Introduction to Geography-301 (3)

Course Outline:

■Introduction

• Definition, Scope and Branches of Geography

 Roots of the discipline and basic geographic concepts

 Themes and traditions of Geography
 Tools of Geography

■The Universe

• Galaxies and Solar System

■The Earth as a Planet

• Celestial positions, its shape and size

 Rotation, revolution and related phenomena

■Spheres of the Earth

• Lithosphere

 Atmosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Biosphere

■Man Environment Interaction

• Population

 Major Economic Activities

 Settlements
 Pollution

Prepared by:

Muhammad Abubakar Hassan Gorchani

Lecturer Government Graduate College Jampur

Geography:

The word geography is derived from geographia which is the combination of two Greek
words; Geo means the Earth and Graphia means to write, to describe. So the literal meaning of the geography
is description of the earth or to write about the earth.

Eratosthenes a Greek philosopher was pioneer of the word geography first time in recorded history of the
discipline in 3rd century B.C.E. He is not only coined the word geography but also sketched out the first map of
the known world. Therefore, he is considered as the father of geography.

Definitions of Geography:

• Geography is a description of the earth’s surface, treating of its forms and physical features, its natural
and political divisions, the climate, productions, populations etc of various countries.

• Geography is considered to provide accurate, orderly and rational description and interpretation of the
variable character of the earth’s surface.
• Geography is the study of earth with relation to environment.

• Geography tells us about where, why and how it is made of.

• Geography is the study of the earth as the home of people.

Scope of Geography:

The scope of the geography is very broad and diverse. The continuous development
of man’s activities and natural or physical acts have widened the scope of the geography. The aims and
objectives while study geography also helpful to comprehend the scope of geography. Geography represents a
broad vision of an intellectual, moral and social viewpoint on the issues of life. So many of the world’s current
issues from a global scale to local scale look down to geography and need the geographers to help us
understand them. Among them, global warming as it affects countries and regions, food and energy security,
the degradation of land and soils from over use and misuse, the spread of disease, the causes and
consequences of migration, and the impacts of current’s world. These problems can be solved when we think
about the utilization of the study of geography and this study is thus useful for the persons of every walk of life.
It gives a new insight to us and brightens our minds. In reality, geography is the study of the earth, including
how human activity has changed it. Due to its vastness and involvement in physical and social sciences, it is a
bridge between social science and natural sciences.

Branches of Geography:

There are two main branches of geography, Physical geography and Human geography.

Physical Geography:

The scientific study of the natural features of the earth’s surface, especially in its current aspects, including
land formation, climate, currents and distribution of flora and fauna(‫)نباتات و حیوانات‬.

Branches of Physical Geography:

(i) Geomorphology
It is one of the main branches of physical geography that is devoted to study the landforms, their
evolution and related processes.
(ii) Climatology
Climatology studies the structure of the atmosphere, elements of weather and climates, climatic
types and classification, impacts of climate and climatic region.
(iii) Hydrology
It studies the diversity of water bodies on the surface of the earth including oceans, rivers, lakes
and other water bodies and discussed the impact of these water bodies on different forms of life.
(iv) Oceanography
It is the scientific study of the seas and oceans concerned with the form of ocean basins, the
structure, relief and deposits of the their floors, aqua life, movements of sea water in the form of
ocean currents, waves, tides, ocean temperature and salinity.
(v) Soil Geography
It studies the soil formation, soil types, soil fertility, status, structure, texture and global
distribution and use of soil. Soil erosion and depletion are also brought under the discussion.
(vi) Biogeography
It is the study of spatial distribution of plants and animals and other forms of life, and changes to
those distribution over time and space.
(vii) Glaciology
It deals with the nature, distribution and action of glaciers and with their effect on the earth’s
topography.
(viii) Coastal Geography
 It deals with the study of the coastal regions, their evolution, processes that shape them,
recreational importance and the problems of coastal regions across the globe.
(ix) Mathematical Geography
It deals with the shape and motions of the earth, its seasons and tides, its measurement and its
representation on maps and charts by various methods of projection.
(x) Astronomical Geography
It treats of the earth in its relation to the other celestial bodies, solar system, moon and its phases
and effects, movements of stars and other planets.
(xi) Paleogeography
It studies and representing the earth’s geographic features belonging to any part of the geologic
period as based on their fossil records.
(xii) Environmental Geography
It deals with the spatial distribution of various ecosystems, habitat, plants, animal and human life.
It studies the effects of man made changes and developments on the environment. It studies the
location and impact of industries, urbanization, deforestation, pollution, agricultural wastes, soil
and coastal erosion.

Human Geography:

The branch of geography dealing with how human activity affects or is influenced by the earth’s surface.

Branches of Human Geography

(i) Population Geography

It is the major branch of human geography that studies of various dimensions of human
population like its distribution, density, composition, fertility, morality, migration etc.
(ii) Economic Geography
It refers to the study of the location and distribution of economic activities at the local, regional,
national and international scale.
(iii) Settlement Geography
It is the study of rural and urban settlements their size, distribution, function and various other
parameters of settlement system.
(iv) Political Geography
It is the study of political phenomena in their spatial context. In this way, main focus remains for
creation and transformation of political and administrative region, territory and geopolitics.
(v) Cultural Geography
It focuses on the spatial aspects of human culture including distribution of cultural traits i.e.
language, religion etc. and their impact.
(vi) Social Geography
It is the study of social phenomena in space. Poverty, health, education, livelihood are some
important fields of study in geography.
(vii) Regional Geography
It is concerned with the aspects such as delineation of regions, their geographical features and
processes of change that occur over the earth’s surface.
(viii) Agricultural Geography
It is concerned with the spatial variations, distribution and location of agricultural activies on the
earth’s surface and the factors responsible for them.
(ix) Tourism Geography
It is concerned with the relations between places, landscape and people, describing travel and
tourism as an economic, social and cultural activity.
(x) Historical Geography
It is concerned with the study of historical processes through which the geographical phenomena
gets organized.
(xi) Medical Geography
It is concerned with the geographic aspects of health and healthcare system. It seeks the ways to
analyze and improve our understanding about disease, their impact and health related issues.
(xii) Military Geography
It is concerned with the study of the ways in which militarism and military activities are
geographically constituted and expressed.

Roots of the Discipline of Geography:

The discipline of geography has a rich and complex history with roots can be traced back to ancient times.
These roots have evolved and branched out into various subfields and approaches over the centuries.
Historical Background

1. Ancient Greece
2. Roman Period
3. Islamic Golden Age
4. Medieval and Renaissance Europe
5. Age of Exploration
6. Colonialism and Cartography
7. Modern Geography
8. Quantitative Revolution
9. Contemporary Geography

Ancient Greece:

The origin of geography can be traced back to ancient Greece. Where early philosophers and
scholars made significant contributions to the field. Thales of Miletus is often considered the first geographer.
He is credited with the idea that the earth is a sphere, which was groundbreaking concept at the time. Other
Greek scholars like Pythagoras, Anaximander and Eratosthenes made important contributions to the study of
geography. Eratosthenes for instance, calculated the earth’s circumference with remarkable accuracy.

Roman Period:

During the Roman period scholars like Strabo wrote extensiton about geography. Strabo’s
Geographica is considered one of earliest comprehensive works on the subject. He discussed the known world
at the time and provided detailed description of various regions.

Islamic Golden Age:

During the Islamic golden age, scholars like Al-Idrisi and Ibn-e-Battuta made significant
contributions to geography. Al-Idrisi’s work Kitab-ul-Rujari (The book of Roger), was a comprehensive
geographical encyclopedia that included maps and detailed descriptions of various regions. Ibn-e-Battuta’s
travel accounts also added to the geographic knowledge of the time.

Medieval and Renaissance Europe:

Geography continued to develop in Europe during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The
works of Marco Polo, who traveled extensively in Asia, and the navigational charts created by early European
explorers contributed to the understanding of the world’s geography.

Age of Exploration:

The age of exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries greatly expanded geographical
knowledge. Explorers like Christopher Columbus, Ferdinand Magellan and Vasco da Gama mapped new
territories, leading to the discovery of the Americans the circumnavigation of the globe.

Colonialism and Cartography:

The colonial period saw a strong connection between geography, colonial expansion and map
making. European powers created detailed maps of their colonies which not only served colonial interests but
also contributed to the development of modern cartography.

Modern Geography:

The 19th and 20th centuries marked the emergence of modern geography as an academic
discipline. During this period, geography shifted from being primarily descriptive to analytical and scientific.
Influential figures like Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Ritter and Richard Hartshorne made key contributions to
the development of geographic thought.

