneticist Dobzhansky (1937) and systematist, Ernst Mayr
(1942) postulated the biological species concept. According to these workers,
the species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are
reproductively isolated from other such groups in nature. The ability to
interbreed is of great evolutionary importance, because it determines that
species are independent evolutionary units. Individuals of a species share a
common gene pool that is not shared by individuals of other species. There
are some limitations of the Biological Species Concept. The definition of
species given above applies only to organisms able to interbreed. However,
the biological species concept cannot be applied to organisms that are
completely asexual, e.g., some protists and all prokaryotes including bacteria
and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).

12.2.2 The Origin of Species

Darwin in his book “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection (1859)” stated that the diversity of organisms and their
characteristics can be explained on the basis of natural processes.
Species originate as the result of gradual change driven by natural selection.
Natural selection therefore favours different characteristics of species under
different environmental conditions. Speciation across all forms of life, it
generally is the process by which intraspecific divergence occurs between
populations resulting in independent evolutionary trajectories (van Holstein
and Foley 2020).

There is the extraordinary diversity of life on earth, which indicates the

presence of mechanisms for speciation, i.e., the formation of two species
from one original species. Darwin visualized this process as a branching
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event and diagrammed the process in the only illustration found in his book Theories of
Evolution
“On the Origin of Species” (Fig 1).There are two major categories which
include the (i) evolutionary change within lineages over time (anagenesis),
(ii)splitting of lineages over time (cladogenesis).For speciation to occur, two
new populations must be formed from one original population, and they must
evolve in such a way that it becomes impossible for individuals from the two
new populations to interbreed.

Causes of Speciation: Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

Broadly speaking, different species are unable to interbreed and produce
healthy, fertile offspring due to barriers called reproductive isolating
mechanisms(RIM).These barriers can be described under two categories
based on when they act: prezygotic and postzygotic. Prezygotic RIMs
prevent the formation of hybrids between members of different populations
through ecological, temporal, behavioral, mechanical, and gametic isolation
(Fig.2). Therefore, a prezygotic barrier is a mechanism that blocks
reproduction from taking place; this includes barriers that prevent mating and
fertilization when organisms attempt reproduction (Fig. 2). A postzygotic
barrier occurs after zygote formation; this includes reduced hybrid viability,
hybrid inviability, and hybrid breakdown (Fig.2). Some of the prezygotic and
postzygoticre productive isolating mechanisms as shown in Fig 2, and are
briefly described below:

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.Prezygotic Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

Temporal isolation: This refers to the differences in breeding time, can act
as a form of reproductive isolation, populations may mate or flower at
different seasons or different times of day.

Behavioral isolation: This occurs when the presence or absence of a specific

behavior prevents reproduction from taking place. Courtship and mating
rituals have been extensively analyzed in some mammals, birds, and fishes
and in a number of insect species.

Mechanical isolation: Some times copulation is not possible between

different animal species because of the incompatible shape and size of the
genitalia. In plants, variations in flower structure may slow down pollination.

Gametic isolation: In plants, pollen grains of one species typically fail to

germinate on the stigma of another species, so that the pollen tubes never
reach the ovary where fertilization would occur.

Postzygotic Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

Hybrid inviability and Hybrid sterility: The hybridinviability occurs as
the hybrid organisms simply are not viable. Hybrid sterility leads to the birth
and growth of a hybrid that is sterile and unable to reproduce offspring of
their own.

Hybrid breakdown: In plants, hybrids between closely related species are

sometimes partially fertile. Gene exchange is inhibited because the offspring
are poorly viable or sterile.

Mechanisms of Speciation
The process of speciation takes a very long time and therefore has not been
226 observed directly. Most of the understanding of speciation is based on
observations of patterns in nature and their theoretical interpretation. Theories of
Evolution
Allopatric speciation involves geographic separation of populations from a
parent species and subsequent evolution. Sympatric speciation involves
speciation occurring within a parent species remaining in one location. These
mechanisms for the formation of new species are described below.

Allopatric speciation
One common mode of speciation known as geographic, or allopatric
speciation, is a consequence of populations evolving in different geographical
regions. In the allopatric speciation model, an ancestral population is divided
into two separate populations by a geographic barrier (Fig.3).Due to this
separation; one ancestral gene pool of an inbreeding population is separated
into two gene pools. The geographical isolation occurs due to geological and
geomorphologic changes such as mountain ranges, continental drift,
glaciations, orriver formation. Due to accumulation of sufficient genetic
changes during the isolation period, the two populations attain sexual
incompatibility (Fig.3). The two populations of two different species, thus
formed, will not exchange genes if they meet each other once again due to
occasional geographic unification. Some examples of allopatric speciation
are as follows:

• Differentiation in the European butterfly (Ernebiaepiphnaon) having different colours

and forms; these races probably originated in geographic isolation.

• The extremely high level of speciation is found among picture winged Drosophila in
Hawaiian islands because new populations are founded by individuals dispersing
among the islands.

Adaptive Radiations
In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation refers to a process in which an
animal or plant group diversifies rapidly from an ancestral species into a
multitude of new forms. Over time, it leads to multiple speciation events
originating from a single species. Adaptive radiation is a common
evolutionary phenomenon in oceanic islands. Several studies have focused on
understanding unique examples of evolution in plants such as the lobeliads
(Givnish et al. 2009); among animals such as Drosophila in the Hawaiian
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Contemporary Islands ( see Eldon et al 2019), and Darwin’s finches in the Galápagos
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Islands (Grant and Grant 2002).
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Adaptive radiations in Hawaiian honeycreeper: The Hawaiian honey
creeper birds which belong to the family Drepanididae, all have been
reported to be derived from a single immigrant form. Honeycreepers are a
well-known example of adaptive radiation and evolution of new species in
the isolated Hawaiian Islands, from a common ancestor(Fig. 4).
Honeycreeper species occupying even a single Hawaiian island exhibit high
diversity of bill morphology, many specialized honeycreeper have bullfinch-
like bills (seed predators), short warbler like bills (insectivores) and
hummingbird-like bills (nectivores).

Adaptive radiation in plants: The endemic Hawaiian lobeliads comprised

of six genera and 126 species have long been considered as one of the most
striking examples of adaptive radiation in plants (Givnish et al 2009). The
endemic Hawaiian lobelia sexhibit high species richness and great diversity
in habitat, growth form, and pollination biology and seed dispersal.

Adaptive radiation of Galápagos finches: Galápagos finches are believed

to have undergone adaptive radiation from a single ancestral species,
evolving to fill a variety of unoccupied ecological niches on islands. This is
the most famous case of adaptive radiation studied by scientists. The
diversity of Galápagos finches is result of adaptive radiation. It is reported
that the Galapagos Islands were not static and have changed radically over
the three million years during which the finches have evolved (Grant and
Grant 2002). During the course of evolution, their beaks have changed in size
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and morphology so that they are now adapted to different diets: some species Theories of
Evolution
eat mostly insects, others seeds or plants; some feed in the trees, and others
on the ground(Fig.5). The family tree of Galapagos finches radiated from a
single ancestral stock and it was monophyletic. The birds’ physical
appearance and song appear to act as cues that help isolate populations when
mating (Grant and Grant 2002).

iii) Peripatric Speciation

New species in isolated as smaller peripheral populations that are prevented
from exchanging genes with the ancestral population (Fig. 6). The small
population is referred to as the founder population. A new species is formed
from a strongly differentiated population isolated at the edge of the ancestral
range(Fig. 6). Examples of peripatric speciation are known in Drosophila.
Any factor that reduces gene flow or increases the gradient in selective
pressure along small distances can generate conditions favourable for
peripatric speciation.
Peripatric speciation occurs in the grass species Anthoxanthum odoratum
(Antonovics, 2006). Flowering time differences between metal-tolerant and
non-tolerant populations of the grass Anthoxanthum odoratum growing
across a mine boundary have persisted for over 40 years (Antonovics, 2006).

Sympatric Speciation
Sympatric speciationis the process of differentiation and acquiring
reproductive isolation within the same geographical area (Fig.7). Sympatric
speciation depends on the development of reproductive isolating mechanisms
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promote divergence of the populations.
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Some examples of sympatric speciation are described below:

The divergence of Rhagoletispomonella: The best known example of

sympatric speciation is the divergence of Rhagoletispomonella, a true fruit
fly. This species has recently diverged into two subspecies due to
introduction of apple trees in north-eastern United States. Initially, the flies
have used the hawthorn trees (which are native to the area in North America)
to reproduce and to lay their eggs. The introduction of apple provided more
nutritious food source for the developing maggots. The samples of fruit flies
from apple and hawthorn trees differ genetically in the time of emergence,
which is correlated with the fruiting phenology of their hosts. Thus
differences between the maturation times of two fruit flies allowed the
isolating mechanisms to operate resulting in the divergence of two species.
Thus host specificity has taken the place of geographic isolation.

Polyploidy in Plants: Polyploidy in plants is a type of sympatric speciation

in which two sympatric species having different chromosome numbers or
morphologies form a hybrid, and that hybrid produces offspring with a
doubled number of chromosomes (one full genome from each parental
species). This yields a new lineage that is reproductively isolated from both
ancestral species. Most of these polyploids have been formed due to
hybridization between two species, followed by self-fertilization. It is
reported that new species in wheat were formed as a result of polyploidy.
Polyploid speciation is quite common in plants.

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Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.

1) Explain allopatric and sympatric speciation

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12.3 THE CONCEPT OF DARWIN

Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist,
who pioneered the science of evolution. Darwin's seminal book, “On the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”, published in 1859, set
forth his ideas about evolution and natural selection. These ideas were largely
based on direct observations from Darwin's travels around the globe.

The principal propositions of Darwin’s theory based on Gregory (2009) are

as follows:
• All life on earth evolved from one or few simple kinds of organisms, all
species share a common ancestry,
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Contemporary • Species evolve from pre-existing varieties by means of natural selection
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occurs as one species splits into two or more
• The greater the similarities among taxa, the more closely they are related
• The geological record is incomplete: the absence of transitional forms
between species and higher taxa is due to gaps in our current knowledge.

12.3.1 Darwin and the Voyage of the Beagle

From 1831 to 1836, Darwin was part of a survey expedition carried out by
the ship HMS Beagle, which included South America, Australia, and the
southern tip of Africa (Fig.8). At each of the expedition's stops, Darwin had
the opportunity to study and catalog the local plants and animals.

The most important patterns Darwin noticed in distribution of organisms by

looking at his observations were from the Galápagos Islands, off the coast of
Ecuadorin the Pacific Ocean. Darwin observed many organisms including
finches, tortoises and mockingbirds, during his five-week visit to
the Galapágos Islands. Darwin proposed that species can change over time,
that new species come from pre-existing species, and that all species share a
common ancestor. Much of evolution was caused by natural selection, which
is the sole process producing adaptation.

12.3.2 Evolution by Natural selection

Papers by Darwin and Wallace presenting the idea of natural selection were
read together before the Linnean Society in Londonin 1858. Darwin
published his book, On the Origin of Species, in 1859.In his book Darwin
proposed that evolution occurs by means of natural selection. Natural
selection is the process by which individuals that are better adapted to their
environment are more likely to survive and reproduce than other members of
the same species.
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Darwin's extensive discussion of natural selection can be summarized Theories of
Evolution
including five “facts” (i.e., direct observations) and three associated
inferences. These are shown in Fig. 9 based on Gregory ( 2009) and briefly
explained as follows:

More offspring are produced than can survive. Organisms are capable of
producing more offspring than their environments can support. Thus, there is
competition for limited resources in each generation.
Offspring vary in their heritable traits. The offspring in any generation
will be slightly different from one another in their traits (color, size, shape,
etc.), and many of these features will be heritable.

Traits are often heritable. In living organisms, many characteristics are

inherited, or passed from parent to offspring. Survival and reproductive
success is highly variable. Individuals with certain heritable traits are more
likely to survive and reproduce; natural selection occurs when individuals
with certain heritable traits produce more surviving offspring than do
individuals without those traits.

12.3.3 Darwin’s Inventiveness

Artificial selection: To make sense of the process of evolution, Darwin used
pigeon breeding—a model system that would be easier to study and
manipulate than populations in the wild. Darwin crossbred pigeons and
observed how characteristics were passed on to offspring.

Galápagos finches: One of the best examples that helped to inspire Darwin’s
theory: the Galápagos finches. The finches of the Galapagos Islands,
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These birds were later recognized as being closely related to each other but
and Society having evolved beaks of distinct shapes and sizes as adaptations for different
food sources. As such, the Galápagos finches became a classic example of
evolutionary processes and continue to provide us with valuable insights into
principles of evolutionary change.
Galápagos mocking birds: The mockingbirds are perhaps the most
important specimens, Darwin collected from the Galápagos Islands during
his five-year voyage. As Darwin predicted, the recent data support Darwin’s
hypothesis that the Galápagos mockingbirds share a common ancestry.

12.3.4 Evidence for the Theory of Evolution

Evolution is a scientific theory; it makes predictions based on fossil record,
vestigial organs, biogeography, embryology and morphology, and examples
of natural selection in real time. Others, such as DNA testing, were not
available in Darwin's time, but these are used now by scientists today to
learn more about evolution. These are briefly described as follows:

Fossil record: Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past
are not the same as those found today, and fossils show a progression of
evolution. For example, our understanding of the evolution of horse feet is
derived from a scattered sampling of horse fossils within the multi-branched
horse evolutionary tree. These fossil organisms represent branches on the tree
and not a direct line of descent leading to modern horses. Fossils show that
the transitional forms predicted by evolution did indeed exist.

Biogeography: Biogeography is the study of the origin of world biota,

environmental relationships, and distribution of organisms, both past and
present, over the face of earth (Singh et al. 2014).There is unique flora and
fauna of northern continents that formed from the supercontinent Laurasia
and of the southern continents that formed from the supercontinent
Gondwana land. Fossils of marsupials have been found in the Antarctic as
well as in South America and Australia.

Homology: Structural homology is a similarity in adult morphology, or form.

A classic example is the common structural plan observed in the limbs of
vertebrates(Fig.10). Similarity in adult organismal structures can be attributed
to inheritance from a common ancestor. Even though their function varies, all
vertebrate limbs are modifications of the same number and arrangement of
bones. For example, a human arm, a cat’s leg, a whale’s flipper, and a bat’s
wing all are adapted to different purposes, but they share the same bone
structure suggesting one common ancestor.

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Embryology: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution gave a new focus to

comparative embryology. For example, both chick and human embryos go
through a stage where they have slits and arches in their necks like the gill
slit and gill arches of fish. These gillslike structures of fish at this point in
development of chick and human embryos supports the idea that they share a
common ancestor with fish (Fig.11).

Vestigial Organs: Darwin was the first to provide a widely accepted

interpretation of vestigial traits. A vestigial trait is a reduced or incompletely
developed structure that has no function, or reduced function, but is clearly
similar to functioning organs or structures in ancestral species or closely
related species

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit

235
Contemporary 1) How the observations and inferences illustrated in Figure 9 indicate that
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evolution has occurred by natural selection?
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12.3.5 Examples of Natural Selection in Real Time

Darwin was of the opinion that evolution took a very long time of over
hundreds or thousands of years and may not possible to witness in a human
lifetime. In a long-term study, Grant and Grant(2003)demonstrated that
evolution can happen during the course of few years under changing
environmental conditions. In recent times, human use of antibiotics has
clearly influenced the evolution of some bacterial species. Industrial
Melanism in the Peppered Moth also shows Natural selection over a short
period of time.

1) Natural Selection and Evolutionin Galápagos finchesdue to changes

in the environment
Grant and Grant (2003) reported a long-term on the study the evolution of
Darwin's finches in response to environmental conditions. Each species of
finches eats a different type of food and has unique characteristics developed
through evolution. The food supply changes during droughts can affect the
evolution of Daphne Major by natural selection. This study found changes
from one generation to the next generation in beak shapes in Daphne
Major. Grant and Grant (2003) have studied this finch population every year
since 1976 and have provided important demonstrations of natural selection
in response to changes in the environment over short periods of time. Thus,
the process of natural selection is an observable, interpretable, and repeatable
process.

