DISCUSSION PAPER: REVIEW OF EXISTING

DEFINITIONS
AND EXPLANATIONS OF ABUSE, NEGLECT, EXPLOITATION AND
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN
© The Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2019
The Alliance of the Child Protection in Humanitarian Action (the Alliance) supports the efforts of
humanitarian actors to achieve high quality and effective child protection interventions in
humanitarian settings. Through its technical Working groups and Task Forces, the Alliance develops
inter-agency operational standards and provides technical guidance to support the work of child
protection in humanitarian settings.

This desk review was developed by Leilani Elliott and Hannah Thompson from Proteknôn Consulting
Group, LLC and reviewed by members of the Child Protection Minimum Standards Working Group.

Suggested citation: The Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action (2019). Discussion
Paper: Review of Existing Definitions and Explanations of Abuse, Neglect, Exploitation and Violence
against Children
Table of Contents
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 3
Why do we need a review of existing definitions? ......................................................................... 3
Challenges in defining abuse, neglect, exploitation and violence .................................................. 4
The benefits of conceptually coherent definitions ......................................................................... 5
Note on the way terminology is used in this report ....................................................................... 5
Methodology................................................................................................................................... 6
Report outline ................................................................................................................................. 8
Abuse ................................................................................................................................................... 9
Specific challenges in establishing a definition of abuse ................................................................ 9
Proposed definition of abuse .......................................................................................................... 9
Elements of the definition of abuse ................................................................................................ 10
Abuse in humanitarian contexts ..................................................................................................... 11
Neglect ................................................................................................................................................ 12
Specific challenges in establishing a definition of neglect .............................................................. 12
Proposed definition of neglect in relation to child protection........................................................ 12
Elements of the definition of neglect in relation to child protection.............................................. 13
Neglect in humanitarian contexts ................................................................................................... 16
Exploitation ......................................................................................................................................... 17
Specific challenges in establishing a definition of exploitation ....................................................... 17
Proposed definition of exploitation ................................................................................................ 18
Elements of the definition of exploitation ...................................................................................... 18
Exploitation in humanitarian contexts ............................................................................................ 19
Violence ............................................................................................................................................... 21
Specific challenges in establishing a definition of violence............................................................. 21
Proposed definition of violence ...................................................................................................... 21
Elements of the definition of violence ............................................................................................ 22
Violence in humanitarian contexts ................................................................................................. 23
Linkages between terms ..................................................................................................................... 24
Abuse .............................................................................................................................................. 25
Exploitation ..................................................................................................................................... 25
Violence .......................................................................................................................................... 26
Neglect ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Conclusion and recommendations ...................................................................................................... 27
Recommendations .......................................................................................................................... 28

Annexes ................................................................................................................................................... 29
Annex 1: Glossary of key terms used .............................................................................................. 29
Annex 2: Child maltreatment within a socio-ecological framework ............................................... 31
Endnotes .................................................................................................................................................. 32

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INTRODUCTION
WHY DO WE NEED A REVIEW OF EXISTING DEFINITIONS?
Article 19 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)
requires States to protect children against all forms of abuse, neglect,
exploitation, and violence. i However the Convention neither defines
these terms nor explains the distinctive differences between them.ii,iii
The definition of child protection in the first edition of the Minimum
Standards for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action is the
prevention of and response to “abuse,” “neglect,” “exploitation”,
and “violence” without elaborating on what, precisely, these terms
mean. Likewise, many humanitarian organisations have adopted
definitions of child protection based on the language used in Article 19
of the UNCRC. Problematically, these terms are often used
interchangeably and carry different meanings both within and
across organisations.
Further confusion arises from the fact that academics, scholars,
and practitioners have a tendency to use one term – typically
“abuse” or “violence” – as the umbrella term for a full range of
types of child maltreatment: including neglect; exploitation; and
physical, sexual, and psychological violence and abuse. iv,v This creates
challenges for the identification of cases, the measurement of
incidence rates, and the determination of appropriate protective
mechanisms.

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CHALLENGES IN DEFINING ABUSE, NEGLECT, EXPLOITATION AND
VIOLENCE

There are several factors that complicate attempts to define the four
types of child maltreatment that fall within the remit of child protection
in humanitarian action.

• The definitions of “abuse,” “neglect,” “exploitation” and “violence”

must be broad enough to accommodate variations in form, such as
physical, sexual, emotional, psychological and economic.
• Definitions for the terms “abuse,” “neglect,” “exploitation” and
“violence” are often overlapping and interlinked, with unclear
boundaries between them. For example, abuse, exploitation, and
violence may all be sexual, thus an incident of sexual violence
perpetrated by a stranger may be incorrectly labelled as sexual
abuse, given abuse is defined as being perpetrated by someone who
holds a position of trust, responsibility, or power in relation to the
child.
• One type of maltreatment may happen in conjunction with another.
The same act may constitute more than one type of child
maltreatment, or a child may experience multiple acts of
maltreatment concurrently, committed by the same perpetrator or
by different perpetrators. For example, exploitation is often
accompanied by neglect, and/or actual or threatened violence.
• Child maltreatment must be understood as relating to the
experiences of the child over the course of time rather than as single
acts that occur in isolation. For example, a specific act of violence
perpetrated by a family member may take place after years of abuse
by the same perpetrator. Or prolonged physical abuse within the
home may lead a child to flee and thus increase her/his vulnerability
to economic or sexual exploitation.
• The definitions of “abuse,” “neglect,” “exploitation,” and “violence”
involve the same four elements – (a) the nature of the act, (b) the
relationship between the perpetrator and the child, (c) the
perpetrator’s motivation or intent, and (d) the outcomes for the
child. Sometimes there is significant overlap in these elements. For
example, violence and exploitation both comprise acts of
commission.

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THE BENEFITS OF CONCEPTUALLY COHERENT DEFINITIONS

This report suggests definitions that describe the main elements (nature
of the act; perpetrator relationship to the child; motivation or intent; and
outcomes) in ways that recognise the overlap and highlight the
distinctions between each type of maltreatment. Whilst seeking to
remain succinct and clear, using plain English. The benefits to developing
conceptually coherent, practical, evidence-based definitions of abuse,
neglect, exploitation, and violence include:

• Enabling more accurate identification, monitoring, and reporting of

child protection concerns; better measurement of impact and child
wellbeing; and thus more tailored prevention, mitigation, and
response actions.
• Improving an understanding of the socio-ecological factors (inherent
in the child, the family, the community and society) that increase
children’s vulnerability to maltreatment in general, and to specific
types of maltreatment in particular,
• Providing consistency in terminology within the Child Protection in
Humanitarian Action (CPHA) Sector, and between child protection
actors and actors in other humanitarian sectors,
• Clarifying operational responsibilities between child protection
actors and colleagues in other humanitarian sectors, and
• Facilitating the standardisation of child protection vocabulary across
other Child Protection Minimum Standards (CPMS) working
languages.

NOTE ON THE WAY TERMINOLOGY IS USED IN THIS REPORT

The term maltreatment is used as an umbrella term in this report to

cover and refer to all four forms of child protection concern being
discussed – namely: “abuse,” “neglect,” “exploitation,” and “violence.”
Despite not having yet gained traction among child protection actors
working in humanitarian settings, “maltreatment” was chosen as it is
used as a general term by the World Health Organisation, and may be
seen as more “neutral” as a catchall term.
The World Health Organisation definition states: “Child maltreatment is
the abuse and neglect that occurs to children under 18 years of age. It
includes all types of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual
abuse, neglect, negligence and commercial or other exploitation, which
results in actual or potential harm to the child’s health, survival,
development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility,
trust or power.”vi Here it is expanded to cover harm inflicted by those
unknown to the child.

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The word perpetrator is used here as shorthand for the “alleged” or “so-
called” author of an act that causes, or has the potential to cause, harm
to a child. The term is used for conceptual clarity. When dealing with
child protection cases the individual who is thought to be the author of
the act should be referred to by name or by their relationship to the
child. Care should be taken to not accuse individuals. Child Protection
actors do not investigate cases or deliver justice themselves. Child
protection actors will most often work with the child, caregivers, and the
wider community to provide psychosocial support, case management
support, advice, or guidance (e.g. parenting classes) to address child
protection concerns without judgement.
For further clarification on the definitions of the terms “caregiver,”
“harm,” and “perpetrator” as used in this report please see the glossary
of terms.