Quantitative Revolution:

In the Mid-20th century, the quantitative revolution transformed geography. Geographers

began to use mathematical and statistical techniques to analyze spatial patterns and relationships, leading to
the development of fields like quantitative geography and spatial analysis.

Contemporary Geography:

Geography today encompasses a wide range of subfields, including human geography

(studying human populations and their activities), physical geography (the study of earth’s physical processes)
and geographic information systems among others. Geographers also examine contemporary issues such as
climate change, urbanization, globalization and geopolitics. These historical roots demonstrate the diverse and
evolving nature of the geography discipline. Today, geography is a multidisciplinary field that combines
elements of the natural and social sciences to study the earth’s physical environment ant eh human societies
that inhabit it. geographers continue to explore the world and address pressing global challenges.

Basic Geographic Concepts:

The following are the basic geographic concepts for geographic

understanding and inquiry. When looking at the geography of an area, these are some of the geographic
questions came in mind. The basic geographic concepts are:

Location:

Location can be described in two ways; absolute and relative and answers the question of where is it?
Absolute location describes the position of a feature or event in space, using some form of geographic
coordinates. Relative location uses descriptive text to describe the position of the feature or event in
relationship to another object or event. What is the distance and direction of a place form another? For
example, the flood will hit the town B 30 miles north of town A. understand the location of features or events is
the building blocks to geographic study, including using GIS (Geographic Information System) for mapping and
analysis.

Region:

Regions are groupings of geographic information. A region is a geographic area defined by one or
more distinctive features. Regions can be based on physical features (such as a watershed), political
boundaries (a country or continent), culture or religion or other categorized geographies. Regions can be
formal, functional or perceptual. Formal regions are also known as homogenous or uniform region. Entities
within a formal region share one or more common traits such as the residents of a country. A functional region
is a region anchored by a focal point. Examples are a customer service area for a restaurant delivery service or
the school district for an elementary school. A perceptual/vernacular region also known as a popular region is a
geographic area that exists as part of a cultural or ethnic identity and therefore don’t hold to political or formal
regional boundaries.

Place:

Place looks at the physical and cultural characteristics of a place is important. Physical features
include; weather and temperature, land and soil and plant and animal life. Cultural attributes include;
languages, religions and ethnicities where and how people settle, transportation, economics and politics.

Density, Dispersion, Pattern:

Understanding spatial pattern is an important aspect of geographic inquiry. Spatial pattern looks at
commonality in geography across regions. How are things arranged? Is the arrangement regular? Is there a
pattern to the distribution? These are all brought under the consideration of a geographic inquiry undertaking
to comprehend spatial outlook of a place.

Spatial Interaction:

Spatial interaction is the cause and effect of an event in one region or area that affects another area
and takes a look at the connectivity and relationships of features. For example, a change in land use from rural
to high density urban area can affect traffic congestion in adjoining areas. The 1980 eruption of Mount Saint
Helen volcano affected an area far beyond the volcanic site with ash fallout reach across several states.

Size and Scale:

A scale is about the way that geographical phenomena and problems can be examined at different
spatial levels or scales from rural to urban or from national to international. It is comprehend by the
generalizations made and relationships found at one level and scale may be different at higher or lower level.
For instance, in studies of vegetation, climate is the main factor at global scale. Cause and effect relationships
cross scales from the local to global and from the global to local. For instance, local events have global
outcomes such as the effects of local vegetation removal on global climate.

Themes of Geography:

There are some core fundamental themes and concepts in discipline geography that
encompasses its essence. These are often coated in geographic studies. The five themes were written in 1984
by Joint Committee on Geographic Education of the National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) and the
Association of American Geographers (AAG). They are outlined in greater detail in the NCGE/AAG publication
‘’Guidelines for Geographic Education, Elementary and Secondary Schools’’. They are follows:

Location:
 Every point on earth has a specific location that is determined by an imaginary grid of lines denoting
latitude and longitude. Parallels of latitude measure distances north and south of the line called Equator.
Meridians of longitudes measures distances east and west of the line called the Prime Meridian. Geographers
are use latitude and longitude to pinpoint a places absolute, or exact location. For instance, the absolute
location of Pakistan is 2335 ‫ ’ځ‬N to 3705 ‫ ’ځ‬N (Latitude) and 6050 ‫ ’ځ‬E to 7750 ‫ ’ځ‬E (Longitude). To know the absolute
location of a place is only part of the story. It is also important to know how the place is related to other places.
In other words, to know that places relative location. Relative location deals with the interaction that occurs
between and among places. It refers to the many ways, by land, by water, even by technology that places are
connected.

Place:

All places have features that give them meaning and character and distinguish them from other places
on the earth. Geographers describe places by their physical and human characteristics. Physical characteristics
include such elements as animal life. Human characteristics of the landscape can be noted in architecture,
patterns of livelihood, land use and ownership, town planning, communication and transportation networks.
Language as well as religious and political ideologies help shape the character of a place. Studied together,
physical and human characteristics of places provide clues to help people understand the nature of places on
the earth.

Human Environment Interaction:

Environment means different things to different people, depending on their cultural background and
technological resources. In studying human environment interaction, geographers look at all the effects either
positive or negative that occurs when people interact with their surroundings. Sometimes a human act, such as
damming a river to prevent flooding or to provide irrigation, requires consideration of the potential
consequences. For instance, the construction Hoover Dam on the Colorado River (USA) changed the natural
landscape, but it also created a reservoir that helps provide water and electric power for the arid. Southwest
studying the consequences of human environment interaction helps people plan and manage the environment
sensibly.

Movement:

People interact with other people, places and things almost every day of their lives. They travel from
one place to another, they communicate with each other and they rely upon products, information and ideas
that come from beyond their immediate environment. One should be able to recognize where resources are
located, who need them, and how they are transported over the earth’s surface. The theme of movement helps
students and people to understand how they themselves are connected with and dependent upon, other
regions, cultures and nations in the world.

Regions:

A basic unit of geographic study is the region, an area on the earth’s surface that is defined by certain
unifying characteristics. The unifying characteristics may be physical, human or cultural. In addition to studying
the unifying characteristics of a region, geographers study how a region changes over time. Using the theme of
regions, geographers divide the world into meaningful units of study. Regions can be divided broadly into three
main types; (i) Formal Region: It is defined by governmental or administrative boundaries of the states,
countries, or cities or by similar features of the area (i.e China Town). (ii) Functional Region: It is defined by
particular function like the service area of a municipality or cell phone coverage area of a cellular company (i.e
Bahawalpur city as an educational city). (iii) Perceptual Region: It is also called vernacular region and defined
by people’s on perception or idea (i.e Middle East, South Asia etc).

Tools of Geography:
 Geographers used geospatial techniques as modern tools to illustrate, manage and
manipulate the spatial data and its analysis. In this regard the quest of British Epidemiologist Dr. John Snow is
considered pioneer to locate and identify the link between water supply and Cholera epidemic outbreak in
London, UK in 1854. He mapped out the cholera deaths and location of water wells and pumps with red points.
On the other hand, Locational Analysis is a term coined by famous British Geographer Peter Haggett in 1965,
referring to the logically and empirically rigorous investigation of the spatial arrangements of phenomena and
related flow patterns. Hence, geography examines the relationships between and the processes of humans and
their physical and cultural environments. It is an essential skill, whether guiding ships across the ocean,
positioning astronauts in space or providing directions to grandma’s house. Recent example is the outbreak of
global pandemic of Covid-19 and its spatial distribution of fatalities. Geographers use a set of specialized tools
to describe, understand and explain the structure of the earth. Some of these tools have a long history of use in
the geographical sciences, such as maps, the compass and surveying equipment. Other tools take advantage of
modern technology made possible by the information age and space age, especially Global Positioning
Systems, Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing.

Maps:

A map is a basic tool of a geographer. A map is graphical representation of the earth’s surface drawn
on some scale and projection. Maps are the most common method of illustrating different spatial qualities, and
geographers create and use maps to communicate spatial data about the earth’s surface. They had a very long
history as it is believed that oldest map was a small clay tablet dating back to 2300 B.C.E (Before Common Era)
shows the location of river Euphrates from Northern Mesopotamia of modern day Iraq. Cartography is the art
and science of making maps which illustrate data in a spatial form and are invaluable in understanding what is
going on at a given place at a given time. Atlas on the other hand, is a collection of maps or sometimes referred
as book of maps. Traditionally the field of cartography, or map making has been vital for geographers and an
extremely important part of geography. Because maps are powerful graphic tools that allow us to illustrate
relationships and processes at work in the world. Different maps serve different functions. They usually based
on objective and scale. Scale wise, large scale maps illustrate smaller area with more detail (e.g 1 Inch = 1
Mile) while small scale maps demonstrate larger area with less details (e.g 1 Inch = 1000 Mile) and these are
also called Atlas Maps showing various regions, countries and even the world. Climatic maps illustrate the
weather conditions i.e temperature, air pressure, rainfall distribution etc. cadastral maps are the maps showing
the properties and ownership of people. Political maps shows political boundaries of states. Oceanic maps show
the oceans depth. Population maps show the distribution and density of population.

