SALESIAN PONTIFICAL UNIVERSITY

Faculty of the Science of Education

Curriculum of School Pedagogy and Professional Training

THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SCHOOL

CLIMATE AND THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Bachelor Thesis

Student: Daniel Simon KADOGOSA (22730E)

Professor: Elena MARGIOTTA

Roma, 2021-2022
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Education being one of the key elements contributing to the formation of human
personality is divided into three types such as: formal, informal, and non-formal. Formal
education is mainly provided in schools, colleges, universities and any other institutions
which enhance its efficacy (Nanni, 20202, 53). The economic, political and social
development of any nation in the world depends on its system of education (Besozzi,
20172, 49).
School climate refers to a couple of internal and external characteristics of the
school setting. School climate is often closely associated with school culture (i.e., the
values, attitudes, and expectations that are the characteristics of a particular school
(Cohen, et alii, 2009, 182).
As the title of the work describes, this research work aims at explicating the
similarities and differences existing between the school surroundings (technically called
school climate) and the performance of a student as an individual and the whole school
at large. The focus is on the context of students’ academic performance in scholastic
institutions.
The study on this topic is a result of various experiences and observations which
the researcher has had especially on the relationship between the school climate and
academic success. These two elements, carry the characteristics of forms and contents
as used in literature. The school climate seems to be like the form/the system which
carries education as its content (Besozzi, 2017, 51). The well-structured form (school
climate) results into a reliable and useful content which is the academic
performance/success. Therefore, the school climate determines the quality of academic
performance which is the main target in any scholastic institution.
Any working methodology employed by a researcher should be one of the
theories in data collection used in order to arrive at the desired answer/ correct scientific
decisions (Prellezo & Jesùs, 20074, 34). This study focuses on the theoretical analytical/
descriptive-method in order to arrive to the goal. Furthermore, during data collection,

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the researcher will employ documentary review including; the available various reports,
journals, magazines, publications, books, newspapers and ministerial documents, and
other supporting documents so as to attain the goal. Thus, the bibliography and all
citations within the text and footnotes will be written in APA style (Prellezo & Jesùs,
20074, 262).
Conclusively, this work divides the analysis of the similarities and differences
between the two elements mentioned above into three chapters. The first chapter defines
the meanings of school climate, the theoretical view of school climate according to
various authors and the determinants of the characteristics of school climate in any
school. The second part concentrates on the whole concept of academic performance, its
meaning, the theoretical conceptions and characteristics of academic performance. The
third part concentrates on the similarities and differences between the school climate
and the academic performance as it will be seen in the work.

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Chapter one

SCHOOL CLIMATE

School climate is very important in fostering academic performance to students

in any scholastic institution. It acts as the motherboard of all academic activities carried
out in school. If well founded and prepared it motivates the learners and teachers to
perform well their duties every one according to his/her position (Brophy, 2003, 150).
This chapter explores the brief historical analysis, the meaning and some of the theories
which explain the concept of school climate and its characteristics.

1. Definitions

The definition of the concept of school climate exists from different epochs and
decades. It passes from different ideas and observations of different researchers as it is
explained below.

1.1. The historical analysis of the concept of school climate

The early studies manifest that the academic success based mainly on the
characteristics of students, their families and the surrounding environments in which the
school is located. Later, the dimension of concept was extended to include even other
stakeholders like teaching and non-teaching staff members. As time went on the
learning processes were also included to be part of the school climate which fosters the
academic performance. Currently the school climate is one of the most essential
elements leading to the academic achievement (Chrikina & Khavenson, 2018, 134).
The school climate embraces all the cardinal elements, internal and external
characteristics of the school life. “Almost 100 years ago, Perry (1908) published his
book titled the Management of a city school, whereby it becomes the first work to treat

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or study about the school climate. He was the first educational leader to write about the
contribution of school climate to the students in their academic or learning processes”
(Cohen et alii, 2009, 183). The coordination between all members working in school
seemed to lead to the increase of the efficiency in academic activities. The study of the
school climate appears again during the second half of the twentieth century whereby
the school is considered as an organization. In this organization the school climate is
said to include all administrative structures, professionalism, related processes at school
and social relation between teachers. By 1980’s, researchers say that the school climate
was formed by the healthy relationship between parents and teachers and teachers and
students. This relationship was said to foster good academic performance. Some
analyzed it at the level of the relationship between teachers and classes (Chrikina &
Khavenson, 2018, 137-138).
Recently, school climate is considered as one of the important elements which
enhance the academic achievement in schools. It motivates students’ behavior and
socialization. It is true that many researchers have worked a lot on the study of the
concept of school climate. However, there is no common definition achieved which
explains explicitly the meaning of school climate. Some authors define it from its
subjective point of view while others define it from the objective point of view and
others define it combining the two categories mentioned above.
We define school climate while borrowing some of the terminologies dedicated
to the study of organizational climate. Such terminologies are: motivation, job
satisfaction, human or social relationships and productivity. School climate plays a big
role in academic arena because is the soul of the scholastic institution which makes all
teachers, students, parents and other workers feel involved and feel that they are part of
the school. (Chrikina & Khavenson, 2018, 139-140).
From the above explanations, we can deduce three key elements which give us
more information on the understanding of the concept of school climate. Firstly, school
climate is seen as a psychological phenomenon because it is perceived subjectively by
all members who are in the institution. Secondly, school climate is a latent construct
indicated by the responses of the members who are in the academic institution to