METHODOLOGY

This report was produced by Proteknôn Consulting Group for the Child
Protection Minimum Standards Working Group of the Alliance for Child
Protection in Humanitarian Action. This was part of a 31-day consultancy
contract with four deliverables. The other deliverables to follow are:

• Report of evidence on child neglect in humanitarian contexts – risks

and effective prevention and response strategies
• Key recommendations for strengthening the issue of neglect within
the CPMS
• Webinar on child neglect in humanitarian settings

Steps in the process of the current report were:

i. Review of literature to identify pre-existing definitions and
explanations of abuse, neglect, exploitation, and violence
ii. Draft report including one-sentence definition and maximum one-
page explanation and unpacking of the definition for each of the four
terms abuse, neglect, exploitation, and violence
iii. Circulate report for comments – to be shared with members of
reference group – including representatives from the CPMS working
group and the Alliance
iv. Incorporate feedback and finalise report

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Literature identification process
The literature review focussed on guidance and reference material most
commonly used by child protection actors in humanitarian settings. It
sought to identify definitions, explanations, or descriptions for the terms
abuse, neglect, exploitation, and violence. Sources of publications
included:
• Key UN bodies and agencies – including the UN General Assembly,
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UN High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), World Health Organisation (WHO), the Office of
the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence
against Children (OSRSG/VAC), the United Nations Entity for Gender
Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women), the United
Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the International Labour
Organisation (ILO), the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child and
the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women. This included Conventions, General Comments of the
Committee on the Rights of the Child, and Commentaries on articles
of the CRC.
• Interagency groups, bodies, and initiatives, such as Actions for the
Rights of Children
• Members of the Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action.
Published documents were identified by accessing agencies’
websites or through web searches.vii
• Academic bodies and institutions

Literature review process

• The authors – Leilani Elliott and Hannah Thompson – reviewed the
literature, identifying and extracting all definitions for “abuse,”
“neglect,” “exploitation,” and “violence.
• It was noted when resources described or indicated aspects of only
one or certain elements of the definition (the elements being: the
nature of the act, the relationship between the perpetrator and the
child, the perpetrator’s motivation or intent, and the outcomes for
the child).
• Each of the forms of maltreatment includes variation in forms – for
example the sub-categories of abuse are emotional abuse, physical
abuse, or sexual abuse. Due to time constraints and the need to keep
the report brief, the ways in which different actors in
the humanitarian sector define such sub-categories were not
explored. The review process did not include a detailed
comparative analysis of the meaning and use of the terms used to

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• describe variations informs. New definitions for these terms are
not proposed. Some of the pre-established definitions have been
paraphrased and put into a list is under the different headings
“variations in forms” and further paraphrased definitions are given
in the annexes.

Development of new definitions

The authors mapped out existing definitions and identified the core
elements of these definitions as described in published papers, UN
conventions, guidance, and reports in order to determine the main
areas of distinction and overlap. Discussion with a wider group
led to the development of the definitions proposed here.
The new definitions aim to:

• Pinpoint the distinct and unique elements of each term (abuse,

neglect, exploitation, and violence);
• Recognise and allow for overlap between the elements of the terms
(abuse, neglect, exploitation, and violence), and
• Are worded in a way that is succinct and clear to all readers.

Details of report review and revision process

• A rough draft report written by the authors was initially shared

within Proteknôn for feedback and comment. Revisions were
incorporated.
• A zero draft was shared with members of the Alliance for Child
Protection in Humanitarian Action. Feedback was received and this
second, final draft produced.

REPORT OUTLINE

The report begins by defining the four terms “abuse,” “neglect,”

“exploitation” and “violence”. The analysis and presentation of a
definition for each term follows the same structure:
• Specific challenges in defining the term,
• Proposed definition and variations in form,
• Analysis of the elements of the definition (relationship between
perpetrator and child, perpetrator’s motivation or intent, impacts on
the child), and
• Considerations in humanitarian settings.

The report next considers linkages between the four terms and the ways
in which acts of child maltreatment may intersect or overlap. Finally, the
report provides a summary of conclusions and recommendations.

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Abuse
SPECIFIC CHALLENGES IN ESTABLISHING A DEFINITION OF ABUSE

Whilst some actors see the possibility of abuse being perpetrated by

strangers, viii here the emphasis is placed on distinguishing abuse –
deliberate harmful acts perpetrated by those who have a relationship of
trust, power, or responsibility with the child – from violence – deliberate
harmful acts perpetrated by known individuals and/or strangers. The
scope of “relationship of trust, power or responsibility with the child”
includes parents, family members, and other permanent, temporary,
proxy and de facto caregivers.ix

PROPOSED DEFINITION OF ABUSE

A deliberate act with actual or potential negative effects upon a child’s

safety, wellbeing, dignity, and development. It is an act that takes place
in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust, or power.x,xi

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Variations in forms
Child abuse covers four main types of harm to children as perpetrated
by an individual in a position of responsibility, trust, or power:xii

• Emotional or psychological abuse is when a caregiver acts or

behaves in ways that have an adverse effect on the emotional health
and development of a child. Such acts include restricting a child’s
movements, denigration, ridicule, threats and intimidation,
discrimination, rejection, and other nonphysical forms of hostile
treatment that deny the child an appropriate and supportive
environment in which to thrive. They are acts that may result in
psychological and social deficits in the growth of a child; xiii
• Neglectful abuse is the deliberate or wilful failure of a caregiver to
provide for or protect the child, generally for discriminatory reasons.
Forms of abuse that are neglectful also include instances where
caregivers fail to report violence against a child. xiv Some forms of
neglect fall outside of the category of abuse;xv
• Physical abuse is a caregiver’s use of physical force to cause actual
or possible physical injury or suffering;
• Sexual Abuse is when a caregiver involves a child “in sexual activity
that he or she does not fully comprehend, is unable to give informed
consent to, or for which the child is not developmentally prepared,
or else that violates the laws or social taboos of society”.xvi

ELEMENTS OF THE DEFINITION OF ABUSE

Perpetrator relationship with the child

Abuse is understood to cover acts of maltreatment that are committed
by an individual – either an adult or another child – who is, as result of
their role, position, age, or stage of development – in a position
of responsibility, trust, or power over the victim.”xvii

Motivation or intent
Abuse is characterised as being an act of commission. Threatening to
cause harm is also considered to be abusive. An incident intending or
causing harm that involves a child will be classed as abusive “regardless
of any justification or reason that may be provided for the ill treatment
including discipline, legal sanction, economic necessity, the child’s own
consent to it, or in the name of cultural and religious practice.”xviii This
includes coping strategies that the parents or caregivers may consider
protective, such as child marriage in the hope of protecting a child
against sexual violence.

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Impacts on the child
Abuse may result in actual or potential harm to a child's health,
survival, development, or dignity. xix Examples of the types of harm
that result from the full range of forms of abuse include physical
injury including burns, bruises, broken bones, and traumatic brain
injury; and decline in psychological wellbeing such as eating and
sleeping disorders, feelings of guilt, difficulty with making and
maintaining relationships, disassociation, risk-taking behaviour,
hyper-vigilance, anxiety, or persistent fear. xx Child abuse has
been shown to impair brain development with regions of the brain
failing to form or grow, as they should. These consequences may
have short-, medium- and long-term psychological implications, such
as delays to cognitive development or emotional difficulties. Abusive
experiences may have a profound impact upon the development and
function of the nervous system.xxi Emerging evidence indicates that
abuse may affect sensory systems, as well as the network
architecture and circuits involved in threat detection, emotional
regulation, and reward anticipation.xxii

ABUSE IN HUMANITARIAN CONTEXTS

During times of crisis, caregiver coping abilities are reduced, tensions are
increased, poverty and food insecurity becomes acute. xxiii Family
structures may be significantly altered due to death. Heads of
households may flee, become separated from their families, or join
armed forces or groups. This results in an increase in the household
dependency ratio and may cause emotional and financial stress –
potentially exacerbating abuse within the home.xxiv Behaviours of both
adults and children are altered, as they are more likely to witness
traumatic events. Negative coping mechanisms such as drugs and
alcohol may also rise. Children who witness conflict or other emergency
events are more likely to show signs of post-traumatic stress and displays
of anger and aggressiveness, which may provoke abusive reactions from
parents, caregivers, and peers. xxv Older children with post-traumatic
stress are prone to perpetrate interpersonal violence themselves.xxvi

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Neglect
SPECIFIC CHALLENGES IN ESTABLISHING A DEFINITION OF
NEGLECT

Debate over the definition of neglect centres on a lack of consensus

regarding issues such asxxvii:

• What are the minimum requirements associated with caring for a

child? Are these minimum requirements absolute or culturally
relative? Do they change over time and space?
• What constitutes “failure or inability to provide” the conditions of
living necessary for the child's development? Should “failure or
inability to protect” be included?
• Must the parent’s or caregiver’s failure or inability to provide for /
protect the child be intentional?
• Should the focus be on parental omissions in caring for children,
independent of contributory factors (such as poverty), or on
children’s experiences, (i.e.: the impact on a child’s health, safety,
and well-being)?