Map Scales:

Scale is the ratio between the distance of a place on map and the same distance on the ground. For
instance, the distance of two places on map is 1 cm = 10 km implies that the distance of 10 km of ground
shown by 1 cm on map. The size and scale affects the degree of generalization of the features being mapped.
The smaller the scale, the less detail is shown. In other words, a small scale shows a larger geographic area
(e.g. map of the world or continent) but shows more generalized features and less detail (e.g. only major
highways and major rivers). There are three basic scales: (i) Statement of Scale: it is written in simple
statement in any language i.e. 1 Inch = 1 Mile or 1 cm = 1 km. it is easy to use and convert other scales. (ii)
Representative Fraction: It is written in fraction. The nominator of fraction is always one. So it shows the equal
units of nominator and denominator. For example,

1: 100000 or 1/100000. It is called an International Scale because it is easily comprehend and convert to other
scales and used worldwide in most of the maps. (iii) Linear Scale: It is written in a linear bar and divided into
primary and secondary parts and shown in bottom or left side.

Map Projection:

Map projection is a method of representing part of the surface of the earth or a celestial sphere on a
plane surface or transforming the lines net of coordinates (latitudes and longitudes) from globe to plane surface
of a paper. It is a way of showing rounded earth on a flat piece of paper. Look at the lines of latitudes and
longitudes and the outlines of major continents and oceans on a globe. The basic properties of projection are
scale, area and shape. A projection is said to be Homolographic Projection or equal area if area of a country
shown on it equal to the area of the same country on the globe. On the other hand orthomorphic Projection or
Conformal Projection is called True Shape. Projections can be classify on the basis of mode of their
development and on the family of projections. On the mode of development, projections are classified into
perspective and non-perspective. In perspective projection the parallels and meridians of the globe are
represented on a surface geometrically from a point. Suppose there was a light bulb inside the globe. If you
wrapped a piece of paper around the globe and turned on the light bulb, the outlines of the grid and
landmasses would be projected onto the paper. They have three types; (i) A cylinder in which the globe is
placed (ii) A cone placed on the globe in such a way that its apex is vertically above the north or south (iii) A
plane which is placed tangentially to the globe at north or south pole. Non-perspective projections, on the other
hand have used arithmetical calculations to construct projections and have limited uses. These are used with
modifications.

Surveying:

Fieldwork is the basic part of geographer’s skill and job. According to renowned American geographer
Carl O. Sauer ‘’The principle training of the geographer should come wherever possible by doing fieldwork’’.
Survey is a science and art of determining the relative positions of points above on or beneath the earth
surface. The basic concerns regarding a survey are spaces and locations within them. You have likely seen
these tools used by construction contractors while your car was stopped in traffic, but geographers use them to
perform the same task for their jobs. There are two main types of surveys the Terrestrial Survey and Arial
Survey. Terrestrial surveys are of various natures including geological survey, cadastral survey, geographical
survey and done of different scales. One type of more complex but accurate survey is Geodetic Survey carried
to measure the curvature of the earth and involved more technicalities. The most recognizable is the theodolite
a level lens on a tripod that helps measure relative distance and elevation. Geographers combine the theodolite
with a plumb line and measuring tape to accurately assess even small details of an area. Other traditionally
fieldwork surveys including plane Table Survey, chain Survey and prismatic Compass Survey and others to map
the specific piece of land. Fieldwork is often fundamental to the way geographers perceive, research and
understand the world.

Aerial Photography:

A photograph taken from above the ground is called an Aerial Photograph. There are two types of
aerial photograph; a vertical photograph (or bird’s eye view) and an oblique photograph where the camera is
held at an angle. Aerial photograph on the other hand, refers to acquiring photographs in vertical or oblique
position taken from an aircraft. Among other things, aerial photographs may be used for mapping and for the
general study of landforms and landscape change. For the mapping of terrestrial features, aerial photographs
usually are taken in overlapping series from an aircraft following a systematic flight pattern at a fixed altitude.
In the late 1800s cameras were positioned above the earth’s surface in balloons or kites to take oblique aerial
photographs of the landscape. During world war I aerial photography played an important role in gathering
information about the position and movements of enemy troops. These photographs were often taken from
airplanes.

Global Positioning System (GPS):

The full name of GPS is Navigation System with Time and Ranging Global Positioning System (NAVSTR
GPS). It has three elements; satellites, receivers and ground stations. Global positioning system consists of 24
satellites that circle the globe once every 12 hours to provide worldwide position, time and velocity information
by sending synchronized signal from each individual satellite. Because the satellite are moving in different
directions a user on the ground receives the signals at slightly different times. GPS makes it possible to
precisely identify locations on the earth by measuring distance from the satellites. GPS allows us to record or
create locations from places on the earth and helps to navigate and from those places. Nowadays many people
take GPS devices even built in their smart phones and smart wrest watches. GPS can also be used for tracking
such as adding a tag to an animal to see the extent of its territory. The technology also assists with mapping
such as helping to better define the outline of a country.

Remote Sensing (RS):

Remote sensing technology acquires data about the earth’s surface through aerial photographs taken
form airplanes or images created from satellites orbiting the earth. Remotely sensed images allow geographers
to identify, understand or explain a particular landscape or determine the land use of a place. Satellite remote
sensing (SRS) is the sophisticated form of remote sensing that is done with the help of satellites orbiting the
earth at an average altitude of thousands of kilometers (e.g. geostationary satellites works at an altitude of
35786 km). These technologies provide the means to examine and analyse change on the earth’s surface
caused by natural or human forces. Google earth is an excellent example of a computer tool that illustrates
remotely sensed images of locations on the earth. There are two types of remote sensing; Active Remote
Sensing (type of remote sensing where energy usually from sun naturally reflected or radiated for the terrain)
and Passive Remote Sensing (type of remote sensing methods that his own source of electromagnetic radiation
to illustrate the terrain. i.e. Radar, Lidar).

Geographic Information System (GIS):

Geographic Information System often referred to as a computer program to acquire, store,

incorporate, manipulate, analyse and manage many layers of map data which then provide specific information
about a given place. Roger F. Tomlinson an English geographer and the primary originator of modern
computerized geographic information systems, and has been acknowledged as the ‘’Father of GIS’’. He coined
the term GIS in 1970. GIS data are usually in digital form and arranged in layers. The GIS computer program
can sort or analyse layers of data to illustrate a specific feature or activity and also referred to a techniques
used to represent, analyse and predict spatial relationships between different phenomena. GIS programs are
used in a wide range of applications from determining the habitat range of a particular species of bird to
mapping the hometowns of university students.
The Universe:

The universe is considered a broader term. The term is simply define an entity containing all
the energy and matter that found anywhere in the space and time. The universe is so immense and vast that it
cannot be fully comprehend by the human knowledge in its real sense. Early Greeks and later Roman scholars
were also very curious about the mysteries of the universe (Cosmos), sky, stars and moon and they trying to
made astronomical assumptions by visualizing these bodies with mathematical calculations. Ptolemy, A Roman
astronomer, geographer and mathematician in 2nd century B.C deductively argued and was the first to give the
idea or theory of Geocentric Universe (Earth Centered Universe) which assumed that earth must be at the
centre of the universe with the celestial bodies circling the earth. The opposing idea or theory was Heliocentric
Earth (Sun Centered Earth) which states that earth and the other planets orbited around the centrally located
sun. In 1543, the famous astronomer Nicolas Copernicus was the first to give an offer a concrete mathematical
justification for it. It is assumed that the universe is come into being about 13.7 billion years ago as a result of a
massive explosion that termed as ‘’Big Bang’’ who is thought to coined by Sir Fred Hoyle, an English
astronomer to explain a scientific theory on the creation of cosmos. To get little understanding about the
universe, we consider the space and time together. The fastest traveling thing in our universe is light that
travels at a speed of 300,000 km (186,000 miles) per second. The universe is usually measured in light years. A
Light Year means the distance that a ray of light travelled in one year. A light can travel a distance of 9.46
trillion km (5.88 trillion miles) in one year. Modern astronomical telescopes have travelled 15 billion light years
that are assumed the out edges of the universe. The radius of the universe is thought to exceed 15 billion light
years and the diameter might be round about 30 billion light years.

