REVIEW OUTLINE

Hormones
1. What are hormones?
2. Means of hormone secretion
a. Exocrine
b. Paracrine
c. Autocrine
3. Types of hormones
a. Peptide hormones
b. Steroids hormones
c. Amino acid derived hormones
4. Signal transduction pathways
a. Lignad gated receptors
i. GPCRs
ii. RTKs
Hormones Bootcamp.com

What are Hormones?

Hormones are chemical messengers

Travel throughout the body

Coordinate activity between cells, tissues, and organs

 Hormones Bootcamp.com

Means of Hormone Secretion

Endocrine: Hormones secreted directly into the bloodstream

Paracrine: Hormones secreted to neighboring cells

Autocrine: Hormones secreted onto the same cell which is

secreting it
Hormones Bootcamp.com

Types of Hormones

Three Main Hormone Types:

1. Peptide Hormones
2. Steroid Hormones
3. Amino Acid Derived Hormones
Hormones Bootcamp.com

Peptide Hormones

Protein based hormones

Synthesis: Produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum by linking amino acids

together via peptide bonds
 Hormones Bootcamp.com

Peptide Hormones

Action

Bind to cell surface receptors rather than freely passing through cellular membranes
● Proteins are water soluble, not lipid soluble

Peptide
Indirect Stimulation Hormone

Peptide hormone interaction with cell surface receptors kicks of a

signal transduction pathway in order to carry out the signaling

Hormone
Receptor
Hormones Bootcamp.com

Ligand Gated Receptors

Ligand-Gated Receptors: Receptor proteins that are capable of inducing intracellular signal
transduction pathways once an extracellular ligand is bound
● Secondary Messengers: Signaling molecules independent of the original hormone which
propagate signals within the cell (intracellular effect)
● cAMP (cyclic AMP), IP3 (inositol triphosphate), DAG (diacylglycerol), and Ca2+ (calcium
ions)
● GPCRs (G Protein Coupled Receptors): Associated with a G Protein on the intracellular
domain that is responsible for conveying intracellular signals (Ex Pathway: IP3/DAG)
● Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs): Twin components dimerize to and cross phosphorylate
in order to influence intracellular signals
● Ligand-Gated Ion Channels: Channel proteins which change shape once a ligand is bound
in order to allow the flow of ions across membranes
Hormones Bootcamp.com

Regulates the release of stored Ca2+ from the

endoplasmic reticulum into the cell cytosol

1. The pathway is activated when an

appropriate peptide hormone
binds the GPCR
2. GPCR activates the associated G
protein via the binding of one GTP
molecule
3. G protein activates the enzyme
Phospholipase C
4. Activated Phospholipase C
cleaves the lipid PIP2 into two
separate secondary messengers
(IP3 and DAG)
5. IP3 binds ligand gated Ca2+
channels on the surface of the ER
6. ER calcium channels open,
releasing Ca2+ into the cytosol
7. Free Ca2+ goes on to affect
multiple other pathways
 Hormones Bootcamp.com

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs)

Peptide hormone receptor with an independent mechanism from the

GPCR

● Made of two mirror components that dimerize once a peptide

hormone is bound
● Intracellular RTK domains cross-phosphorylate to kick of a
secondary messenger response
○ RTK components phosphorylate each other and affect other
proteins
 Hormones Bootcamp.com

Steroid Hormones

Hormones made from modified cholesterol molecules

Synthesis: Production occurs in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Structure: Basic fused 4-ring structures with differentiating functional groups

Hormones Bootcamp.com

Steroid Hormones

All hormones produced by the adrenal cortex and the gonads are steroid hormones

Adrenal Cortex: Reproductive Organs:

1. Glucocorticoids 1. Progesterone
2. Mineralocorticoids 2. Testosterone
3. Androgenic Steroids 3. Estrogen
 Hormones Bootcamp.com

Steroid Hormones
Action

Lipophilic hormones that are able to pass directly through a cellular membrane
● Lipid soluble, not water soluble
● Require association with a water soluble transport protein for travel through the blood

Directly bind intracellular receptors of the cytoplasm or the nucleus

● Resulting steroid-receptor complexes directly bind DNA to affect transcription

Direct Stimulation
Steroid hormones cause slow and gradual genetic change
Hormones Bootcamp.com

Steroid Hormones and Peptide Hormones

 Hormones Bootcamp.com

Amino Acid Derived Hormones

Can have properties that are similar to both peptide and steroid hormones

Synthesis: Produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the cytosol and mainly derived
from the amino acid tyrosine

All hormone of the adrenal medulla as well as T3 and T4 hormones

Adrenal Medulla Hormones:

1. Epinephrine
2. Norepinephrine
Hormones Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!

Which type of hormone is secreted directly to neighboring cells?