PROPOSED DEFINITION OF NEGLECT IN RELATION TO CHILD

PROTECTION

The intentional or unintentional failure of a caregiver – individual,

community, or institution (including the State) with clear responsibility
by custom or law for the well-being of the child – to protect a child from
actual or potential harm to the child’s safety, wellbeing, dignity, and
development or to fulfil that child’s rights to survival, development, and
wellbeing. Harm may be visible or invisible. An act may be
categorised as neglectful whether or not the caregiver intends to harm
the child.xxviii

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Variations in forms
Child neglect may be divided into six categories, namelyxxix:
• Physical neglect – failure to protect a child from harm or to fulfil a
child’s rights to basic necessities including adequate food, shelter,
clothing, and basic medical care;
• Medical neglect – failure to seek timely and appropriate medical
care for a serious physical or mental health problem;
• Emotional neglect – caregivers being emotionally or psychologically
unavailable or chronically inattentive to a child; failing to nurture or
encourage the child; denying the child warmth and opportunities for
developmental enrichment or exposing the child to intimate partner
violence, drug, or alcohol abuse;
• Educational neglect – the failure to secure a child’s education
through attendance at school or otherwise;
• Supervisory neglect – failure to provide safe and appropriate adult
supervision that—in light of a child’s age, development, or situation;
the duration and frequency of the unsupervised time; and the
environment in which a child is left unsupervised—places the child
at risk of harm.
• Abandonment – caregiver failure to maintain contact with a child or
to provide reasonable support for a specified period of time.

A subset of children may be neglected due to individual characteristics.

The individual level characteristics that most often lead to
discrimination relate to gender identity or the fact that a child is living
with a disability. This may take the form of physical, medical, emotional,
educational, or supervisory neglect or abandonment.

While neglect has generally been defined dichotomously (neglect or no

neglect) the drawing of lines between the two is often arbitrary and
unclear. Consequently, the trend has been toward considering
children’s needs along a continuum, “ranging from being met fully
to not being met at all”.xxx

ELEMENTS OF THE DEFINITION OF NEGLECT IN RELATION

TO CHILD PROTECTION

Perpetrator relationship to the child

Articles 18.1 and 27.2 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child
emphasise that primary responsibility for the upbringing and
development of the child and for securing the conditions of living

13
necessary for the child's development lie with the child’s parents, legal
guardians, or others responsible for the child.xxxi Thus in child protection
a failure to protect or provide for the child constitutes neglect when
perpetrated by a parent or other person responsible for the child’s care,
such as a teacher or a staff member of an institution.xxxii

Motivation or intent
Article 27.2 of the CRC requires parents and others responsible for the
child “to secure, within their abilities and financial capacities, the
conditions of living necessary for the child’s development”. A number of
scholars also define neglect as the failure of a parent or caregiver to fulfil
the child’s rights to physical and emotional wellbeing, development, and
protection where they have the means, knowledge, and access to
services to do so. xxxiii Scholars recognise that neglect may be
unintentional and arise from socio-ecological factors such as a lack of
awareness, physical or mental capacity, required knowledge and skills to
care for the child or other insurmountable problems – such as non-
existent, inaccessible, or discriminatory services – faced by the parents
or caregivers. xxxiv It may facilitate support and response to a child’s
protection needs if neglect is defined in terms of overlooking or not
fulfilling a child’s rights to survival and development. This is consistent
with the international obligation to treat the best interests of the child
as the primary concernxxxv. Accordingly, neglect is defined in terms of the
child’s experiences, regardless of intention or causation.xxxvi
The question then becomes: under what circumstances during
humanitarian action should neglect be considered a child protection
issue, requiring an intervention such as case management, family
strengthening, community-based support, as opposed to a matter to be
referred to non-child protection partners (for example shelter, health,
nutrition, education, food security, livelihoods) for assistance? We
propose that neglect should be considered a child protection issue
during humanitarian action when:
a. Parents or caregivers fail to protect or provide for the child from
physical, sexual, psychological, and emotional harm and ensure the
child’s survival and development – despite having the abilities,
knowledge and financial capacities to do so, or
b. Parents or caregivers (a) recognise that they lack the abilities,
knowledge and financial capacities to protect or provide for the child
and ensure the child’s survival and development and (b) fail to take
reasonable steps to seek the assistance that would enable them to
do so; or

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c. The State, as de facto caregiver and ultimate duty-bearer, fails to
provide the conditions, services, and enabling environment
necessary for children’s protection, survival, and development when
a child is in the State’s care.
We propose that neglect may not be solely a child protection issue when:
a. The rights of the child being overlooked fall under the responsibility
of another response sector, AND
b. The perpetrator is not the child’s usual primary caregiver – but is
another duty-bearer such as the State.
When a caregiver is doing all they can but systems outside the family
level are inadequate or limited, then the State, other service providers,
or other actors may be considered neglectful. In these scenarios child
protection actors will provide complementary support to the child (for
example Mental Health and Psychosocial Support), to the family (for
example case management and referral), and to other sectors (through
for example: advocacy, child participation, child safeguarding, or
mainstreaming of child protection), but lead responsibility for delivery of
services may fall to another sector.
Examples of such forms of neglect include: State-run education that
excludes all the girls in a conflict-affected country; shelter provision that
leaves significant numbers of children without a home or in an unsafe
housing situation; or parties to conflict blocking food distributions in an
area causing child malnourishment. In these instances, although
children’s rights are not being fulfilled, child protection actors may
support or coordinate but would not lead a process for addressing these
particular unmet rights of education, shelter, and food.
That said, in cases of child maltreatment that do not involve caregivers
(i.e.: when another party is neglectful), child protection actors would be
involved if the child were experiencing other forms of maltreatment,
whether perpetrated by a caregiver or a third party.

Impacts on the child

The issue of actual versus potential harm presents a further definitional
challenge. Circumstances of possible neglect would constitute child
protection concerns if they result in, present a significant risk of, or have
the potential to harm a child, whether or not harm to the child is the
intended outcome.xxxvii A child who is neglected by her/his parents may
not experience neglect if a third party (such as a family member, friend
or neighbour) steps in to protect or provide for the child. An intervention
such as family strengthening may be required in order to help parents
better fulfil their obligations as the child’s primary caregivers.

15
NEGLECT IN HUMANITARIAN CONTEXTS

Humanitarian emergencies may compromise the degree to which

caregivers protect and provide for children. Parents’ concerns over
resource scarcity; reduced access to basic services; the weakening of
family and community support structures; disruptions to social
protection and safety nets; and migration for food, water or employment
may be time and energy consuming. Caregivers may suffer mental health
problems or psychosocial distress due to crisis events. Caregivers may
resort to alcohol or drug abuse as a negative coping mechanism. The
disruption to caregiver wellbeing may reduce caregivers’ attention to
their children’s needs, causing neglect. In addition, the need to rebuild
lives and cope with extreme circumstances may divert caregivers,
reducing the level to which they recognise, acknowledge, and seek to
fulfil their children’s needs. Where caregivers do not respond by seeking
support to fill the gap in meeting children’s needs, the level and scale of
neglect is also potentially exacerbated.
This leads to the questions: Are minimum requirements for caring for a
child absolute or are they dependent on what is achievable in that
humanitarian environment? Does neglect vary dependent upon the
location specific, socially determined definition of what is acceptable
treatment of a child?
Different cultures may have different perspectives on what constitutes
minimum requirements for a child’s survival and development. These
are determined by socio-cultural norms. However, the Alliance for
Child Protection in Humanitarian Action subscribe to the belief that
all children have equal rights as enshrined in the UN Convention on
the Rights of the Child. Work carried out by the Alliance seeks to
ensure these rights are all met. Where humanitarian crisis impact
upon the abilities of caregivers to provide for their children and fulfil
their children’s rights – the State and humanitarian actors neglect
children if they do not provide assistance and protection in order to fill
capacity gaps.

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Exploitation
SPECIFIC CHALLENGES IN ESTABLISHING A DEFINITION OF
EXPLOITATION

Despite being referenced in six of articles of the Convention on the Rights

of the Childxxxviii, the concept of exploitation was never defined in the
preparatory discussions during drafting of the Convention. The UN
Committee on the Rights of the Child has not found it necessary to define
exploitation during the course of its supervisory work.xxxix It is unclear
whether exploitation requires that the harmful acts occur in the context
of abuse of a position of vulnerability, differential power, or trust.