Galaxies:

A galaxy is a system of millions or billions of stars together with gas and dust held together by
gravitational attraction or a galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust and billions of stars and their solar systems
held together by gravity. Our galaxy, the Milky Way came into being about 12 billion years ago. It has also a
massive Black Hole (A region of space resulting from the collapse of a star, extremely high gravitational field) in
the middle. Its diameter is about 100,000 light years and it is just one of about 30 loosely bound galaxies which
are about 3 million light years in its dimension. The sun is one of more than 100 billion stars in the Milky Way. If
the universe is like our planet, then a galaxy is like a country contained within the planet. It is estimated there
could be upwards of hundreds of billions of galaxies in the observable universe. When galaxy is written in lower
case, it is meant as a general term, but when it is capitalized, it refers to our galaxy the Milky Way where our
sun and earth reside. Galaxies come in all sorts of different shapes and sizes they can be elliptical, lenticular,
spiral, dwarf and irregular.

Solar System:

Our solar system is a tiny part of our Galaxy Milky Way and orbits at the speed of 220 km/sec around
it. Solar system consists the sun and the planets, moons, asteroids and comets held by the sun is written in
lowers gravitational force and travel around it. All the major planets are orbit the sun at the same plane but at
different distances that is estimated about 7.5 billion miles and entire solar system with much bigger orbits of
comets and asteroids is at least 9.3 billion wide. Solar system includes the earth and seven other major planets
(after the exclusion of the Pluto in 2006 that is also called ‘’Dwarf Planet’’) that further divided into asteroids,
planetoids, comets, meteors, meteorites and interplanetary dust. If our galaxy is like a country in the universe,
then the solar system is like one neighbourhood in the country. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are called inner
planets or terrestrial planets or rocky planets made up with dense metallic minerals while Jupiter, Saturn and
Neptune are called outer planets or Jovian Planets or gaseous planets as they made up with gasses. Earth in our
solar system is unique because it is the only planet to support life and also the highest density as well. It is also
called Blue Planet due to the abundant water that cover more than the ¾ of surface area. In our solar system,
the biggest planet is Jupiter that is one-tenth 1/10 of the size of the sun and bigger than of the 1,000 earths. It
is also the fastest rotating planet in the solar system. Mars is the planet that is hoped by the scientists to
support life due to the evidences of water availability in the near past. It is also called Red Planet due to its
rocky surface and red dust. Mercury is the smallest planet in solar system that is also called Dead Planet or
Hottest Planet. The brightest planet is Venus that is also called Earth’s Twin planet due to the similarity with
earth in size and mass. It is only planet that rotates in a direction opposite to that of others. Saturn is the
second largest planet after Jupiter that also has prominent rings around it made up with hydrogen and helium
but in solid ice forms. It is also the second fastest moving planet after Jupiter. Mercury and Venus are the only
planets in solar system which have no satellites. Uranus and Neptune are often called Twin Planets because
they share many common characteristics.
 Earth As A Planet

The earth is a dynamic planet. It is the 3rd planet from the sun and 5th largest planet in our solar system that
orbits round the sun. It is the only planet in our solar system that is known to support life and the most amazing
planet which often said water drenched planet due to abundance of water that covers its predominant surface
area. The age of the earth is assumed about 4.6 billion years whereas the life started on it much later about 3.8
billion years ago. Human life started on the planet about 3-4 million years ago.

Earth’s Celestial Position:

Earth is a tiny part of huge universe and is a member of solar system. It is titled on its ecliptic plane of
polar axis at the angle of 66.5‫ ځ‬and moves from west to east. Since the axis is titled, different parts of the globe
are oriented towards the sun at different times of the year. This affects the amount of sunlight receives
different part of the earth. The earth is a huge magnet and has a great gravitational force. To escape the earth
and moves from gravitational pulls an object must reach a velocity of 24,840 mi/hr. On average, the earth
orbits 93 million mi away from the sun and received less than one billionth of its energy. The earth is closed to
the sun this is called ‘’Perihelion’’ around January 2 each year and farthest away from the sun this is called
‘’Aphelion’’ around July 2 each year. The earth has an orbit that is close to being circular, its orbital Eccentricity
is 0.017. The earth’s surface rich in Silicon, Aluminium, Iron, Calcium and Oxygen. It is believed that earth’s
crust is lies on 7 major and more than 20 small lithospheric planets that moves as rigid units on the viscous
Asthenosphere.

Earth’s Shape:

The speculations about the shape of the earth are not modern idea rather it is heard from ancient
Greeks. The sphericity or roundness of the earth was debated much since so long ago. The renowned Greek
mathematician and Philosopher Pythagoras argued that earth is a sphere floating on the water. His pupil
Anaximander had stated that the earth is like a cylinder rotating on its axis. Aristotle and later Nicolas
Copernicus declared that earth is round like a ball. Later in 1687, Sir Issac Newton agreed that earth could not
be a perfect sphere. Newton reasoned that more rotational speed of the earth at equator produce bulge as
centrifugal force pulled earth’s surface outward. Therefore it is bulges at the equator and flattens at the poles.
The difference between equatorial and polar diameter is the evidence that is universally accepted and
confirmed with accurate precision by satellite observations. The true shape of the earth is an Oblate Spheroid
or Oblate Ellipsoid or more accurately Geoid means earth like or earth shaped. Instead some scientists called it
orange shaped or pear like and few believes that it like a tetrahedron.

Earth’s Size:

Total earth’s mass is about and oceans

. Although it is not the most giant planet in our solar system and the mass is added on a daily basis as dust and
meteorites enter the atmosphere. Conversely, some mass is lost by gases escaping top of the atmosphere the
earth has an average density of 5520 kg/m3 or 5.52 gm/cm3 (water has a density of 1027 kg/m3). Earth is the
densest planet in our solar system. The circumference of the earth on equator is about 40,075 km (24,902
miles) and on poles it is 40,008 km (24,860 miles). The reason of this difference is the peculiar shape of the
earth that is bulges at the equator and flattens at the poles. The average circumference of the earth is about
40,000 km (25,000 miles). The person who calculated the circumference the earth was Greek scholar
Eratosthenes who measured the earth’s circumference in 247 B.C.E. He compared the mid summers noon
shadow in deep wells in Syene (now Aswan on the Nile in Egypt) and Alexandria. He properly assumed that the
sun’s rays are virtually parallel and made an angle of about 1/50 of the earth’s polar circumference. The
distance between two cities is 5,000 stadia (Stadia derived from stadium; a Greek unit of measure, equals to
approximately 185 m. He calculated the circumference of the earth to be 250,000 stadia by multiplying the
rays angle 50 with the distance of two cities 5000. His calculations convert to roughly 46,250 km amazingly
close to the actual circumference of the earth. The diameter of the earth at the equator is 12,756 km whereas
at the poles it is 12,714 km. The average diameter of the earth is 12,742 km. The radius (the distance from
mean sea level to earth’s center) of earth is not consistent in all latitudes. At the equator, the earth’s radius is
6,378 km while at the poles the radius is only 6,357 km. The average radius of the earth is about 6,371 km.
Earth’s Rotation and Related Phenomena:
Earth rotates from west to east on its axis. The movement or spinning of the earth on its polar axis is
called Rotation. The earth completes its one circle on its axis in about 24 hours. This is called ‘’Solar Day’’
because it is required for the earth to one complete turn in respect to the sun. Whereas it’s actual period of
rotation is slightly less than the solar day. Earth completes its one circle in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.07
seconds long. This is called ‘’Sidereal Day’’. The earth rotates from west to east. Scientists opined that the
velocity of earth’s rotation is slowing down very slightly over time, about one second every 85 years perhaps
due to the increasing gravitational pull. As it increases, the rotational velocity is bound to reduce for both the
earth and the moon. At the equator, the earth moves about 40,000 km in 24 hours at the speed of 1670 km/hr.
The major effects of the rotation of the earth are following:
1. The day and nights are appeared due to the earth’s rotation. If earth not rotates on its axis there will
be no day or night and one half of the earth would remain in light while other remains dark
permanently. The continuous rotation brings the new face towards the sun therefore while it is day on
half it is night in the other and vice versa.
2. Every day, the apparent movement of the sun and stars round the earth from east to west is also due
to the rotation of the earth.
3. The concepts of morning, noon, afternoon and evening is due to the earth’s rotation.
4. The four major and nearly 12 minor directions and fixed only on the basis of earth’s rotation. For
example East, West, North and South.
5. The tides repeatedly occurred in the oceans and seas due to the earth’s rotation.
6. The concept of longitudes has been arrived on the basis of earth’s rotation.
Earth’s Revolution and Related Phenomena:
The movement of the earth on its orbit around the sun is called Revolution. Each year to complete one circle
around the sun, it takes the earth approximately 365.26 days to orbit the sun once or 365 days, 5 hours, 48
minutes and 45.68 seconds. Therefore after each year about 6 hours or ¼ day added up as an extra day in a
year called ‘’leap Year’’. In a leap year, the month of February has 29 days instead of 28 and this more recently
happed in the years of 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016, 2020, 2024 so on. The direction of the movement around
the sun is counter clockwise or west to east on its orbit. The earth revolves around the sun at a speed of about
30 km/sec or 107,280 km/hr. The following are the main effects of earth’s revolution:
1. The axis of the earth is inclined on its ecliptic plane in which the earth orbits around the sun at an
angle of 66.5‫ځ‬.
2. During the summer season, the region north of Arctic Circle is referred to as Land of Midnight Sun
because at North Pole 90‫ ځ‬N, there is 6 months half year continuous daylight. The reversed conditions
prevail both in northern and southern hemispheres. While it is summer in northern hemisphere there
will be winter in southern hemisphere and vice versa.
3. The sun is vertically overhead at the equator twice in a year. These are 21 st March and 23rd September
and are termed as ‘’Equinoxes’’. On 21 March it is termed as ‘’Spring/Vernal Equinox’’ whereas on 23 rd
September it is termed as ‘’Autumnal/Fall Equinox’’ meaning equal day and night. On both of these
specific days, the earth has experience equal days and nights all over the world.
4. The sun moves northward in Northern Hemisphere and vertically overhead at the Tropic of Cancer
23.5N, on 21st June this is termed as ‘’Summer Solstice’’ when the Northern Hemisphere have its
longest day and shortest night. In reverse, on 22nd December the sun overhead at the Tropic of
Capricorn 23.5S, it is termed as
‘’Winter Solstice’’ when the Southern Hemisphere have its longest day and shortest night. Thus tropics
mark the limits of the overhead sun and beyond these the sun never overhead at any time of the year.