A) Autocrine
B) Paracrine
C) Exocrine
D) Endocrine
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. Hormones are chemical messengers that facilitate

Hormones 2.
coordination between cells and organ systems
Endocrine hormones are secreted into the bloodstream
3. Paracrine hormones are secreted to neighboring cells
4. Autocrine hormones are secreted onto the originator cell
5. Peptide hormones are protein based hormones
6. Signal transduction pathways are efficient cascades of
intracellular messengers propagating a signal
7. Signal transduction pathways utilize ligand gated receptors
8. GPCRs are ligand gated receptors that associate with an
intracellular G protein
9. The IP3/DAG pathway utilized GPCRs and signal
transduction pathways to release Ca2+ from the ER
10. RTKs are ligand gated receptors composed of two
components which dimerize and cross phosphorylate
11. Steroid hormones are lipid soluble, and seek to alter DNA
transcription directly
12. Amino acid derived hormones have qualities of both peptide
and steroid hormones
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

Hypothalamus 2. Posterior Pituitary Gland

and Pituitary a. Antidiuretic hormone

b. Oxytocin
3. Anterior Pituitary Gland
a. Hypothalamic releasing hormones
b. Tropic hormones
c. Direct hormones
4. Pineal Gland
a. Melatonin
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland

Hypothalamus: Responsible for regulation of hormone secretion in the body

● Coordinates the body’s internal environment and maintains homeostasis

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): Crucial gland for hormone production, storage, and release
● Rests just below the hypothalamus
● Anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Posterior Pituitary Gland

Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis): The direct neuronal extension of the

hypothalamus constructed of neuronal tissue

● Stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Posterior Pituitary Gland Hormones

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) aka. Vasopressin: Increases water

reabsorption in the nephron by increasing the number of aquaporins
in the collecting duct
● Reabsorption of water into the blood
● Antidiuretic (decrease in urination)
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Posterior Pituitary Gland Hormones

Oxytocin: Causes uterine contraction during child labor and the release
of milk during breastfeeding
● Targets the uterus and mammary glands
● Operates in a positive feedback loop
● Plays a role in facilitating “maternal behavior”
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis): Produces it own hormones and is composed of

glandular tissue rather than neural tissue

Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones: Hormones released by the

hypothalamus in order to stimulate the release of hormones generated by
the anterior pituitary gland

Hypothalamic Inhibiting Hormones: Hormones released by the

hypothalamus to inhibit the release of other hormones
by the anterior pituitary
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Hypophyseal Portal System: Connects the anterior pituitary

gland to the hypothalamus and allows for quick diffusion of
hormones through a portal vein
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Anterior Pituitary Gland Stimulating Hormones

Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones

GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone): Causes the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

TRH (Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone): Causes the release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

CRH (Corticotropin Releasing Hormone): Causes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone

(ACTH)

GRH (Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone): Causes the release of growth hormone (GH)
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones

Once stimulated, the anterior pituitary can release its own hormones

Tropic Hormones: Target other endocrine glands

for further hormone release

Direct Hormones: Directly targets organs to cause effects

 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Anterior Pituitary Gland Tropic Hormones

FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone): Follicle growth in females and

sperm maturation in male gonads

LH (Luteinizing Hormone): Stimulates ovulation, the formation of

the corpus luteum in females, and the production of
testosterone in male gonads
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Anterior Pituitary Gland Tropic Hormones

ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone): Stimulates the

release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland to
fight stress
● Increases the body’s glucose levels

TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone): Stimulates the

thyroid gland to produce T3 and T4 in order to increase
metabolism
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Anterior Pituitary Gland Direct Hormones

Prolactin: Stimulates the development of the mammary gland and increases milk production
following childbirth

Growth Hormone (Somatotropin): Stimulates the

growth and division of body cells
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones

F. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

L. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
A. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
T. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TH)

P. Prolactin
i.
G. Growth Hormone (Somatotropin)
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Pineal Gland

Gland in the brain responsible for the production of melatonin

Hormone involved in regulating the circadian rhythm

Hypothalamus and Pituitary Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!