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questions about norms, values, and other situations which are relevant to such
institution. Thirdly, school climate is the phenomenon that remains constant that means
it does not change yearly according to the changes of the employees or the enrollment
of new students. It should be remembered that there is not one universally agreed upon
definition of school climate. Some authors call it as an atmosphere, milieu, environment
and setting. However, having deduced the three elements above, the following below
are some of the current authors who have defined the concept of school climate as it is
going to be seen (Cohen, et alii, 2009, 182). School climate is defined together with
professional climate among staff, teachers and administrators. The school management
should train or employ trained workers and should ensure their job security which
increases moral and job satisfaction (Cohen, 2010, 8). A healthy professional climate is
very important to a positive school climate and a positive school performance.

1.2. The meaning of school climate according to Damiano

School climate refers to the overall properties and capacities of the school or any
scholastic institution, defined as a sensitive and receptive community with respect to the
tasks of development and social, intellectual, emotional and affective well-being of the
subjects - students, teachers and other operators who interact and cooperate each other
in various ways. Furthermore, school climate is also seen in the rhythm of the day-to-
day program or activities, school infrastructures like furniture and school size, ecology,
human environments, social systems, and culture (Damiano, 2008, 206-207).
A cultural - ecological model of school climate. This refers to all material
available in school. These materials are enumerated in a statistical formula. Every
scholastic institution should have a special office for keeping all the particulars like:
the total number all students available in school in the particular year, the total number
of teachers available, the total number of students available in each class, the total
number of all workers available, the total number of books available in the library, the
total number of books available for each subject taught in school, the total number of

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learning materials like (laboratory apparatus, maps and drawings) and the total number
of chairs, table and desks available in school. To add more, there should be clear
boundaries of the school compound. All these particulars are described in a school chart
whereby they are easily accessed. In some schools there is a clear post whereby the
daily information is recorded (Damiano, 2008, 207; Tamika et alii, 2015, 3).
Human environment. This is also a part of school climate which deals with the
behaviors and characteristics of the students, teachers, other workers and parents. It also
touches the behaviour of the school management and administration. Every scholastic
institution has to establish an office for listening, counselling and assisting people with
different behaviors in order to create a conducive learning and teaching atmosphere
(Damiano, 2008, 207).
Social system. This means the functions of all community members joined by
school management and administration. School leaders do form a teamwork which
collaborates and communicates well in all spheres of their daily life (Nanni, 2019, 133;
Yusoff, 2021, 254). Every group performs its duties accordingly for the betterment of
the institution. This helps in animating and pushing forward the school targets and
goals. This needs a good leader who knows what it means to be a leader in any
institution. School leaders are not alone in the field, but rather they need the presence of
their subordinates in achieving a good academic performance (Damiano, 2008, 207).
Culture and social norms. Speaking of school climate, Damiano (2008, 208)
goes on saying that any school has its own culture of doing things. The culture begins
with the school vision and mission from which the annually, semestrial, monthly,
weekly, and daily calendar or timetable is deduced. The social norms are used to bind
every member who is responsible for taking care of the school and its belongings.
Failure to observe these norms the school becomes useless and its climate becomes
damaged which does not meet the needs of the national, regional, diocesan and district
and education policy.