Spheres of the Earth

Earth is neither a single entity nor it an isolated place. It is a complex juncture of many internal and external
processes that work simultaneously like a system of various components. Everything in earth’s surface system
can be placed into one of four major spheres or subsystems or physical realms. These are very complex in
nature and work altogether in a quite unique way. The brief description of these spheres is as follows:

Lithosphere:

The outermost layer of the earth some 100 km thick comprising the crust and the upper
mantle is lithosphere. In a broad sense, the term lithosphere (litho a Greek word for stone) sometimes refers to
the entire solid earth includes landforms, rocks, soils and minerals. It provides the platform for most earthly life
forms. Lithosphere forms the plates associated with the so called theory of ‘’Plate Tectonics’’. Beneath the
lithosphere the less dense and rigid layer of ‘’Asthenosphere’’ lies which facilitates the movement of the
overlying rigid plates. The solid rock of the lithosphere bears a shallow layer of soil in which nutrient elements
become available to organisms. The surface of the lithosphere is sculpted into landforms. These features such
as mountains, hills, plateaus and plains provide habitats for plants, animals and humans.

Atmosphere:

The atmosphere is a thin gaseous envelop surrounding the earth and held by the force of
gravity extends up to the height of 10,000 km. The movements and processes of the atmosphere create the
changing conditions that we know as weather and climate particularly the lower atmosphere is unique in the
solar system. It receives heat and moisture from the surface and redistribution them returning some heat and
all the moisture to the surface. The atmosphere also supplies vital elements like gasses i.e. nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, argon, hydrogen plus water vapours and dust particles essential to sustain life. It is divided in
different sub layers of troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere holding unique
physical and thermal features to form and regulate the global circulatory patterns of winds and atmospheric
phenomena.
Hydrosphere:

The liquid realm or subsystem of the earth that comprised over 71% surface of the planet is
the hydrosphere, which is primarily the total mass of water in the world oceans. Water of hydrosphere exists in
all three states: liquid, solid and gaseous. In general water chemically has two conditions fresh water and saline
(Salty) water. Salty water is mostly found in oceans to flow under the influence of gravity. Within the
atmosphere water occurs as gaseous (vapours form), liquid (droplets form) and solid (ice crystals). In
lithosphere water is found in the uppermost layers in soils and in ground water reservoirs including in land
water sources like rivers, lakes, streams, canals, ponds and channels collectively form the hydrosphere. The
‘’Hydrological Cycle’’ is the systematic mechanism to move, regulate and sustain the water within the globe.

Biosphere:

The interconnected web that links all living organism (humans, animals, plants) with physical
environment is the Biosphere or Ecosphere. The biosphere contains a variety of habitats, from the highest
mountains to the deepest oceans and it is the area in which physical and chemical factors form the context of
life. Life forms on earth utilize the gases of the atmosphere, the water of the hydrosphere and the nutrients of
the lithosphere and so the biosphere is dependent on all three of the other great realms. The biosphere exists
in the overlap among the abiotic or non-living spheres, extending from the seafloor to about 8 km into the
atmosphere. Life is sustainable within these natural limits. Most of the biosphere is contained in the shallow
surface zone called the ‘’Life Layer’’. On land, the life layer is the zone of interactions among the biosphere,
lithosphere and atmosphere with the hydrosphere represented by rain, snow, still water in ponds and lakes and
running water in rivers. In the ocean, the life layer is the zone of interactions among the hydrosphere,
biosphere and atmosphere with the lithosphere by nutrients dissolved in the upper layer of sea water.

Man Environment Interaction

Population:

Earth is a home of man that emerged on it thousands of years ago. Life in its primitive form appeared
on this planet around 3.8 billion years ago in single cell organisms. But speculations about early man show that
it came appeared on the surface of the earth about 1.5 to 2.0 million years ago. Population generally the
collection of people or individuals is a topic of discussion in many sciences like biology, sociology, statistics,
economics, environmental science and geography. Human population is mainly characterized by its many
features like fertility, mortality, migration, family, public health, work force etc. The study of population is done
by Demography, the science of population numbers, facts and trends which describe the economic units as
well. While population geography, is a branch of human geography that is focused on the scientific study of
people, their spatial distributions and population, people movements over time, age sex structure, composition
and how people forms the geographic character of a place. Thus the selected main topics in population
geography are the following:

Population Growth:

Population growth refers to the change in number of people of an area during a

specific period of time. This change may be positive or negative. It is usually expressed in terms of percentage
or numbers for each country, commonly between 0.1% and 3% annually or population growth is the change of
population in a particular area between the points of time. Overall population growth is important for population
geographers because the world’s population has grown dramatically over the last two centuries. Today the
much more people exist on the earth’s surface that came never before during a longer period of time.
According to some experts fears that the rapid increase in population may outpace the earth’s surface that
came ‘’Carrying Capacity’’ which refers to the maximum population that it can support on a continuing basis. In
1880, the world human population crosses the land mark of 1 billion people. In 1930 it reached 2 billion, in
1975 reached 4 billion, in 1987 jumped to 5 billion and lastly it crossed the milestone of 7 billion mile stone on
31 October 2011 and this trend is still continuing. The current world’s population is 8 billion. Birth and death
rates are the most important determinants of population growth or change, and in some countries net
migration is also important in this regard. To calculate population growth rates, demographers take the
difference between births and deaths in a given time period, add the net number of migrants (which for the
world as a whole is 0), and divide that number by the total population. For example, there are now about 136
million births and 58 million deaths worldwide annually, adding a net of 78 million new inhabitants to a global
population with a growth rate of 1.05%.

(1) Natural Increase:

Population growth is looked at via natural increase that is the difference between the birth rate and death rate.
Few frequently used measures of population growth are follows:

Natural Increase (NI) = Birth Rate – Death Rate

Birth Rate or Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = The birth rate is the number of babies born per 1,000 people in the
population every year.
Death Rate or Crude Death Rate (CDR) = The death rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 people in every
year.

(2) Natural Growth vs. Overall Growth:

Population growth usually counted as natural growth and overall growth. Natural growth represents the births
and deaths in a country that indicates population and does not take into account migration. The overall growth
rate takes migration into account. For example, Canada’s population natural growth rate is 0.3% while its
overall growth rate is 0.9% due to Canada’s open immigration policies. Likewise, in the United States, the
natural growth rate is 0.6% and overall growth is 0.9%. The growth rate of a country provides demographers
and geographers with a good contemporary variable for current growth and for comparison between countries
or regions. For most purposes, the overall growth rate is more frequently utilized.