2) Industrial Melanism in the Peppered Moth

Industrial melanism is a phenomenon that affected over 70 species of moths
236 in England. It has been best studied in the peppered moth, Bistonbetularia.
Prior to 1800, the typical moth of the species had a light pattern. Dark Theories of
Evolution
colored or melanic moths were rare. During the industrial revolution, soot
and other industrial wastes darkened tree trunks and killed off the lichens.
The light-colored morph of the moth became rare and the dark morph became
abundant. The cause of this change was thought to be selective predation of
light patterned moths by birds, which favored camouflage coloration in the
moth.

3) Antibiotic resistance in bacteria and viruses

Evolution is not just something from the past. It also happens in real time.
Bacteria mutate and resist antibiotics. Viruses reinvent themselves and elude
new medications. Bacteria can evolve quickly because they reproduce at a
fast rate. Mutations in the DNA of bacteria can produce new characteristics.
A random mutation might cause some bacteria to become resistant to
certain antibiotics, such as penicillin. Antibiotics usually kill bacteria, but in
this case the mutation means the bacteria cannot be destroyed by the
antibiotic. The emergence of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is an example
of natural selection leading to evolution.

12.3.6 Recent Research on Evolution by Natural Selection

Darwin’s theory of evolution is the most important idea in biology. By the
end of the 19th century most scientists accepted Darwin’s idea of evolution
by natural selection. In the modern version of Darwinian evolution,
mutations are considered the source of variation. Darwin considered the
individual organism as the primary unit of selection in evolution. Others
scientists have argued that group selection plays an important role. As
Darwin anticipated, there are extensive variation among individuals at the
physical, physiological, and behavioral levels.
Darwin predicted that species in a larger genus should also include more
subspecies. A subspecies is a group within a species that looks
phenotypically different from the rest of the species and has its own breeding
range that doesn't overlap with the rest of the species. Recently, van Holstein
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within a species that differ from each other by having different physical traits
and Society and their own breeding ranges. For example, northern giraffes have three
subspecies that usually live in different locations to each other and red foxes
have the greatest number of subspecies(45 known varieties),spread all over
the world. Humans have no subspecies. van Holstein and Foley (2020)
proved Darwin's subspecies theory by using models to show the
relationship between species richness (the number of species in a genus) and
subspecies richness. This research showed that the variety of subspecies in
mammals play a more important role in long-term evolutionary dynamics and
in future evolution of species (van Holstein and Foley 2020).

12.4 LAMARCKISM
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1774–1829) was a renowned French botanist, zoolo-
gist, and philosopher of science. He published in 1809 in his book
Philosophie Zoologique that environmental forces lead to change in
organisms and these changes were then passed on to future generations.
Lamarckism, the first general theory of evolution of life, based on the
principle that physical changes in animals and plants during their lifetime
could be transmitted to their offspring.

According to him, the evolution of species was based on the response to need
and to use or disuse of organs.

12.4.1 Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters

The main features of his theory of acquired characteristics, referred to today
as “Lamarckism,” are:

1) According to Lamarck, new needs arise in animals as a result of a change

in the environment.
2) The Law of Use and Disuse states that the development of organ is
directly proportional to its use.
3) competition plays an important role, the stronger and larger living things
destroy the smaller and weaker.
4) The transmission of acquired characters. The structural changes resulting
from use or disuse are handed down to its offspring.

12.4.2 Evidences in favour of Lamarckism

Some examples of Lamarckism are given below:
Inheritance of Acquired Characters: An individual acquires certain
characteristics during its lifetime. These characters are transmitted to the next
generation . for example, a blacksmith has strong arms due to the nature of
their work. He proposed that any children a blacksmith conceives will inherit
the development of strong muscles.

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Evolution of long neck in Giraffe: Lamarck illustrated his theory using the Theories of
Evolution
example of the evolution of giraffes (Fig. 13). By constantly stretching their
necks, they grew longer and longer, a property which they passed on to their
offspring. The long neck of the giraffe is said to have come into existence in
this manner over generations. The ancestors of the giraffe looked like horses
with small neck and forelimbs. They lived in areas where there was no
surface vegetation. Therefore, they had to stretch their neck and forelimbs to
eat leaves from tall plants. As a result, these parts got elongated. This trait
was transmitted in the successive generations.

Aquatic Birds with Webbed Toes: Birds such as ducks, swans and geese
that need to rest on the water, i.e., to find their food, spread out their feet
when they wish to swim. There was development of web in between the
digits in water birds to facilitate swimming.
Extinction of Limbs in Snakes: The snakes are believed to have evolved
from lizard like ancestors that have two pairs of limbs.
Flightless Birds: It is believed that the ancestors of birds such as Ostrich
were able to fly. They stopped using their wings and as a result the wings
became vestigial.
Cave Dwellers: Due to living under continuous dark conditions, they lost
their power to see.

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Contemporary 12.4.3 Criticism of Lamarckism
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formulation of biological explanation of evolutionary process, however, it
has been severely criticized because of the fact that it has not been possible to
establish that characters acquired during the lifetime of any organism are
transmitted to the succeeding generation

There is no experimental proof of the Lamarckism. August Weismann

(German biologist) challenged the entire theory of the transmission of
acquired characteristics. Most of the experiments devised in support of
Lamarckism were either biased or lacked confirmation.

12.5 SURVIVAL OFTHE FITTEST AND

THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE
The term survival of the fittest was used in the fifth edition by Charles
Darwin (published in 1869) of “On the Origin of Species” , which
suggested that organisms best adjusted to their environment are the most
successful in surviving and reproducing. Charles Darwin used the phrase
"struggle for existence" in a broader sense, and chose the term as the title to
the third chapter of On the Origin of Species published in 1859. This term
refers to the survival of only those organisms best able to obtain and utilize
resources, resulting in the evolution of organisms that are best adapted to the
environment. Darwin used the term "struggle for existence” metaphorically
to describe "natural selection."
The term. “survival of the fittest” is misleading because it implies that
organisms who are physically stronger can compete better. While this is true
for some species, it may not applicablebe to others. According to Gregory
(2009), there are several reasons why “survival of the fittest” poorly
describes natural selection, which are described as follows:
1) In Darwin's context, “fittest” implied “best suited to a particular
environment” rather than “most physically fit,”.

2) It places undue emphasis on survival: survival is only important

evolutionarily insofar as it affects the number of offspring produced.

3) This puts a greater focus on organisms, when in fact traits or their

underlying genes equally can be identified as more or less fit than
alternatives.
The struggle for existence is a natural history [metaphor]. Darwin suggests
that an organism's struggle for existence is part of what determines why some
species' characteristics survive and others become extinct. The great number
of variations in species has allowed plants and animals to become adapted to
their environments. Charles Darwin used the phrase "struggle for existence"
in a broader sense, and chose the term as the title to the third chapter of On
the Origin of Species published in 1859. It stressed that individuals with
certain heritable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.

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Check Your Progress 3 Theories of
Evolution
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit
1) Define Lamarckism and main postulates of the theory of inheritance of
acquired characters.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

2) Define the terms

(a)“Survival of the fittest” ; ( B)Struggle for existence

…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

12.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have understood about the origin of species, Darwin’s theory
evolution by natural selection, Lamarckism, “survival of the fittest”, and
struggle for existence. We got the knowledge about how new species are
formed? In allopatric speciation, groups from an ancestral population evolve
into separate species due to a period of geographical separation. In sympatric
speciation, groups from the same ancestral population evolve into separate
species without any geographical separation. We have gained insight about
the Darwin’s masterwork, the “Origin of Species by natural selection; it
makes predictions based on fossil record, vestigial organs, biogeography,
embryology and morphology. Three examples, industrial melanism in the
peppered moth, antibiotic resistance in bacteria and viruses, and changes in
the size and shape of finch beaks in the Galápagos Islands demonstrate that
evolution can be observed and measured. Darwin's subspecies theory has
recently been proved on the basis of modelling; the variety of subspecies
in mammals plays a more important role in long-term evolutionary dynamics
and in future evolution of species. Lamarckism refers to the physical changes
in animals and plants during their lifetime could be transmitted to their
offspring. Some examples of Lamarckism are evolution of long neck in
Giraffe, extinction of limbs in snakes. The term “survival of the fittest”
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Contemporary poorly describes natural selection. Darwin used the term "struggle for
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existence” metaphorically to describe "natural selection."
and Society
12.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of

the unit.
1) How are new species formed?
2) Describe adaptive radiation in Galapagos’ finches.
3) Describe important observations of Charles Darwinon hisBeagle’s
voyage?
4) What is Darwin's Theory of Evolution?
5) What are the examples of natural selection in action?
6) Describe the role of Subspecies in Evolution

12.8 KEYWORDS
Adaptive Radiation: Speciation when one species radiates out to form
several other species.

Allopatric Speciation: Speciation that occurs via geographic separation.

Darwinism: It is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English
naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others.

Evolution: The change of inherited characteristics within a population over

time through natural selection, which may result in the formation of a new
species.
Fossil Record: These are preserved evidence of life that provides
information about the history of life on Earth.

Galapágos Islands: Islands in the Pacific Ocean, visited by Charles Darwin.

Industrial melanism: Industrial melanism is a phenomenon that affected

over 70 species of moths in England by producing dark-moth populations in
a population of light-coloured moths.
Lamarckism: Lamarckism, the first general theory of evolution of life
based on the principle that physical changes in animals and plants during
their lifetime could be transmitted to their offspring.
Natural Selection: The natural process whereby the best-adapted individuals
survive longer, have more offspring and thereby spread their characteristics.

Peripatric Speciation: New species in isolated as smaller peripheral

populations that are prevented from exchanging genes with the ancestral
population.
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Speciation: The formation of new and distinct species in the course of Theories of
Evolution
evolution.

Species: The species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are
reproductively isolated from other such groups in nature.

Structural homology is a similarity in adult morphologyof different

organisms.

Subspecies: A subspecies is a group within a species that looks

phenotypically different from the rest of the species and has its own breeding
range that doesn't overlap with the rest of the species.

Sympatric Speciation: Itinvolves the splitting of an ancestral species into

two or more reproductively isolated groups without geographical isolation of
those groups.

Variation: Difference between traits in individuals of the same species.

Vestigial organs: A vestigial traitis a reduced or incompletely developed

structure that has no function, or reduced function.

12.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Antonovics, J. (2006). Evolution in closely adjacent plant populations X:
long-term persistence of prereproductive isolation at a mine
boundary. Heredity 97: 33–37.
Cox, C.B., Healey, I.N. and Moore, P.D. (1973). Biogeography: An
Ecological and EvolutionaryApproach. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford/UK.
Darwin C. R. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection,
or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. [1st edition]John
Murray, London.
Dobzhansky, T. (1937). Genetics and the Origin of species.Columbia
University Press, (Reprint ed. 1982), New York.
Eldon, J, Bellinger, MR, Price, DK. Hawaiian picture‐winged Drosophila
exhibit adaptive population divergence along a narrow climatic gradient on
Hawaii Island. EcolEvol. 2019; 9:2436– 2448.
Freeman, S., Quillin, K. Allison, L, Black, M.,Taylor, E., Podgorski, G., and
Carmichael J. (2019). Biological Science Plus Mastering Biology with
Pearson eText -- Access Card Package, 7th Edition. Pearson, U.S.A.
Givnish TJ, Millam KC, Mast AR, Paterson TB, Theim TJ, Hipp AL, Henss
JM, Smith JF, Wood KR, Sytsma KJ (2009). Origin, adaptive radiation and
diversification of the Hawaiian lobeliads (Asterales: Campanulaceae). Proc R
Soc B 276:407–416.
Grant P.R., and Grant B.R. (2002). Adaptive radiation of Darwin’s finches.
Am Sci90: 130-139.

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Contemporary Grant R. B., and Grant P. R. (2003). What Darwin's finches can teach us
Issues in
Environment
about the evolutionary origin and regulation of biodiversity? BioScience53:
and Society 966-975.
Gregory, T.R. (2009). Understanding natural selection: essential concepts and
common misconceptions. Evo Edu Outreach 2: 156–175.
Marko, P. B. (2008). Sympatry.Encyclopedia of Ecology, 3450–
3458. Elsevier B.V.
Mayr E. (1942). Systematics and the Origin of Species. Columbia University
Press, New York.
Singh JS, Singh SP, Gupta SR (2014). Ecology, Environmental Science
andConservation. S. Chand, New Delhi, India.
van Holstein L, and Foley R.A. (2020). Terrestrial habitats decouple the
relationship between species and subspecies diversification in mammals.
Proc. R. Soc. B 287: 20192702.

12.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

Your answer should include the following points

1) Allopatric speciation means geographic separation of populations from a

parent species and subsequent evolution of new species. The separation
of populations occurs due to geographical barriers such as mountain
ranges, continental drift, glaciation, or river formation. Sympatric
speciation occurs within a parent species existing inone location;
speciation depends on the reproductive isolating mechanisms.
2) Reproductive isolating mechanisms(RIMS)are the biological properties
of organisms that prevent interbreeding. There are two types of RIMS:
prezygotic and postzygotic. A prezygotic barrier is a mechanism that
blocks reproduction from taking place. A postzygotic barrier occurs after
zygote formation, for example reduced hybrid viability, and hybrid
inviability.

Answers to check your Progress 2

Your answer should include the following points
1) Organisms are capable of producing more offspring than their
environments can support; there is competition for limited resources; the
offspring in any generation show variations in their traits, which are
heritable. Natural selection occurs when individuals with certain
heritable traits produce more offspring as compared to individuals
without those traits.

2) Evolution is a scientific theory; it makes predictions based on fossil

record, homology, vestigial organs, and embryology. Fossils show a
progression of evolution. The upper limbs of vertebrates show structural
homology. There is a strong resemblance of a chick and a human
embryo. The tailbone in humans is avestigial trait with areduced
function.
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Answers to check your Progress 3 Theories of
Evolution
Your answer should include the following points
1) Lamarckism, the first general theory of evolution, states that physical
changes in organisms during their lifetime could be transmitted to their
next generation. New needs arise due to change in the environment; the
development of organ is directly proportional to its use; competition is
important; the transmission of acquired characters to the next generation.
2) a) the survival of only those organisms best able to obtain and utilize
resources,
b) The individuals with certain heritable traits are more likely to survive
and reproduce.
Answers to Terminal Questions
Your answer should include the following points
1) Species originate as the result of natural selection. Environments change
through time and space. Natural selection favours characteristics in
response to environmental conditions.Anagenesisisthe transformation of
an un-branched lineage of organisms to the new species, cladogenesis-
budding of one or more species from a parent species that continues to
exist.
2) Adaptive radiation refers to the rapid diversification of an animal or
plant group from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms. The
Galápagos finches are the most famous case of adaptive radiation. The
geographical separation of Galápagos finches leads to evolutionary
divergence, and common ancestry.
3) Charles Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist;
Darwin's book, “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection”, published in 1859; he observed finches, tortoises and
mockingbirds on Galápagos Islands. Darwin’s main propositions are:
species can change over time, that new species come from pre-existing
species, and that all species share a common ancestor.
4) The principal propositions of Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
selection, formation of new species; common ancestry ; evolution of
species from pre-existing varieties by means of natural selection; the
formation of a species being gradual over a long period of time.
Offspringvary in their heritable traits, and traits are often heritable.
5) Evolution can happen during the course of few years; the process of
natural selection is an observable, interpretable, and repeatable process.
The examples of natural selection in action are long-term study of the
Galápagos finches; human use of antibiotics has influenced the evolution
of some bacterial species, industrial Melanism in the Peppered moth.
6) Darwin's subspecies theory has recently been proved on the basis of
modeling; the variety of subspecies in mammals plays a more important
role in long-term evolutionary dynamics and in future evolution of
species. There is positive relationship between species richness (the
number of species in a genus) and subspecies richness.