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1.3. The meaning of school climate according to Cohen

Cohen et alii (2009, 182) suggest that, “school climate refers to the quality and
character of school life. School climate is based on patterns of people’s experiences of
school life and reflects norms, goals, values, interpersonal relationships, teaching and
learning practices, and organizational structures”. This definition shows us that school
climate covers the internal and external environments of any scholastic institution.
Every institution has its own history, culture and structure on which its climate is
founded (Barron, 2016, 324). Positive school climate fosters and produces many
techniques which enable every institution to acquire its goals. Parents, teachers and
students team together and give their contribution to a shared school vision and mission.
School climate refers to the spheres of life which include the relationship
between members, the environments and all other teaching and learning activities
carried out in school. The definition seen above tells us that school climate is the school
life. Therefore, it carries some of the characteristics of living things. School climate is
born. That means it is created according to the needs of a certain scholastic institution.
If the school is meant to train people with special needs, it should be constructed
fittingly to the users. The same to the teachers or trainers, the governments or private
sectors should train their teachers that they may become competent enough to achieve
the goal and purpose intended to each group of people trained in school. School climate
grows or matures. That means all academic stakeholders should be creative in making
sure that the school atmosphere becomes more suitable to every member who
participates in the shared school vision and mission. Whoever arrives at such school
notices the presence of peaceful and attractive atmosphere which is manifested by the
faces and life of the participants (Cohen, 2010, 2). School climate deteriorates. This
means that, if not developed and maintained well, it can become negative and may not
lead to the achievement of the expected goal. This needs a great and strong
collaboration among the stakeholders. School climate moves. That means, this word is
metaphorically used meaning that it remains in the hearts of the participants and become
part and parcel of their daily lives at school. Through these participants it moves and

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reaches to many other new people who did not know anything about that institution.
These are just some of the characteristics of school climate which are metaphorically
joined to the life of any academic organization.
Any study about school climate centers its focus on the visible and invisible
characteristics like physical and non-physical conditions of the school. The visible ones
are the external infrastructures and personnel while the invisible ones are the qualities,
culture of the school. There are several indicators of school climate like: safety,
teaching and learning. Relationships and environmental structures (Cohen et alii, 2009,
184). These indicators will be more explained in the following subtopic.

2. Theories and characteristics of school climate

School climate has been studied with a multiple of variables, methodologies,

theories and models which do not give a common and universal definition of it. There
are various theories like; bioecological theory, stage environment theory, social control
theory and social cognitive and learning theory which expound the whole concept of
school climate. This part explains the social cognitive theory as explained by Bandura.
Social cognitive and learning theory (Bandura, 1999) is founded on personal
factors in the form of cognitive, affective biological events, behavioral patterns and
environmental events which operate by interacting with each other. The theory derives
its meaning from the fact that a human being is social and self-interactive by nature and
depends on other human beings in order to meet some of his needs. School climate
includes this social cognitive aspect to promote the learning development to students
and teaching development to teachers through inter-personal relations/interaction with
others. This theory promotes the teacher-students’ relationships, relationships among
students themselves, relationships between students and other workers, relationships
between teachers and parents, relationships between the school administration and its
employees, the relationships between the institution and other surrounding
environments in which there are neighboring schools and scholastic institutions. This

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kind of relationship makes workers and students feel comfortable as part of the school.
Social cognitive theory enhances the sense of belonging of all partakers to their
academic institution. Furthermore, it promotes cooperation and the sense of affiliation
with others. It promotes the cooperative learning whereby every member feels and
enjoys the presence of his fellow colleague in any activity to be done. It promotes the
sense of unity among all members of the community. Every community has its own
identity. For example, when all community members are so much attached to school,
they feel safe to be in the community. This kind of identity, when it is well nurtured, it
leads to positive academic performance. At the same time, the cooperation of students,
increases their performance in learning activities (Bandura, 1999, 21).
In social cognitive theory, people are the main agents and operators of their lives
using their intellect to interact with their environments. “A human mind is generative,
creative, proactive and self-reflective not just reactive. People operate as thinkers of the
thoughts that serve determinative functions” (Bandura, 1999, 22). Human beings carry
out their evaluations based on effects produced by their actions in order to obtain what
fits them in their lives. This is clearly explained by the cognitive theory when it explains
the three forms of environment (imposed, selected and constructed) whereby a human
being can transform any kind of environment according to his needs. School climate is
also one of the aspects which constitute didactic environment. Every institution has its
own type of climate which favours its activities based on the vision and mission of the
school. However, it should be remembered that the theory criticizes the fact that human
behaviour is not influenced by the environment only, but rather by internal factors like
(cognitive, affective, and biological), behavioral patterns and environmental events
(imposed, selected, constructed). All these show that the social cognitive theory creates
a wide understanding on the importance of the school climate on academic
performance. Any human activity is done in a certain selected and modified
environment which fovours the attainment of the expected goal (Bandura, 1999, 23).

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3. Determinants of the characteristics of school climate

Having seen the theory which expresses the relationship between human
activities and his environments, the following parts express the aspects or indicators of
school climate. These indicators help a leader to know and clearly distinguish whether
a certain scholastic institution has a positive or negative school climate (Cohen, 2010,
3). There are so many written works which explain these indicators of school climate in
various terminologies and categories. Enumerated below are main three aspects or
dimensions which contain many areas of school climate.

