Influence of

Process Parameters
on Microstructure
and Properties of
3D Printed Metals
[Date]

Student Name:
Supervisor name:
 Table of Contents
Figures List......................................................................................................................................2
Tables List.......................................................................................................................................3
1. Background..............................................................................................................................4
2. Aims and objectives.................................................................................................................6
3. Research questions...................................................................................................................7
4. Literature Review....................................................................................................................8
4.1. Types.................................................................................................................................8
4.1.1. Selective Laser Melting.............................................................................................8
4.1.2. Direct Metal Laser Sintering.....................................................................................9
4.1.3. Electron Beam Melting............................................................................................11
4.1.4. Other technologies...................................................................................................12
4.2. Influencing parameters....................................................................................................15
4.2.1. Temperature.............................................................................................................15
4.2.2. Print Speed...............................................................................................................16
4.2.3. Layer Thickness.......................................................................................................17
5. Methodology..........................................................................................................................20
5.1. Theoretical comprehension.............................................................................................20
5.2. Material Selection...........................................................................................................20
5.3. Printing Setup..................................................................................................................20
5.4. Microstructural Analysis.................................................................................................21
5.5. Optical Microscopy.........................................................................................................21
5.6. Results analysis and discussions.....................................................................................21
5.7. Conclusions and recommendations.................................................................................21
References......................................................................................................................................22
Figures List
Figure 1-1. 3D printing stages (Gao et al., 2018)............................................................................4
Figure 4-1. Metal 3D printing using SLM technology (Rifai et al., 2021)......................................9
Figure 4-2. Metal 3D printing using Direct Metal Laser Sintering (Marrey et al., 2019).............11
Figure 4-3. Metal 3D printing using Electron Beam Melting (Omiyale and Farayibi, 2020).......12
Figure 4-4. Metal 3D printing using binder jetting (Min et al., 2021)..........................................13
Figure 4-5. Metal 3D printing using Metal Fused Filament Fabrication (Razavykia et al., 2020).
.......................................................................................................................................................14
Figure 4-6. Effect of the printing on the void shape, distribution, and porosity (Wang et al.,
2021)..............................................................................................................................................16
Figure 4-7. Effect of increasing layer thickness on the microstructure (Rońda et al., 2022)........18
Tables List
Table 1-1. 3D printing stages description and main challenges (Gao et al., 2018).........................4
Table 1-2. Applications of 3D printing in metals (Buchanan and Gardner, 2019) and (Nirish and
Rajendra, 2020)................................................................................................................................5
 1. Background
3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing (AM), is a process of creating three-
dimensional objects layer by layer from a. Unlike traditional subtractive manufacturing methods
that involve cutting, drilling, or machining materials to obtain the desired shape, 3D printing
builds up the object by adding material layer upon layer. This technology allows for the
production of complex and intricate geometries that may be challenging to achieve using
conventional manufacturing techniques (Gao et al., 2018).

Figure 1-1. 3D printing stages (Gao et al., 2018).

Table 1-1. 3D printing stages description and main challenges (Gao et al., 2018).

Step Description Challenges

Create a digital 3D model using CAD - Skill and knowledge in CAD
Design
software. required.
Slice the digital model into thin layers. - Slicing errors may lead to print
Preparation
issues.
Add material layer by layer according to the - Material adherence and warping
Printing
sliced model. issues.
Post- Perform necessary steps after printing - Variable post-processing
Processing (curing, cleaning, etc.). requirements.
3D printing of metals involves the layer-by-layer deposition of metal powder or wire to build 3D
objects. The latter mentioned process allows to fabricate complex metal components with precise
geometries that can be used in such satisfying such critical engineering applications’
requirements that cannot be satisfied depending on conventional fabrication techniques. Metals
commonly used in 3D printing include stainless steel, titanium, aluminum, cobalt-chrome, nickel
alloys, and others. Different metals offer unique properties, such as strength, conductivity, and
corrosion resistance (Gong et al., 2018). The AM holds significant importance in various
industries due to its transformative capabilities (Buchanan and Gardner, 2019) and (Nirish and
Rajendra, 2020).