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Contemporary
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UNIT 13 ENVIRONMENT IN ANCIENT AND
Environment
and Society
MODERN SOCIETIES

Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objective
13.2 Role of environment in ancient societies
13.2.1 Greek

13.2.2 Roman
13.2.3 Indian Societies
13.3 Patenting of indigenous Knowledge
13.4 Bio-diversity
13.5 Issues related to transnational migration Environmental Justice
13.6 Policy and Action
13.7 Let Us Sum Up
13.8 Key Words
13.9 References and Suggested Readings
13.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

13.0 INTRODUCTION
Human Beings live in the natural world. From times immemorial, humans
have sourced all resources (primary and secondary) from this natural world.
Over time with excessive use, we are also striving that environment be
preserved and protected through human action. Society and culture have a
direct relationship with the environment and natural world that we have
inherited. As environmental problems are becoming more complex, with
impact of one region affecting the other at a global level, the realization that
this natural world needs protection is of critical importance. The environment
has become one of the most important issues today. Human society depends
on environment for sustenance. With the new challenges of preservation, it is
desired that people realign their needs with the sensitivity to preserve the
bounty of nature. Individuals and groups or communities of people in the past
have respected their environment.
Ancient societies were in awe of nature’s power and unpredictability. They
developed wisdom by observing the set patterns and risks involved while
dealing with natural phenomenon. Ancient societies also had embedded
morals and values for protecting the environment. Modern society rests on
the twin aspects of mechanization and individual freedom. Any discussion on
environment must include strategies to strengthen individual morals and
responsibilities while also integrating ecological and sustainability criteria
into decision-making by means of information and moralizing.
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The most prominent challenge of modern societies is to narrow the gap on Environment in
Ancient and
the one hand between prevailing short-run rationalities of the economic and Modern Societies
the political decisions, and on the other hand, the requirements of
sustainability in the long-run. This will require a focused long drawn
approach on creating value-based changes in the so-calledglobal village.

13.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• define environment;
• define the role of environment in societies;
• explain the concept ofbio-diversity and its significance;
• discuss the importance of indigenous knowledge;
• discuss issues related to transnational migration and how they impact
environment; and
• discuss relationship between social and environmental processes.

13.2 ROLE OF ENVIRONMENT IN ANCIENT

SOCIETIES
We live in the natural world of water, land, plants and animals that co exist
with us on Earth. All this forms the basis of human existence and
development. The meaning of the word ‘environment’ is ‘surrounding’,
which implies:
• the external conditions influencing development or growth of people,
animals or plants;
• living or working conditions
• Environment, therefore, refers to the sum total of conditions, which
surround man at a given point of time.

For early man, the environment consisted of the basic physical aspects of the
planet (land, air and water) and biotic elements (plants and animals). With
advancement of human society, human beings both man and woman
extended their environment through social, economic and political functions.

The Ancient Societies are:-

13.2.1 GREEK
The Ancient Greek culture is known for its philosophy on government, art,
architecture, philosophy, and sports. Known as the ‘cradle ‘ of culture, many
of these movements and thoughts became foundations for modern western
society and also of democracy as an institution. These were admired, adopted
and popularized by many, including Alexander the Great and the Romans.
The Romans were instrumental in spreading Greek culture around the world.

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Contemporary The roots of Greek culture before it established itself in Greece thrived on the
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Greek mainland and the Aegean Islands. The fall of these earlier cultures and
and Society the aftermath is known as the Dark Age. Greek culture began to develop
during the Geometric, Oriental zing, and archaic periods, which lasted from
900 to 480 BCE. During this time the population of city-states began to grow.
Pan-Hellenic traditions were established, and art and architecture began to
reflect Greek values .The Early, High, and Late Classical periods in Greece
occurred from 480 to 323 BCE.

During these periods, Greece flourished. The polis of Athens saw its Golden
Age under the leadership of Pericles. The Hellenistic period in Greece is the
last period before Greek culture becomes a subset of Roman hegemony. This
period occurs from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, to the
Greek defeat at the Battle of Actium in 30 BCE. It marks the spread of Greek
culture across the Mediterranean.
The Greek society consists of close-knit families where important social
organizations have gradually evolved from the idea of family. The institution
of marriage plays an important role in society. The word family in Greece
refers to a particular social group whose members are related by blood or
marriage at different levels or in different forms or combinations.
Greek food and beverages are famous all over the world. Greek cuisine is
often cited as an example of the healthy Mediterranean diet while sharing
food and drinks with relatives and friends is one of the basic elements of the
Greek culture. Greek cuisine incorporates fresh ingredients, among them
garlic, onions, fennel, zucchini, grapes, apples, dates and figs, into a variety
of local dishes some of which can be traced back to Ancient Greece. Herbs
and seasoning like mint, oregano form an important part of the recipes while
olive oil is added to almost every dish. Wheat, rice and meat, traditionally
lamb, but also chicken, pork, beef and fish, form the staple diet.
Greeks as a whole are extremely proud of their country as the cradle of
European civilization and also of their history, their cultural heritage and
their contribution to literature, art, philosophy and politics.

13.2.2 ROMAN
Ancient Rome was the center of one of the largest and most
powerful empires in history. The Roman Empire conquered the
whole Mediterranean region with its centre in the region of what is known as
Italy and spread its influence to the Middle East, Northern Africa, Western
and Central Europe. It reached the pinnacle of its power between 100 and
200 A.D. after which, the Empire began to collapse. One of the main
reasons was that it had become too wide spread to rule. The West Roman
Empire ended in 476 A.D. when Germanic tribes invaded, the East Roman
Empire continued to exist for many centuries.

The ancient Romans like the Greeks influenced countries and civilizations in
the coming centuries. Their language, Latin, became the basis for many
other European languages. Governments and legal systems in the western
world were founded on Roman law. The ancient Romans were innovative
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and the first to build bridges, concrete roads and a sewage system that Environment in
Ancient and
took waste water away from houses and homes. Modern Societies

In many societies, ancient and modern, religion has performed a major role in
their development. The Greek and the Roman Empire were no different.
From the beginning Roman religion was polytheistic. From an initial array of
gods and spirits, Rome added to this collection to include both Greek gods as
well as a number of foreign cults.
The fall of Roman Empire has also been linked to environmental factors by
historians. It is observed that the centuries during which the empire was built
and flourished were warm, wet, and stable across much of the territory the
Romans conquered. This is known to climate scientists as the “Roman
Climate Optimum.” from circa 200 BC to AD 150. In an agricultural
economy, these conditions were a major boost. The population was
increasing especially in city centers yet still there was enough food to feed
everyone. The divide between the lifestyles of elites and the peasants or
workers was though enormous. From the middle of the second century, the
climate became less reliable. The all-important annual Nile flood became
erratic. Droughts and severe cold spells became more common. The Climate
Optimum became much less optimal.
Roman empire also in its desire to conquer was a catalyst to deforestation.
Both for the survival and everyday activities on cities like heating and
building houses as well as for military occupation Rome was inconsiderate in
its usage of nature’s bounty especially wood.

13.2.3 Indian Societies

Indian society has its roots in ancient Vedic culture 2000 BC. The Vedic
Civilization flourished between the 1500 BC and 500 BC on the Indo-
Gangetic Plains of the Indian subcontinent. This civilization is the basis on
which the foundation of Hinduism as well as Indian culture is connected.
The Vedic Age was followed by the golden age of Hinduism and classical
Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire and the Middle Kingdoms of India.
Hinduism commonly called Sanatama Dharma by Hindus is generally
considered to be the oldest major world religion still practiced today and first
among Dharma faiths. Hinduism is characterized by a diverse array of belief
systems, practices and scriptures. Hindu thought distinguishes itself by
strongly encouraging tolerance for different beliefs since temporal systems
cannot claim sole understanding of the one transcended truth. To the person
who follows this religious faith, the idea of multifold path to achieve the
Ultimate Truthhas been an active force in defining the eternal dharma.
Hinduism has inherently been an environmentally sensitive philosophy.
The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and Smriti contain the earliest messages for
preservation of environment and ecological balance. Nature, or Earth, has
been engrained as a part of existence of life. Hinduism rests on the spiritual
bedrock of the Vedas hence Veda Dharma and their mystic issue, the
Upanishads as well as the teachings of many great Hindu gurus through the
ages. Many streams of thought flow from the six Vedic /Hindu schools,
249
Contemporary Bhakti sects and Tantra Agamic schools into the one ocean of Hinduism, the
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first of the Dharma religions. The elements of nature have never been
and Society considered as hostile to be conquered or dominated but in fact possessing
their own personalities. In the ancient Indian philosophy, it is forbidden to
exploit nature for Vilaas or luxury. To live in harmony with nature and
recognize that divinity prevails in all elements, including plants and animals
is the core philosophy. The saints, ascetics lived in the deepest of forests and
mountains to be one with the eternal truth thus signifying that the existential
questions are best understood within the cradle of a natural environment.
Ecology is an inherent part of a spiritual worldview in Hinduism.

In Indian philosophy, Change and flux are part and parcel of our existence
which includes the natural environment around us, but these changes are the
ones that are intrinsically developed in the natural world by themselves and
not by man made reasons.

Indian society is diverse unlike any other of the world’s great civilizations.
Virtually no generalization can be made about Indian society for all of the
nation’s multifarious groups. The ethnic and linguistic diversity of Indian
civilization is equivalent to the diversity of an entire continent like Europe.
Indians as an identity would encompass vast numbers of different regional,
social, and economic groups, each with different cultural practices. There are
differences between social structures in the north and the south, especially in
the realm of kinship systems.

Throughout the country and through the centuries there has been the influx of
different communities as refugees, invaders, explorers, traders and travellers,
and brought along their own religions beliefs. It is composed of different
religious groups, racial groups and groups having cultural differences.
Religious differences are significant, with the presence of the Hindu majority
and minorities like Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Jews, Parsis, Sikhs,
and practitioners of tribal religions–all pride themselves on being unlike
members of other faiths. Access to wealth and power varies and vast
differences in socioeconomic status are evident everywhere. The poor and the
wealthy co exist in urban and rural areas living side by side.There are
distinctions of class. Given the vast diversity of Indian society, the belief
systems and rituals, customs of the country are as diverse and generalization
is difficult, Still, there are certain themes or underlying principles of life are
widely accepted in India.
Indian society is very old, complex, and plural. In the long span of Indian
history, various groups from” different parts of the world, entered into India.
They brought along their own socio-cultural and racial features. The concept
of ‘Vasudev Kutubhkam’ or the ‘World as family’ also has a residue in the
welcoming nature of this diverse culture.

There are two main characteristics of Indian society:

• Its existence spans five thousand years.
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• It is also very complex and multidimensional in its nature and character. Environment in
Ancient and
The three prominent reasons for the complexity of Indian society are: Modern Societies

i) Immigrants from different corners of the world came at different periods

of time: included invaders, explorers, traders and travellers, and brought
along their own religions beliefs.

ii) The immigrants were from different races with their own inherent
qualities.

iii) The immigrants entered India with their native languages, traditions and
unique cultural elements.

The ultimate result of these diverse cultural interactions was the emergence
of a peculiar Indian society having three qualities:

i) Presence of different social groups.

ii) Richness of Indian culture with various types of cultural elements.

iii) Development of strong dynamism within Indian culture

Therfore, Indian society is not one-dimensional but is composed of different

social groups with differences in race, language, religion etc. The most often
noticed feature of Indian society is “Unity in Diversity”. India has emerged a
stronger nation by welcoming various cultural, social and ethnic elements.
Assimilation of diversity has been the key feature of Indian civilization,
where different elements of society have been accommodated without letting
them lose their separate identity. We have got enough freedom to practice our
own way of life.

Unity in Diversity has also provided backbone to several political and social
movements. Its core idea is “unity without uniformity” and “diversity without
fragmentation”. It is based on the notion that diversity enriches human
interaction.

Fig: 13.1 Environment and Societies 251

Contemporary
Issues in
Environment Check Your Progress 1
and Society
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) What is the relationship between environment and society?
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..

13.3 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND

PATENTING
Indigenous Knowledge is the wisdom generated by communities, groups and
societies over years of observation and experience of natural phenomenon
and passed on from one generation to the other as part of lifestyle and
customs and traditions. As more and more people and societies realize the
deep-rooted essence of traditional and indigenous wisdom, the question of
patenting the same has also emerged, since conventional intellectual
property laws do not protect traditional knowledge.
Indigenous or traditional knowledge is demanding more attention in today’s
world. From the growing popularity of traditional herbal medicines in
mainstream Western cultures, to use of traditional methods for sustainable
growth, to the misuse of languages by certain toy companies, traditional
knowledge has taken prominence in the recent years. With rise of
globalization and global trade in recent years, indigenous knowledge has
become an increasingly prominent issue within international patent law.
The concept of ownership of knowledge and the patent law has its
foundations in the Western concept. Traditional knowledge or “knowledge,
know-how, skills and practices that are developed, sustained and passed on
from generation to generation within a community” is often misused and
appropriated and sometimes claimed through patents by individuals or
companies for commercial gain outside of that community.
Traditional knowledge is valuable and is most often not protected by
conventional intellectual property systems simply because it usually never
recorded or officially registered as it has been passed by word of mouth.
Considering the specific challenges of protecting the traditional knowledge of
indigenous groups, including often limited political power of indigenous
peoples to represent their interests, legal scholars and activists have explored
this area.
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 Environment in
Ancient and
This issue is crucial to indigenous peoples for the following reasons: Modern Societies

i) the wrongful legal claim by outside groups rather than the rightful
owners of this knowledge excluding the indigenous peoples from any
associated material gain. Forexample; the legal claim over traditional
yoga style and postures made by American teachers of yoga.

ii) the projection of the traditional knowledge in a stereotypical manner

disrespecting its creation as a community contribution rather than
individual members

iii) the misuse and mis-interpretation of indigenous cultural knowledge runs

the risk of trivializing important customs and often undermines the
validity and dignity of the host culture.

iv) Selective segmentation of the wisdom without the nuance of the ancient
methods of approaching them.
The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples acknowledges and
protects these concerns:

“Indigenous people have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop
their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural
expressions, as well as the manifestations of their sciences, technologies and
cultures…”
The UN Declaration asserts that states must provide redress for the use of
traditional knowledge used without the consent of indigenous peoples. In the
past few years, efforts have been made for the expansion of intellectual
property law to protect the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples.
Legal scholars have taken on the subject and proposed a number of legal
options, such as the use of a sui generis legal system to consider these cases
or the employment of private protocols for dealing with indigenous
communities. For example, Indian tribal communities are a storehouse of
precious knowledge on herbs and forest products.

One example of counter action to protect traditional knowledge, has been

initiated by the Government of India in the recent years. It established the
Traditional Knowledge Digital Library, a database of traditional knowledge.
A major factor in the TKDL’s success has been its translation of this
indigenous knowledge. The traditional medicinal knowledge of India existed
in languages like Sanskrit, Hindi, Arabic, Urdu and Tamil. Now, the TKDL
project allows search ability in English, French, German, Japanese, and
Spanish.. Due to language barriers, this knowledge was not accessible to
Western patent offices. Providing a widely accessible record of traditional
knowledge to prove to patent offices that this knowledge had previously
existed is crucial in ensuring the legal protection of indigenous cultures.

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Contemporary
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Environment Check Your Progress 2
and Society
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
2) What is indigenous knowledge?
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..

13.4 BIO-DIVERSITY
Biodiversity refers to all the variety of life that can be found on Earth (plants,
animals, fungi and micro-organisms) as well as to the communities that they
form and the habitats in which they live.
Biodiversity is the shortened form of two words "biological" and "diversity."
The Convention on Biological Diversity gives a formal definition
of biodiversity:
"biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all
sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems
and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity
within species, between species and of ecosystems".