PROPOSED DEFINITION OF EXPLOITATION

When an individual in a position of power and/or trust takes or attempts

to takexl advantage of a child for their own personal benefit, advantage,
gratification, or profit. This personal benefit may take different forms:
physical, sexual, financial, material, social, military, or political.
Exploitation may involve remuneration in cash or in kind (such as social
status, political power, documentation, freedom of movement, or access
to opportunities, goods or services) to the child or to a third person/s.xli

17
VARIATIONS IN FORMS

Child exploitation may be divided into three categories, namely:

• Economic exploitation – slavery and slave-like practices, servitude,

bonded or indentured labour;xlii
• Harmful or hazardous labour – work that, by virtue of the child’s age
or the nature of the work, is prejudicial to any aspects of the child's
welfare, among other things the child's health or physical, mental,
spiritual, moral or social development.xliii This includes the use of
children in the illicit production and trafficking of narcotic drugs and
psychotropic substances xliv and children’s association with armed
forces and armed groups.xlv
• Sexual exploitation – child prostitution, the trafficking or sale of
children for sexual purposes (including forced marriage), child
pornography and grooming for sexual purposes – including on-
line;xlvi
Many children are coerced, kidnapped, trafficked, sold, and deceived
into exploitative situations. xlvii Some children may be thought to have
chosen to enter exploitative situations in order to receive money, gifts,
or affection. However, a child is not considered able to provide full and
informed consent. Any so-called consent,xlviii local legislation on age of
majority, or a mistaken belief in the age of the childxlix does not negate
the fact that an act is exploitative.

ELEMENTS OF THE DEFINITION OF EXPLOITATION

Perpetrator relationship to the child

A perpetrator of child exploitation is any person who facilitates, recruits,
transports, transfers, harbours, receives or uses a child for the purposes
of exploiting that child.l This person may be an adult or peer, a caregiver
or family member, known or unknown to the child.

Motivation or intent
Exploitation occurs in the context of a benefit or exchange of value. This
benefit may take the form of financial remuneration or payment in kind,
such as access to goods, services, or employment, in return for the child’s
services.li Child exploitation can also occur in non-commercial contexts
within the family – for example, early marriage and ‘bride price’ (sale for
marriage), which exemplify traditional forms of sexual exploitation. lii
Persons facilitating the exploitation may not intend to exploit or harm
the child; instead they may be resorting to negative coping strategies
designed to secure protection, status, goods, or services that they deem
essential for the survival of the child and/or his/her/their family.

18
A child-focused approach requires that the definition of exploitation be
concerned with the transactional nature of the arrangement and the
potential impacts on the child rather than the motivations of those
involved. A child’s participation in family subsistence or culturally related
family activities – such as hunting, fishing or agricultural activities – do
not constitute exploitation, as long as these activities are properly
supervised, appropriate to the child’s age, non-hazardous, and do not
interfere with the child’s education and development.liii

Impacts on the child

The UNCRC requires that children be protected from “performing any
work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's
education, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental,
spiritual, moral or social development” liv and “all other forms of
exploitation prejudicial to any aspect of the child’s welfare”. lv Other
articles of the UNCRC dealing with exploitation do not expressly mention
or describe the form of harm caused,lvi however the activities described
clearly endanger the child’s health; physical, mental, spiritual, moral or
social development; and welfare. This then leads to the question of
whether the activity must cause harm to the child in order to qualify as
exploitation. A key phrase in article 32.1 is that the work is “likely to be
hazardous… or harmful”, implying that the mere risk of harm to a child
is sufficient to define an act as exploitative. Additional UN documents
have further extended the scope of harm, prohibiting both actual and
attempted exploitation.lvii

EXPLOITATION IN HUMANITARIAN CONTEXTS

Humanitarian emergencies take a toll on parents’ abilities to protect and

provide for their children, particularly among already vulnerable and
chronically poor populations. Crises are associated with loss of shelter
and livelihoods, increased poverty and food insecurity, reduced access
to goods and services, more pronounced power differentials, and a
dependence on external assistance. Children and families may adopt
negative coping strategies to survive, or fall victim to predatory
behaviour. lviii The 1996 UN Study on the Impact of Armed Conflict on
Children outlines some of the implications and consequences in conflict
settings. It found that “while children may appear to choose military
service, the choice is not exercised freely… One of the most basic reasons
that children join armed groups is economic. Hunger and poverty may
drive parents to offer their children for service. In some cases, armies
pay a minor soldier's wages directly to the family… Children themselves
may volunteer if they believe that this is the only way to guarantee
regular meals, clothing or medical attention”.lix Meanwhile, “poverty,

19
hunger and desperation may force women and girls into prostitution,
obliging them to offer sex for food or shelter, for safe conduct through
the war zone or to obtain papers or other privileges for themselves and
their families”. [Some] girls have done so in the hope of securing greater
protection. [For] example, there have been reports of girls as young as
twelve submitting themselves to paramilitary forces as a means of
defending their families against other groups”.lx
Perpetrators of child exploitation may also include aid workers and
others with a responsibility to protect. For example, between 2008 and
2013, the UN received 480 allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse
in field missions; over one-third of these cases involved a child.lxi A 2015
UN report revealed that a significant number of women and girls had
engaged in transactional sexual relationships with UN peacekeeping
personnel. For rural women, hunger, lack of shelter, baby care items,
medication and household items were frequently cited as the “triggering
need”.lxii In some instances, women and girls were allegedly forced to
have sex with UN peacekeepers in exchange for material aid.lxiii

20
Violence
SPECIFIC CHALLENGES IN ESTABLISHING A DEFINITION OF
VIOLENCE

In the General Comment No.13 on Article 19, the UN Committee on the

Rights of the Child chose the term “violence” to represent all forms of
harm to children, namely abuse, neglect, exploitation and violence, lxiv
while at the same time suggesting that other terms used to describe
types of harm (injury, abuse, neglect or negligent treatment,
maltreatment and exploitation) carry equal weight. lxv This creates a
feedback loop within which violence is both an umbrella term for child
maltreatment and a component of child maltreatment, equivalent to
abuse, neglect and exploitation.

PROPOSED DEFINITION OF VIOLENCE

Violence against children encompasses all acts that involve the

intentional use of power or verbal or physical force, threatened or actual,
against a child or against a group of children that either results in or has
a high likelihood of resulting in actual or potential harm to the child or
children’s safety, wellbeing, dignity, and development. Possible forms of
harm include injury; death; disability; decreased psychological,
psychosocial, or mental health; or maldevelopment.lxvi

21
Variations in forms
Violence against children may be broken down into four broad sub-
categories:

• Emotional or psychological violence – that which causes harm to the

psychological or emotional wellbeing of the child;
• Physical violence – violence that is of or relates to the body –
includes hitting, beating. In humanitarian contexts this may include
killing, maiming, torture, and abduction;
• Sexual violence – any sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act
from a child, it includes unwanted sexual comments, touching or
looking at a child for sexual pleasure;
• Witnessing violence against others – incidents where the child is
present when violence is taking place rather than directly
experiencing violence themselves.

ELEMENTS OF THE DEFINITION OF VIOLENCE

Perpetrator relationship with the child

Violence against children is most often carried out within the context of
relationships of differential power. However, both known and unknown
assailants may inflict harm. Adults and other children may be
perpetrators. There may be multiple direct and indirect co-perpetrators
involved in one incident of child maltreatment. Acts of violence may be
self-directed (namely suicide and self-mutilation), interpersonal, or
collective.lxvii Interpersonal violence against children covers that which is
inflicted by peers (e.g. bullying at school); perpetrated by family
members (e.g. domestic violence), by intimate partners, by parents or
caregivers (e.g. corporal punishment); those with the responsibility to
care for and fulfil the rights of a child (e.g. teachers, humanitarian
workers, nurses, doctors, police persons, staff of residential institutions);
or employers. Collective violence includes both State-perpetrated
violence lxviii – for example genocide, rape as a weapon of war, and
torture – and organised violent crime – such as gang warfare and gang
rape.lxix

Motivation or intent
Acts of violence are considered intentional. They may be premeditated
or unplanned and spontaneous. The perpetrator is wilfully and
voluntarily engaged in an act of violence. Where incidents accidentally
impact upon the lives and wellbeing of children but the act of violence
itself was intended to harm someone – such as laying out landmines,
bombing, or gunfire in times of war – they are considered acts of violence
against children. If the author of an act that resembles violence does so

22
under the duress of another individual or group, then they too are
experiencing violence, and should not necessarily be considered as the
ultimate perpetrator. Acts of violence may also be carried out in self-
defence.