Table 1-2. Applications of 3D printing in metals (Buchanan and Gardner, 2019) and (Nirish and Rajendra, 2020).

Industry Application Benefits

Complex Geometries - Creation of intricate and lightweight
structures.
Aerospace
Reduced Weight - Improved fuel efficiency and overall aircraft
performance.
Custom Implants - Production of patient-specific implants and
prosthetics.
Medical Sector
Biocompatible - Fabrication of medical devices and implants
Materials with compatibility.
Rapid Prototyping - Quick prototyping and testing of various
Automotive designs.
Manufacturing Customization - Facilitation of custom and low-volume
components.
Rapid Tooling - Quick and cost-effective creation of molds,
Tooling and dies, and tooling.
Manufacturing On-Demand - Enables small batch production without
Production expensive tooling.
Improved Efficiency - Optimization of complex internal geometries
Energy and for better performance.
Turbomachinery Reduced Material - Precise control over material placement,
Waste minimizing waste.
Custom Components - Creation of unique and complex metal
Architecture
structures for buildings.
and
On-Site Construction - Exploration of 3D printing for flexible design
Construction
and reduced construction time.
Supply Chain - Just in time supply of spare parts to lower the
Defense and Flexibility stocking of huge inventory.
Aerospace Complex Components - Utilization for intricate components in
defense and aerospace applications.
Customized Products - Offering personalized and customized metal
Consumer products.
Goods Prototyping for - Quick prototyping and testing for designers
Designers and inventors.
In 3D printing of metallic material, acknowledging the effect of process factors on structures and
features is important in different production procedures, understanding how procedural factors
determine then features and microstructures. This entails enhancing the resilience, strength and
credibility of material as per their usage requirements, considering the relationship between
process features and microstructures enables efficient quality regulation, manufacturing entities
may detect and control parameters to ensure consistent and good quality products (Kanyilmaz et
al., 2021).

Considering quality production procedures contributes to low waste generation by precisely

regulating the manufacturing procedures. Additionally, manufactures will minimize the
possibilities of defects and inconsistent items. Regulating and maximizing procedures as per
their effect on microstructures and features may result in lowered cost of production, this
minimizes the time and resources used in trial and error consequently leading to improved
process efficiency. (Selema et al., 2022).

2. Aims and objectives

The proposed study directs the interest towards investigating the effect of Process Parameters on
Microstructure and Properties of 3D Printed Metals using experimental approaches. This was
decided to be achieved through satisfying the following objectives:

1. To carry out a literature review on the 3D printed metals including their types, parameters
influence the effectiveness of the process, applications and challenges in addition to
reviewing related studies that concerned regarding the researched point.
2. To create a simple 3D model preparing to be 3D printed.
3. To select a group of influencing parameters such as temperature, print speed, layer
thickness.
4. To 3D print the prepared model several times and changing the process parameters.
5. To investigate the process parameters’ effect using X-ray and SEM on the microstructure
and resultant properties of the printed metal.
6. To outline the concluded points and setting recommendations for the future scientific
works.
3. Research questions
1. How does varying printing temperature influence the microstructure and mechanical
properties of 3D printed metals?
2. What is the correlation between print speed and the resulting microstructure and hardness
of 3D printed metals?
3. How does the layer thickness during 3D printing affect the grain size and tensile strength
of the printed metal?
4. To what extent do different printing parameters contribute to the formation of defects,
such as porosity or inclusions, in 3D printed metals?
5. How do variations in printing parameters impact the crystallographic structure of 3D
printed metals, as observed through X-ray diffraction (XRD)?
6. What is the relationship between printing temperature and the thermal conductivity of 3D
printed metals?
7. How do different printing parameters influence the surface morphology and
microstructural features, as observed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM)?
8. What role do printing parameters play in determining the corrosion resistance of 3D
printed metals?
9. How does the variation in layer thickness affect the fatigue resistance and crack
propagation behavior of 3D printed metals under cyclic loading conditions?
10. To what extent do different printing parameters affect the overall mechanical and thermal
properties of 3D printed metal composites (e.g., metal matrix composites or reinforced
structures)?
 4. Literature Review
The 3D printing process involves creating 3D objects layer by layer from a digital model. The
3D printing process passes through different stages that are presented as follows (Gupta, 2017):

1. Digital Model Creation: Create a 3D model using CAD software.

2. Slicing the Model: Slice the 3D model into horizontal layers using slicing software,
generating G-code.
3. Material Selection: Choose the printing material based on the desired properties.
4. Printing Process: Interpret the G-code and use various 3D printing technologies (FDM,
SLA, SLS) to build the object layer by layer.
5. Layer-by-Layer Building: establish the object procedurally where every layer aligns to
the next on.
6. Post-Processing: undertake essential post construction steps like removal of
reinforcements and final finishes.