Biodiversity is not one identity or only the sum of all ecosystems, species and
genetic material. In fact, it represents the variability within all ecosystems,
species and genetic material. It can be distinguished from the expression
"biological resources", which refer to the tangible components of ecosystems.
Biological resources are real entities (a particular species of bird, a wheat
variety growing in a field, oak wood, etc.) while biological diversity is rather
an attribute of life (the variety of bird species, the genetic variability of wheat
around the world, forest types, etc.). UNESCO contributes to efforts to
counter the erosion of global diversity, both biological and cultural.
Recognizing that together, cultural and biological diversity are vital building
blocks for sustainable development, UNESCO seeks to develop innovative
approaches:

i) to promote understanding of the linkages between biodiversity and

cultural diversity

ii) to raise awareness of the essential role of cultural diversity in sustaining

and creating biological diversity
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iii) to support the meaningful inclusion of local and indigenous knowledge Environment in
Ancient and
in biodiversity conservation and management Modern Societies

iv) to mobilize cultural diversity to counter biodiversity loss, and

v) to address ethical dimensions of biodiversity.

Biological diversity is often understood at three levels:

• species diversity refers to the variety of different species (plants, animals, fungi and
micro-organisms) such as palm trees, elephants or bacteria;

• Genetic diversity corresponds to the variety of genes contained in plants, animals, fungi
and micro-organisms. It occurs within a species as well as between species. For
example, poodles, German shepherds and golden retrievers are all dogs, but they all
look different;

• Ecosystem diversity refers to all the different habitats - or places - that exist, like
tropical or temperate forests, hot and cold deserts, wetlands, rivers, mountains, coral
reefs, etc. Each ecosystem corresponds to a series of complex relationships between
biotic (living) components such as plants and animals and biotic (non-living)
components which include sunlight, air, water, minerals and nutrients.

Fig: 13.2 Biodiversity

Check Your Progress 3

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
3) What is an example of a biodiversity?
…………………………………………………………………………..
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Contemporary …………………………………………………………………………..
Issues in
Environment …………………………………………………………………………..
and Society
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13.5 ISSUES RELATED TO TRANSNATIONAL

MIGRATION ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE
Human beings through civilizations have not been restricted to one space.
There are examples of travelers and explorers who choose to go beyond their
place of belonging to explore other societies and cultures. The assumption
that people will live their lives in one place, according to one set of national
and cultural norms, in countries with impermeable national borders, does not
hold true especially in the modern era where travel and relocation has
become so achievable. In the 21st century, more and more people will belong
to two or more societies at the same time. This is referred to as transnational
migration.

Transnational migrants work, and express their political interests in several

contexts and forums rather than in their nation-state of origin or belonging.
Some establish roots in a host country, maintain strong homeland ties, and
belong to religious and political movements that span the globe. These
allegiances are not opposing to one another but a combination of ways to
integrate their roots with their present. .

To explain with an example of Gujarati immigrants pursuing the American

dream. Over the past 20 years, Indian immigrants from Gujarat in India have
moved from western India, first to rental apartment complexes in
northeastern Massachusetts, and then to their own homes in subdivisions
outside Boston. They have adjusted to the new lifestyle and work as suburban
dwellers, their children attend school, and they get together to build religious
congregations. The same can be applied to South Indian Tamil immigration
to New Jersey or Silicon Valley after the digital revolution.

A closer look, however, reveals these people are pursuing Gujarati or Tamil
dreams as well. They send money back to India to open businesses or
improve family homes and farms. They work closely with religious leaders to
establish groups in the United States, to strengthen religious life in their
homeland, and to build a global Hindu community transcending national
border.

When you think about the environment, your mind might conjure up images
of rambling rivers, peaceful woodlands or scenic mountains. However, a
broader definition of environment is the surroundings or conditions in which
a person lives. By this definition, the environment would include your home,
place of work, schools, and community parks. These are the places you spend
your time, and they play a big role in your overall health, happiness and well-
being.

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Those involved in the movement called environmental justice feel that a Environment in
Ancient and
healthy environment is a necessary component of a healthy life. Modern Societies

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

defines environmental justice as the fair treatment and meaningful
involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income
with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of
environmental laws, regulations, and policies. In simple terms, any person’s
health should not suffer because of the environment where you live, work,
and play or learn.

The concept of environmental justice began as a movement in the 1980s due

to the realization that a disproportionate number of polluting industries,
power plants, and waste disposal areas were located near low-income or
minority communities. The movement was set in place to ensure fair
distribution of environmental burdens among all people regardless of their
background.
Examples of environmental burdens that may be considered under the
umbrella of environmental justice cover many aspects of community life.
Environmental burden can include any environmental pollutant, hazard or
disadvantage that compromises the health of a community or its residents.
For instance, one of the most important environmental justice issues is
inadequate access to healthy food by all. Certain communities, particularly
lower-income or minority communities, often lack sources of healthy and
affordable foods.

Check Your Progress 4

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
4) What are the examples of environmental justice?
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..

13.6 POLICY AND ACTION

Environmental policy is the commitment of an organization to the laws,
regulations, and other policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues.

It is useful to consider that environmental policy comprises two major

terms: environment and policy.

257
Contemporary i) Environment refers to the physical ecosystems, but can also take into
Issues in
Environment
consideration the social dimension (quality of life, health) and an
and Society economic dimension (resource management, biodiversity).

ii) Policy can be defined as a "course of action or principle adopted or

proposed by a government, party, business or individual".

Thus, environmental policy focuses on problems arising from human, which

retroacts onto human society by having a (negative) impact on human values
such as good health or the 'clean and green' environment.

Environment issues generally include

i) Pollution of essential elements like Air and water

ii) Management of resources

iii) Ecosystem and development,

iv) Maintenance of biodiversity,

v) The protection of natural resources, wildlife and endangered species.

Policies concerning energy or regulation of toxic substances affecting human
and animal life including pesticides and many types of industrial waste are
part of the topic of environmental policy. This policy aims to direct and
oversee human activities and thereby prevent harmful effects on
the biophysical environment and natural resources. The policy also ensures
that changes in the environment do not have harmful effects on humans.
Environmental issues generally addressed by environmental policy also focus
on preservation of natural resources for future generations. Relatively
recently, environmental policy has also attended to the communication of
environmental issues.
Environmental policy instruments are tools used by governments for
implementing environmental policies. A Government may use a number of
different types of instruments economic incentives and market-based
instruments such as :

environmentally related taxes ,

charges and subsidies ,

emissions trading other tradeable permit systems,

deposit- refund mechanisms

environmental labeling laws,

licenses and economic property rights
For example, the European Union Emission Trading Scheme is an example
of a market-based instrument to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Several instruments are sometimes combined in a policy mix to address a
certain environmental problem. Furthermore, a combination of different
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policies may give firms greater flexibility in policy compliance and reduce Environment in
Ancient and
uncertainty as to the cost of such compliance. Modern Societies

Environmental impact assessments (EIA) are conducted to compare impacts

of various policy alternatives. Moreover, it is assumed that policymakers
make rational decisions based on the merits of the project. Market-based
instruments (MBIs) are policy instruments that use markets, price, and
other economic variables to provide incentives for polluters to reduce or
eliminate negative environmental externalities. MBIs seek to address
the market failure of externalities (such as pollution) by incorporating the
external cost of production or consumption activities through taxes or charges
on processes or products, or by creating property rights and facilitating the
establishment of a proxy market for the use of environmental services.

It has been observed that political and economic factors often lead to
environmentally destructive decisions in the long run. To counter the same,
activist groups, community pressure and citizen groups are often cited as a
good example to curb misuse and exploitation by State machinery.

Fig13.3 : Life cycle of policy

Check Your Progress 5

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
5) What is the aim of the environmental policy?
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
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Contemporary
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13.7 LET US SUM UP
Environment
and Society Environmental sociology is typically defined as the sociological study of
societal-environmental interactions, although this definition immediately
presents the problem of integrating human cultures with the rest of
the environment. Modern societies have an inherent component of
materialistic usage and benefit unlike ancient societies where needs were in
consonance with survival in the natural world. The problems faced in
preserving our environment are definitely concerned with an inadequate
behavior due to inadequate values or lacking awareness or sensitivity.
Consequently, strategies of problem-solving should be based on information,
values, cultural roots, enlightenment, and appeals to morals in order to
generate the desired behavior voluntarily rather than as common forced
principles. To effectively implement restoring environment, political will and
regulations are also expected to be an appropriate requirement and act as a
propeller to individual and society’s consciousness. Strengthening
environmental awareness along environmental regulations with a sense of
sustainable development are the preferred strategies.

In modern societies, behavior and responses for results are more and more
determined by the (moral) quality of institutions and subsequent incentive
structures, and less by the (moral) quality of motives and individual morals,
though it is an irony that modern societies do encourage individual freedom.
The valuable traditional knowledge/wisdomn or “skills and practices that
were and are developed sustained and passed on from generation to
generation within a community” is often appropriated. In some cases,
individuals or companies outside of that community also claim this
knowledge through patents. Environmental justice is also a new term to be
understood in the contemporary socio-cultural landscape of developing
nations. It means the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people
regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the
development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws,
regulations, and policies. It aims at protecting human existence within the
purview of survival in the new norms of the world while simultaneously
giving importance to sustainability and awareness.
The importance of indigenous knowledge can be best understood with the
example of agriculture. Rice, wheat, and other crops are proof of man’s
inquisitiveness about nature and consistent effort to synchronize human
needs of hunger and shelter with natures basket. These crops were not found
as ready to grow packages in forests but a result of ancient communities
knowledge on seed types and weather conditions needed to grow the same.
What are found in the forest are wild plants out of which communities of men
and women over generations have bred races of several food and cash crops.
These communities have bred out of the wild plants of the forests, which are
the basis of the world’s agriculture. The land bred by farming communities,
were and are the foundation material of modern plant breeding and global
food security.

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The concept of environmental justice began as a movement in the 1980s due Environment in
Ancient and
to the realization that a disproportionate number of polluting industries, Modern Societies
power plants, and waste disposal areas were located near low-income or
minority communities. The movement was set in place to ensure fair
distribution of environmental burdens among all people regardless of their
background.
The best way to begin our understanding of indigenous knowledge is by
considering its source: indigenous peoples and their societies.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1) What is the difference between Roman and Greek society?
2) Explain the term indigenous knowledge?
3) How are we losing biodiversity?
4) What is environmental justice in sociology?
5) What is the process of policy making?

13.8 KEY WORDS

Biodiversity: refers to all the variety of life that can be found on Earth
(plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms) as well as to the communities
that they form and the habitats in which they live.Biodiversity is the
shortened form of two words "biological" and "diversity."
Genetic diversity corresponds to the variety of genes contained in plants,
animals, fungi and micro-organisms. It occurs within a species as well as
between species. For example, poodles, German shepherds and golden
retrievers are all dogs, but they all look different.

Ecosystem diversity: refers to all the different habitats - or places - that

exist, like tropical or temperate forests, hot and cold deserts, wetlands, rivers,
mountains, coral reefs, etc.

13.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Haq, Gary, and Alistair Paul. Environmentalism since 1945 (Routledge,
2013).

Hughes, J Donald (2001). An Environmental History of the World:

Humankind's Changing Role in the Community of Life (Routledge Studies in
Physical Geography and Environment). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-
415-13619-8.

Hughes, J Donald (2006). What is Environmental History? (What is History

Series). Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-3189-9.

Hughes, J Donald (2008). "Three Dimensions of Environmental

History". Environment and History. 14 (3): 1–12.
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Contemporary McNeill, J.R. (2010). "The State of the Field of Environmental
Issues in
Environment
History". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 35: 345–374.
and Society
Uekötter, Frank (2004). "The Old Conservation History – and the New: An
Argument for Fresh Perspectives on an Established Topic". Historical Social
Research. 29 (3): 171–191.

Wakild, Emily (2011) "Environment and Environmentalism" in A

Companion to Mexican History and Culture, William H. Beezley, ed. Wiley
Blackwell.

13.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Your answers should include the following points
1) The Environment and Society specialization provides students with an
understanding of the reciprocal relationships between social and
environmental processes. It is aimed at understanding of human beings
as part of the earth and how humans impact the environments in which
they live.
2) The term 'indigenous knowledge' is used to describe
the knowledge systems developed by a community as opposed to the
scientific knowledge that is generally referred to as 'modern' knowledge.
Indigenous knowledge is the basis for local-level decision-making in
many rural communities.
3) The definition of biodiversity refers to the amount of diversity between
different plants, animals and other species in a given habitat at a
particular time. The different varieties and types of animals and plants
that live in the ocean is an example of biodiversity.
4) An example of Environmental Justice is the fair treatment and
meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national
origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and
enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.
5) The concept of environmental policy integration (EPI) refers to the
process of integrating environmental objectives into non-environmental
policy areas, such as energy, agriculture and transport, rather than
leaving them to be pursued solely through purely environmental
policy practices.

Terminal Answers
1) While Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome are often confused for one
another, there are many differences between the two. Both countries are
Mediterranean yet have social class differences, different mythology and
valued life differently. Socially, both the Greek and Roman societies
believed in a hierarchy. Roman culture towards its fall, was known for a
very visible social divide, excessive materialism and misuse of nature’s
bounty for luxury of a few.

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2) The terms traditional knowledge (TK), indigenous knowledge (IK), and Environment in
Ancient and
local knowledge generally refer to knowledge systems embedded in the Modern Societies
cultural traditions of regional, indigenous, or local communities.
Traditional knowledge can be as varied as knowledge on seed types to
which clothes are worn in particular seasons . In tribal communities for
instance respect for natural phenomenon is expressed through customs
and songs.
3) The main cause of the loss of biodiversity can be attributed to the
influence of human beings on the world's ecosystem, In fact human
beings have deeply altered the environment, and have modified the
territory, exploiting the species directly, for example by fishing and
hunting, changing the biogeochemical cycles etc.
4) The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines
environmental justice as the fair treatment and meaningful involvement
of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with
respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement
of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.
5) A policy established and carried out by the government goes through
several stages from inception to conclusion. These are agenda building,
formulation, adoption, implementation, evaluation, and termination.
Policy involves devising new systems of monitoring as well as initiating
schemes to promote the desired motive, in this case – environment
protection and sustainability.

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Contemporary
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UNIT 14 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS AND
Environment
and Society
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Issues pertaining to common property, CPR and planning issues
14.3 Resources and Joint Resource Management
14.4 Social ecology
14.5 Eco-spiritualism
14.6 Ecological crisis
14.8 Let Us Sum Up
14.9 Key Words
14.8 References and Suggested Readings
14.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

14.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit aims at discussing the ethics and managerial plan of action in
various scheme engaged with the resource executive maintenance of common
property or pool of resources (CPR) in India. This encompasses supportable
assets administered beneath the universal rural community notion.
Possessions must not ideally be used as a whole to the community not by
single individual. So may be called as "commune of communes" property and
is does not belong to personal consumers in nation. The procedure of
removing all power must start on. There are many issues to common property
rights as it is a catastrophe to common and public goods are managed by state
government and private agencies for the conservation and usage, but the
degradation of ecological and environmental crisis may deepen due to
improper management of various natural resources such as forest land,
landuse, water, addition of pollutants with modernization and affect the
climate change, greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion and so on.
It is the only change which deals with development of society from top to
bottom approaches for profitable economic module. This part of ecology
study joins together nature, human and biotic flows in evolution connect the
human with living but not human and natural interactions. For the resource
management for a common conservation strategy we should have clear
prioritization of various tasks to be taken to strengthen the functions,
estimating accurate schedule to get the simulations, calculations through
relevant experimental and theoretical models in environmental crisis and
human ethics for conserving environmental and developing proper risk
awareness.

