UNIT-4 COMMUNICATION

Communication
The root of the word "communication" in Latin is communicare, which means to share or to make
common. Communication is defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning.

Characteristics of Communication
Communication is inevitable.
Communication is irreversible.
Communication is cultural.

Communication and Society

Communication is a vital tool for socializing and interacting with others. Societies are fundamentally
formed by communication between individuals.

Human vs. Other Species Communication

Human Communication is also called the open-endedness of language. Animal communication is a
closed system. It cannot produce new signals to communicate novel events or experiences.
Human beings can talk of real or imaginary situations, places, or objects far removed from their present
surroundings and time.

Semiotics
Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation. It explores how meaning is
created and communicated through various sign systems.

Sign, Symbols, and Codes in Communication

In communication, signs, symbols, and codes are fundamental elements that facilitate the
transmission of messages and meaning between individuals.

Sign: A sign is anything that conveys meaning. It can be a word, image, sound, gesture, or object that
stands for something other than itself.

Symbol: Symbols are a type of sign that has a culturally specific meaning that is learned rather than
inherent. They rely on social conventions and are often abstract.

Code: Codes are systems of signs governed by rules and conventions agreed upon by a community.

Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is the use of words to express information. Nonverbal communication is using
body language, facial expressions, gestures, and visuals to communicate without using words.
Verbal Communication is suitable for conveying complex ideas while Non-verbal is crucial in
conveying emotions and attitudes.
Verbal communication becomes more potent if accompanied by non-verbal messages.
Verbal Communication is fixed and structured while Non-verbal communication varies from culture to
culture (contextual) and is hence called Unstructured (Symbolic)
Please note Non-verbal Communication can substitute for a verbal message. For example, your
facial expression often conveys a far more vivid message than words ever can.
Please use Non-Verbal Communication more and it has more believability too.

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Non-verbal communication can be expressed through
 Body language (kinesics)
 Distance (proxemics)
 Voice (paralanguage)
 Touch (haptics)

Kinesics
Kinesics is the study and interpretation of body communication. It includes the study of body
movements, gestures, facial expressions, and other nonverbal behavior.
It can also convey a person's social status, level of involvement, and emotional quotient.

Meta-Communication
Meta-communication is how a piece of information is meant to be interpreted. It is based on the idea that
the same message accompanied by different meta-communication can mean something entirely
different, including its opposite, as in irony.
If you say "Glad to see you" to someone and roll your eyes at the same time, they will not feel that you
are actually glad to see them. It can be called a message about the message itself or
communication about communication.
Kelly texts James about meeting for dinner, and James texts "K" instead of "okay." Kelly is worried
because she thinks James is mad. She wonders why he texted "K" instead of "k," "ok," "yes" or "okay."
James was in a hurry, and he just texted in caps because he was excited to see Kelly.

Organizational Communication
Organizational communication refers to the communication that takes place between people who are
working towards common goals within an organization. It has several types -

Vertical Communication

Downward communication
It is when Top-Level Managers share information with lower-level employees. An example may be
an announcement of a new CEO or a notice of a merger with a former competitor.

Upward Communication
Information moving from lower-level employees to high-level employees is upward communication.
For example, workers demand a pay raise for a supervisor.

Horizontal communication
It involves the exchange of information across departments at the same level in an organization (i.e.,
peer-to-peer communication). It mostly includes social activities and grapevine communication.

Grapevine Communication
It is a method of informal and unofficial form of communication held in a workplace. It does not have any
defined structure or agenda and is carried out by the people in an organization in the form of rumors,
gossip, false statements, and half-truths.

Diagonal communication
It is cross-functional communication between employees at different levels of the organization. For
example, if a sales representative e-mails the vice president of marketing, asking when a product will be
available for shipping, then diagonal communication has occurred.

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Levels of Communication
Inter and Intra Personal Communications
Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself and occurs only inside our heads.
Hence, the message is created inside the Central Nervous System (CNS).
Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one
another. It causes Homogeneity of opinion among people.

Group and Mass Communication

Group communication occurs when three or more people communicate to achieve a shared goal.
Mass communication occurs when messages are sent to large anonymous audiences using print or
electronic media.

Transcendental communication (under Intra-Personal)

It is a type of communication that occurs between humans and God. It's based on religious values and
can involve inner practices like prayer etc.

Dyadic Communication (under Inter-Personal)

Dyadic speech communication is described as communication occurring between two people who
engage in face-to-face interaction for purposes of social facilitation.

Public communication (Mass Communication)

It is sender-focused and typically occurs when one person conveys information to an audience. It is
formal and planned.