4.1. Types
Many varieties of 3D printing mechanisms have been invented by scientists that are compatible
with various use and manufacturing volumes. The technologies include:

4.1.1. Selective Laser Melting

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) functions by melting and fusing particular metal powder layer by
layer with the aid of a high-powered laser, the melting and fusing starts with a slim layer of
metal power uniformly spread on the platform. LSM scans the powder as per the intelligent
design to melt the metal particles, thereafter the platform is lowered as a fresh layer of metal
power is added. The process is entirely repeated until the whole product is formed. SLM has
numerous merits as;

1. Permits for the development of sophisticated geometries that would not have been
achieved by the conventional approaches
2. The technology used is highly precise that allows for the manufacturing of resilient and
detailed components
3. The process optimizes on material use, since particular components are only melted and
fused that contributes to low waste generation
The mentioned merits make the SLM an implementable approach since lightweight and detailed
metal structures are essential especially in the aviation and medical sectors. This technology
similarly has its drawbacks as follows

1. The process entails additional process such as machining and surface works that may lead
to additional cost of production and increased time of production
2. The initial capital investment of the SLM system is high, this makes the system to be
capital intensive especially for large volumes manufacturing.
3. The sophisticated nature of the system limited she printing of particular materials or
detailed designs, however this can be addressed by determining the suitable amounts of
metal powder particles.
4. The complex cooling procedures of the material may compromise its microstructures and
mechanical features. (Rifai et al., 2021).

Figure 4-2. Metal 3D printing using SLM technology (Rifai et al., 2021).

4.1.2. Direct Metal Laser Sintering

Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) is a technology that involves powder bed fusion, this
technology works similarly as the SLM. For DMLS, a thin film of metal power is uniformly
place on the entire platform. A highly powered laser sinters carefully the metal powder layer by
layer as per the smart system, this procedure is repeated till the whole 3D material is created. The
process of sintering entails the heating of particles to a point that is capable to fuse without
melting completely. The advantages of DMLS include;

1.it is capable of creating detailed and sophisticated metal components that are of high precision.

2. the sintering procedures allows for the manufacturing of parts with recommended mechanical
features.

3. it can be used for a variety of metal types such as stainless steel

4. Models and final use parts can be developed through this procedure in a very short period of
time.

The disadvantages include;

1. Additional process after production such as finishing leads to increase cost of production
as well as increase the sophistication processes.
2. the initial investment of DMLS machines and raw materials are high, this makes it more
appropriate for applications where the advantages of 3D printing like rapid prototyping
surpass the related costs.
3. The type of DMLS infrastructure limited the size of printed materials since the overhangs
and unsupported parameter may be difficult to print correctly (Marrey et al., 2019).
 Figure 4-3. Metal 3D printing using Direct Metal Laser Sintering (Marrey et al., 2019).

4.1.3. Electron Beam Melting

This technology deploys the use of electron beams to melt and fuse metal powder in a vacuum
environment, it is commonly used as an additive production technology. In this technology a
layer of metal powder is uniformly place on the platform and a directed electron beam scan the
layer causing the metal powder to melt as per the set intelligent design. Different from the laser
dependent systems, EBM functions well in a vacuumed environment to avoids the interaction of
directed beams with any air molecule. The procedure is repeated in layers till the 3D product is
entirely formed. The use of EBM has proved to have various benefits such as;

1. Processing o highly reactive materials can be achieved by the methodology because of

the vacuum environment since there is limited oxidation of metal powder.
2. EBM is capable of creating strong and completely melted parts that leads to good
mechanical features of parts.
3. EBM system are capable of producing huge sophisticated and strong material parts that
makes it suitable for use in the aviation and the healthcare sector.
The disadvantages include;

1. The requirements for the EBM system such as the high vacuum and electron beam gun
are sophisticated and not affordable
2. Materials processed require finishing and paintings so as to meet the usage requirements,
this is an additional cost.
3. EBM process consume a lot of time since its build speed is slower as compared to several
other 3D printing systems.
4. He high energy electron beam may develop thermal stress in the material causing an
impact on the material micro structures as well as leaving residual stresses.