(3) High Population Growth:

Many Asian and African countries have high population growth rates which mean they have
more births than deaths during a particular time period. For instance, Afghanistan has a current rate of 4.8%
representing a doubling time of 14.5 years. If Afghanistan’s growth rate remains the same (which is very
unlikely and the country’s projected growth rate for 2025 is a mere 2.3%), then the population of 30 million
would become 60 million in 2020, 120 million in 2035, 280 million in 2049 and vice versa. This is a quite
ridiculous expectations. Usually, population growth percentages are better utilized for short term projections.
Increased population growth generally represents problems for a country. It means increased need for food,
infrastructure and services. These are expenses that most high growth countries have little ability to provide
today let alone if the population rises dramatically.

(4) Negative Population Growth:

Most European countries have low population growth rates which indicate low birth rates than death
rates. In the United Kingdom, the growth rate is 0.2% and in France, it is 0.4%. the Czech republic and some
other European countries growth rate is actually negative on average, women in the Czech republic give birth
to 1.2 children, which is below the 2.1 needed to yield zero population growth. The Czech republic growth rate
is of 0.1 which cannot be used to determine doubling time because the population is actually shrinking in size.

(5) Zero Population Growth:

The historic natural increase rate of population used to be near zero, meaning that births roughly
equaling deaths or in equilibrium state. In general speaking, zero population growth (ZPG), a situation in which
a population is not changing in size from year to year as a result of the combination births, deaths and
migration. For instance, in Germany, the growth rate is 0.0% Germany’s zero rate of growth includes a natural
increase of 0.2%. Without immigration, Germany would be shrinking like the Czech Republic. Today, however
an increase in life expectancy due to better healthcare and standards of living has lowered the overall death
rate. In developed countries, the birth rate has declined, but it is still high in developing countries.

(6) Overpopulation
Overpopulation is an undesirable condition where the number of existing human population exceeds
the carrying capacity of earth. Overpopulation is caused by number of factors. Reduced mortality rate,
better medical facilities, depletion of precious resources are few of the causes which results in
overpopulation.
(7) Depopulation
A population decline is termed as a reduction in a human population caused by events such as long
term demographic trends as in sub replacement fertility, emigration, for example as a result of
economic recession urban decay rural flight food resource decline or high death rates due to violence.
In this regard, the agenda 21 is a plan to depopulate 95% of the world’s population by 2030.

Population Distribution:

Population distribution refers to the way people are spaced over the earth’s surface.
Overall the population of the world is distributed unevenly on the globe. This is because of the many natural as
well as cultural or economic factors i.e. uneven relief, ridges, desserts, absent scant natural resources, poverty,
war, political interferences, natural hazards and many others. The unevenness in the distribution of population
of an area or a country is shown by a curve called ‘’Lorenz Curve’’. The brief of biggest human population
agglomerations or clusters in the world is follows:

(1) South and Southeast Asia (Agricultural Monsoon Asia)

South Asia and Southeast Asia is the world largest cluster of human population
(over 50% of the world’s population lives). It includes the countries like Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam and Southern China etc.
The fertile river valleys and coastal regions are highly populated. The river valleys like Indus Valley in
Pakistan, Ganges Valley in India, Hwang Ho, Chang Jiang in China, Deltaic regions of Irrawaddy,
Mekong, Yellow river, volcanic soils of Indonesia, Philippines and Japan are densely populated regions.
 These regions also support various food and cash crops i.e. Rice, Wheat, Cotton, Coffee, Tea, Jute,
Rubber, Banana, Sugarcane etc.
(2) East Asia
This is the second major cluster of human population that comprised eastern China, North Korea,
South Korea, Taiwan and Japan. These areas are also economically, agriculturally and industrially well
developed. About ¼ of the world’s population settled here.
(3) North Western Europe
This region is also called ‘’Industrial North Western Europe’’. This is the most developed and
industrialized region of the world that includes most developed nations in the world. i.e. Great Britain,
France, Germany, Denmark etc. the concentration of industries are due to the availability of precious
minerals (Iron, Coal, Copper) that allow the dense populations in this region.
(4) North Eastern USA and South Eastern Canada
This is the great industrial belt of United States and Canada stretching from the shores of the Great
Lakes through Pittsburgh to the New York and the Atlantic seaboard. The density decreases gradually
southwards and westwards into the agricultural areas of Mississippi Basin and Gulf states.
(5) Nile Valley and Delta
This is one of the ancient hearths of human population as well as civilization on the earth’s surface.
The world longest river Nile has converted the vast area of Sahara Desert into fertile cotton and paddy
fields. Annual flooding in Nile also helps the peasants to practice form of basin irrigation. Nowadays,
the Aswan Dam on river Nile provides not only hydroelectricity but also plenty of water to claim more
desert area and also support human population.

Population Density

Population distribution is closely related to population density that is more proportional and concerned with the
ratio between the size of the population and the area. Generally, population density refers to the number of
people living per unit area i.e. per square kilometer or per square mile. It can be measured in the following
wasy:

Density of Population = Population / Area

There are many types of population density, the more common are:

(1) Arithmetic Density/ Crude Density

The total number of people residing in an area and is divided by area is called arithmetic density or
crude density. It counts the number of persons to the actual unit of area as a whole but doesn’t care
the thickness or thinness of the area. It can be expressed as:
Arithmetic Density = Population ÷ Area
(2) Physiological Density/ Nutritional Density
Physiological or nutritional density is a more accurate method of measuring man-land ratios. It is a
ratio between total population and total cultivated area or cropland or when the population is divided
by arable land area alone, the resulting figure is the physiological density. Simply, it is an expression
of population pressure on arable land. It can be expressed as:
Physiological Density = Total Population – Area of Arable Land
(3) Agricultural Density
Agricultural density is another useful variant to measure the density. It simply excludes city population
from the physiological density. Agricultural density expresses the number of rural population per unit
of agriculturally productive land. It is therefore an estimate of the pressure of people on the rural areas
of a country. It can be expressed as:
Agricultural Density = Rural Population – Area of Arable Land
(4) Residential Density
Residential density is the method of measuring the people settled in an area. It can be measured in
the following way:
Residential Density = Number of Living People – Residential Land Area
(5) Urban Density
Urban density is a method to measure the number of people residing in an urban area. It can be
calculated in the following way:
Urban Density = Number of Urban Dwellers – Total Urban Area

Population Density Regions

The world is divided into the following regions:
(1) Nearly Uninhabited Regions
It is estimated that about 40% area of the world is nearly uninhabited and density of the
population is less than 1 person per square kilometer. These areas are too cold, too dry or very
marshy or mighty deserts. Agriculture in these regions is almost absent. Antarctic, Arctic and
Tundra, vast deserts i.e. Sahara in Africa, Gobi in Central Asia, Arabian desert, desert of Western
Australia, Amazon Valley in South America, rugged and lofty mountains i.e. Himalayas in Asia,
Alps in Europe, and Rockies in North America remains challenging for humans.
(2) Thinly Populated Regions
 In these areas, population density is ranging 1-10 people per square kilometer. These areas are
located close to the nearly uninhabited regions. The main occupations of the inhabitants of these
areas are shifting cultivation, subsistence agriculture or animal keeping. These areas include
fringing Taiga, Temperate and Tropical Grasslands, drier margins of Amazon Valley, hot and wet
Tropical Africa, Plateaus of Asia, North and South America.

(3) Moderately Populated Regions

In these areas population density ranging 11-50 people per square kilometer. To meet the
shortage of labour, extensive agriculture is practiced with the use of machinery. The areas include
are eastern coasts of Paraguay and Uruguay, Pampas of Argentina, parts of South Eastern Asia,
many areas of Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, some highlands of Chin, coasts of Africa
and some parts of central and south America.
(4) Densely Populated Regions
In these areas population density is ranging 51-100 persons per square kilometer. Many areas are
included in this category like industrially developed eastern USA, eastern Mediterranean Europe,
major parts of India, parts of Pakistan, Alluvial valleys of South Eastern Asia and large parts of
China.
(5) Very Densely Populated Regions
In these areas the density of population is more than 100 persons per square kilometer.
Population is very thick as compared to the available resources. In these areas coastal plains of
China, Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, the Peninsula of Malaysia, fertile agricultural lands including
Gangetic plains of India, Bangladesh, Indus plains of Pakistan, Nile valley in Africa, western
Europe, north European plains, north eastern USA and south eastern Canada.