Synchronous communication
It is the exchange of information between 2 or more people in real-time. It means the feedback or
replies are received immediately. In-person conversations or meetings, phone calls, and video
meetings or calls, Online chatting, Live Broadcasting are some examples of synchronous
communication.

Asynchronous communication
It means interaction without real- time conversation - replies can be delayed hence also called self-
pacing. A great example is Newspapers, email, blogs, Podcasts, Discussion forums, etc.

Basic Model of Communication

It is a simplified representation of the process of communication. Its function is to give a compact
overview of the complex process of communication.

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Sender / Source
A sender is a person or entity that originates a message and sends it to a receiver.

Message
A message is a thoughts, ideas, or concept intended by the source for consumption by some recipient.

Encoding
Encoding is the process of converting a message into a format that can be transmitted to others.

Channel / Medium
In communication, a channel is the medium used to send a message from a sender to a receiver.
Channels can be written, verbal, or nonverbal.

Decoding
In communication, decoding is the process of interpreting and analyzing a message that has been
encoded by the sender.

Receiver
The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended. This person is charged with decoding the
message in an attempt to understand the intentions of the source.

Feedback
Feedback in communication is the response, reaction, or information given by the recipient of a message
to the sender. It is the process of letting someone know which areas they need to improve.

Noise
Noise in communication is anything that interferes with shared meaning. It can make it difficult for
senders and receivers to communicate effectively.

Context
The context of a communication process shapes the effectiveness of the encoded messages
transmitted between the sender and the receiver.For example, we can use context to infer whether a
phrase is literal or sarcastic, whether we should be communicating formally (e.g. in a job interview) or
informally (e.g. among old friends), and so on.
Types of Contexts
The concept of temporal context encompasses the sequence of events.

Social-psychological context refers to norms within a group.

Cultural context refers to the shared beliefs and values within a culture.
Physical context refers to the actual location or a tangible environment.
Historical context in communication refers to the events in the past that influence the understanding
and interpretation of the present communication.
Situational context refers to the specific circumstances or events that surround a communication act.
Environmental context in communication encompasses the broader physical, social, and cultural
environment

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Communication Models
Communication models refer to the conceptual frameworks or theories that explain the way of human
communication.
It also represents the entire communication process between the sender and the receiver.
The 3 Models of Communication are:
 Linear Models of Communication
 Interactive Models of Communication
 Transactional Models of Communication

Linear/Transmission Models of Communication

The linear communication model is a one- way interaction where feedback is not present. This model
of communication is message-focused. It is best suited for persuasion and propaganda.

Interactive Models of Communication

The interactive communication model refers to two-way communication with non- simultaneous
feedback.
The interactive model takes physical and psychological context into account.

Transactional Models of Communication

The transitional communication model is a two-way communication process with simultaneous
feedback. It is mostly used. for interpersonal communication because the senders and the receivers of
messages. inter-change their roles. This model takes. into account the physical, social, cultural,
relational, and psychological context in which communication takes place.

Theories under the Linear Model

Aristotle's communication model
Aristotle's communication model 300 BC refers to the communication model with the speaker, speech,
occasion, audience, and effect elements.

Shannon-Weaver's communication model

This model was established by two American scholars, Shannon and Weaver, in 1949. It represents six
essential communication elements: information source, transmitter, channel, receiver, destination,
and noise source.

Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication

It includes Source-Message-Channel- Receiver. David Berlo developed it in 1960.

Theories under the Transactional Model

Wilbur Schramm's model
Wilbur Schramm was one of the first scholars to consider communication as an interactive process.
Wilbur Schramm's model of communication is a circular model that emphasizes the importance of
encoding and decoding in communication.

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Barriers of Communication
A communication barrier is anything that prevents the receiver from receiving and understanding the
messages. The various types of barriers to communication.

 Language barriers: Using improper and faulty language, improper translations, use of jargon, etc
are some of the common examples of language barriers.
 Emotional/Psychological barriers: Some of the common forms of emotional barriers are being
judgemental and opinionated, having a preconceived notion about something, etc.
 Physical barriers (Noise): Physical barriers are basically related to poor sound quality, excessive
background sound, etc.
 Cultural barriers: These barriers arise when the values, beliefs, and perceptions of the receiver of
the message are not taken into consideration.
 Organizational Barriers: The Organizational Barriers refer to the hindrances in the flow of
information among the employees that might result in a commercial failure of an organization.
 Technological Barrier: A technological barrier is limited access to proper, appropriate, and related
hardware and software when the use of technology fails
 Individual / Personal Barrier: Individual Barriers are the personal factors of both the sender and
receiver that may act as a barrier to effective communication. Such as ill health or fear.
 Semantic barriers: Semantic barriers refer to the obstacles caused in communication due to
problems with the interpretation of word meanings.