The threshold size can be restricted as a result of electron beam features, affecting the screening
of tiny details in the printed material. Also, overhangs and uninstalled parameters may have a
problem in the printing procedure (Omiyale and Farayibi, 2020).

Figure 4-4. Metal 3D printing using Electron Beam Melting (Omiyale and Farayibi, 2020).

4.1.4. Other technologies

Other systems like Binder Jetting which is a 3D metal printing technology uses a different
procedure where a liquid binding material is precisely dumped inti thin film layers, the binding
material efficiently compacts the powdered components to develop a solid layer, the process is
repeated till a 3D project is created. To print the part made up of bound powder, sintering is done
in a furnace to remove the bind and fuse the metal elements to create a dense material. This
technology has numerous merits such as affordability, time consuming, compatibility to large
volumes production and its ability to accurately produce huge parts from different metal powders
for a wide range of applications. However, the system faces challenges such as fragility of green
parts prior to sintering, possible shrinkage in the sintering process that affects the final sizes
alongside the challenge of postproduction process such as surface finish and mechanical features
in comparison to other 3D printing approaches. Other related problems are a result of attaining
tiny details and sophisticated configurations that requires support infrastructure for overhangs as
well as intricate properties (Min et al., 2021).

Figure 4-5. Metal 3D printing using binder jetting (Min et al., 2021).

Metal Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) is an advanced technique frequently used for formation
of plastics, where a filament made of metal powder id]s combined with a polymer binder is
extrudes in layers to develop a 3D material. As per the printing procedures in place, the green
section goes through a dibinding process to remove the polymer binder that thereafter goes
through a sintering process to fuse metal powder. The approach provides accessibility and cost
effectiveness merits by capitalizing on the knowledge of FFF approach which is affordable as
compared to the material 3D printing methodologies, it also enables the manufacturing of large
and complex configurations which make the process more seamless in comparisons to other
metal printing approaches. Despite the merit this approach holds the technology has a set of
drawbacks:

1. They have sophisticated process such as debinding prior to sintering because of the
polymer bind used, this may alternatively affect the quality of the final object
2. The features of the material tend to be compromised due to the procedures used in the
melting technology
3. The use of polymer binders makes the green sections to be fragile, this hinders the
achievement of fine and high resolution detail. However, the selection of metal powder
may be cumbersome due to the needs for efficient extrusion processes (Razavykia et al.,
2020).
 Figure 4-6. Metal 3D printing using Metal Fused Filament Fabrication (Razavykia et al., 2020).

4.2. Influencing parameters

The factors affecting 3D printing process should be clearly understood and consideration of the
effects of these parameters helps predict how the projected results will be managed.

4.2.1. Temperature
Temperatures control is crucial in attaining the expected balance between performance and the
level of quality of the printed object, the degree of hotness in the 3D printing procedures of
materials play a key role in ensuring the general efficiency of the printed object, temperature
impacts different aspects such as material processing, layer alignment and the general printing
rate. Inappropriate temperate levels can result in low material flow that consequently affects the
correctness of the printed layers and may cause errors, temperatures affect the material
processing features in the 3D process, appropriate temperatures level are crucial in ensuring that
the material is of the right viscosity for a seamless extrusion. Similarly, use of high temperatures
may lead to issues like over melting that may lower the configuration accuracy of the printed
object (Guessasma et al., 2020).
The temperatures used is very important in determining the metallurgical features of the end
printed object, heating and cooling cycles of the 3D object printing goes through modifications.
The speed of cooling is influenced by temperatures in its surroundings, the formation processes,
grain sizes and the amount of errors in the material, maximum control of temperatures is
important in attaining the required features like fine grain sizes and uniformity. Use of wrong
temperatures conditions leads to the formation of unwanted phases, increase porosity and the
development of defects like crevices. Temperature variations affect the thermal stress in the
material that can later affect the microstructure and the mechanical features of the printed
material (Wang et al., 2021).