264
We have nature of developing concrete buildings, towns and modern cities Environmental
Ethics and
with all social comforts for living generating lots of waste and pollution Resource
problems which are related to us. There are some thinkers which reject the Management
various theories which are inclined for human behavior to favor one group or
oppositions of other’s group opinion of human life forms of inherent value.
Humanity is natural world which is sincere, genuine and intelligent ideas for
obtaining their own consciousness. We sincerely use this self-consciousness
by some of the sociologist for finding the inherent capabilities by bouncing
back of questions from inner self about satisfaction in this concrete, non-
ethical world.
There is best method in which earth is treated as the function as a whole and
has its own religious self in earth. It gives us satisfaction as a part of some of
the supportable and financial approaches of energy and green science for the
sustainable progressable and healthy environment. There must be
development of human race and non-human ecology to support each other in
its complex nature with inorganic and organic substances of environment and
ecology for sustainable living. Deep ecology is termed as sustainability of
humanity in the inner self with beliefs of conservation for today, tomorrow in
terms of an ecosystem; it is also called as surface ecology and helpful in
generating consciousness among all living species for prosperity and
conservation of ecology in all respects.

14.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• define Environmental ethics and know about its significance;
• describe the issues pertaining to common property resources;
• define resource management and estimate various tools and techniques
in resource management;
• identity various principles used in resource management;
• explain social ecology and it's future; and
• explain ecological crisis and their effects on life.

14.2 ISSUES PERTAINING TO COMMON

PROPERTY
Common-pool resource (CPR) or Common property resources are the
resources which are utilized by all living organisms and may be used by
village land, watershed drainage, any bare land, community forest and
wasteland. Common pool resources usually serve as important basis of
livelihood earning poor and developing nations with mostly communities
depending upon public owned ownership land and affect the common pool
resources. Degradation in the CPR has been observed by only 1%from last
twenty five years. CPR is the land showing open access state owned land and
publically acquired ownership therefore public rights undergo similar
property disputes within the common people using it. These are also
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Contemporary additionally responsible for resource degradation due to market failure,
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Environment
unsustainable exploitation, population growth, institutional failure, techno-
and Society developmental effects etc. Management of CPR is done by different regimes
as denationatilisation, state run agencies, municipal owned areas under
development, state and public ownership land, national highways are to be
managed by strategic planning and use of data based framework.
Demutualization is helpful when the resource is very less. Ecological
problems develop due to deviation from personal and societal communal
aims. It was shown by some studies that some agencies are not able to
maintain common pool resources due to fast growth of population of
livestock and human beings. There is need to develop the local pool of local
community, persons involved in agriculture or tribal population, skilled
scientist , governmental agencies, nongovernmental organizations and state
owned authorities making a common platform for detailed planning, causes
of reduction, the problem for shortage and shrinkage of common property or
pool areas.

14.2.1 CPR and planning issues

There is a hurdle of increased population in rural and CPR after
independence in India. We are exploiting the common pool resources without
planning and poor marginal land affected with great level of shrinkage and
importance. Dietary requirementis high in rural areas basically using timber
or non-timber forest produce or both, generating pollution, creating loss of
top fertile soil, uses CPR space for livestock farming, overgrazing, loss of
essential plants, increase in weeds and lack of scientific inventory. Improper
land use activity or participation, lack of communication with authorities, no
judicial procedure for dual activities in CPR are some of the issues faced in
planning CPR.

There are some other issues related to CPR which are as follows:

1) There is no knowledge-based pool about the scientific and sustainable

use of common property of a natural resource.
2) Local people only using the forested, marginal lands and fellow land
facing great shrinking of this area under CPR in India.

3) Areas near the villages and other common property has diverse types of
timber, non-timber, medicinal usage with exploitation of reserves.

4) The local people and other population should use, mobilize the CPR in
an effective way as the persons with knowledge or skilled worker
community must be for successful implementation of policy and
framework by government.

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Check Your Progress 1 Environmental
Ethics and
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words. Resource
Management
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) What type of policies were regulated by local authorities and state own
part in past for sustainable pool of common raw resources?
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..

14.3 RESOURCES AND JOINT RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT (JFM)
Resources are public, equipment, place, currency, or whatever thing else that
we need in order to do all of the activities that we all planned for. All
activities in your activity list needs to have resources assigned to it.Some
distinctiveness of resources is particularly significant in formative impulse
and reasons of using it for conservation. Resources are used on basis of
consumption and their requirement, the forest resources as trees, herbs and
some grasses are widely used for medicines, raw material for timber, paper
and pulp, fuel wood, ropes and other resources may be flowers, honey,
pollen, buds used as condiments, spices and flavoring agents and other
aesthetic point of uses. Then forest, wildlife, minerals, food, soil, air are the
resources widely used to replace their values and use in life and its
betterment. Some people can be given incentives to sustain these valuable
resources. They fell for correct sustainable use but they consider money more
with their part of resource possessions and not willing for the instant
resourceful or village area could benefit together from the improved
microenvironment with no reduction in the benefits available for others. The
resources may be used as private goods, toll goods, common pool goods,
public goods and the services provided by each of them.
The difficulties for resource management occur due to non-availability of
resources in remote areas and poor, tribal population, unemployed persons
are exploited these resource at fast pace. It is also observed that there is no
check too, by local governing bodies; their non-participation of actions as
well as owner based and government based improvements actions are also
lacked.

Tools and techniques for estimating activity resources

Some of the tools and their techniques for estimating activity resources are
given in fig 14.1
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Contemporary
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Environment
and Society

Fig 14.1 Tools for estimating activity resources

• Bottom-up estimating this means contravention down multifaceted

activities into pieces and operating out the resource assignments for
every part. It is a procedure of estimating entity as a resource require or
cost and then totaling these together to approach up with a total
approximation. Bottom-up estimating is a very accurate means of
estimating, given all the estimates at the schedule action level are
accurate and correct. However, it takes a significant quantity of time to
carry out bottom-up estimating because every action have to be assessed
and predicted precisely to be incorporated in the bottom-up computation.
• Alternative analysis means bearing in brain more than a few dissimilar
options for how you allocate resources. This may include unreliable
counts of possessions as well as the variety of resources you may use. a
lot of times, there’s extra way to achieve an activity and substitute or
alternative analysis helps to make a decision among the possibilities.
• Expert judgment means bringing the experts who have completed any
kind of work previously and receiving their opinion on what resources
are required.
• In print estimating data is incredible that project research managers in
a group of industries use to help them outline out how many resources
they need. They rely on various published articles, books, kindle, online
and offline journals, and periodicals that help to collect the data, analyze
the data and facts, and publish reliable data after estimation from other
people’s projects.
• Project Development and management software such as microsoft
project and many other software’s will frequently have features which
will assist project managers, researchers, students, scientists to estimate
268
 resource requirements and constraints which find the most excellent Environmental
Ethics and
combination of assignments for the venture. Resource
Management
This type of management activities for resource conservation should be
ordered and efficient operation and time management practices are desired.
JFM and possessions consist of monetary funds, skilled human resources for
forest and other resources, scientific and cultural methods for manufacturing
of goods based on these resources. Much dominion with innovative ideas and
technological programs based ideas and functions of information technology
taken into ground reality of management conservation needs. It was observed
that smaller and more comprehensive the activity, the greater the
accurateness and cost of this technique and practice. The principle of
developing natural reserve or any kind of development and administration for
bringing together citizens, processes and various scientific and theoretical tools
to achieve common objectives. It follows the methodology in resource
conservation during environmental crisis that is one of the effective
fundamentals of managing any of forest, water and other natural resources and
their possessions. It deals with framework of many activities and techniques to
get focus on measuring resources to a certain extent than act as a driving force
to have conservation strategies. We must know all key elements during crisis
to avoid any mistake.
Here we have techniques and some characteristics of management of resources
should be key for vision. We should have capabilities like planning and
preparation finding possible drawbacks, problems in working conditions, and
research at pilot scale for resource management. Team work of each member
of the group involved with such programs enable confidence. Great
management guru’s tells that managing a resource is success of being human
and essential to successfully running of a society or community i.e. each
human being puts his right way or karma for conserving and putting efforts for
sustainable resources management. So, each individual shows their love,
willingness for the conservation of resource as team work is done beautifully to
attain success if we are doing the work with strong and clear priorities for
project/resource, as well as the percentage and amount of total risk may be
involved in the working, delivery or output of the resource conservation.
Resource management is the process of using a common resource It is natural
and more efficient way which includes tangible resources including labour
resource, labor goods, machinery, tools and other equipments adding ideas,
case studies and physical resources to increase business.

14.4 SOCIAL ECOLOGY

As the recent environmental issues are examining the limits of
current management approaches and increasing the demand for innovative
approaches that integrate with traditional disciplinary boundaries.
Practitioners, scholars, and policy-makers are encouraging increased
integration of natural and social sciences to develop new approaches that
address the variety of ecological and societal impacts of modern
environmental issues. Social Ecology is one such approach as it offers a
compelling way for improved environmental management through the
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Contemporary application of trans-disciplinary and resilience concepts. Social ecology was
Issues in
Environment
established in late 1980s. Social ecology is the reflection of humanity like an
and Society individual living in the mother earth as its own home. No matter it provides
a beautiful ecosystem and interactions but should have arrangement of
various organisms including humans in ranking of evolution with similarities,
complex behavior and diversity in living organisms. So, social ecology may
refer to the function, properties, activities and structure between our societies
with system of mother earth. Social Ecology is a political, ethical and
community-based approach to today's social and environmental
problems. Social ecology defined as “the takes on the responsibility of
evoking, elaborating, and giving an ethical content to the natural core of
society and humanity” (Bookchin, M., 1990).

Nobody is free from the hierarchy in this world and ready to attain a rank for
the relationship among each other in the life forms. A rank in society can
bring retransformation and construction of social ecology or behavior,
understanding the unwillingness of political parties to social and
environmental issues deepening with time. Politics and some democratic
ideas may promote the various social and environmental values based issues
and to generate an equilibrium or harmony among communities and earth as
a whole. Social ecology should not give rise to environmental and ecological
problems, various kinds of pollution, damage to biodiversity, climate change
and addition of synthetic cancerous, non-biodegradable things with
itsactivities. Communal ecologists consider things go as per economy.
Political interference with ecological studies or environments which focus on
the problems and their possible outcome symptoms are the survival of
culture, society, environment, biodiversity, ecology of basic man and animals
in this ever increasing competition for technology, weapons, global
dominance, stability in growth and reduction in debt and environment.
Therefore, western philosophy shows that domination of natural earth occur
from these social relationships.

14.4.1 Future of Social Ecology

Due to the increased understanding in the past two decades, the social-
ecological systems approach has begun to shift from research to practice
because firstly, the understanding that humanity is basically dependant on
nature is no longer a hidden scientific acknowledgement but a widely
recognised understanding. Secondly, the need for way out to various
sustainability challenges has increased the contact and cooperation across
different disciplines and between science and society. Thirdly, researchers
are increasingly using various systems for their scientific objective to better
understand complex systems. Finally, the conception of social-ecological
systems is starting to influence policy and decision-making process. All
national and international levels policymakers are now considering the
social-ecological connection. But, to increase these efforts and to make them
more productive, there is a need to push a change in research approaches and
better engagement between science and society, in the near future. Firstly,
there needs to be an improved understanding of the social-ecological
interactions between regions and developed organizations to govern them.
270 Although regionally focused research is often useful, regions cannot be
treated as totally separate units as what happens in one place can significantly Environmental
Ethics and
affect another. Secondly, more efforts are needed to better understand the Resource
slow processes that have major impact on social-ecological systems, be it Management
changing cultures and norms or the slow eutrophication of a lake. Thirdly, the
interactions between political, equity, justice and ecosystem services need to
be better understood. This involves considering global injustices, related to
who benefits from ecosystems and who monitor them. Finally, stronger
relation between science and society must be promoted. Dealing
sustainability issues require effective policies, practices and knowledge that
are developed in a socially agreeable way. Thus, this requires researchers,
policymakers, practitioners and citizens to collaborate with each other.
Social ecology is facing a stage of rapid transformation at present, self-
reflection and also trying to expand its theoretical horizons. Our future is
concerned about the basic insight of social, ecological thoughts and theories
of eco-philosophy. We are growing with the time to learn practical views of
threatened society in social dominance, strives originality, more open but
narrow thoughts not over whelming for cultural and environmental
uniqueness. A human being is wonderful creation on earth and his nature
should be reflection of god. It should encourage the growth of all creatures on
earth believe in spiritual values, self-realization consciousness of humanity,
wildlife and nature. It dream of social culture, participation and contribution
in disaster problem and solutions to climate change, acid rain, pollution and
global warming.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
2) Social ecology is the reflection of dialectic ideas. Explain?
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
3) Explain why social ecologist should deal with ethics of
complementarity?
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Contemporary
Issues in
14.5 ECO-SPIRITUALISM
Environment
and Society As the name suggests itself, Eco-spiritualism is the connection of ecology
with spirituality. It is defined as “a manifestation of the spiritual connection
between human beings and the environment”. Furthermore, Eco-spirituality
demonstrates position of human beings to be related to all other life forms
within an interrelated, interconnected network that is part of divine creation.
It is the concept which deals in various approaches increasing the faith in the
nature and its components along with its functional activities on planet earth.
It is essentially covering all spheres of humanity along with the effect of
human interference in natural ecosystem. It aims to bring together all the
components of the earth. It aims to study the close association of earth
planetary system due to anthropogenic activities, its adverse effects creates
an ecological crises such as loss of various birds, insects and other species
affect eco-spiritualism, those who are self-conscious, believe in purity in
components peace, preservation of species, society. Eco-spirituality refers to
the intertwining of instinct and physical consciousness pertaining to a
relational view between human beings and the planet, or a demonstration of
the spiritual connection between human beings and the environment. This is
affected by ideas of deep ecology and a science of ecology deals with
spirituality. Spirituality speaks about peace on earth as it believes in the
own purity of thoughts, self-reality and principles of preservation of each
component with heart. Traditional Eco spiritualism is as old as humanity
and is being practiced by indigenous people since the beginning. Even, Eco-
spiritual perspective can be found in all the world’s religions. Although the
articulation is different in each and every religious tradition, but all provides
similar perspectives that is the recognition of the importance and relevance of
the power of understanding of our human relationship to the planet and the
natural world. Such spiritual believes create a real and critical religious
imperative that ask believers to demonstrate harmony through acts of
spiritual love and care for all beings and creature now, as well as, for future
generation. For example, Christians have reinterpreted the Biblical story to
state that rather than God giving absolute authority over nature to humanity,
God instead means that humanity is a spiritual duty of care and sustainable
stewardship for nature and planet. The central monistic philosophy of Hindu
tradition, Vedanta, recognizes that “fundamentally all life is one, that in
essence everything is reality, and that this oneness finds its natural expression
in a reverence for all things”. It deals with sustainable ideas for crisis control
techniques, harmony among each creature on earth following Buddhist peace
in self to transform a violent, non-conscious human towards his actions
towards environment. It takes people away from materialistic thoughts and
consumer behavior. So deep insights of ecology as an individual says about
his unsustainable nature while running behind money, growth in economic
terms and not thinking that survival does not means to fulfill the physical
needs, excitement and moods maintaining activities but fulfilling nature into
self, flowering blossoms of care for creatures in world, healing with religious,
spiritual knowledge as in cultures towards generation of one society thinking
of all are one and welfare of all is oneness in nature should be observed.

272
On the other hand, the new eco-spirituality movements growing with Environmental
Ethics and
religions all over the world are fascinating because it provides both a critical Resource
re-vitalization of our relationship to nature's distinctive sanctity and a strong Management
spiritual perspective and support for the current secular sustainability
movements and aims.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
4) Is there any disconnection from our materialistic culture in ecosystem? If
so explain why?
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
5) How does the ecological crisis affect you? What is considered the
biggest environmental problems where you live?
…………………………………………………………………………..
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…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..