Population Growth Theories

(1) Malthusian Theory of Population

The Malthusian theory of population is the theory of exponential population and arithmetic food supply
growth. The theory was proposed by Thomas Robert Malthus. He believed that a balance between
population growth and food supply can be established through preventive and positive checks.

Major Elements of Malthusian Theory

Population and Food Supply

The Malthusian theory explained that the population grows in a geometrical fashion. The population would
double in 25 years at this rate. However, the food supply grows in an arithmetic progression. Food supply
increases at a slower rate than the population. That is, the food supply will be limited in a few years. The
shortage of food supply indication an increasing population.

Checks on Population

When the increasing population rate is greater than the food supply, disequilibrium exists. As a result, people
will not get enough food even for survival. People will die due to a lack of food supply. Adversities such as
epidemics, wars, starvation, famines and other natural calamities will crop up which are named as positive
checks by Malthus. On the contrary, there are man-made checks known preventive checks.

Positive Checks

Nature has its own ways of keeping a check on the increasing population. It brings the population level to the
level of the available food supply. The positive checks include famines, earthquakes, floods, epidemics, wars
etc. nature plays up when the population growth goes out of hand.

Preventive Checks

Preventive measures such as late marriage, self-control and simple living, help to balance the population
growth and food supply. These measures not only check the population growth, but can also prevent the
catastrophic effects of the positive checks.

(2) Demographic Transition Model

The theory of demographic transition describes the relationship between economic development and
population growth of a country. The theory states that, as the economic development of a country
progresses, its population growth decreases.
(a) Backward Stage
Countries in the backward stage are characterized by high birth rate and high death rate. High
birth rate and death rate results in low population growth.
(b) Developing Stage
Countries in the developing stage are characterized by high birth rate and low death rate. High
birth rate and low death rate results in high population growth. For example, developing countries
such as India.
(c) Developed Stage
 Countries in the developed stage are developed in terms of healthcare, education and other living
standards. Low birth rate and low death rate results in low population growth. For example,
developed countries such as the United States.

(3) Population Doubling Time/Law of 70

The population growth rate can be used to determine a country or region or even the world population
doubling time which tells us how long it will take for that area’s current population to become double.
This length of time is determined by dividing the growth rate into the number 70. For instance, the
overall growth rate or natural increase rate of Pakistan is nearly 2%. If we divide this to 70 (70/2=35),
we obtain the answer of 35 which means the population of Pakistan with current growth rate would be
doubled in 35 years. Similarly, the Canada and USA overall growth rates are 0.9%. By dividing 0.9 to 7
(70/0.9=77.7) we yield a value of 77.7 years. Thus if the current rate remains constant, Canada and
USA population will be doubled in the year 2083.

Major Economic Activities

Human activities which generate income are simply called economic activities. An economy can be divided into
various sectors to define the proportion of the population engaged in different economic activities. This
categorization represents a continuum of distance from the natural environment. The continuum starts with
primary economic activity, which concerns itself with the utilization of raw materials from the earth, such as
agriculture and mining. From there the distance from natural resources increases. There are five main
economic activities. The brief of these activities is follows:

(1) Primary Economic Activity

The primary sector of the economy extracts or harvests products from the earth, such as raw
materials and basic foods. Activities associated with primary economic activity include agriculture,
mining, forestry, grazing, hunting and gathering, fishing and quarrying. The packaging and processing
of raw materials are also considered to be part of this sector. In developed and developing countries, a
decreasing proportion of workers are involved in the primary sector. Most of the developing countries
have highest proportion of their population engaged in these activities while developed nations have
very less share of population engaged in these activities i.e. only about 2% of the United States labour
force is engaged in primary sector activity today. The people are engaged in these activities are called
‘’Red Collar’’ workers due to the outdoor nature of their work.

(2) Secondary Economic Activity

The secondary economic activity or sector of the economy produces finished goods from the raw
materials extracted by the primary economy. All manufacturing, processing and construction jobs lie
within this sector. Activities associated with the secondary sector include metal working and smelting,
automobile products, textile production, the chemical and engineering industries, aerospace
manufacturing, energy utilities, breweries and bottlers, construction and ship building. Developing
countries have a sufficient share of theirs population engaged in these activities while developed
countries have less share of population engaged with these activities i.e. in the United States, a little
less than 15% of the working population is engaged in secondary sector activity. The people engaged
in these activities are called
‘’Blue Collar’’ workers.
(3) Tertiary Economic Activity
The tertiary economic activity or sector of the economy is also known as the
‘’Service Industry’’. This sector sells the goods produced by the secondary sector and provides
commercial services to both the general population and to businesses in all five economic sectors.
Activities associated with this sector include retail and wholesale sales, goods transportation and
distribution, restaurants and services includes clerical works, media, communication, tourism,
insurance, banking, health care and law. In most developed and developing countries a growing
proportion of workers are devoted to the tertiary sector. In the United States about 80% of the labour
force is engaged in tertiary economic activities. The people engaged in these activities are called
‘’Pink Collar’’ workers.

(4) Quaternary Economic Activity

The quaternary economic activity of the economy consists of intellectual activities often associated
with technological innovation. It is sometimes called the knowledge economy sector. Although many
economic models divide the economy into only three sectors, others divide it into four or even five
sectors. These final two sectors are closely linked with the services of the tertiary sector. Activities
associated with this sector include government, culture, libraries, hospitals, scientific research,
education, theatres, accounting, brokerage and information technology. These intellectual services
and activities are what drive technological advancement which can have a huge impact on short and
long term economic growth. The persons associated with these activities are called ‘’White Collar’’
workers.

(5) Quinary Economic Activities

The quinary economic activities include the highest levels of decision making in a society or economy.
This sector includes top executives or officials in such fields as government, research, science,
universities, non-profits, senior business executives, health care specialists, financial and legal
consultants, cultural and the media. It may also include police and fire departments which are public
services as opposed to for profit enterprises. Economists sometimes also include domestic activities in
the quinary sector. These activities such as child care or housekeeping, are typically not measured by
monetary amounts but contribute to the economy by providing services for free that would otherwise
be paid for. The professionals engaged in these activities are called ‘’Gold Collar’’ workers.
Settlements
A settlement can be defined as any form of human habitation which ranges from a single dwelling to a
large city. It may define as a settlement is an organized human habitation or a combination of people
residing in houses located at specific place. It can be single home or a busting metropolis or a
settlement is a place where people live. The branch of geography that investigates the parts of the
earth’s surface settled by humans is called ‘’Settlement Geography’’. In ancient times, majority of the
settlements were located near the water ways i.e. on the banks of river or canals to get benefited from
these like travelling, food (to catch fish) and water and for a natural boundary or defense. Many
settlements have things common and so they can be grouped to make it easier or to study them.
Settlements can range from small hamlets to very large cities. They can be identified by their pattern
or the functions they offer. Some settlements have altered over time due to changes in transport and
shopping patterns.

Origin of the Early Settlement

The first agricultural revolution was started about 12,000 B.C.E probably at the valley of Mesopotamia
in 8,000 B.C.E. This revolution caused the origin of the early settlement that was rural in nature.
Before this, the life of humans was also migratory that become sedentary and created the concept of
settlement mostly near the rivers banks or river valleys. It is thought that earlier settlement appeared
in Kachi Plain
(Mehar Garh) in Indus valley, Pakistan in 8,000 B.C.E right at the time of first agricultural revolution. In
6,750 B.C.E at Jerome, northern Iraq, in the valley of Nile about 5,000 B.C.C , Atlantic Europe in 4,000
B.C and in Meso America about 3,000 B.C.E. It is also believed that the establishment of agriculture
where ever happened replaced the man’s early occupations i.e. gathering or collecting and hunting.
Though, the first settlers have hardly left any actual record of their livings yet relics of the implements
used by them at some places proved very helpful in forming the ideas of their primitive lives. Like the
idea of collective security and defense against the adverse forces further strengthen the mutual
relations and cohesion among families and people.

Site and Situation

The location and growth of a settlement is depended upon its site and situation. These are the most
important factors that determine the location of a settlement. A site is the actual place where people
decided to locate their settlement e.g. on a hill or in a sheltered valley. The growth of that settlement
then depended upon its situation that described where the settlement is in relation to other
settlements and the features of the surrounding area e.g. is the settlement is surrounded by forest or
to a large city. It can also be explain in relation to accessibility and availability of natural resources.
There are some site factors which determine the site of a settlement. They are reliable water supply,
away from flood risks, defense, building materials stone or wood, fertile land, sheltered from winds,
fuel supply, south facing slope, flat land, easy to build on soil, natural harbor. Similarly, there are some
situation factors also like route center, industries, lowest bridging point on a river, port and minerals
for export.