Impacts on children
Children experiencing violence may demonstrate a range of life-
threatening internal and external injuries and physical trauma, as well as
far-reaching psychosocial consequences. Children may be infected with
HIV or sexually transmitted diseases. lxx Furthermore children may
experience social exclusion resulting from family and community
negative perceptions of child survivors.

VIOLENCE IN HUMANITARIAN CONTEXTS

Examples of forms of violence against children that may occur because

of or be exacerbated as a result of humanitarian events include: intimate
partner violence; rape and rape as a weapon of war; children caught in
crossfire, children injured by unexploded ordnance; summary execution;
corporal punishment; maiming; torture; child marriage; and female
genital mutilation.lxxi Acts of violence may sometimes be perpetrated in
self-defence or as a consequence of real or perceived threats to the life
and wellbeing of the supposed perpetrator. For example, children who
are associated with armed forces and groups are at once perpetrators
and survivors of violence. A family member who is being threatened with
death if they do not comply may rape a child. Programmatic responses
to such incidents should reflect and be based on a full understanding of
the circumstances, including the role of other actors in driving the
violence.

23
Linkages between terms
As noted in the introduction, the same act may constitute more than one
type of child maltreatment, depending on (a) the nature of the act, (b)
the relationship between the perpetrator and the child, (c) the
perpetrator’s motivation or intent, and (d) the impacts on the child.
Having more clearly defined terms each having certain distinctive
elements does not detract from the fact that a single harmful event may
be described using two or more of the terms “abuse,” “neglect,”
“exploitation,” and “violence.

24
ABUSE

Abuse is an aggravating factor – it cannot happen on its own, only in

conjunction with another form of maltreatment. It occurs when
someone in a relationship of responsibility, trust, or power perpetrates
the maltreatment. For example:

• Abuse and Violence are both intentional. Violence is abusive when

it is perpetrated by someone within a relationship of responsibility
(perpetrator). Violence perpetrated by a stranger is not abuse.
• Abuse and Neglect overlap when neglect is perpetrated deliberately
by someone with the responsibility to protect and provide for the
child. Neglect is a form of abuse when it is deliberate and wilful. For
example: (i) when caregivers have the means and knowledge to
protect and/or provide for a child but do not do so; or (ii) when
caregivers who do not have the means to protect and provide for a
child deliberately fail to seek a way to secure the means necessary
to secure the support and protection the child requires. Neglect is
not abuse when the harm caused to a child is unintended.lxxii
• Violence, Abuse, and Exploitation overlap when acts of exploitation
are perpetrated or facilitated by someone within a relationship of
responsibility and/or trust (motive + perpetrator).

EXPLOITATION

There is strong inter-sectionality between exploitation and other forms

of child maltreatment. For example, exploitation that is facilitated or
perpetrated by a person who is in a position of responsibility, trust,
and/or power in relation to the child would also constitute abuse. Some
forms of exploitation, such as sexual exploitation, involve multiple forms
of child maltreatment. Children who are exploited for prostitution or
sold into marriage suffer not only sexual violence, but also physical and
psychological violence. lxxiii Other children may experience sexual
victimisation, such as child pornography, which may not be accompanied
by physical force or restraint but which is nonetheless psychologically
traumatic.lxxiv
Exploitation sits entirely within Violence. Violence is exploitative when
it takes place for remuneration in cash or kind, implying some profit or
exchange of value (motive). Some forms of violence are not exploitative.

25
VIOLENCE

Confusion between Violence and Abuse arises when some actors use
the term ‘child abuse’ to encompass acts of ill treatment by strangers
and those known to the child.lxxv Based on the definitions of
maltreatment presented here, in order to create greater conceptual
clarity, when a known individual with caregiver responsibility
perpetrates an intentional act causing harm to a child, it may be classed
as abuse or violence. When an intentional act of ill-treatment is
perpetrated by a stranger who does not have caregiver responsibility, it
is classed as violence, and should not be considered abuse.

NEGLECT
Because both Abuse and Neglect involve the behaviours of parents,
caregivers, or others with legal responsibility for the care of the child,
some consider neglect as part of the definition of abuse. We propose
that neglect overlaps with abuse when the failure to protect or provide
for a child is deliberate, negligent, or stems from discriminatory motives.
Neglect may fall outside of child protection in humanitarian action
when the rights being overlooked relate to another sector of work and
/or the perpetrator is not a usual, primary caregiver. In this scenario
other duty-bearers – such as the state or humanitarian actors – who
are not meeting the child’s survival and development needs, despite
caregiver action to seek these needs are met are the neglectful party.

26
Conclusion and recommendations
Through a review of the existing use of the terms abuse, neglect,
exploitation, and violence by child protection actors in the humanitarian
sector this report has found significant confusion and overlap. Proposed
definitions have been set out that seek to establish distinguishing
features for each of the terms. Distinction between the terms may be
summarised as:

• Abuse is harm to a child that is intentional and perpetrated by

someone in a position of responsibility, trust, or power in relation to
the child.
• Neglect in relation to child protection is the intended or unintended
failure to protect or provide for a child, perpetrated by the child’s
permanent, temporary, or proxy caregiver. In cases where no such
caregiver exists, the de facto caregiver is the State.
• Exploitation is intentional, is perpetrated by an individual in a
position of power or trust, and involves benefit to the perpetrator.
• Violence is the intentional perpetration of a violent act – physical,
verbal, or emotional – whether or not the intention is to actually
harm the child. Violence may be perpetrated by known or unknown
persons, and may be self-inflicted, inter-personal, or collective.

27
RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations stemming from the development of this report

include:

• Test the definitions proposed here with a range of actors globally.

Ensure those with whom the definitions are tested speak a range of
different languages and are not solely English mother-tongue
speakers.
• Revise the proposed definitions according to feedback.
• Translate the definitions of these key terms into a range of languages
used by child protection actors in humanitarian settings for testing
and revision.
• Agree on a new, clearer definition of child protection in
humanitarian action that avoids the use of terms that are used in
variable ways and are not clearly defined in legislation or
conventions. It should seek to identify terms that may be more
commonly used in other languages and thus easier to translate. A
proposed definition is set out below.

28
Annexes
ANNEX 1: GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS USED

Caregiver: “The definition of “caregivers”, referred to in article 19, paragraph 1, as “parent(s), legal
guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child”, covers those with clear, recognized
legal, professional-ethical and/or cultural responsibility for the safety, health, development and well-
being of the child, primarily: parents, foster parents, adoptive parents, caregivers in kafalah of Islamic
law, guardians, extended family and community members; education, school and early childhood
personnel; child caregivers employed by parents; recreational and sports coaches – including youth
group supervisors; workplace employers or supervisors; and institutional personnel (governmental or
nongovernmental) in the position of caregivers; for example responsible adults in health-care, juvenile-
justice and drop-in and residential-care settings.” lxxvi

• De facto caregiver: In certain situations – among other things “children without a primary or proxy
care giver or another person who is entrusted with the protection and well-being of the child such
as, for instance, children in child-headed households, children in street situations, children of
migrating parents or unaccompanied children outside their country of origin – the State is obliged
to take responsibility as the de facto caregiver or the one who has the care of the child, even if
these children are not within the context of physical care settings such as foster homes, group
homes or NGO facilities..”lxxvii
Child: means “Every human being below the age of eighteen years, unless under the law applicable to
the child, majority is attained earlier.”lxxviii
Harm: injury, pain, suffering, or trauma of a physical or emotional nature. Harm caused to children
may be visible or invisible.
Incident: “…is defined as an act or series of acts of violence or abuse by one perpetrator or group of
perpetrators. May involve multiple types of violence (physical, sexual, emotional, economic, socio-
cultural); and may involve repetition of violence over a period of minutes, hours, or days.”lxxix A single
incident may involve more than one child and/or more than one perpetrator. The same child may
experience multiple incidents of maltreatment, perpetrated by one or more people. Similarly, a single
perpetrator may perpetrate multiple acts of child maltreatment, against one or more children.
Perpetrator: is an individual, a group, or an institution that directly inflicts, supports, encourages,
condones, or enables acts of child maltreatment.lxxx They act in ways that infringe on the human rights
of the survivor of violence. Perpetrators are in a position of real or perceived power, decision-making
and/or authority and can thus exert control over the child whom they are harming. lxxxi