14.6 ECOLOGICAL CRISIS

Crisis is at its peak in all newspapers, environmental magazines, and
ecological view point on the intimidating environmental or ecologic crisis
definitely has its point. We have established various methods in farming.
Many communities and civilizations have been grownat fast pace be
neathmysteriously positive weather and climate circumstances. Now we are
on great acceleration of development. With these admittedly a problem of
factual images and a lack of clear social aspect ingreattrails or footmarks on
planet earth have been show nequivalent responsibilities/opportunities to
have an effect on the progress and development. The outcomes of crisis
require a possible and technological. Issues focussing on environmental crisis
and threat, needs to have more light on social change, justice is demanded for
analytical tools generating practices of sustainable development should be
wisely undertaken in development of a policy framework by researchers,
economists, state agencies and team of various ecologist and
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Contemporary environmentalist. As India is highly populated country, its biggest problem is
Issues in
Environment
the population and all other factors are associating to create more and more
and Society ecological crisis by pollution, destruction of natural habitat, loss of keystone
species, wetland destruction and that presented variable participatory judicial
and societal impacts. It require analytical, experimental studies based on data
of human sustainable needs which are controlled by insights/inner problems
in environment. The levels of difficulty is of concern to research institutions
like DBT,CSIR,DST,UGC,IIT and private agencies undertaking research
communities and their philosophy of deliberately increasing green natural
resources based on algae, microbes, fungus, my corrhiza etc. species
engaged in soil conservation, management of pollution and formation of
sustainable nature and natural resources.

Check Your Progress 4

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
6) What or whom do you hold responsible for ecological crisis?
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
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14.7 LET US SUM UP

Let us now summarize about common resource property along with its
related issues.
Common pool resources should be managed with proper techniques,
involvement of various government officials, rural, local people policy
framework and non-ignorance of values at a whole. Joint management in
resources deals with ideology that plays a crucial role in resource
conservation and self-analytical part of sustainable use. It also reflects on
various theories, patterns, principles dealing with the role of social
dominance, political ideas, evolution theory, critiques of anthropocentrism,
economic gap between rich and poor in a holistic approach for ecological or
environmental crisis created/done by humanity and society in different
aspects. There is a spiritual idea of being single, unique in planetary
maintenance and sustainability techniques utilization. Life forms are faced
with big responsibility for controlling the acceleration in pollutants addition,
natural and man-made disasters intensity, frequency, melting of ice caps in
polar, sub-polar and Antarctic regions. Some coastal island will drownupto
2100 due to rise in seawater. This needs the ethical actions by group of those
creating earth as worst place to reside by learning social ecology in holistic
274
approach. Corporate communities to understand risk with solution to ask Environmental
Ethics and
from scientific community providing monetary demands for research, Resource
political ethical action in overall strategies could be done in resource Management
management.
The whole story is of environmental se and disuse done by the human beings
in this synthetic age of life where the people may behave like king who
thinks of his kingdom, each of the part of society as his social ecology but
human is that king who want to be free from critique, tries to do resource
management in his mismanagement activities, planning is incomplete, social
problems of CPR is not looked and narrow his vision, consciousness,
creativity and power. But in outer space nothing is related to each other,
however on earth everything in environment is related to each other and
problems will be enhanced with time. The ecological oneness creates brother-
hood in all and earth as our planet. So be one for all, be green solution to
each problem in the environmental ethics and how to open with the key to
avail success for all management planning with strategies.

14.8 KEY WORDS

Social ecology defined as “the takes on the responsibility of evoking,
elaborating, and giving an ethical content to the natural core of society and
humanity” (Bookchin, M., 1990).
Eco-spiritualism is the connection of ecology with spirituality. It is defined
as “a manifestation of the spiritual connection between human beings and the
environment”.
Common-pool resource (CPR) or Common property resources are the
resources which are utilized by all living organisms and may be used by
village land, watershed drainage, any bare land, community forest and
wasteland.

14.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Hardin, Garrett (December 1968). "The Tragedy of the Commons".
Science. 162 (3859): 1243–8.

White, Lynn (March 1967). "The Historical Roots of our Ecologic

Crisis". Science. 155 (3767): 1203–1207.

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1) What are common issues related to CPR?
2) List various tools and techniques for resource management?
3) Describe social ecology and it’s future?
4) Define eco-spiritualism and it’s needs?

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Contemporary
Issues in
14.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Environment
and Society Answers to Check Your Progress 1
1) Policies must be aimed at collection of data from root level survey,
reports of proper land use plans of that area, feedback mechanism in
resource management personals to develop strategies for short term and
long-term functional activities of common pool resources (CPR)
formulation and taking the experience of local people who are dependent
from generations for livelihood under CPR. These may be tribal, semi
tribal or population of economic weaker farmers and communities
having direct interferences along with state bodies, forest conservation
scientist, and social activists. Master plan can be discussed among them.
Their skills can be developed by workshops, practical training, module
followed by some private or state funded agencies to provide them
employment and work under some schemes to neutralize the affect
caused by over exploitation. It should be done annually or quarterly to
meet scientific interventions, important development in land output or
yield and consequently economic development are the key factors for the
management of resource at common property rights. The ideal method to
make sure a practical contribution is to generate the financial funding,
contributions by various sponsorship programmes as well as from
governmental agencies.

Answers to Check Your Progress 2

2) In this concept the social ecology deals with the ideas with logic and
their discussion for welfare of society and nature but somehow dialectic
and imaginary. Dialectical means relating to the logical discussion of
ideas and opinions. Dialectic thoughts are investigatory or discussion of
the truth of opinions inequity into metaphysical conditions and their
solutions. Most of ideas are according to concepts dealing in ecology and
deals with equality in metaphysical contradictions of evolution and has
its own development in social ecology, therefore it is well said that its
has reflection of opinions and ideas relating to logical discussion.
3) An ecology implies with complete dealing in approaches applies
dialectical views of this question having the nature of the self and
character embodied in it. It deals in whole and cannot acknowledge the
exemplary and certainly oppressive model of an entirely pleasant-
sounding, complete self-conscious in humans. “The chaos within one,”
means everything in our inner-self, probably due to continuous nature it
deals in selfhood, at a mind conscious human being state. Every
individual is having different point of thinking as, fingerprint are unique,
particular and authentic flows in itsunique ideas with dielectric thoughts.
We can say many thought along with reality that one person views may
be different from others unfolding view in larger world. The
complementarity and self-developing nature of whole society, can be
shown in relation, various actions are taken, maintaining unity-in-
diversity but as personality in self-transcendence. The goals decided by
social ecologist is substituted, insatiable but can be broken in ego of
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 some highly social and prominent development of self-consciousness in Environmental
Ethics and
this world. This work done by many ecologists is very significant. In this Resource
general context, society creates a unnatural, imaginary fantasy of one’s Management
nature different in development.
Answers to Check Your Progress 3
4) Today’s ecosystem if we have to find, locate the ancestry or initial point
of the recent environmental and socio-economic crisis then we discover a
new phenomenon of disconnection. Disconnected here means deviation
from the real consciousness. Materialistic nature or culture may be
affected with this and our natural ecosystem that maintains supports will
be shaken. Here disconnection is also observed due to removal of value
education system in nature, so living in non- environmental, economic
based technically sound buildings, industries. This brings the creating a
situation in which nature is getting devoid of its resources, gifts, loss of
natural wetlands and deepening of water depletion activities. Here
practical to consume commodities and lost natural irrigation, agricultural
practices creates a scared earth. Disconnection should not be ecological
in terms of imbalances caused by human to their natural ecosystem but
in terms of sustained economy for practical needs to be fulfilled not all
desires, as we also know through common saying “ Needs can be
fulfilled demands can’t”. Disconnection can be removed by developing a
consciousness about self, social, earth ecology detailed study of all
methods in ecological prospective and concentration of ecological
systems. We being part of natural ecology on earth requires to be
reconnected to mind, soul of both environment as well as individual,
must include the value as we conduct each and every person is important
sub-component which create the lack of ecological balance, awareness,
unavoidable challenges to society developing gap between needs and
demands in this ecosystem. So, disconnect to economic mainstream and
reconnect to ecological development theoretically and practically by dual
concept, thoughts, spirit in human behavior and creating a thought at root
level that material is the only inferior, lower part of the ecosystem not to
be put at the top as superior and be reconnected to nature.
5) Ecological crisis can be described in chiefly scientific terms. Planetary
boundaries explain the ecological processes that support the steadiness of
our planet. As we know humanity is becoming more and more powerful
strength of alteration in the human ecological based natural and synthetic
sphere of all livings beings is increasing. Researchers and scientists
started speaking of the anthropocene (a novel) and new fangled
geological or earth studies during an era.
Answers to Check Your Progress 4
6) Environmental destruction is the problem accelerated due to technology.
Ecological crisis comprises of problems in ecology, alarming situation of
pollution, radiations from chemical, hazardous wastes, explosives,
nuclear testing, mining, effluents, uncontrolled and haphazard industrial
growth, use of bio-weapons at one point affecting most of biodiversity at
species level and human beings and even micro- flora and fauna. The
anthropogenic activities increase many folds the intensity and exploring
277
Contemporary alternatives of action against mother earth. Ecological crisis are felt by
Issues in
Environment
actions of selfish society group which only believed in economic and
and Society monetary gains for their benefit. They kill life forms, destroy their
natural habitat and creating nuisance in their development and inhibit
growth of good micro-flora in natural ecosystem. Some species are
sensitive to air, water, soil pollution and unable to revert the changes for
welfare of life forms. There is an urgent need in the development of
resistant varieties of bacteria, algae, my corrhiza species for waste
management, recycling of nutrients, generation of nontoxic and eco-
friendly, reusable, recyclable biological origin based wastes and
techniques of absorbing, adsorption of elute/ flue gases from stack
height. The various plume and diffusion models for dilution or
dissolution of pollutants which develop to lower the risk of health to
human society and eco-toxicology is to maintained into immovable form,
in soil or organic nutrients not taken into bodies of life forms. About 75
% of insect microbial species is being affected by dumping of waste
inside earth, threat is increased with increasing pollution, temperature
changes help degradation easy, faster with development of more and
more viral and harmful population of infectious agents are growing
forces causes degradation industrial society dump yards, lack of
technology for waste and pollution control strategies that are not used as
fundamental power using activities as example is river pollution in India.
Society and politics are responsible for the decisions taken or more
broadly political ecology. In this, they are least affected with the
emotions and ecological crisis and ever increasing environmental
problems due to lack of vision for policies to be made for GDP and other
currency and growth, increase in market shares and monetary benefits to
group of people killing mother earth without perseverance and measures
for improvement and cleanliness of rivers, air and soil to be taken. Social
welfare or wellbeing is not even evolved due to politics, which is only
concerned with economic, logical, higher rate of modernization therefore
avoiding decisions in favor of control of environmental pollution, waste
minimization, health related research, management of water, watershed,
wetlands and food problems. Scientific communities must create
researches in green solution to crisis involved at limited areas, regional
and comprehensive environmental related problematic circumstances so
as to figure out the ecological, natural challenges in modern India.
Answers to Terminal Questions
1) Common issues of CPR are common land use, forest produce utilization,
social property and land utilization for wood, fellow land, public
property and private areas with resource. Proper land use activity or
participation, lack of communication with authorities, no judicial
procedure for dual activities in CPR. The forested, marginal lands and
fellow land are facing great shrinking under CPR in India.
2) Various tools for management as below
• Bottom-up estimating this means contravention down multifaceted
activities into pieces and operating out the resource assignments for
every part.
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 • Alternative analysis means bearing in brain more than a few Environmental
Ethics and
dissimilar options for how you allocate resources. Resource
• Expert judgment means bringing the experts who have completed any Management

kind of work previous to receiving their opinion on what resources are

required.
• Estimating data is incredible that project research managers in a
group of industries use to help them outline out how many resources
they need.
• Project Development and management software such as Microsoft
Project and many other software’s will frequently have features
considered to assist project managers, researchers, students and
scientists to estimate resource requirements.
3) Social ecology may be refers to the function, properties, activities and
structure between our societies and components of earth. We know the
hierarchy in this world and to attain a rank for the relationship among
each other in the life forms. A rank in society can bring retransformation
and construction of social ecology or behavior, understanding to
unwillingness of political parties to social and environment issues
deepening with time. Environmental crisis occurred due to demands in
society.
4) Eco- spiritualism deals with the various approaches mounting the faith in
the nature and its machinery, its functional activities on planet earth
which is essentially covering all humanity with its doings and effect of
human deeds or any anthropogenic activities for life on earth. We are
putting over all concentration in believing its components and on earth,
its relevance, need and close association with earth planetary system. We
need Eco-spiritualism, those who are self-conscious, believe in purity in
components peace, preservation of species and society on earth.

References:
1) Common pool resources and the development process: evidence from
India Kanchan Chopra and Purnamita Dasgupta , Institute of Economic
Growth Delhi, India
2) Private and common property rights, Elinor Ostrom, Arthur F. Bentley
Professor of Political Science; Co-director, Center for the Study of
Institutions, Population, and Environmental Change, Indiana University
3) Environmental Crises: Past, Present and Future M. Scott Taylor,
Department of Economics, University of Calgary, Forthcoming as the
Innis Lecture, Canadian Journal of Economics, Nov. 2009.
4) Towards an ecological society, murray bookchin.
5) www.thegreenfuse.org
6) www. Library.nothingness.org

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Contemporary
Issues in
UNIT 15 POPULATION AND
Environment
and Society
ENVIRONMENT

Structure
15.0 Introduction
15.1 Objectives
15.2 Population Explosion And Its Impact On Environment
15.2.1 History of Population Increase

15.2.2 Population Estimates and Projections

15.2.3 The Most Populous Countries of the World

15.2.4 Projected Growth of the Global Population

15.2.5 Population Age Structure and Population Pyramids

15.2.5 Impact of Population on Environment
15.3 Food Security
15.3.1 Dimensions of Food Security
15.3.2 Causes of food insecurity

15.3.3 Challenges of food security

15.4 Materialism And Consumption
15.4.1 Materialism

15.4.2 Consumption
15.5 Let Us Sum Up
15.6 Terminal Questions
15.7 Keywords
15.8 References and Suggested Further Readings
15.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

15.0 INTRODUCTION
Population in the world is currently growing at a rate of around 1.08% per
year, the current average population increase is estimated at 81 million
people per year (UN 2019). At present the world's population is growing
rapidly in developing countries, whereas the rate of population increase has
slowed down in industrially developed nations. The ever increasing global
human population has its impact on the environment. Natural resources of
the planet earth are finite, and there are greater risks from over-population.
Humans have used natural resources to fulfill their needs even at the expanse
of environmental degradation. It is widely accepted that humans are directly
responsible for the sixth mass extinction and the global climate
change. Biodiversity loss, climate change, pollution, deforestation, water and
food shortage have been caused by our huge and ever-increasing population.
Human population has grown beyond Earth's sustainable means to regenerate
280
the resources. Rapid human population growth has caused several Environmental
Ethics and
environmental problems. Humans impact the environment because of Resource
unsustainable consumption pattern and ever increasing population. Management
According to Global Footprint Network, humans require 1.75 earths to
produce enough natural resources to match our consumption rates and ever
growing population. Food is at the core of the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs), the second of the UN's 17 SDGs is to "End hunger, achieve
food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture."

15.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• Describe the History of Population Increase;
• Explain Population Estimates and Projections;
• Describe Population Age Structure and Population Pyramids;
• Discuss Population Impact on Environment; and Food security;
• Discuss Materialism and Consumption; and
• Explain Quantification of the overall ecological impact of consumption.