Void shape:
 At 190°C, the voids are mostly elongated and elliptical, with some smaller, circular
voids.
 At 220°C, the voids are more circular and evenly distributed.
 At 250°C, the voids are again more elongated and elliptical, but they are also larger and
widely distributed.
Void space distribution:
 The histograms show the distribution of void areas for each printing temperature.
 At 190°C, there is a wider range of void sizes, with a peak at around 4850 µm².
 At 220°C, the void sizes are more concentrated around 3059 µm².
 At 250°C, the pore sizes are more spread out with a peak of around 2858 µm².
Porosity:
 The bar chart shows the porosity of the printed materials for each printing temperature.
 At 190°C, the porosity is highest, at 6.3%.
 At 220°C, the porosity is lowest, at 4.0%.
 At 250°C, the porosity is intermediate, at 4.6%.
 Figure 4-7. Effect of the printing on the void shape, distribution, and porosity (Wang et al., 2021).

4.2.2. Print Speed

The rate of 3D printing process of metals is a key factor that greatly influences the general
efficiency of the printed material, the rate of printing determines the rate at which material is
fused. The rate of printing determines the period it takes to finish the 3D printing task, higher
printing rates may lead to fast production, buts consideration on balanced parameters is crucial
so as to avoid poor quality print outs. Very high speed of printing may lead to good layer
alignment and increases chances of typical errors like delamination. Similarly, slower printing
rates lead to better component quality by extend the general production period. The relationship
between the printing speed and microstructure is profound since the speed at which component is
fused impacts the cooling and compaction dynamics of metal, high printing rates lead to a faster
solidification process that may enhance fine grain structures. High printing speeds does not allow
enough time for effective blend between layers may lead to weak surfaces with poor mechanical
features. Contrary, low printing rate offer more periods of heat dissipation enabling the metal to
solidify slowly, this may contribute to huge grain sized and enhanced bonding between layers,
thus, promoting the mechanical strength of the printed material. Attaining an equilibrium in the
rate of speeding is key in attaining the needed general efficiency and structural features, it entails
consideration of layer alignment, configuration accuracy and the particular metallurgical features
needed to the intended use. Keen modifications of printing rates are important in achieving a
seamless trade-off between production performance and the quality of the 3D printed material
(Loskot et al., 2023).

4.2.3. Layer Thickness

Metal thickness affects the print process of metals, it determines the overall performance and the
quality of the microstructures, these parameters affects the clarity, surface finish and the general
accuracy of the printed object. A smaller thickness results in a higher resolution, this facilitates
the printer to create fine detail and sophisticate geometries more correctly. Intricate layers lead to
smoother sub surfaces which lowers the requirement for after processing processes thus
improving the appearance of the end product.it is important to attain an equilibrium since
intricate layers may prolong the printing time greatly, thus affecting the general performance
(Shubham et al., 2016).

The impact of level of thickness on microstructures is dependent on the solidification procedures,

finer layers translates to finer development of microstructures. Fine layers translate to rapid
cooling of layers that consequentially leas to a high quality microstructure. This finer grain
structure may beneficially affect the mechanical features like the tensile strength and integrity,
very fine layers may face a number of difficulties such as poor adhesion between aligned layers,
this compromises the structural strength of the final print. On the other hand, larger layer
thickness may expedite the printing procedures but could compromise the microstructure and
surface polishing. The large amount of material deposited in every layer may lead to slower
cooling speeds that may lead to formation of coarse microstructures. Whereas, this may result in
improved interlayered bonding, this may be presented at the compromise of particular
mechanical features. The choice of the maximal layer thickness entails considerations of the
wanted equilibrium between the speed, resolution and microstructural features. It is important to
ensure the chosen layer thickness suit the intended use and particular mechanical and beauty
needs of the 3D printed material, keen calibrations of layer thickness features permit for
customization as per the trade-offs within the acceptable limits for a certain use. As per the
figure below. The three specimens have same microstructures made up of beforehand austenite
grains and intricate acicular martensitic needles in the grin structures, the initial austenite grains
are elongated in the orientation of the building direction that is typical for LENS® produced
parts. The magnitudes of the initial austenite grain seem to be larger as compare in sample C that
with a1.00 mm layer thickness in comparison to samples A and B with 0.50 mm and 0.75 mm
thicknesses respectively (Rońda et al., 2022).