Which of the following hormones causes the release of milk

during breastfeeding once released?

A) Prolactin
B) Oxytocin
C) Follicle Stimulating Hormone
D) Luteinizing Hormone
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. Hypothalamus hormones are released by the posterior

Hypothalamus 2.
pituitary and stimulate the anterior pituitary
The posterior pituitary releases oxytocin and ADH

and Pituitary 3. The anterior pituitary gland produces its own hormones and
released them upon stimulation by the hypothalamus
4. The hypophyseal portal system allows for efficient flow of
hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary
5. Hypothalamic releasing hormones are responsible for
stimulating the release of anterior pituitary hormones
6. Anterior pituitary hormones are broken up into tropic and
direct hormones
7. Tropic hormones target other endocrine glands to stimulate
further hormone production and release
8. Direct hormones directly target organs to cause effects
9. Anterior pituitary hormones can be remembered using the
mnemonic FLAT PiG
10. The pineal gland is responsible for the production of
melatonin
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

Thyroid and a. Roles and spatial relationships

Parathyroid 2. Thyroid Gland

a. T3 & T4
b. Calcitonin
c. Thyroid Disorders
3. Parathyroid Gland
a. Parathyroid Hormone
 Thyroid and Parathyroid Bootcamp.com

Thyroid and Parathyroid

Thyroid Gland: The largest of the endocrine

organs
● In front of the trachea

Parathyroid Glands: Endocrine glands on the

posterior side of the thyroid gland
Parathyroid
Glands

Thyroid
Gland
Thyroid and Parathyroid Bootcamp.com

Thyroid Gland Hormones

T3
T4
Calcitonin
Thyroid and Parathyroid Bootcamp.com

Thyroid Gland Hormones: T3 and T4

Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4): Responsible for increasing metabolism in the body
● Released in response to TSH stimulation from the anterior pituitary
● Derived from the amino acid tyrosine
● Negative feedback effect on TSH and TRH secretion

T3: Active form of the hormone set

● 4x more potent than T4
T4: Stable form of the hormone due to additional iodine atom
● Main circulating form of the hormone in blood
Thyroid and Parathyroid Bootcamp.com

Thyroid Gland Hormones: Calcitonin

Calcitonin: Decreases blood calcium levels upon release from the
parafollicular thyroid cells (C cells)

● Stimulates osteoblast use of calcium to generate new bone

● Inhibits osteoclasts from freeing calcium by breaking down bone

● Decreases calcium reabsorption in the kidneys and intestines

Thyroid and Parathyroid Bootcamp.com

Thyroid Disorders
Hypothyroidism: The result of under secretion of T3 and
T4, causing reduced basal metabolic rates

Hyperthyroidism: The result of over secretion of T3 and

T4, causing increased basal metabolic rates
Thyroid and Parathyroid Bootcamp.com

Goiter
Both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism can lead to goiter

Goiter: The irregular, physical enlargement of the thyroid gland

1. Hypothyroidism = low T3 & T4 = over secretion of TRH to compensate for missing T3

& T4 = enlarged thyroid gland

2. Hyperthyroidism = high T3 & T4 = hyperactive thyroid

gland = enlarged thyroid gland

Iodine Deficiency: The leading cause of goiters

Thyroid and Parathyroid Bootcamp.com

Parathyroid Gland
Parathyroid Hormone: Increases blood calcium levels in the blood

Opposite of Calcitonin

● Stimulates osteoclasts to free calcium by breaking down bone

● Inhibits osteoblast use of calcium to generate new bone

● Increases calcium reabsorption in the kidneys and intestines

Thyroid and Parathyroid Bootcamp.com

Parathyroid Hormone vs Calcitonin

Thyroid and Parathyroid Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!

Which of the following is an active hormone that is released by

the thyroid gland?