3.1. Institutional environment

The environment of any institution is usually composed of regulations and

norms which determine the outcomes of the shared vision and mission of that
institution. This aspect is explained both socially and physically (Thapa et alii, 2012, 3).
Socially means the engagement of school stakeholders in a connected manner.
These school stakeholders are teachers, students and parents or the community
surrounding the school. They should identify themselves as part and parcel of the
school without being excluded in every step of the school. Their participation in school
activities animates the whole life of the school. Every group mentioned above should
feel good about their scholastic institution. The school leadership should make sure that
it integrates well its school stakeholders for the success of the school (Cohen, 2010, 3).
This social aspect makes the school get admired and loved by many parents who are
even far from the school. This leads to the improvement of the school connections and
fame. The parents and other community members should be encouraged to take part in
the formation of their children this because teachers alone cannot suffice to provide
enough human and academic formation to the students. Therefore, it is importance to
seek for an assistance from the non-teaching staff members who which play a big role
in the harmony of academic activities. Social aspect enables the school management to

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get an integrated school evaluation from all groups. This kind of evaluation assists in
solving some crucial problems which could be very difficult to discover them if the
school leadership were not ready to listen or collect some opinions from all school
stakeholders. With this social aspect the school management or leadership provides
some of the important school information to the parents and the community.
Furthermore, the parents should be given an opportunity to participate in some of the
school every event like; parents meetings, graduations, being party of the school board
or school committee, visiting days and fundraising events for the development of the
school. The school should be accessible and friendly to all people so as to cultivate the
sense of belong in the hearts. In addition to that the school has to provide both
curriculum and extra-curriculum activities to students. The relationships between
students and teachers, teachers and parents, parents and the school administration make
the school get known to different corners of the world because the school stakeholders
are the first bearers of good news about the school. Generally speaking, the social
dimension of school climate carries the hub of the school (Cohen et alii, 2009, 184).
Physically means the internal and external surroundings of the school. For
example, size and space of the school, the ratio of students/teachers in the classroom,
cleanliness and its attractiveness, arrangement of school buildings and classrooms,
curricular and extracurricular offerings, enough learning and teaching
resources/materials, technological materials, security and safety (Cohen et alii, 2009,
184). The kind of food (nutrition) is also part of the physical environments of the school
(Cohen, 2010, 3) whereby the school administration has to ensure that all community
members get enough and balanced diet. Balanced diet produces the healthy mind.
To begin with the size and space of the school. The school should have large and
enough area in which all its structures are designed. There should be a place for
constructing different pitches for sports, there should be an evacuation area in case of
emergence, there should be space for sewage system, incinerators for girls, kitchen,
toilets, gardens, sick bay, and such like infrastructures (Cohen et alii, 2009, 184).
The ratio of students/teachers in the classroom. The number of students should
be proportional to the number of teachers as it is stated by the ministry of education of a

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specific country. Likewise, to the size of the classrooms should be friendly to
accommodate the size of the students needed. The size of the class should not be
overpopulated so as to give a good chance to a teacher to reach easily to every student
while teaching. The overpopulated class diminishes the efficiency of learning and
teaching (Wright et alii, 2019, 52).
Cleanliness and attractiveness of the school. The school environments should be
well and properly cleaned to avoid the spreading of unwanted rubbish and other
materials. The buildings and other infrastructure of the school should be maintained and
rehabilitated so as to make them remain intact and attractive. The paintings and other
drawings should be made in a way that favours a learner to study well (Öcal, 2018, 1).
Cleanliness should extend even to the individuals. They should appear smart all the
time in and outside of class hours.
The arrangement of school buildings and classrooms. The infrastructure of the
school should be designed according to the geographical position and condition of the
area in which the school is built. There should be enough and spacious classrooms with
big windows, lighting or electric system, acoustic system, air conditions in arid areas
and heating system especially in cold areas. The classrooms should be constructed
following the climatological condition of that place. Other buildings for workers should
be constructed a little far from learning areas (Tobia et alii 2020). Classroom
arrangement and seating should favour the need of the time. For example, during and
post COVID- 19 moments, students and teachers are obliged to observe all the
measures by maintaining the social distance in every activity. Well-designed school
environment facilitates the process of learning.
Enough learning and teaching resources/materials. These are teaching facilities
which help the teachers to fulfil activities properly. On the other hand, when there are
enough learning facilities, enable the learners to study and deepen their knowledge.
These learning facilities should cover all the departments available in school. These
facilities should also be supplied according to the needs of a particular school. There are
special schools for the disabled ones and schools for the non-disabled students. These
schools might be secondary schools, primary schools and nursery schools. All these

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need to have enough learning facilities. In addition to that, teaching materials go hand
in hand with the installation of modern technological instruments like; projectors,
computers, printing machines and sound acoustic systems in the classrooms (Malizia,
2019, 65-66).
Security and safety. The school environments should be designed in such a way
that it makes all its members feel safe. For example, the school should be fenced, there
should be security companies, fire extinguishers in the dormitories, classrooms and
other buildings, proper sewage system, enough security lights and there should be a
nurse officer who attends all those who are sick. Generally speaking, every member
should be trained to participate in the security of the school and all members.