• Direct versus indirect perpetrator: A direct perpetrator is an individual, a group, or an institution

that directly inflicts, supports, encourages, condones, or enables acts of child maltreatment.lxxxii
They act in ways that infringe on the human rights of the survivor of violence. An indirect
perpetrator is an individual or group, who, along with others, is in support of, condones, is
responsible for, or has enabled an act of maltreatment. They may or may not be present at the
precise the moment that the act of maltreatment occurs. Perpetrators are in a position of real or
perceived power, decision-making and/or authority and can thus exert control over the child they
are harming. lxxxiii
• Primary versus secondary perpetrators: A primary perpetrator “is the person or people that
directly inflicted the violence or abuse against the survivor.”lxxxiv A secondary perpetrator “is the

29
person or people who did not directly commit the violence against the survivor but […] played an
indirect role in the violence through planning, instigating, ordering, or aiding and abets in the
planning, preparation or execution of the crime.”lxxxv For example, if one man rapes a woman while
a second man holds her down, the one doing the raping is the primary perpetrator and the one
holding her down is the secondary perpetrator.lxxxvi

30
ANNEX 2: CHILD MALTREATMENT WITHIN A SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

A child’s vulnerability to maltreatment in general, and to specific types of maltreatment, depends on

the existence and interplay of factors at various levels:lxxxvii

• Child-level risk factors – biological and personal history aspects such as sex; age; education;
income; disability; impaired brain and cognitive development; psychological disorders; harmful
use of alcohol; drug abuse; and a history of aggression or maltreatment.
• Family-level risk factors such as a lack of emotional bonding; poor parenting practices; family
dysfunction and separation; associating with delinquent peers; children witnessing violence within
the home; and early or forced marriage.
• Community-level risk factors such as poverty; high population density; transient populations; low
social cohesion; and unsafe physical environments.
• Society-level risk factors such as the legal and social norms that create a climate in which different
types of child maltreatment are encouraged or normalised; health, economic, educational and
social policies that maintain economic, gender or social inequalities; absent or inadequate social
protection; social fragility owing to conflict, post-conflict or natural disaster; and weak governance
and poor law enforcement.
Recognising the risk factors at each of these levels can help determine appropriate protective
measures, both in preventing and responding to child maltreatment.

Children at greater risk of maltreatment

Women and girls with disabilities are often at greater risk of the full range of forms of harm – violence,
injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation.lxxxviii

Children at greater risk of neglect

Children perceived by caregivers as non-productive, burdensome or of lesser social value – such as
children born out of wedlock, step-childrenlxxxix or other non-biological children under an adults care;
children with disabilities or chronic illnessesxc; children younger than 4 years of agexci; and children in
institutional carexcii,xciii – are at greater risk of neglect. Additionally, the prevalence of gender inequality
throughout the world contributes to boys being favoured, placing girls at greater risk of neglect.

Children at greater risk of exploitation

The largest employment category for girls under 16 years of age is domestic work, which often takes
the form of unregulated employment and exploitation, and sometimes servitude or slavery.xciv

Children at greater risk of violence

The likelihood of experiencing a specific form of violence varies according to the individual
characteristics of a child. Groups of children that are particularly at risk of violence include: children
with disabilities; those from minority or indigenous groups;xcv “street children,” those in contact with
the law, displaced children,xcvi and children on the move.xcvii Certain forms of violence impact upon
certain categories of children more frequently. Data indicates that girls are more likely to experience
sexual violence, intimate partner violence, and child marriage; and boys are more likely to be tortured,
killed, or injured in conflict.xcviii Subsequently assumptions about the characteristics of children who
experience certain forms of violence may conceal the realities and variations that take place across
contexts, leading the needs of certain children to go hidden and unaddressed.

31
Endnotes
i United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child, United Nations, 1989, Article 19, available at:
https://downloads.unicef.org.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2010/05/UNCRC_united_nations_convention_on_the_rights_of_the_child.pdf?_ga=2.227408798.263609
704.1524581065-192632033.1523609680 UNCRC Article 19 (1) “States Parties shall take all appropriate legislative,
administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or
abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s),
legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child.”
ii The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child in General Comment No. 13 provides a definition of violence, this is discussed
in the section on violence below. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the
child to freedom from all forms of violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011
iii The Child Protection Working Group (CPWG) agreed a definition of child protection in emergencies in 2010. This definition
is: “the prevention of and response to abuse, neglect, exploitation and violence against children.” The Child Protection
Working Group (CPWG) is now the Alliance and the Child Protection Area of Responsibility. The CP AoR ensures the
coordination of national and international humanitarian actors’ efforts to protect children in humanitarian
environments. The Child Protection Area of Responsibility is part of the cluster system. The Alliance for Child Protection in
Humanitarian Action (“The Alliance”) has an overall goal to ensure the quality and effectiveness of actions to protect
children in humanitarian settings. The Alliance supports national and international actors. The Alliance leads on
advocacy, learning, and standard setting for the sector. Both the Child Protection Area of Responsibility and The Alliance have
adopted the CPWG’s 2010 definition of child protection in emergencies. Whilst the original definition spoke about child
protection in emergencies, the sector has now moved to talking about humanitarian action as opposed to emergencies, to
reflect the continuum from development to humanitarian phases.
iv Save the Children and Child Protection, Save the Children, December 2007, available at:
https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/library/save-childrens-definition-child-protection
v For example: WHO World Report on Violence and Health (2002), available at:
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42495/9241545615_eng.pdf?sequence=1, UNICEF (2014) Hidden in Plain
Sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children, available at:
http://files.unicef.org/publications/files/Hidden_in_plain_sight_statistical_analysis_EN_3_Sept_2014.pdf
vi Child maltreatment: Fact sheet, reviewed September 2016, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs150/en/
vii The list of agencies’ whose publications were reviewed includes: Save the Children, IRC, Plan International, World Vision,
War Child, Terre des Hommes, UNHCR, UNICEF, WHO, and the Organisation of African Unity
viii Reference: Save the Children and Child Protection, Save the Children, December 2007, available at:
https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/library/save-childrens-definition-child-protection
ix For a complete definition of the term “caregiver” see Annex 1: Glossary of key terms used
x This definition draws upon definitions for abuse as presented in:

• Save the Children, (December 2007), Save the Children and Child Protection, available at:
https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/library/save-childrens-definition-child-protection:“A deliberate act of ill
treatment that can harm or is likely to cause harm to a child's safety, well-being, dignity and development.” “Abuse
includes all forms of physical, sexual, psychological or emotional ill treatment.”
• WHO Consultation on Child Abuse Prevention, 1999, cited on page 59 of World Report on Violence and Health (2002),
WHO, http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42495/9241545615_eng.pdf?sequence=1: “Child abuse or
maltreatment constitutes all forms of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent
treatment or commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child’s health, survival,
development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power.”
xi Notable changes to the definition are the removal of the terms “exploitation” and “neglect” so as to avoid confusion for

those using the current definition of child protection in emergencies (“the prevention of and response to abuse, neglect,
exploitation and violence against children.”)
xii Definitions adapted from and based on:

• Desmond Runyan, Corrine Wattam, Robin Ikeda, Fatma Hassan, and Laurie Ramiro, "Child abuse and neglect by
parents and other caregivers" in WHO (2002) World Report on Violence and Health,
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/global_campaign/en/chap3.pdf,
• Theoklitou D, Kabitsis N, Kabitsi A (2012) "Physical and emotional abuse of primary school children by teachers"
in Child Abuse & Neglect vol.36 (1): 64–70, pp.64—65), and
• Save the Children, (December 2007), Save the Children and Child Protection, available at:
https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/library/save-childrens-definition-child-protection
xiii World Health Organization (2006) “Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence”,

Geneva, p.10,

32
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43499/9241594365_eng.pdf;jsessionid=2BCCA5E2158F66F73428486791
3E9C9D?sequence=1
xiv Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children (2006), UN Doc. A /61/299,

29 August 2006, para.25, page 8&9 https://www.unicef.org/violencestudy/reports/SG_violencestudy_en.pdf

xv For further details see the definition of neglect below
xvi World Health Organization (2006) “Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence”,