A) Oxytocin
B) T3
C) T4
D) Parathyroid hormone
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. The thyroid is the largest endocrine organ in the body

Thyroid and 2.
3.
Parathyroid hormones associate with the posterior thyroid
The thyroid gland secretes hormones T3, T4, and calcitonin

Parathyroid 4. T3 and T4 increase metabolism and have negative feedback

effects on TSH and TRH
5. T3 is the active form and T4 is the stable form
6. Calcitonin decreases calcium levels in the blood
7. Calcitonin stimulates osteoblasts, inhibits osteoclasts, and
decreases calcium reabsorption in the kidneys and intestines
8. Hypothyroidism is an under section of T3 & T4 leading to
slower metabolism
9. Hyperthyroidism is an over secretion of T3 & T4 leading to
higher metabolism
10. Both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism can lead to goiters
11. A goiter is the irregular enlargement of the thyroid gland
12. The parathyroid hormone secretes parathyroid hormone
13. Parathyroid hormone increases free calcium levels in the
blood
14. Parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclasts, inhibits
osteoblasts, and increases calcium reabsorption
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. The Pancreas
Pancreas a. Endocrine tissues
b. Exocrine tissues
i. Alpha cells
1. Glucagon
ii. Beta cells
1. Insulin
iii. Delta cells
1. Somatostatin
Pancreas Bootcamp.com

The Pancreas
An endocrine gland consisting of endocrine and
exocrine tissues

Endocrine Cells: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream

Exocrine Cells: Secrete hormones into ducts

Pancreas Bootcamp.com

Pancreatic Endocrine and Exocrine Functions

Endocrine (Islets of Langerhans): Secretion of the peptide
hormones glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin
● Glucagon is released by Alpha (α) cells
● Insulin is released by Beta (β) cells
● Somatostatin is released by Delta (δ) cells

Exocrine: Secretion of digestive enzymes into the small

intestine via the pancreatic duct
Pancreas Bootcamp.com

Insulin and Glucagon

Glucagon: Released by alpha cells in times of low blood
glucose
● Stimulates liver and adipose (fat) tissues to
release their stored glucose

Insulin: Released by beta cells in times of high blood

glucose
● Stimulates the liver, adipose (fat), and muscle
tissues to store glucose
 Pancreas Bootcamp.com

Insulin and Glucose Transport

Insulin is a peptide hormone that associates
with a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK)

Resulting secondary messengers trigger the

increase of glucose transporters along the
cellular membrane

Glucose flows out of the blood and into cells,

decreasing blood glucose levels
Pancreas Bootcamp.com

Somatostatin
Somatostatin from the pancreatic delta cells is an
inhibitory hormone

Somatostatin is responsible for inhibiting the release of:

Insulin from the beta cells

Glucagon from the alpha cells
Growth hormone from the anterior pituitary
Pancreas Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!

If blood glucose levels are determined to be sufficiently low by

your body, which of the following is a potential response?

A) The release of calcitonin from the thyroid gland

B) The release of insulin from the pancreatic beta cells
C) The release of somatostatin from the pancreatic delta cells
D) The release of glucagon from the pancreatic alpha cells
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. The pancreas is an endocrine gland that is made of both

Pancreas 2.
endocrine and exocrine tissues
Endocrine cells of the pancreas release insulin, glucagon,
and somatostatin
3. Glucagon is produced in pancreatic alpha cells
4. Insulin is produced in pancreatic beta cells
5. Somatostatin is produced in pancreatic delta cells
6. Glucagon increases blood glucose
7. Insulin decreases blood glucose
8. Insulin binds a receptor tyrosine kinase in order to generate a
secondary messenger signal inside the cell, stimulating the
increase in glucose transporters in the cellular membrane
9. Somatostatin inhibits the release of insulin, glucagon, and
growth hormone
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. Adrenal gland anatomy

Adrenal Gland a. Adrenal Cortex
b. Adrenal Medulla
2. Adrenal Cortex
a. Long term stress
b. Steroid hormones
3. Adrenal Medulla
a. Short term stress
b. Amino acid derived hormones
Adrenal Gland Bootcamp.com

Adrenal Gland Anatomy

Our bodies house two distinct adrenal glands, each associated with
the superior surface of one of our body’s kidneys