15.2 POPULATION EXPLOSION AND ITS

IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT
15.2.1 History of Population Increase
The history of the human population growth can be viewed in four major
periods (Fig1). An early period of hunters and gatherers, in which human
population was probably less than a few millions. During the prehistoric era,
the world population was stable. During the neolithic transition, about
8,000BC, there was a significant increase in population when humans began
to practice agriculture. The estimated world population was approximately
five million, ''increasing to 50 million by 1000 B.C.' Until the Middle Ages,
human populations grew very slowly because of the prevalence of diseases,
famines and wars. By 1650, world population had expanded from 10 million
to 500 million.
.During industrial revolution, there was improvement in healthcare and
availability of more food, which led to rapid increase in population, and
human population was around one billion in 1820. The trends in population
increase beyond 1800 are summarized as follows:
• Until the 1800s the world's population grew slowly for thousands of
years.
• In 1820 the world's population reached one billion.
• In the early 1970s, the world's population reached three billion.
• In October 1999, the population doubled to six billion; being an historic
milestone.
• On October 31, 2011, world population reached seven billion
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Contemporary • Annual growth rate of human population attained its peak in the late
Issues in
Environment
1960s, when it was at around 2%.
and Society

Fig 15.1. World population growth through history, the graph shows the extremely rapid
growth in the world population that has taken place since the 18th century. ( adapted from
McFalls Jr., J.A 2007.US Population Reference Bureau)

15.2.2 Population Estimates and Projections

The 2019 Revision of World Population Prospects is the twenty-sixth round
of official United Nations population estimates and projections; which have
been prepared since 1951 by the Population Division of the Department of
Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. that have
been prepared by the Population Division of the Department of Economic
and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. The world population
was 6 billion at the end of 1999. In just the next 12 years, i.e., in the year
2011, global population reached 7 billion (UN 2011). The global human
population is estimated nearly 7.713 billion as of mid-2019(Table 1). This
marked growth of human population has been brought about largely by
increasing numbers of people surviving to reproductive age, major changes in
fertility rates, increasing urbanization and accelerating migration (UN 2019).

Population is unevenly distributed in different regions of world (Table 1). It

is estimated that 62.79% of the global population lives in Asia (4.843
billion), 13.82% in sub-Saharan Africa (1.066billion), 14.44% in Europe and
north America (1.114 billion), 8.40% in Latin America and the Caribbean
(0.648 million), and0.56 % in Oceania (0.043 million). China (1.44 billion)
and India (1.39 billion) are among the two largest countries of the world,
representing 19% and 18% of the world’s population, respectively. Current
projections indicate that India will surpass China as the world’s most
populous country around 2027 according to World Population Prospects
2019.
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Table 15.1. Population of the world in different regionsin 2019, 2030, and Environmental
Ethics and
2050, according to the medium-variant projection (UN, 2019). Resource
Management
https://population.un.org/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2019_Highlights.pdf

Population (billions)
Region 2019 2030 2050
World 7. 713 8. 551 9 735
Sub- 1. 066 1 400 2 118
SaharanAfrica
Asia 4 .843 5.263 5. 661

Latin America 0.648 0.706 0.762

and the Caribbean
1.132 1.136
Europe and 1.114
Northern America
Oceania 0.012 0.015 0.019
Least developed 1.033 1.314 1.877
countries

15.2.3 The Most Populous Countries of the World

The 2019 Revision of World Population Prospects shows that currently
China and India are the two most populous countries of the world.

Demographics of China according to UN data :

• The population of China 2020 is estimated at 1.439billion people.
• population accounts for 18.47% of the total world population, 58.2 % of
the population is urban
• China ranks number one in the list of countries by population.
• The population density in China is 153 per Km2
• The median age in China is 37.0 years

It has been reported that population in China is rapidly aging. The “One
Child Policy” was enacted in 1979, which was primarily aimed to slow the
country’s rapid population growth. Since early 2016, families have been
allowed to have two children, but even with this change in place. The aging
population in China is going to impact its future economic growth prospects
and will have large impact on finances of the country.

Demographics of India
India is the second most populous country of the world after China.
Population of India is 1.366 billion in 2019. India population is equivalent
to 17.71% of the total world population
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Contemporary • The population density in India is 460 per km2.
Issues in
Environment • 68.86% population lives in rural areas and 31.14% lives in urban areas;
and Society
• median age in India is 27.0 years.

15.2.4 Projected Growth of the Global Population

Today, the world’s population continues to grow, more slowly than in the
recent past. The world’s population reached 7.7 billion in mid- 2019, having
added one billion people since 2007 and two billion since 1994. The growth
rate of the world’s population peaked in 1965-1970, when it was increasing
by 2.1 per cent per year, on average. Since then, the pace of global population
growth has slowed by half, falling below 1.1 per cent per year in 2015-2020,
and it is projected to continue to slow through the end of this century. The
global population is expected to reach 8.5 billion in 2030, 9.7 billion in 2050
and 10.9 billion in 2100, according to the medium-variant projection, which
assumes a decline of fertility for countries where large families are still
prevalent, a slight increase of fertility in several countries where women have
fewer than two live births on average over a lifetime, and continued
reductions in mortality at all ages.

15.2.5 Population Age Structure and Population Pyramids

Population structure: Population structure is usually shown using
a population pyramid. A population pyramid can be drawn up for any area,
from a whole continent or country to an individual town, city or village. A
population pyramid, or age structure graph, is a simple graph that conveys the
complex social narrative of a population through its shape. The overall shape
of the pyramid tells us about the present balances between the different age
groups and between males and females.
Population can be categorized into three types: expansive (young and
growing), constrictive (elderly and shrinking), and stationary (little or no
population growth).The three basic shapes of population pyramids are
described as follows:
Expansive: Expansive population pyramids are used to describe populations
that are young and growing. They are often characterized by their typical
‘pyramid’ shape, which has a broad base and narrow top, representative of
developing countries like India and Indonesia (Figure 15.2a). These types of
populations are typically.
Constrictive: A constrictive pyramid has fewer people in the younger age
categories, whereas more people are elderly (Fig 15.2b). Constrictive
pyramids typically have an inverted shape with the graph tapering in at the
bottom. Constrictive pyramids have smaller percentages of people in the
younger age groups; for example, the population pyramid of Japan.
Stationary: Stationary, or near stationary, population pyramids are used to
describe populations that are not growing (Fig 15.2c). For example, Sweden
show stationary age categories because of relatively low, constant birth rates,
and a high quality of life.
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 Environmental
JAPAN: SWEDEN:
INDIA Ethics and
POPULATION POPULATION Resource
POPULATION IN 2020 IN 2020 Management
IN 2020

MALE FEMA
FEMA MALE FEMA
MALE LE
LE LE

A
g
e

Population thousands Population Population

thousands thousands
Constrictive (b) Stationary ©
Expansive (a) Population
Population pyramid Population pyramid
Japan pyramid Sweden
India

Fig 15.2. Three Types Population pyramid structures, (a) expansive, (b) constrictive and (C )
stationary . Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division (UN 2019). World Population Prospects: The 2019 Revision. New York:
UnitedNations. Source :
https://population.un.org/wpp/Graphs/DemographicProfiles/Pyramid/752

The graphic representation of the distribution of the world’s population by

age and sex, 2019 is shown in Figure 15.3. According to UN report, 2019
(United Nations, 2019) the male population being slightly larger than the
female population at the global level. The demographic profile of world and
India are given in Table 15.2.

Fig 15.3. Distribution of the world’s population by age and sex, 2019. (Source: United
Nations, 2019).

285
Contemporary Table 15.2 The demographic profile of world and India(UN Department of
Issues in
Environment
Economic and Social Affairs, 2019).
and Society https://population.un.org/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2019_Highlights.pdf

world India
Total population (billions) 7.7 1.4
Percentage of population under age 15 25.6 26.6
Percentage of population aged 15-24. 15.6 18.1
Percentage of population aged 65+. 9.1 6.4
Annual rate of population change 1.1 1.0
(percentage)

Crude birth rate per 1,000 population 18.2 17.6

Total fertility (live births per woman) 2.45 2.20
Life expectancy at birth (years) 72.6 69.7
Life Expectancy at age 65 (years) 17.1 14.7

15.2.6 Population Impact on the Environment

The impacts of population on environment in terms of solid waste
generation, biodiversity loss, deforestation, air pollution, and climate change,
are discussed as follows:
A classic attempt to explain the relationship between a human population and
its impact on the environment is the IPAT equation. The equation maintains
that impacts (I) on ecosystems are the product of the population size (P),
affluence (A), and technology (T) of the human population (Figure 15.4).
This equation was developed by biologist Paul Ehrlich and environmental
scientist John Holdren in 1971,IPAT is an equation that expresses the idea
that environmental impact (I) is the product of three factors: population (P),
affluence (A) and technology (T).

Affluence

World
population ENVIRONMEN Technolog
T y

Ecological IMPACT I= PxAx T

Footprint

Fig 15.4. The impacts of human growth on the environment. The population, affluence,
and destructive technology impact the environment according to the IPAT equation.
An analogous model is the ecological footprint which increases with development.
286
Loss of Biodiversity: Research suggests that the growth of human Environmental
Ethics and
population, technological change and unequal consumption in different Resource
regions of the world mainly contribute to the loss of biological diversity. Management
WWF's Living Planet Report (2018) has reported that there is loss of 60%
of all vertebrate wildlife populations since 1970. The Living Planet Index
(LPI) is a measure of the natural wealth of earth’s forest, freshwater, and
oceanic/coastal ecosystems. The Global Living Planet Index shows a decline
of 60 per cent (range: -50 to -67 per cent) between 1970 and 2014, Fig.15.5.
That's more than half of all birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fish
have been lost in just 50 years. During that time, human population has more
than doubled, increasing from 3.7 billion to over 7.7 billion.

Fig. 15.5 The Global Living Planet Index shows a decline of 60 per cent (range: -50 to -
67 per cent) between 1970 and 2014;The white line shows the index values and the
shaded areas represent the certainty limits surrounding the trend. From Living Planet
Report 2018: Aiming Higher . (WWF 2018). WWF (panda.org) © 2018 WWF

Deforestation: Many of the worlds’ most threatened and endangered animals

live in forests, and 1.6 billion people rely on benefits forests offer, including
food, fresh water, clothing, traditional medicine and shelter. Deforestation is
the large-scale removal of trees in forests. Trees are usually removed to make
way for agriculture, roads, and urban development. Deforestation is a
particular concern in tropical regions because these forests contain much of
the world’s biodiversity.

The problem of Pollution: Air quality is one of the leading environmental

threats to public health. Air pollution issues are especially acute in rapidly
urbanizing and industrializing nations such as India and China. About 90 per
cent of people in Sub-Saharan Africa are exposed to indoor air pollution,
impacting both economies and livelihoods while contributing to increased
emissions of greenhouse gases.
Climate Change: Human population growth is a major contributor to global
warming as humans use fossil fuels for their economic growth and to support
improved lifestyles. When fossil fuels are burned, these emit carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere which traps warm air inside like a greenhouse. The UN
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in its Fourth and Fifth
287
Contemporary Assessment Reports (IPCC 2007; IPCC 2014), has provided a strong
Issues in
Environment
scientific evidence of global warming. It is now clear that climate change is
and Society being caused by increasing human population, especially during the last
century. In recent times, atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has
increased from pre-industrial levels of 280ppm to about 417.41 ppm on 30
April, 2020primarily from fossil fuel emissions and secondarily from net land
use change emissions (Fig15.6).

Urbanisation: It is an increase in the number of people living in towns and

cities. Urbanization occurs mainly because people move from rural areas to
urban areas and it results in growth in the size of the urban population and the
extent of urban areas. The regular increase in the proportion of people living
in urban areas is because of increase in employment and easy access to
education. The world has urbanized rapidly since 1950 and projections
indicate that it will continue to urbanize in the coming decades (Table 15.3).
In 1980, 1.731 billion people worldwide, i.e. 39% of the world population
were living in cities. In 2015, the number had increased to 3.968 billion
(54%). The most urbanized regions include Northern America (with 82% of
its population living in urban areas in 2018), Latin America (80%), Europe
(74%) and Australia/Oceania (71%)(http://www.urbanet.info/world-urban-
population/). The level of urbanization in Asia is now approximating 48% of
the total population. In contrast, in sub-Saharan Africa, only 38% of its
population lives in urban areas.

Table 15.3 The world urban population in 1980, 2014 and 2050
(http://www.urbanet.info/world-urban-population/)

Year Billion people Share of urban

population
1980 4.439 39%
2014 7.349 54%
2050 9.725 66%
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Land degradation: Land degradation is the long-term loss of production Environmental
Ethics and
capacity of land and ecosystem services, affecting the livelihoods and food Resource
security of billions of people. The main causes of land degradation are Management
inappropriate land use and management, loss of soil organic carbon, soil
erosion, salinization, acidification, waterlogging, desertification, mining, soil
compaction, loss of soil biodiversity, nutrient imbalance, and loss of soil
biodiversity (FAO and ITPS 2015). Rapid expansion and unsustainable
management of croplands and grazing lands in different regions of the world
are the most extensive direct drivers of land degradation, which causes
significant loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. The annual cost of
land degradation has been estimated at 10% of global gross domestic
production in terms of loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services (IPBES
2018).

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit
1) The global human population and the most populous countries of the
world according to The2019 Revision of the World Population Prospects
are
…………………………………………………………………………..
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2) Explain the importance of age structure of human population

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15.3 FOOD SECURITY

Food security is one of the greatest challenges facing society today, the term
‘food security’ has been used in different contexts. According to the
FAO: “food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their
dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. (World
Food Summit, 1996). The United Nations has set target for ending hunger,
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Contemporary achieving food security and improved nutrition, and promoting sustainable
Issues in
Environment
agriculture as the second of its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
and Society for the year 2030.

15.3.1 Dimensions of food security

The widely accepted World Food Summit definition emphasizes the
multidimensional nature of food security and includes food access,
availability, food use and stability. These dimensions of food security are
briefly described as follows:

Food availability: The availability of sufficient quantities of food of

appropriate quality, supplied through domestic production or imports.

Food access: Access by individuals to adequate resources for acquiring

appropriate foods for a nutritious diet.

Utilization: Utilization of food through adequate diet, clean water, sanitation

and health care to reach a state of nutritional well-being.

Stability: To be food secure, a population, household or individual must have

access to adequate food at all times. The concept of stability can therefore
refer to both the availability and access dimensions of food security.
In simple terms, food security emphasizes three interconnected concepts, i.e.
food access ensuring everybody across the world gets enough food to eat;
food safety has a focus on healthy, nutritious food that is free from
contamination, and food sovereignty empowers people to make their own
choices about the food they eat.
India achieved self-sufficiency in food grains in the 1970s. Since the mid-
1990s it has made efforts to ensure that there is enough food available to feed
its entire population. India is the world’s largest producer of milk, pulses
and millets, and the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane,
groundnuts, vegetables, fruit and cotton. To strengthen the efforts to address
the food security of the people, the Government of India has enacted the
National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013. This act marks a paradigm shift
in approach to food security from a welfare to rights based approach. The Act
legally entitles up to 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban
population to receive subsidized food grains under Targeted Public
Distribution System. About two thirds of the population of India therefore is
covered under the Act to receive highly subsidized food grains in all the
States/UTs, on an all-India basis.

Causes of food insecurity

A person is food insecure when they lack regular access to enough safe and
nutritious food for normal growth and development and to lead an active and
healthy life. According to the latest estimates, 9.2 percent of the world
population was exposed to severe levels of food insecurity in 2018, which
means reductions in the quantity of food consumed possibly experienced
hunger(FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. 2019). Some causes of food
insecurity are briefly described as follows:
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Population growth: The growth of population varies considerably in Environmental
Ethics and
different countries of the world. Africa is expected to double its population Resource
from 1 to 2 billion by 2050. According to projections, the urban share of the Management
world population will grow to 6.419 billion (66%) by 2050. The latest data
indicate that about 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas.

Changing tastes and diet: The diet of human population is changing as

people become more affluent and start consuming food that is richer in
processed foods, meat and dairy products.