Types of Settlement

Settlements can vary in size and shape. Some people live alone or with their family. They often live in
groups or together in towns and cities. Settlements can be broadly divided on the basis of function i.e.
Rural and Urban, or they may also define on the basis of period of stay i.e. Permanent Settlement and
Temporary Settlement. The brief explanation of these types is as follows:
(1) Urban Settlement
Urban settlement is usually large and more people live in cities. That is why urban settlements are
densely populated with many people. Often urban settlements have non-agricultural occupations.

(2) Rural Settlement

Rural settlement is generally small and sparsely populated. The density of population is low in
rural area. People are engaged mostly in agricultural activities. Many farmers live in sparsely
populated areas within farmlands.

(3) Temporary Settlement

 Settlement that is temporarily occupied by the nomads for a short period of time is known as
temporary settlement. Refugees camps are also the example of temporary settlement.

(4) Permanent Settlement

Permanent settlement is a type of settlement that is occupied by dwellers from a long period of
time and people are routinely perform their works and other activities e.g. villages, cities etc.

Settlement Patterns

People their activities, residences, work localities, facilities and sacred places are
located across the landscape in a culturally significant way called the ‘’Settlement Pattern’’. The basic
difference between rural and urban is on the basis of function. In rural areas, the settlements tend to follow
some simple patterns. The most basic is the isolated settlement. These are:

(1) Nucleated Settlements/Compact

Compact settlements have closely built up area and dwellings are concentrated in one central site i.e.
a chowk, a crossroads, a routine center. Maximum settlement comes under this category and
geographically it spreads almost every part of the country.

(2) Semi-Compact Settlements

These settlements are characterized by a small but compact nucleus around which hamlets are
dispersed. Some of the important patterns bound in semi-compact settlements are checkerboard,
elongated and fan-shaped. Such settlements are found in tribal areas.
(3) Linear Settlements
Linear settlements grow along a road or along a coast. The typical example of such settlements is
‘’Ribbon Settlement’’ is a linear type of settlement grows out from a town along a main road.
(4) Dispersed Settlements
These settlements are of small size which may consist of a single house to a small group of houses i.e.
isolated farmsteads. Such settlements are mainly dispersed in rural area around or within the
farmland. Population densities are low and farms are large and wide spread.
Settlements Hierarchy
The ranking of settlements on basis of their size and function is called ‘’Settlement
Hierarchy’’. Settlements may vary in size and shape, as well as the number of functions each provides. The
hierarchy diagram below shows how the settlement size relates to the amount of the settlement the higher-up
the hierarchy due to the fact that it has more functions and services and is therefore considered more
important.
(1) Farmstead/Isolated Dwelling
It is a settlement with one or more houses and found often within farmland. Farmstead may be
occupied by farmer and its peasants. The population of farmstead consist few people ranging 10-20
persons.
(2) Hamlet
Hamlet is a tiny settlement. This is just a collection of 10-15 houses, perhaps centred around a few
farms and may be without even a shop. The population of hamlet is less than 100 people.
(3) Village
Village is a small settlement where several hundred people live in this. They have a few shops, a place
of worship and may be a school as well. Population of the village is round about 5000 persons.
(4) Town
Town is bigger than village but smaller than city. It may have more houses and facilities than village. A
town may have a post office, a health center, one or more schools, shops etc. The population of a town
can be round about 20,000 -25,000 persons.
(5) City
City is a large settlement. It usually has lots of amenities, facilities and services. City has population
about or above 100,000 persons. There are lots of schools, colleges, university, and many health
facilities including district hospitals, dispensaries in city. Shops and commercial centers can be
observed in cities.
(6) Metropolis/Metropolitan
Metropolitan is a large city containing population above 1 million (1,000,000) or more. It is density
populated urban area and has more facilities than a city. Commercial plazas, training centers are
located in metropolis. Moreover, entertainment facilities, theaters, parks, hotels, offices are also
observed.
(7) Megalopolis/Mega City
Mega is a Greek word means great. A mega city is a metropolitan area with a total population in
excess of 10 million people (10,000,000). A megalopolis can be a single metropolitan area or two or
more areas that converge.
(8) Conurbation
A conurbation is a region comprising a number of cities, large towns and other urban areas that trough
population growth and physical expansion have merged to form one continuous urban and industrially
developed area. A conurbation is an urban area containing a large number of people formed by
various towns growing and joining together e.g. from Tokyo to Yokohama (Tok-Yok) in Japan, Boston to
Washington D.C (Boswash), Chicago to Pittsburgh (Chi-Pitts) and San Francisco to San Diego (San-
San).
Pollution
The term pollution refers to any substance that negatively impacts the environment or organisms that
live within the affected environment. The pollutants are chemicals or materials that pollute the air, the
water or the soil in some form and are caused by human activities. Pollutants are the cause of many
different kinds of crises that harm humans as well as wildlife and the environment. The five major
types of pollution include; air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, chemical pollution and noise
pollution.
(1) Air Pollution
Air pollution is perhaps one of the most debating environmental issues in current world. A major
source of air pollution results from the burning of fossil fuels, which causes an excess of carbon
monoxide in the atmosphere. Vehicle and factory emissions are common sources of this type of
air pollution. The burning of fossil fuels contributes to the formation of smog a dense layer of
particulate matter that hangs like a cloud over many major cities and industrial zones. Air
pollution contributes to respiratory problems such as asthma, lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, skin
irritations and other lung ailments.
(2) Water Pollution
A major source of water pollution is runoff from agricultural fields, industrial sites or urban areas.
Runoff disrupts the water body’s natural balance. For example, agricultural runoff typically
includes fertilizer or toxic chemicals, urban runoff contains large amounts of organic waste and
industrial runoff often contains high amounts of chemical toxins and residues. Fertilizer can cause
algal bloom, choking out other plants and decreasing the amount of available oxygen necessary
for the survival of other species. Another serious threat of potable water pollution is the
contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities. Water bodies include for
example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater. For example, releasing inadequately
treated wastewater into natural water bodies can lead to degradation of aquatic ecosystem. It is
also caused fatal waterborne disease i.e. cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, polio and meningitis.
Unclean water for washing can cause skin and infectious eye diseases that lead to the large
number of human deaths. Every year there are more than 3.4 million deaths from waterborne
diseases, making it the leading cause of disease and deaths around the world. The worse is that
most of those deaths are young, children about 4,000 a day.
(3) Soil Production
Soil can become polluted by industrial sources or the improper disposal of toxic chemical
substances. The often occurs near large agricultural sites where excess herbicides or pesticides
are used on crops. Sites that become polluted often become barren wastelands with toxic soil.
These sites are often abandoned and cannot be used resulting in a large stretch of land going to
waste. Common sources of soil pollution include asbestos, lead, PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls,
one of the persistent organic pollutants) and overuse of pesticides. In the United States, the
environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is a charge of cleaning up uncontrolled hazardous waste
sites, which are referred to as ‘’superfund sites’’.
(4) Chemical Pollution
Chemical pollution is defined as the presence or increase in our environment of chemical
pollutants that are not naturally present there are found in amounts in higher than their natural
background values. When chemicals are released into our environment and disrupt the balance of
our ecosystems, threatening our health. Chemical pollution is the introduction of substances into
the environment by man that are liable to harm human health, living resources and ecological
systems, damage structures or generally interfere with the legitimate use of the environment. The
result is that they contaminate our environment, resulting in chemical pollution. It is good to
remember that pollution is caused by chemical and unnatural way.
(5) Noise Pollution
Noise or sound pollution typically refers to human made noises that are either very loud or
disruptive in manner. This type of pollution has been shown to impact the movement of sea
mammals, such as dophins and whales and also impacts the nesting success of birds. Noise
pollution also known as environmental noise or sound pollution, is the propagation of noise with
harmful impact on the activity of human or animal life. The source of outdoor noise worldwide is
mainly caused by machines, transport and propagation systems. Noise pollution can be defined as
any disturbing or unwanted noise that interferes or harms humans or wildlife. Although noise
constantly surrounds us, noise pollution generally receives less attention than water quality and
air quality issues because it cannot be seen, tasted o smelled. Noise pollution is generally defined
as regular exposure to elevated sound levels that may lead to adverse effects in humans or other
living organisms. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) sound levels less than 70 dB
are not damaging to living organisms, regardless of how long or consistent the exposure is.