Mass Media
Mass media means technology that is intended to reach a mass audience. It is the primary means of
communication used to reach the vast majority of the general public. The most common platforms
for mass media are newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet.

Features of Mass Media/ Mass Communication

 Professional / Structured: Mass media content is created by trained professionals. This structured
approach ensures the information's accuracy, reliability, and quality.
 Use of medium: Mass media employs various channels such as print, broadcast, and digital
platforms to disseminate information.
 Rapid transmission: Information through mass media is transmitted quickly, often in real-time,
especially via digital and broadcast platforms.
 Heterogenous audience: Mass media targets a diverse audience comprising different
demographics, interests, and backgrounds.
 Delayed feedback: Feedback from the audience in mass media is often not immediate, especially
in traditional formats like print.
 Public: Mass media content is intended for public consumption and is accessible to a wide
audience.
 The commodification of message: Information and content in mass media are often commodified,
turning news, entertainment, and educational material into marketable products.
 Complex production process: Creating mass media content involves a sophisticated production
process with multiple stages, including research, writing, editing, and distribution.
 Based on schedule: Mass media operates on a regular schedule, with content being published or
broadcast at specific times.
 Continuous: Mass media operates continuously, providing a steady stream of content to its
audience.

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Functions of Mass Media/ Communication

 Inform: Mass media provides timely and factual information about current events, issues, and
developments to the public.
 Educate: Mass media offers educational content that enhances the public's knowledge and
understanding of various subjects.
 Persuade: Mass media aims to influence public opinion and behavior through persuasive messages
and campaigns.
 Entertain: Mass media delivers content designed to entertain and engage the audience, providing a
break from daily routines.

Mass Communication

Mass Communication refers to the process of transmitting information, ideas, and messages to a large
audience through various channels. Mass communication can occur through different mediums such as
television, radio, newspapers, magazines, websites, and social media platforms. It plays a crucial role in
the spread of information on a large scale.

Journalism

Journalism is the practice of gathering, assessing, creating, and presenting news and information to the
public. It involves investigating events, issues, trends, and stories, and then disseminating them through
various mediums such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, and online platforms.

Types of Journalism

 Popular journalism: This typically refers to journalism aimed at a broad audience, often focusing
on entertainment or sensational stories, not necessarily news produced by ordinary people.
 Common journalism: This term is not widely recognized in the field of journalism and doesn't
accurately describe news production by non-professionals.
 Citizen journalism: This is the correct term. It involves regular citizens reporting news, especially
with the rise of the internet and social media, where people can share information and stories
independently of traditional news outlets.
 New journalism: This refers to a style of journalism that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s,
characterized by a more literary and narrative approach, often including the journalist's personal
voice or perspective.

Emergence of mass media

The emergence of various types of mass media has been driven by technological innovations and
societal changes.
Print Media: Newspapers, magazines, books, journals. Newspapers are often described as 'one day
best sellers'.
Broadcast Media: Radio, television. Radio is considered less expensive and more effective than
others for educational communication of non-literates.
New Media: Interactive websites, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mobile apps.

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Emergence of remote communication mediums
The emergence of various remote communication mediums, from letters to the telegraph and beyond,
has significantly advanced human connectivity.
Letters: Letters were the primary means of remote communication for centuries, allowing for personal,
commercial, and governmental correspondence.
Telegraph: It was first marked as a separation between transportation and communication and was
the first highway of information.
Telephone: The telephone further advanced remote communication by allowing real-time voice
conversations over long distances.
Internet: It revolutionized communication by sending digital content across the globe instantly.

Analog vs Digital Media

The distinction between analog and digital media lies in how information is recorded, stored, and
transmitted. Here's a breakdown of the two:

Analogue Media
Analog media captures and represents information in a Linear format. It is based on physical properties.
It represents information as a continuous wave. For example, in audio, sound waves are recorded in
their natural form.
Vinyl records (audio), Photographic film (images), Cassette tapes (audio) Broadcast television
(signals)

Digital Media
Digital media captures and represents information in discrete binary format (Os and 1s). MP3 files
(audio), JPEG images (photos), Digital video files (e.g., MP4),
Streaming services (content delivery)

Broadcasting, Narrowcasting and Datacasting

These are three distinct approaches to distributing content to audiences, each serving different purposes
and utilizing various technologies.

Broadcasting
It involves transmitting content to a large, general audience simultaneously, typically using radio or
television signals. National news programs, major sporting events, and popular TV shows.