Geneva, p.10,
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43499/9241594365_eng.pdf;jsessionid=2BCCA5E2158F66F73428486791
3E9C9D?sequence=1
xvii Someone who has primary responsibility for the care of the child includes parent(s), legal guardian(s), or others provide

only temporary care for example a teacher, a community worker, or a babysitter or nanny, etc. See Desmond Runyan,
Corrine Wattam, Robin Ikeda, Fatma Hassan, Laurie Ramiro: "Child abuse and neglect by parents and other caregivers" in
WHO (2002) World Report on Violence and Health, p.59, World Health Organization (2006). “Preventing child
maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence”, Geneva, p.10, available at
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43499/9241594365_eng.pdf;jsessionid=2BCCA5E2158F66F73428486791
3E9C9D?sequence=1; Council of Europe (2007) Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual
Exploitation and Sexual Abuse, Art.18.1(b)
xviii Save the Children and Child Protection, Save the Children, December 2007, available at:

https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/library/save-childrens-definition-child-protection
xix Desmond Runyan, Corrine Wattam, Robin Ikeda, Fatma Hassan, Laurie Ramiro: "Child abuse and neglect by parents and

other caregivers" in WHO (2002) World Report on Violence and Health, p.59,
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/global_campaign/en/chap3.pdf
xx IRC and UNICEF (2012) “Caring for Child Survivors of Sexual Abuse: Guidelines for health and psychosocial service

providers in humanitarian settings”, https://www.unicef.org/pacificislands/IRC_CCSGuide_FullGuide_lowres.pdf; Hannah

Thompson (2016) “A Time of Transition: Plan International’s Work with and for Adolescents in Humanitarian Settings, Plan
International”, file:///Users/hannah1/Downloads/glo-full_report_a_time_of_transition-final-io-eng-aug16%20(1).pdf;
Thompson, H. (2015) “A Matter of Life and Death: Child Protection Programming’s Essential Role in Ensuring Child
Wellbeing and Survival During and After Emergencies”, Child Protection Working Group and ChildFund,
http://cpwg.net/resources/matter-life-death/
xxi Charles B.Nemeroff (2016): “Paradise Lost: The Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect”,

available at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.01.019
xxii Martin H. Teicher, Jacqueline A. Samson, Carl M. Andersonand Kyoko Ohashi (2016): “The effects of childhood

maltreatment on brain structure, function and connectivity” in Nature Reviews Neuroscience, Vol.17, 652–666,
doi:10.1038/nrn.2016.111, 19 September 2016
xxiii Cliffe (1994): “The impact of war on food security in Eritrea: Prospects for recovery” in J. Macrae and A. Zwi (Eds.), War

and hunger: Rethinking international responses to complex emergencies (pp.160–178). London: Zed Books Ltd.; Drapcho and
Mock (2000): “DHS and conflict in Africa: Findings from a comparative study and recommendations for improving the utility
of DHS as a survey vehicle in conflict settings” (MEASURE/Evaluation Project-Draft Working Paper).
xxiv Ezeoha (2015): “Changing dynamics of armed conflicts in Africa: Impact on economic growth and wellbeing”, paper

presented at the African Economic History Workshop 2015 Conference; Hadley, Belachew, Lindstrom and Tessema (2011):
“The shape of things to come? Household dependency ratio and adolescent nutritional status in rural and urban Ethiopia” in
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol.144, 643–652
xxv Qouta et al (2008): “Does war beget child aggression? Military violence, gender, age and aggressive behavior in two

Palestinian samples” in Aggressive Behavior, Vol.34, 231–244.

xxvi Catani (2010): “War at home – A review of the relationship between war trauma and family violence” in

Verhaltenstherapie, Vol.20, 19–27; Catani, Jacob, Schauer, Kohila, and Neuner (2008): “Family violence, war, and natural
disasters: A study of the effect of extreme stress on children’s mental health in Sri Lanka” in BMC Psychiatry, Vol.8(1), 213;
Catani et al (2009): “War trauma, child labor, and family violence: Life adversities and PTSD in a sample of school children in
Kabul” in Journal of Traumatic Stress, Vol.22, 163–171.
xxvii Howard Dubowitz, Steven C. Pitts, Maureen M. Black (2004): “Measurement of Three Major Subtypes of Child Neglect”

in Child Maltreatment, Vol. 9, No. 4, November 2004 344-356, p.345; Diane DePanfilis (2006): Child Neglect: A Guide for
Prevention, Assessment and Intervention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Administration for Children and
Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families; Children's Bureau Office on Child Abuse and Neglect, p.9;
Australian Institute of Family Studies (2015) “What is Child Abuse and Neglect?”
xxviii This definition draws upon definitions for abuse as presented in:

• Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children (2006), UN Doc. A /61/299,
29 August 2006, para.43;
• Diane DePanfilis (2006): Child Neglect: A Guide for Prevention, Assessment and Intervention, U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services; Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families;
Children's Bureau Office on Child Abuse and Neglect, p.9;
• Child Welfare Information Gateway (2016) Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau, p.2;

33
• Theoklitou D, Kabitsis N, Kabitsi A (2012) "Physical and emotional abuse of primary school children by teachers"
in Child Abuse & Neglect, Vol.36 (1): 64–70, p.65;
• UNICEF (2014) “Hidden in plain sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children”, UNICEF New York, p.4
xxix Diane DePanfilis (2006): Child Neglect: A Guide for Prevention, Assessment and Intervention, U.S. Department of Health

and Human Services; Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families; Children's
Bureau Office on Child Abuse and Neglect, p.13; UN Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011):
The right of the child to freedom from all forms of violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011, IV. Legal analysis of article 19, A.
Article 19, paragraph 1, p.5; Australian Institute of Family Studies (2015) “What is Child Abuse and Neglect?”; Child Welfare
Information Gateway (2016) Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Children’s Bureau, p.3
xxx Howard Dubowitz et al (2005): “Examination of a Conceptual Model of Child Neglect” in Child Maltreatment, Vol. 10, No.

2, May 2005, 173-189, p.175

xxxi Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Arts.18.1 and 27.2
xxxii Child Welfare Information Gateway (2016) Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau, p.2; Theoklitou D, Kabitsis N, Kabitsi A (2012) "Physical and emotional abuse
of primary school children by teachers" in Child Abuse & Neglect, Vol.36 (1): 64–70, p.65; UNICEF (2014): “Hidden in plain
sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children”, UNICEF New York, p.4
xxxiii Desmond Runyan, Corrine Wattam, Robin Ikeda, Fatma Hassan, Laurie Ramiro: "Child abuse and neglect by parents and

other caregivers" in WHO (2002) World Report on Violence and Health, p.60; UNICEF (2014): “Hidden in plain sight: A
statistical analysis of violence against children”, UNICEF New York, p.4
xxxiv Mehnaz, Aisha (2013) "Child Neglect: Wider Dimensions" in RN Srivastava, Rajeev Seth, Joan van Niekerk: Child Abuse

and Neglect: Challenges and Opportunities. JP Medical Ltd., p.101; Howard Dubowitz, Steven C. Pitts, Maureen M. Black
(2004): “Measurement of Three Major Subtypes of Child Neglect” in Child Maltreatment, Vol. 9, No. 4, November 2004 344-
356, pp.345—346
xxxv Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Art.3.1
xxxvi Howard Dubowitz, Steven C. Pitts, Maureen M. Black (2004): “Measurement of Three Major Subtypes of Child Neglect”

in Child Maltreatment, Vol. 9, No. 4, November 2004 344-356, pp.345—346; Diane DePanfilis (2006): “Child Neglect: A
Guide for Prevention, Assessment and Intervention”, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Administration for
Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families; Children's Bureau Office on Child Abuse and Neglect,
p.9
xxxvii Leeb RT, Paulozzi L, Melanson C, Simon T, Arias I. (2008): “Child Maltreatment Surveillance: Uniform Definitions for

Public Health and Recommended Data Elements”, Version 1.0. Atlanta (GA): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, p.11; Howard Dubowitz, Rae R. Newton, Alan J. Litrownik, Terri
Lewis, Ernestine C. Briggs, Richard Thompson, Diana English, Li-Ching Lee, Margaret M. Feerick (2005): ‘Examination of a
Conceptual Model of Child Neglect’ in Child Maltreatment, Vol. 10, No. 2, May 2005, 173-189, p.175
xxxviii See Convention on the Rights of the Child, Articles 32.1, 33, 34, 25, 26, 38
xxxix Lee Sepston (2012): “A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 32: Protection

from Economic Exploitation”, paras.54 and 61

xl Secretary-General’s Bulletin on Special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse (2003), UN Doc.