3.2. Community dimension

The community factor of school climate is also seen in terms of existing

relationship in the school. It includes the school’s connectedness (the sense of
belonging). Respect for diversity means a fair and equal treatment of students by
teachers and other staff members. Community partnership means the quality of
interpersonal relationships of all members of staff (teacher-leader; teacher-teacher;
teacher-student; student-student; teacher-parents). The degree of competition and social
comparison among students and the extent of the contribution of students, teachers and
school staff in decision making process (Cohen et alii, 2009, 184).
To begin with the quality of interpersonal relationships. The school as an
institution is composed of a community of members living in it. These members are;
teachers, students and nonteaching staff members. Another community which makes
part of the school but lives outside the school compass are parents and other villagers
who are benefiting from the presence of that institution in their land. All these members
mentioned above need to have a good and positive relationship towards each other. This
interpersonal relation is an aspect in forming school climate.

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 “One of the active methods of interest to educators and a good alternative to improving
the quality of education is group-learning approach. By studying various educational methods,
researchers from the UNICEF Study Centre found that the best practices to effectively maintain
the relationship between teachers, students, and the curriculum include group learning, direct
teaching, independent or informal learning, or combined teaching” (Moradi, 2018, 2).

Respect for diversity. Any school has different members with different levels of
their education, different tribes, understanding capacity, their historical back grounds,
their family capacities, their traditions and beliefs, their sex, their religions, their age,
their talents and their physical fitness. There some who are disabled and others come
from the well to do families and poor or middle families. These differences among the
stakeholders of the school should be handled with great care so as to cultivate a
harmonious school climate which does not exclude any person in teaching and teaching
processes. In some few areas there are some schools special for a certain group of
people it can either be for girls or for boys only, or for the disabled and people with
albinism. Whatever type of school may be, the most important element is respecting the
value and dignity of every member and providing education to all members concerned.
All participants especially students should be treated equally from their first day of
school to the last one (Malizia, 2019, 30-32; UNESCO et alii, 2015, 7-8).
The sense of belonging to all school members. This aspect refers to the school
connectedness among its members. Every member should feel accepted by his fellow
group members and connected to the general school timetable.
Community partnership. The school administration should open the door to the
large community so as to participate in the school programs. For example, the parents
should not be left aside in some decisions and activities done in school. The students
should also be exposed to the entire community which surrounds them so as to facilitate
the availability of some of their basic needs. Some schools which are positioned in rural
areas do not have enough electrical and water system (Ice et alii, 2015, 9). The shortage
of electricity makes them cook by using fire woods and charcoal. These raw materials
are brought by the villagers. It needs to have a clear partnership with these agents so as

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to ensure a constant supply of food (maize, beans, rice, cassava, meat and vegetables)
for all students and workers.
The degree of competition and social comparison among students and the extent
of the contribution of students, teachers and school staff in decision making process.
School climate is also determined by the participation of students in some aspects like
general school meetings and other programs which need their presence. Students as a
community elect their leaders who represent them in various areas. The same to the
teachers, parents and other workers have their own union and leadership which
represents them in some decision-making processes done in school. The students are
encouraged to engage in various curricular and extracurricular activities which enable
them to compete among themselves and compete with other schools. In some schools
there are interclasses competitions, inter dormitories competitions and interstream
competitions. All these competitions aim at cementing and consolidating the
relationship among the students so as they may perform well in their studies. This is
done so as to prepare a student in all areas both physically and mentally (Ice et alii,
2015,10; Cohen, 2010, 5).