Adrenal Cortex: Outer region of the adrenal gland

Adrenal Medulla: Inner region of the adrenal gland

● Overall adrenal gland function is associated with

stress combatting
Adrenal Gland Bootcamp.com

Adrenal Cortex
Responsible for combatting longer term stress

● Releases steroid hormones upon stimulation by adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

from the anterior pituitary gland

Glucocorticoids (Cortisol): Raise blood glucose levels for fuel

use during long periods of stress; lowers immune response

Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone): Increases blood volume

and blood pressure by increasing reabsorption of Na+;
passive reabsorption of water via osmosis

Androgens: Male sex hormones produced in small amounts by the adrenal cortex
Adrenal Gland Bootcamp.com

Adrenal Medulla
Responsible for dealing with short term stress

● Releases amino acid derived hormones in response to stimulation by the sympathetic

nervous system

Catecholamines (Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: Fight or flight hormones

● Increases heart rate and breaks down glycogen into glucose

Epinephrine: Binds alpha and beta adrenergic receptors to cause

vasoconstriction and vasodilation
● Vasoconstriction occurs with alpha receptors
● Vasodilation occurs with beta receptors
Adrenal Gland Bootcamp.com

Long Term v. Short Term Stress

Long Term Short Term
Dealt with by the adrenal Dealt with by the adrenal
cortex medulla

● Examples might include: ● Examples might include: a

prolonged, insufficient sudden, frightening event
access to food and water or a perceived immediate
threat to health and safety

Hormone Solubility:
Long term stresses are met with steroid hormones while short term stresses are met
with amino acid derived hormones

● Steroids are more lipid soluble that amino acids

● Amino acids must use signal transduction pathways, transmitting signals faster
Adrenal Gland Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!

What is one function of cortisol?

A) Increasing blood volume

B) Acting as a male sex hormone
C) Lowering immune response
D) Vasoconstriction following alpha receptor binding
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. Adrenal glands are located on the superior surfaces of the

Adrenal Gland 2.
kidneys
Adrenal glands can be divided into two anatomical categories:
the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla
3. The adrenal cortex is the outermost portion of the adrenal
gland and is responsible for dealing with long term stress
4. The adrenal cortex releases glucocorticoid and
mineralocorticoid steroid hormones following stimulation from
the anterior pituitary gland
5. Glucocorticoids increase blood glucose but decrease immune
response
6. Mineralocorticoids increase blood volume and blood pressure
7. The adrenal medulla is the innermost portion of the adrenal
gland and is responsible for dealing with short term stress
8. The adrenal medulla releases the catecholamine amino acid
derived hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine following
stimulation from the sympathetic nervous system
9. Catecholamines are the fight or flight hormones
10. Catecholamines can cause vasodilation or vasoconstriction
when they bind adrenergic receptors
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. Tropic Hormone Release

Testes, Ovaries, a. Luteinizing hormone

and Feedback b. Follicle stimulating hormone

2. LH and FSH
Loops a. Effects of ovaries
b. Effects of testes
3. Feedback loops
a. Positive feedback loops
b. Negative feedback loops
Testes, Ovaries, and Feedback Loops Bootcamp.com

Stimulation of the Testes and Ovaries

Recall Time!
The anterior pituitary gland produces its own hormones, which can
be either tropic or direct

● Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone

(FSH) are both tropic hormones and
● Both target the testes in males and the ovaries in females

Ovaries
Estrogen and progesterone

Testes
Testosterone
 Testes, Ovaries, and Feedback Loops Bootcamp.com

LH, FSH, and the Ovaries

Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Causes ovulation when a surge of LH is present during
menstruation
● The corpus luteum forms as a result, which produces
estrogen and progesterone

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Stimulates the

growth of the follicle in ovaries
● Results in the increased production of estrogen
and progesterone
 Testes, Ovaries, and Feedback Loops Bootcamp.com

LH, FSH, and the Testes

Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Causes the production of testosterone by stimulating Leydig cells
● Can make someone “large and hairy”

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Causes the maturation

of sperm by stimulating the Sertoli cells
 Testes, Ovaries, and Feedback Loops Bootcamp.com

Feedback Loops
Positive Feedback Loops: The product increases the production of the stimulus

Negative Feedback Loops: The product inhibits the production of the stimulus
Testes, Ovaries, and Feedback Loops Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!