Figure 4-8. Effect of increasing layer thickness on the microstructure (Rońda et al., 2022).

(Naveed, 2020) examine the impacts of process factors on metal features and microstructural
modifications of 3D printed samples via Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), the investigation
employed five carious raster inclinations to make 3D sections using polylactic acid (PLA) as the
thermoplastic material.an investigation on the tensile strength of the printed sections was done to
provide important insights on the optimal raster position for manufacturing of parts with string
tensile features. The microstructural investigations were done by the used scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) to determine material failure behaviours and modes as well as defects in the
3D sections. The research detects the best raster direction for placing the layers of 3D printing
material during the FDM process, it similarly detected defects at the microstructure level that
have notable effects on mechanical features of 3D printed sections.

(Murugan et al., 2018) analysed the mechanical properties of 3D printing infrastructures under
the impacts of many structural parameters like direction of building, thickness of layers,
microstructures density and the printing rate. The publish also focused on analysing and
maximizing the effect of such parameters on the tensile integrity and printing periods. The
research fabricated samples using the Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) material with various blends of
procedures and parameters as per Taguchi's approach. Past research on the effect of structures
direction were undertaken by modifying the y-axis orientation of the sample, mechanical features
of the samples were examined via impact, tensile strength as well as thermal stresses as per the
set standards like the TS EN ISO 179-1 as well as ASTM D638-1. The preliminary studies
confirmed that a model built using a y-axis orientation of 45 degrees yields better mechanical
properties. The influence of the build parameters on the tensile strength, Young's modulus, and
printing time were analysed and optimised.
 5. Methodology
Regarding to the research aim that tends to Study how different printing parameters (like
temperature, print speed, layer thickness) affect the microstructure and resultant properties of the
printed metal, the decision was taken to follow such approaches that are presented in the
following figure:

Theoretical
Material Selection Printing Setup
comprehension

Results analysis Optical Microstructural

and discussions Microscopy Analysis

Conclusions and
recommendations

5.1. Theoretical comprehension

For theoretical comprehension, a thorough review of existing literature on the chosen metal
alloy, 3D printing technologies, and the influence of process parameters on microstructure and
properties is crucial. This step involves gaining a comprehensive understanding of the theoretical
framework, which serves as the basis for subsequent experimental work.

5.2. Material Selection

Material selection demands a careful evaluation of available metal powders compatible with the
chosen 3D printing technology. The intended use of material should be the guiding principle for
the material selection to be deployed.

5.3. Printing Setup

Setting up the printing systems is planned to attract a high attention as it is expected to require
careful orientation while putting considering essential parameters such as material height.
 5.4. Microstructural Analysis
This is planned to be achieved by paying a high attention towards gathering specimens from
various printing parameters and use of modern technologies like X-ray and SEM. These optical
investigation techniques are expected to help in visualizing the crystallographic arrangement and
grain sizes.

5.5. Optical Microscopy

This is a dependent approach that mainly relies on the microstructural analysis approach, where
it is expected to help in providing clear insights on the surface structure and intricate details of
the printed object, which is estimated to comprehend the structure features that cannot be
determined by conventional techniques.

5.6. Results analysis and discussions

This section concerns regarding proposing a detailed analysis of the results would be obtained
from the experiments had been applied. Where the microstructure of each scenario (varying
temperature, layer thickness, and printing speed) would be analysed individually and compared
to satisfy the project goal.

5.7. Conclusions and recommendations

This approach mainly concerns regarding outlining the main concluded points as well as the
findings of the stuy in addition to offering suggestion for maximizing the 3D printing process
depending on the notable outcomes hence contributing to enhanced comprehension in the sector.
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