Climate change: There are a range of climatic factors that have substantial
influence on societies and economies, both past and present, with important
implications for the future (Carleton and Hsiang 2016). Climate impacts on
agriculture, income, health, and conflict could be substantial.
Water scarcity: According to the International Water Management Institute ,
agriculture accounts 70% of total freshwater withdrawal for production of
food and fibre: cereals, fruits, meat, cotton etc. Rainfed agriculture is the
most common method of agriculture in developing nations. India’s Green
Revolution, for example, relied on irrigation to greatly improve productivity,
but it also massively reduced groundwater reserves.
India ranked 72th in 113 countries assessed by The Global Food Security
Index (GFSI) in the year 2019 based on four parameters, i.e., affordability,
availability, quality, safety and natural resources and adjustment
(https://foodsecurityindex.eiu.com/Country/Details#India). India needs to
take needed initiatives to improve its food security and overcome the
constraints such as supply, water scarcity, small landholdings, low per capita
GDP and inadequate irrigation.

Strategy to improve food security

Food systems and the environment are highly interconnected. With the right
choices, innovations and public commitments, agriculture could shift from
being a major stress for environmental degradation to a leading force for
improved climate change adaptation and mitigation. There is need to
integrate integrated with biophysical aspects of the system (through the
preservation of biodiversity, maintenance of healthy soil systems,
maintenance of buffering capacity in water bodies, etc.) and socioeconomic
aspects of the system (knowledge transfer, development of organizational
capacity, elimination of poverty cycles, etc.).

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit

1) Explain dimensions of food security

…………………………………………………………………………..
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Contemporary …………………………………………………………………………..
Issues in
Environment …………………………………………………………………………..
and Society
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2) Strategy to improve food security.

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15.4 MATERIALISM AND CONSUMPTION

Materialism refers to an individual characteristic for the material well-being,
while consumerism is the promotion of the consumer's interests in a modern
consumer society. The contemporary culture of consumerism and
materialism affects our everyday happiness and psychological health of
people (Kasser 2002).

15.4.1 Materialism
Materialism can be considered to be a personal value, as it affects the
priorities in people’s lives and the choices made by them. According to
Ricinis (2010), there are three elements constituting materialism, i.e. (i) the
belief that acquisition is necessary for happiness, (ii) the tendency to judge
the success of one's self and others by their possessions, and (iii) the
centrality of acquisition and possessions in one's life. The focus is solely on
the acquisition of money, material possessions and the status that comes with
them. Materialism has important implications for society as a driver of
personal consumption, as well as economic growth. Materialism is associated
with many variables including a preference for status goods and unique
products, the visual aesthetics of a product, impulse buying, and other
decision variables (Richins 2010). Materialism is a personal attitude which
attaches importance to acquiring and consuming material goods. Generally,
there is negative correlation of materialism with well-being, strength of
personal relationships, and altruistic behavior (Richins 2010). Materialism is
negatively related to environmental concern and pro-environmental
intentions. From the materialism perspective, it is striking to note that 82%
of global wealth is in the hands of just 10% of the richest people in mid-
2019; and the top one percent alone own 45%of global wealth
(research.institute@credit-suisse.com; https://www.credit-suisse.com/about-
us-news/en/).Richest 10% of Indians own over 77.4% of total wealth in India
according to Credit Suisse 2018 Global Wealth Report
(https://www.livemint.com).

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15.4.2 Consumption Environmental
Ethics and
In developed nations, the unsustainable patterns of consumption and Resource
Management
production are of great concern. The mass production of goods is using large
amounts of energy, creating excess pollution, and generating huge amounts
of waste. Individuals living in developed countries have, in general, a much
bigger ecological footprint than those living in the developing world. The
increasing unsustainable consumption patterns have resulted in increasing
problems of air pollution, water scarcity and waste generation, and human
health in south-east Asia (UNEP 2016).

Quantification of the overall ecological impact of consumption

The most comprehensive attempt to quantify the overall ecological impact of
consumption is the ecological footprint measure. The Ecological Footprint
compares actual human consumption of renewable resources and ecological
services against nature’s supply of such resources and services). Nature
supplies us with the resources we need to live, including food, water and raw
materials. It also provides ecological services such as climate regulation, air
quality regulation, and disease regulation. Ecological Footprint accounting
measures our supply of, and demand on, nature, ecosystems, and the
biodiversity that inhabit them. Bio capacity is a measure of the area of
biologically productive land and sea available for human use. Ecological
Footprint considers six demand categories including cropland footprint,
grazing land footprint, fishing grounds footprint, forest product footprint,
built-up land footprint(see Mancini et al., 2016).. Bio capacity relates to
supply, whereas ecological Footprint is representative of demand; These two
parameters are measured in Global hectares (gha). It is clear that human
population is using more natural resources and services through overfishing,
deforestation, and emission of more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than
forests can sequester. At current population levels, humans use as much
ecological resources as if we lived on 1.75 Earths. The Ecological Footprint
is the only measure that compares the resource demand of individuals,
governments, and businesses against what Earth can renew.
The Ecological Foot print per capita: It is a nation's total Ecological
Footprint divided by the total population of the nation. Ecological footprint
per capita of some countries in the year 2016 are shown in Table 15.4. It is
high for Luxembourg (12.9) and United States( 8.1) , whereas very low for a
less developed country like Nigeria (1.1) (http://data.footprintnetwork.org).
To live within the means of our planet's resources, the world's Ecological
Footprint would have to equal the available bio capacity per person on our
planet, which is currently 1.75 global hectares.

Total Ecological footprint(in global hectares x106) is high for China, India
and USA (Table 15.3).

It is very low for Luxembourg(7.43).

Table15.4. Ecological footprint per capita and total ecological footprint

of some countries ( From Global Footprint Network National Footprint

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Contemporary Accounts, 2019 Edition Downloaded [27 April 2020] from
Issues in
Environment
http://data.footprintnetwork.org)
and Society
Countries Ecological footprint Total Ecological
per capita in global footprint(in global
6
hectares in 2016 hectares x10 )
Luxembourg 12.9 7.43
United States 8.1 2610
Japan 4.5 574
China 3.6 5200
India 1.2 1550
Nigeria 1.1 202

Aggregate ecological footprint: total ecological footprint of country's

population (in global hectares). The countries with the highest aggregate
ecological footprints have high population. The Ecological Footprint of the
top five countries makes up about 50% of the global total ( Fig7). Analysis of
the 2014 National Footprint Accounts reveals that China (16 per cent) and the
USA (15 per cent) have the greatest aggregate ecological footprint. China
with its largest population shows high ecological footprint , whereas total
Footprint of USA is high because of its greater per capita consumption. \

Fig15.7.Share of total Ecological Footprint among the top five countries with the
highest demand and the rest of the world (based on Global Footprint Network, 2014).

Patterns of consumption per income level

Ecological Footprint analyses can allocate total Footprint among
consumption components, typically food, shelter, mobility, goods, and
services. The patterns of consumption vary among countries. In low-income
countries like Tanzania, for example, 94 per cent of the Ecological Footprint
294
is determined by food and housing demand (Fig 15.8). In the case of the Environmental
Ethics and
USA, with the increase of disposable income, consumption increased Resource
because of greater mobility, possession of goods and services accounting Management
for a larger share of the population’s Ecological Footprint.

Fig.15.1(a)

Fig. 15.8. Ecological Footprint breakdown by consumption activities for (a) USA and
(b) Tanzania in 2012.
http://awsassets.wwfhk.panda.org/downloads/2019_footprint_eng_20190318.pdf

According to the National Footprints Accounts (2014), India has an

ecological footprint of 1.12 global hectares (gha) per person and a bio
capacity of 0.45 gha per person which means it is an ‘ecologically deficit
country’. There are ways in which ecologically deficit countries can balance
themselves including by increasing their net imports over exports,
minimizing the overuse of their ecosystems and using the global commons by
carbon debiting. In recent times, green consumerism is increasing: More
people are recycling, using reusable shopping bags and water containers,
295
Contemporary buying hybrid or electric cars etc. keeping in view the environmental criteria.
Issues in
Environment
Ecolabeling is also helping consumers to make environmentally conscious
and Society decisions.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit

1) Explain The Ecological Footprint per capita

…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
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2) Describe the patterns of consumption per income level

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15.6 LET US SUM UP

According to a new United Nations report, the global human population is
estimated nearly7.713 billion as of mid-2019 which is expected to reach 8.5
billion in 2030, 9.7 billion in 2050 and 10.9 billion in 2100. China (with
1.439billion people) and India (1.366 billion people) are the two most
populous countries of the world. India accounts for a 2.4% of the world
surface area yet it supports and sustains a 17.71% of the world population.
Population structure is usually shown using a population pyramid.There are
the three basic shapes of population pyramids, i.e. expansive, constrictive,
and stationary. Population explosion has impacts on the environment because
of high consumption, urbanization, biodiversity loss, deforestation,
environmental pollution, climate change, , and waste generation. Food
security occurs when all people can access enough safe and nutritious food to
meet their requirements for a healthy life. According to the latest estimates,
9.2 percent of the world population was exposed to severe levels of food
insecurity in 2018.The focus of materialism is solely on the acquisition of
money, material possessions and the status that comes with them; has
negative relationship to environmental concern and pro-environmental
intentions. The overall ecological impact of consumption has been quantified
296
by measuring the ecological footprint. Humans require 1.75 earths to produce Environmental
Ethics and
enough natural resources to match their consumption rates and population Resource
growth according to Global Footprint Network. Management

Terminal Questions
1) Describe the trends in population increase beyond 1800
2) Describe human population distribution in different regions of the world

3) How to explain relationship between a human population and its impact

on the environment

4) What is Living planet Index

5) What is Urbanisation

6) What is the best way to quantify the overall ecological impact of

consumption?

15.8 KEYWORDS
Bio capacity is a measure of the area of biologically productive land and sea
available for human use.

Consumer Society: a society in which a large part of people’s sense of

identity and meaning is found through the purchase and use of consumer
goods and services

Consumerism: having one’s sense of identity and meaning defined largely

through the purchase and use of consumer goods and services.
Deforestation: Deforestation is the large-scale removal of trees in forests.

Ecological Footprint: an estimate of how much land area a human society

requires to provide all that the society takes from nature and to absorb its
waste and pollution.

Eco labeling: product labels that provide information about environmental

impacts, or indicate certification.

Living Planet Index (LPI): It is a measure of the natural wealth of earth’s

forest, freshwater, and oceanic/coastal ecosystems.
Materialism refers to an individual characteristic for the material well-being
Population Pyramid: The graphic representation of the distribution of the
world’s population by age and sex,

15.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Carleton, T. A., and Hsiang, S. M. (2016). Social and economic impacts of
climate. Science, 353(6304), aad9837–aad9837. doi:10.1126/science.aad9837

297
Contemporary FAO and ITPS (2015) Status of the World’s Soil Resources (SWSR) – Main
Issues in
Environment
Report. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and
and Society Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils, Rome, Italy

FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. 2019. The State of Food Security
and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against economic slowdowns
and downturns. Rome, FAO.

Global Footprint Network (2014). Global Footprint Network ANNUAL

REPORT 2014. www.footprintnetwork.org

IPBES (2018) Summary for policymakers of the assessment report on land

degradation and restoration of the Intergovernmental Science- Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. R. Scholes, L.
Montanarella, A. Brainich, et al. (eds.). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany.
44 pages

IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis.

Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning,
M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., Tignor, M. and Miller, H.L. (ed.).
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York,
NY, USA. pp. 996.
IPCC, (2014).Summary for Policymakers. In: Field CB (ed) Climate change
2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral
Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK/New York, pp. 1–32.
Kasser, T. (2002) The High Price of Materialism, MIT Press, Cambridge.

Mancini, M.S., Galli, A., Niccolucci, V., Lin, D., Bastianoni, S.,
Wackernagel, M. and N. Marchettini (2016). Ecological Footprint: Refining
the carbon Footprint calculation. Ecological Indicators 61: 390-403. Doi:
10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.09.040.

McFalls Jr J. A.(2007). “Population: A Lively Introduction, 5th Edition,”

Population Bulletin62, no. 1 (Washington, DC: Population Reference
Bureau).
Richins, M. L. (2010). Consumer Materialism. Wiley International
Encyclopedia of Marketing.doi:10.1002/9781444316568.wiem03001
UN (2011). World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision. Population
Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the UN, New
York:United Nations. Secretariat.http://www.esa.un.org/wpp/
UNEP (2016). GEO-6 Regional Assessment for Asia and the Pacific. United
Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.

WWF 2016. Living Planet Report 2016. Technical Supplement: Living

Planet Index. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland.

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WWF. 2018. Living Planet Report - 2018: Aiming Higher. Grooten, M. and Environmental
Ethics and
Almond, R.E.A.(Eds). WWF, Gland, Switzerland. Resource
Management
15.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answers to check your Progress 1
Your answer should include the following points
1) The global human population is estimated nearly 7.713 billion as of mid-
2019. It is estimated that 62.79% of the global population lives in Asia.
China (1.44 billion) and India (1.39 billion) are among the two largest
countries of the world, representing 19% and 18% of the world’s
population, respectively.

2) A population pyramid can be drawn up for any area, from a whole

continent or country. A population pyramid is a simple graph that
conveys the complex social narrative of a population through its shape.
Population can be categorized into three types: expansive (young and
growing), constrictive (elderly and shrinking), and stationary (little or no
population growth).

Answers to check your Progress 2

Your answer should include the following points
1) “food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their
dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy
life”. World Food Summit definition emphasizes the multidimensional
nature of food security and includes food access, availability, food use
and stability.

2) Food systems and the environment are highly interconnected.

Approaches for improving food security include the preservation of
biodiversity, maintenance of healthy soil systems, maintenance of
buffering capacity in water bodies, development of organisational
capacity, elimination of poverty cycles, nutrition, and food safety
performance, support for the livelihoods and well-being of people.

Answers to check your Progress 3

Your answer should include the following points

1) It is a nation's total Ecological Footprint divided by the total population

of the nation.. It is high for Luxembourg (12.9) and United States( 8.1) ,
whereas very low for a less developed country like Nigeria (1.1). The
available bio capacity per person on our planet is currently 1.75 global
hectares.

2) Ecological Footprint analyses can allocate total Footprint among

consumption components, typically food, shelter, mobility, goods, and
services. In the case of the USA, with the increase of disposable
income, consumption increased. In low-income countries like Tanzania,
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Contemporary 94 per cent of the Ecological Footprint is determined by food and
Issues in
Environment
housing demand.
and Society
Answers to Terminal Questions
Your answer should include the following points

1) Until the 1800s the world's population grew slowly for thousands of
years. In 1820 the world's population reached one billion. In the early
1970s, the world's population reached three billion.In October 1999, the
population doubled to six billion; being an historic milestone.
On October 31, 2011, world population reached seven billion.

2) Population is unevenly distributed in different regions of world. It is

estimated that 62.79% of the global population lives in Asia, 13.82% in
sub-Saharan Africa, 14.44% in Europe and north America , 8.40% in
Latin America and the Caribbean, and0.56 % in Oceania.

3) The IPAT equation explain the relationship between a human population

and its impact on the environment. The equation maintains that impacts
(I) on ecosystems are the product of the population size (P), affluence
(A), and technology (T) of the human population. This equation was
developed by biologist Paul Ehrlich and environmental scientist John
Holdren in 1971
4) LPI is a measure of the natural wealth of earth’s forest, freshwater, and
oceanic/coastal ecosystems. The Global Living Planet Index shows a
decline of 60 per cent (range: -50 to -67 per cent) between 1970 and
2014. That's more than half of all birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians
and fish have been lost in just 50 years.
5) It is an increase in the number of people living in towns and cities.
Urbanization occurs mainly because people move from rural areas to
urban areas. The world has urbanized rapidly since 1950 and projections
indicate that it will continue to urbanize in the coming decades. The level
of urbanization in Asia is now approximating 48% of the total
population.
6) The most comprehensive attempt to quantify the overall ecological
impact of consumption is the ecological footprint. Ecological Foot print
considers six demand categories including cropland footprint, grazing
land footprint, fishing grounds footprint, forest product footprint, built-
up land footprint. The countries like India with the highest aggregate
ecological footprints have high population.

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