Which of the following is responsible for causing ovulation during

the menstrual cycle?

A) A large surge of LH in the ovaries

B) A large surge of FSH in the ovaries
C) The formation of the corpus luteum
D) The release of an egg from an ovarian follicle
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. The anterior pituitary gland may release luteinizing hormone

Testes, Ovaries, 2.
and follicle stimulating hormone
LH and FSH are tropic hormones

and Feedback 3.
4.
LH and FSH both target the ovaries and the testes
A LH surge in the ovary causes ovulation during the menstrual

Loops
cycle
5. Ovulation gives rise to the formation of the corpus luteum
6. FSH causes the development of the ovarian follicle
7. The corpus luteum and the ovarian follicle are capable of
releasing estrogen and progesterone
8. LH can lead to the production of testosterone in the Leydig
cells of the testes
9. FSH can cause sperm maturation in the Sertoli cells of the
testes
10. Positive feedback loops occur when a product increases the
production of its own stimulus
11. Negative feedback loops occur when a product inhibits the
production of its stimulus
 Endocrine System Bootcamp.com

References

Slides 1,16, “Generalized Hormone Spheres”: Created with BioRender.com

Slides 5,10, <a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0313_Endoplasmic_Reticulum.jpg">OpenStax</a>, <a
href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0">CC BY 4.0</a>, via Wikimedia Commons
Slide 9, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Figure_09_01_07.png">CNX OpenStax</a>, <a
href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0">CC BY 4.0</a>, via Wikimedia Commons
Slides 11,14, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1818_The_Adrenal_Glands.jpg">OpenStax
College</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0">CC BY 3.0</a>, via Wikimedia
Commons
Slides 17,33, “Hypothalamus and Pituitary”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 18, “Hypothalamus and Pituitary 2”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 19, “Posterior Pituitary”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 20, “The Nephron of the Kidney”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 21, “Breastfeeding Depiction”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 22, “Anterior Pituitary”: Created with BioRender.com
 Endocrine System Bootcamp.com

References

Slide 23, <a

href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1808_The_Anterior_Pituitary_Complex.jpg">OpenStax
College</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0">CC BY 3.0</a>, via Wikimedia
Commons
Slide 26, <a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1809_Hormonal_Regulation_of_Growth.jpg">OpenStax
College</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0">CC BY 3.0</a>, via Wikimedia
Commons
Slide 30, “Sleeping Due to Melatonin”: Created with BioRender.com
Slides 34,44, “Thyroid and Parathyroid 1”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 35, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thyroid_lar_ani.gif">BodyParts3D is made by
DBCLS</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.1/jp/deed.en">CC BY-SA 2.1
JP</a>, via Wikimedia Commons
Slide 35, “Thyroid and Parathyroid 2”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 36, “Thyroid Gland”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 39, “T3 and T4 Up and Down”: Created with BioRender.com
 Endocrine System Bootcamp.com

References

Slide 40, <a

href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_woman_suffering_from_Goiter.png">https://www.myup
char.com/en</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0">CC BY-SA 4.0</a>, via
Wikimedia Commons
Slides 45,51, “Pancreas”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 47, “Pancreatic Cross Section”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 50, “Things Somatostatin Inhibits”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 50, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Somatostatin.png">Phoebus87</a>, <a
href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/">CC BY-SA 3.0</a>, via Wikimedia Commons
Slides 53,59, “The Adrenal Gland and Broader Anatomy”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 57, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Madrid_Bullfight.JPG">MarcusObal</a>, <a
href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0">CC BY-SA 3.0</a>, via Wikimedia Commons
Slide 57, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wadi_Rum_Dry_Desert,_Jordan.jpg">©
Vyacheslav Argenberg / http://www.vascoplanet.com/</a>, <a
href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0">CC BY 4.0</a>, via Wikimedia Commons
Slides 60,66, “Testes, Ovaries, and Feedback Loops”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 63, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_sperm_cells.jpg">Stojanovic23</a>,
<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0">CC BY-SA 4.0</a>, via Wikimedia Commons