3.3. Safety dimension

Safety dimension is one of the indicators of school climate because feeling safe
and secure is one of the needs of a human being (Thapa et alii, 2012, 4). If someone
arrives in any scholastic institution should easily notice the aspect of safety available
therein. In any sphere of life human beings keep on searching for physical or
psychological liberty, safety and tranquility. Any kind of bullying makes others feeling
uncomfortable to stay in school (Cohen, 2010, 5): they need to be safe in order to
accomplish their goals and acquire their daily basic needs; they need physical security,
the sense of social-emotional security, identity safety; they need order and discipline
which include rules and norms (Cohen et alii, 2009, 184). Safety makes every member

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feel accommodated equally and cultivates the sense of self-efficacy (Petruccelli, 2016,
30).
To begin with physical security. This has some to do with physical violence,
bullyism and the use of corporal punishments to students. This attitude of physical
violence and torture should be considered to be one of the most important areas which
should be handled with great care. In some schools there is a tendency of bullyism
among the students themselves while in some schools the teachers are so aggressive and
tend to bull the students with corporal punishments such a way that many students hate
the school and their teachers (Formella, 2015, 167-168). The school should be fenced in
order to protect the students from being invaded or attacked by the intruders and thieves
who come to steal and destroy the schools’ and students’ properties. Every scholastic
institution has to maintain its security by eliminating violence (there should be trained
security guards, detective instruments like CCTV cameras and metal detectors).
Physical safety is also connected with the installation of reliable electrical system and
fire extinguishers in the dormitories, classrooms and other buildings. There should also
be a dispensary for health problems.
The sense of social-emotional security. All community members should feel
safe from emotional actions which lead to lack of peace in the institution. The use of
abusive language and pejorative exclusive and teasing words which provoke and make
others feel unsecure and embarrassed should be eliminated. The school is composed of
different people with their diversities. This difference, therefore, should not be used a
means or reason to attack the personality of any member for the purpose of
embarrassing him. Someone may not be abused because of his poverty, disability, body
shape, age, and such like factors. Emotional security entails the psychological milieu of
a person. In some schools there is a special office for counselling services (School
mental health services) in order to assist students and other people in need. Counselling
is a psychological, social and personal oriented attentivity which takes place between
two or more persons. The other part is of the counselor while the other part belongs the
one to be counseled (Petruccelli, 2016, 21-23).

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 They need order and discipline which include rules and norms. Any academic
institution has its own rules and regulations which are used to guide the day-to-day
activities. There are norms for the school as academic institution, for the department for
the class and for the group discussion. Every group has its own way of understanding
and organizing all class activities (Charles, 2002, 110-111). These norms make
everything move in harmony. Sometimes these norms are enumerated in the joining
instructions for students and in the contract and distribution of jobs/duties for workers.
These norms and rules are to be respected by everyone. In some cases, the school
administration may impose some regulations according to the need of the time. There
should be strict rules set to fight against physical and mental abuse or violence. These
rules should be clearly communicated to everyone against any kind of harassment. The
observance of these rules enhances a conducive learning and teaching arena. These
rules should be implemented fairly and consistently to whoever seems to abrogate the
order of the school.
Self-identity. The school has to identify itself by cultivating its own culture
which helps it to navigate through its vision and mission. Apart from the national policy
about education, every school deduces its vision from that national education policy.
The school administration has to learn and see that every member is an asset for the
welfare of the school rather than a barrier. The school learns to promote healthy
relationships among all its members. Every member feels to be valued, welcomed and
supported as an active member of the community. It needs determination and total self-
giving in order to attain the goal intended. The best way to popularity and great success
lies in our ability to submerge ourselves in the current of other peoples’ feelings and
needs. This kind of vigour makes us feel secure. Safe security makes everyone feel
proud of his or her school because he/she is engaged and participates actively in school
affairs. Therefore, identity security determines school climate to be positive or negative
depending on the current situation in a given school or scholastic institution. The
promotion of self-identity creates confidence to students. Students become capable of
performing many activities available in school (Charles, 2002, 163).

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4. Conclusion

From the above theories and explanations, we sum up by saying that the school
climate is defined as a set of students' beliefs, values and behaviors, teaching staff,
managers and parents, level of autonomy, responsibility and working styles satisfaction.
From the above definition the school climate can be perceived as prevalent atmosphere
in the school, which is mainly dictated by the managers and influences the way how
students and teachers perceive their school and influence their values and attitudes
towards school and work. To implement such a system, the school should be seen as a
healthy place for learning, whereby the dreams and ambitions of students and parents
are at the center, the teachers are motivated to give their best, where everyone is
respected, and they feel connected with school. This is the whole concept of the school
climate which demands the involvement or engagement of the whole village (the whole
community) in order to support the formation of students (Ice et alii, 2015, 9).
Finally, the aspects of school climate explained above determine the presence of
good or bad final results in the final examinations. The performance obtained may differ
from one school to another due to the diversity of school climate. There are so many
other factors which determine the presence of a positive or negative school climate like:
academic climate which centers on the profession of the teachers who need to have
ongoing formation so that to upgrade their knowledge which has to meet the needs of
the time due to the changes of technologies (Thapa, 2013, 357-358).
There are many other factors that determine the presence of a positive or
negative school climate such as; professionally focused academic climate of teachers
who need lifelong learning to update their knowledge who have to meet the demands of
time due to changes in technologies.