Narrowcasting
It targets a specific, narrower audience segment, often with tailored content to meet the preferences or
interests of that group. Niche channels like the Cooking Channel, or local community radio
stations.

Datacasting
It refers to the transmission of data (such as text, images, or multimedia) alongside audio and video
broadcasts. Content during live broadcasts (e.g., real-time sports stats).

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Emergence of Communication
The terms "Pre-Information Age" and "Post-Information Age" refer to distinct periods in the evolution
of human communication, knowledge dissemination, and technology.

Pre-Information Age
The Pre-Information Age refers to the period before the advent of information technology as we
understand it today, primarily characterized by the reliance on traditional means of communication and
knowledge transfer.
Key Characteristics:
Dominance of Oral Tradition, Limited Access to Information, Print Revolution, Slow Information
Exchange.

Post-Information Age
The Post-Information Age refers to the current and emerging period characterized by the proliferation of
information technologies and digital media, significantly altering how information is created, shared, and
consumed.
Key Characteristics:
Digital Communication, User-Generated Content, Data Explosion, Globalization, Personalization and
Customization

Media Age (Emergane of Mass Media)

The concept of media age can be categorized into several distinct "ages" or "eras," often referred to in
terms of first, second (Pre-modern), third, and so on (Post-modern). Here's a breakdown of these
media ages:

First Media Age: (The Print Age) 15th - 20th century

Initiated with the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1440s.
Dominated by print media. Information was disseminated linearly. Literacy rates began to rise, leading
to increased public awareness and education.

Second Media Age: (The Broadcast Age) Early 20th - late 20th century
Emerged with the advent of radio in the 1920s and television in the 1950s.Content was produced by a
limited number of broadcasters and broadcast to a wide audience. Centralized control of information,
with consumers primarily receiving information rather than participating in its creation.

Third Media Age (The Digital Age) Late 20th - present

Marked by the rise of the internet and digital technologies. Information became easily accessible and
widely shared through websites. The emergence of user- generated content and interactivity, allows
consumers to become creators with a shift from centralized to decentralized media production.

Fourth Media Age (The Social Media Age) Early 21st-present

Defined by the rise of social media platforms. Emphasis on real-time communication and user-
generated content.

Fifth Media Age: (The Post-Digital Age) (Emerging)

May involve advanced technologies like augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and artificial
intelligence (AI). Increased integration of digital media with physical experiences. Focus on
personalization and immersive experiences.

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McLuhan's theory of Media
In Marshall McLuhan's theory of media, he introduces the concepts of "hot" and "cool" media.
Marshall McLuhan's famous phrase "the medium is the message" is a core concept in his media
theory. It suggests that the medium through which content is delivered (such as television, radio, or
print) is more significant in shaping human experience and society than the actual content or message
that it conveys.

Hot Media:
Hot media are high-definition, meaning they provide a lot of information and detail, filling in the blanks
for the audience. This results in low audience participation, as the media. itself does most of the work.
It tends to engage one sense intensely. Examples: Radio, movies (cinema), photographs, lectures,
and print books.

Cool Media:
Cool media, on the other hand, are low- definition, meaning they provide less detailed information and
require high audience participation. The audience must fill in the gaps and actively interpret the
content. Often requires more sensory input and interpretation by the audience. Examples: Television,
cartoons, telephone conversations, seminars, and discussions.

Common Terms in Mass Media

Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that uses persuasion to influence an audience to further an
agenda. Propaganda can be used in media to evoke an emotional response from the audience.

Subliminal communication
Subliminal communication is a technique used in mass media to influence people without their being
aware of what the messenger is doing. These are hidden words or images that are subconsciously
perceived.

Condensation Symbol
A condensation symbol is a word or phrase that stirs the listener's basic values and readies him for
action. For Example - My country, the Indian flag, etc.

Medial Appeal
Media appeal is the way a product attracts an audience. There are various types of advertising
appeals, including: Rational appeal, Musical appeal, Sexual appeal, Humor appeal, Emotional
appeal, Scarcity appeal.

Public Relation
Public Relations is the discipline with the aim of earning understanding and support and influencing
opinion and behavior. It is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and
mutual understanding between an organization and its public.

Selective Exposure
Selective exposure is a psychological theory that describes how people tend to favor information that
confirms their existing views while avoiding information that contradicts them.

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Consonance
Consonance refers to the degree of agreement between a message and the existing beliefs,
attitudes, or values of the audience. Media creates images or mental pictures in the minds of their
audience through it.

GateKeeping
Gatekeeping is the process of filtering information for dissemination, such as for publication,
broadcasting, the Internet, or other modes of communication.

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