ST/SGB/2003/13, 9 October 2003, Section 1

xli This definition draws upon definitions for abuse as presented in:

• Vitit Muntarbhorn (2007): “A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Article 34:
Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse of Children”, para.2;
• Report of the World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, Stockholm, Sweden, 27–31 August
1996, Part I and Part II (1996), para.5;
• Secretary-General’s Bulletin on Special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse (2003), UN
Doc. ST/SGB/2003/13, 9 October 2003, Section 1
xlii Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing

the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000), Art.3(a); Report of the independent expert
for the United Nations study on violence against children (2006), UN Doc. A /61/299, 29 August 2006, paras.66 and 68. See
also ILO Convention No. 182: Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (1999)
xliii Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Articles 32.1 and 36; International Covenant on Economic, Social and

Cultural Rights (1966), Article 10; Lee Sepston (2012): “A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child, Article 32: Protection from Economic Exploitation”, para.61; Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking
in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime (2000), Art.3(a)
xliv Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Article 33
xlv Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Article 38
xlvi Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Article 34; Vitit Muntarbhorn (2007): “A Commentary on the United

Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 34: Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse of Children”, para.4; UN
Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to freedom from all forms of

34
violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011, IV. Legal analysis of article 19, A. Article 19, paragraph 1, p.7. See also Optional
Protocol to the CRC on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (2000)
xlvii Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children (2006), UN Doc. A /61/299,

29 August 2006, para.67

xlviii Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing

the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000), Art.3(b)
xlix Secretary-General’s Bulletin on Special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse (2003), UN

Doc. ST/SGB/2003/13, 9 October 2003, Section 3(b)

l Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United

Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000), Art.3(c)

li Vitit Muntarbhorn (2007): “A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Article 34: Sexual

Exploitation and Sexual Abuse of Children”, para.2; Report of the World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of
Children, Stockholm, Sweden, 27–31 August 1996, Part I and Part II (1996), para.5; Secretary-General’s Bulletin on Special
measures for protection from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse (2003), UN Doc. ST/SGB/2003/13, 9 October 2003,
Section 3(c)
lii Vitit Muntarbhorn (2007): “A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Article 34: Sexual

Exploitation and Sexual Abuse of Children”, para.2

liii Lee Sepston (2012): “A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 32: Protection

from Economic Exploitation”, para.47

liv Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Article 32.1
lv Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Article 36
lvi Such as article 33 (preventing the use of children in the illicit production and trafficking of narcotic drugs and psychotropic

substances), article 34 (protecting the child from all forms of sexual exploitation), article 35 (preventing the abduction of, the
sale of or traffic in children for any purposes) and article 38 (ensuring that children under fifteen years of age are not recruited
into armed forces)
lvii Secretary-General’s Bulletin on Special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse (2003), UN

Doc. ST/SGB/2003/13, 9 October 2003, Section 1

lviii Child Protection Working Group (2014): Responding to the Worst Forms of Child Labour in Emergencies, p.7
lix Report of the expert of the Secretary-General, Graça Machel (1996) The impact of armed conflict on children, submitted

pursuant to General Assembly resolution 48/157, UN Doc. A/51/306, 26 August 1996, paras.38 and 39
lx Report of the expert of the Secretary-General, Graça Machel (1996) The impact of armed conflict on children, submitted

pursuant to General Assembly resolution 48/157, UN Doc. A/51/306, 26 August 1996, para.96
lxi UN Office of Internal Oversight Services (2015): Evaluation of the Enforcement and Remedial Assistance Efforts for Sexual

Exploitation and Abuse by the United Nations and Related Personnel in Peacekeeping Operations, 15 May 2015 (Reissued
12 June 2015 for technical reasons), Assignment No.: IED-15-001, para.7
lxii UN Office of Internal Oversight Services (2015): Evaluation of the Enforcement and Remedial Assistance Efforts for Sexual

Exploitation and Abuse by the United Nations and Related Personnel in Peacekeeping Operations, 15 May 2015 (Reissued
12 June 2015 for technical reasons), Assignment No.: IED-15-001, para.47
lxiii Mark Snyder (2017): Sexual Exploitation and Abuse at the Hands of the United Nation's Stabilization Mission in Haiti |

Preliminary Investigative Results, January 2017

lxiv UN Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to freedom from all

forms of violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011: “… “violence” is understood to mean “all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse.”
lxv UN Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to freedom from all

forms of violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011: “… “violence” is understood to mean “all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse.”
lxvi Adapted from and based upon definitions as presented in the following two publications:

• Definition of child maltreatment given in: WHO, UNODC, UNDP (2014): Global status report on violence prevention,
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/status_report/2014/en/
• WHO (2002): World Report on Violence and Health, available at:
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42495/9241545615_eng.pdf?sequence=1
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/
lxvii Definition of child maltreatment given in: WHO, UNODC, UNDP (2014): Global status report on violence prevention

http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/status_report/2014/en/
lxviii UN Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to freedom from all

forms of violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011

lxix WHO (2002): World Report on Violence and Health, available at:

http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42495/9241545615_eng.pdf?sequence=1
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/
lxx Hannah Thompson (2015) “A Matter of Life and Death: Child Protection Programming’s Essential Role in Ensuring Child

Wellbeing and Survival During and After Emergencies”, Child Protection Working Group and ChildFund, available at:
http://cpwg.net/resources/matter-life-death/

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lxxi Hannah Thompson (2015) “A Matter of Life and Death: Child Protection Programming’s Essential Role in Ensuring Child
Wellbeing and Survival During and After Emergencies”, Child Protection Working Group and ChildFund, available at:
http://cpwg.net/resources/matter-life-death/
lxxii McCoy and Keen (2013). "Introduction" in Child Abuse and Neglect (2 ed.). New York: Psychology Press. pp. 3–22, p.3
lxxiii Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children (2006), UN Doc. A /61/299,
29 August 2006, para.67
lxxiv UN Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to freedom from all
forms of violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011, IV. Legal analysis of article 19, A. Article 19, paragraph 1, p.7
lxxv Save the Children and Child Protection, Save the Children, December 2007, available at:
https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/library/save-childrens-definition-child-protection
lxxvi UN Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to freedom from all
forms of violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011
lxxvii UN Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to freedom from all
forms of violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011
lxxviii See UNHCR (2012) A Framework for the Protection of Children, and Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
lxxix The Gender Based Violence Information Management System (GBVIMS): User Guide, UNFPA, UNHCR, IRC, 2010
lxxx Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action: Reducing risk, promoting
resilience and aiding recovery, Inter-Agency Standing Committee, 2015
lxxxi UNHCR (2003): Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons:
Guidelines for Prevention and Response
lxxxii Inter-Agency Standing Committee (2015): Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in
Humanitarian Action: Reducing risk, promoting resilience and aiding recovery
lxxxiii UNHCR (2003): Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons:
Guidelines for Prevention and Response
lxxxiv UNFPA, UNHCR, IRC (2010): The Gender Based Violence Information Management System (GBVIMS): User Guide
lxxxv UNFPA, UNHCR, IRC (2010): The Gender Based Violence Information Management System (GBVIMS): User Guide
lxxxvi UNFPA, UNHCR, IRC (2010): The Gender Based Violence Information Management System (GBVIMS): User Guide
lxxxvii WHO (2006): INSPIRE: Seven strategies for Ending Violence Against Children, pp.16—17, available at
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/inspire/en/
lxxxviii Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and Optional Protocol (2006), available at
http://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdf
lxxxix Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children (2006), UN Doc. A /61/299,
29 August 2006, para.43
xc Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children (2006), UN Doc. A /61/299, 29
August 2006, para.43: See esp. “Disabled children may be abandoned, a practice which may sometimes be accepted and
encouraged”; UN Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to freedom
from all forms of violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011, IV. Legal analysis of article 19, A. Article 19, paragraph 1, p.5; Cassie
Landers (2013): Preventing and Responding to Violence, Abuse, and Neglect in Early Childhood A Technical Background
Document, UNICEF New York, p.8
xci Cassie Landers (2013): “Preventing and Responding to Violence, Abuse, and Neglect” in Early Childhood A Technical
Background Document, UNICEF New York, p.8
xcii Including boarding schools, alternative care centres, shelters, infant homes, youth homes, institutions for children with
psycho-neurological and severe disabilities, prisons and correctional facilities
xciii UNICEF (2014): “Hidden in plain sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children”, UNICEF New York, p.58
xciv Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children (2006), UN Doc. A /61/299,
29 August 2006, para.66
xcv United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of
Women (UN Women), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the
Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children (OSRSG/VAC), (2013) Breaking
the Silence on Violence against Indigenous Girls, Adolescents and Young Women,
https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/VAIWG_FINAL.pdf
xcvi UN Committee on the Rights of the Child General Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to freedom from all
forms of violence, CRC/C/GC/13, 18 April 2011
xcvii UNICEF, May 2017, A child is a child Protecting children on the move from violence, abuse and exploitation, available at:
https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/UNICEF_A_child_is_a_child_May_2017_EN.pdf
xcviii Hannah Thompson (2015) “A Matter of Life and Death: Child Protection Programming’s Essential Role in Ensuring Child

Wellbeing and Survival During and After Emergencies”, Child Protection Working Group and ChildFund, available at:
http://cpwg.net/resources/matter-life-death/

36