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Chapter two
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

In any activity done by any institution we expect to have some results which
show its progress or development towards the goal targeted. These results may be
positive or negative. This part of our work expresses the centrality of academic
performance around which all academic activities evolve.

“Academic performance of students is the center around which the whole education
system revolves. The success and failure of any educational institution is measured in terms of
academic performance of students. Not only the schools, but parents also have very high
expectations from students with respect to their academic performance, as they believe that
better academic results may lead to better career options and future security” (Narad &
Abdallah, 2016, 13).

It is one of the expected outcomes in any scholastic institution. The presence of

positive or higher performance indicates that the intuition is at the level of achieving its
vision and mission while the low or poor academic performance indicates the failure to
achieve the vision and mission targeted. This chapter aims at exposing different authors
who have defined the meaning of academic performance from different points of view.

1. Definitions

The complexity of the term academic performance starts with its

conceptualization. It is sometimes known as academic achievement and academic
performance, but generally the differences in concepts are explained only by semantics
since they are used as synonyms. Conventionally, it has been agreed that academic
achievement should be used in university studies and in primary, elementary and
secondary schools the term academic performance is commonly used (Kumar, et alii,
2021, 3091). We will indicate only a few definitions because there is a diversity of

20
them. Different authors have tried to give different definitions of academic performance
as it will be seen later. The lack of consensus on the importance of academic
achievement is clearly evident by examining the available literature. The term academic
performance has a variety of perspectives responsible for the different constitution of its
definition. We see academic performance to be the result of a combination of different
factors like: psychological, social, political and economic, which help to move on to the
right formation of students who grow up in an integrated manner. A summary of the
definitions of academic performance is presented below showing several correct
concepts in different times.

1.1. The meaning of academic performance according to Martinez

Academic performance is said to be the product of outcomes portrayed by the

students as a result of exposure to learning and training and has usually been articulated
in grades (Kumar, et alii, 2021, 3094). Martinez (2007) measures the academic
performance basing the knowledge acquired by the students in class. A student who
scores higher marks in examinations is said to have positive academic performance and
its vice versa is true. Every nation has its own scale in measuring the performances of
students. This kind of assessment differs from one academic level to another.
This approach of defining academic performance excludes other extracurricular
activities done outside the class. It is quite clear that students have different historical
backgrounds and talents, there those who can perform well in the class and there are
those whores can perform well in in other activities like; entertainments, dancing and
designing done outside the class hours. In many academic institutions these students are
considered to have academic inability without considering life after school.
Furthermore, a student can fail school due to; lack of interest in everything
related to school, school passivity, when tasks are performed only with constant
encouragement, and school opposition, when the student clearly shows discomfort and
rejection to school. Over time these three situations can cause the appearance of

21
affective disorders in children because school becomes a powerful stressor which
influences negatively their self-esteem, perception of social competence and future
expectations. Therefore, academic performance should be considered according to both
inside and outside class activities.

1.2. Academic performance according to York et alii

Academic performance/ academic success can be defined in terms of students’

persistence which can be understood as progression of students in academic arena to
attain the completion of the level required regardless of institution related context and
other issues. This definition is centered in the attainment of the learning objective and
acquisition of desired skills and competences (York, et alii, 2015, 3). Apart from this
meaning, the concept of academic performance can also be explained from different
points of view like; career centric, skill and ability centric, and academic achievement
centric. Academic performance is a result of economic, social, religious and political
combinations which have a great contribution to the growth of a student. A student who
is expected to excel in his/her academic careers has to be provided with a nice
environment which enhances him/her in the whole process of learning (Kumar, et alii,
2021, 3092). The definition of academic performance varies from author to author
according to how it is approached. In fact, academic performance should include the
assessment of the outcomes or the knowledge which a student remains with after
finishing or reaching at the end of a semester or academic year. In academic
performance we see an attainment of learning outcomes and satisfaction. In other
words, the concept of academic performance is seen to be the main output of any
academic career. In some cases, it is measured according to the performance and the
knowledge which the students have acquired within a specified time of school. If a
student scores the marks needed or determined by the school or the teachers within a
specific time, then this one is said to have performed or exceled in his/her final results
(Narad and Abdullah, 2016, 15).

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2. Theoretical perspectives on the academic performance

Various authors including Jama have explained the concept of academic

performance basing on some theories which make us understand on what other think
about this perspective. Jama et alii (2009, 995) explain the three theories as presented
by other writers as follows:
Spady’s sociological theory. Jama et alii (2009, 996) present that “The basic
assumption of this theory is that student dropout is best explained by a process
involving an interaction between the individual student and the university
environment”. In this interaction, the student’s attributes such as attitudes, skills and
interests are exposed to influences, expectations and demands of the particular
scholastic institution. Apart from integration, there are different dependent and
independent variables which promote the academic and social integration of students in
their process of learning. These variables are family background, academic potential,
normative congruence, grade performance, intellectual development and peer support.
All these variables are further linked to two other variables namely satisfaction with the
university environment and institutional commitment (Jama et alii, 2009, 996).
Tinto’s integration theory. This theory bases its explanations on the social
nature of man. Man needs to integrate with others in order to attain his/her purpose. The
same applies to students who need to create a cooperative learning methodology so as to
perform well in their studies. Integrating with others reduces some psychological
problems which include loneliness. This theory proposes that a student who is not well
integrated with others in his/her academic journey, fails to attain his/her goal which he
has had from the beginning. Therefore, the theory shows us the importance of social
integration in the academic performance. A student should remain integrated with
others for more understanding and better performance (Jama et alii ,2009, 996).

“Academic integration includes factors such as academic performance of students,

intellectual development and whether the student believes that lecturers are personally

23
committed to teaching and helping students. Social integration in turn, includes factors such as
the student’s self-esteem and the quality of his/her relationship with fellow students and
lecturers” (Jama et alii 2009, 997).

Bean’s psychological theory. This theory asserts that knowing the background of
a student is very important in any academic arena. The teachers and other formators or
trainers should seek to know the histories of their trainees. This helps them on how to
make the students integrate or incorporate themselves in the new environment. For
example, if a student moves from primary school to secondary school or from
secondary school to university or to any college, this student needs an ample time to
master the environment. Many students do fail in their academic activities simply
because they are not familiar to the environment. A student who manages to be satisfied
with the environment of the institution in which he/she is studying, his/her level of
academic performance or success increases and its vice versa is true (Jama et alii, 2009,
997). This is directly linked with the question of external and internal school climate.
These theories make the reader grasp well the concept of factors which affect
academic performance in any academic institution. The theories also show us that there
exist many conditions which favour or determine the academic achievement of any
student. These conditions are complex and multidimensional. These theories expose the
three stages of a student in his academic journey. These stages are: pre-school, school
and post school behaviors. Any person before joining the school comes from his/ her
family of origin. He detaches him/herself from the family background and goes to start
living a new life in school. “The other common beliefs of these theorists are that peer
support, academic performance, the students’ level of satisfaction with the institution
and commitment of both the students and the institution might play a role in retention”
(Jama et alii, 2009, 997).

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3. Characteristics/indicators of academic performance

“Education is one of the most important aspects of human resource

development. The students’ performance plays an important role in producing best
quality graduates who will become great leaders and manpower for the country thus
responsible for the country’s economic and social development” (Olufemi et alii, 2018,
43). The purpose of any scholastic institution is to form and train people according to
the system of a particular country. The country has to decide on the kind of education
which favours and enables the government to have many and qualified experts. Many
countries in the world have their own ways of evaluating their students in all academic
levels. This part of the work orients its focus to the identification of the indicators of
academic performance in almost all academic institutions. The quality of education
offered in schools and other scholastic camps reveals the meaningful livelihood of a
person and shows its power to transform the social, personal and integral human
development. Therefore, the quality of students’ performance remains the first priority
for educators.

3.1. Students’ continuous assessments

Assessment of learning is not a one-time movement; it is a progressing process.

It includes the procedure of checking on, reflecting and modifying the learning
techniques in an arranged and cautious way. “When an assessment is carried out in the
classroom in an ongoing or continual way by the teacher it is called continuous
assessment” (Ssebyatika, 2020, 132). As we know, learning is a process in which a
student continues to gain new knowledge every day. Every stage of the process of
teaching and learning has its own goal and purpose to be reached. This purpose is never
attained in a single day rather it needs some preliminary actions and results which show
the understanding capacity of students. When the educators want to know the capacity
of their students from the beginning to the end, they look at the file which shows all the

25
results of each student; this file should contain different results obtained from several
examinations. If the students excel in their daily studies and assessments, the teachers
and other formators do believe and hope that their students will have a positive
academic performance in their final examinations. Students’ continuous assessments
can be easily accessed and obtained from the interviews, journals, portfolio, rubrics,
peer/self-evaluation, daily, weekly, monthly semestral, annual tests and examinations.
These tests and annual examinations determine the trend and graph of the academic
performance. Furthermore, the introduction of students’ continuous assessment helps to
know the characteristics of every individual in his/academic journey (Day et alii, 2018,
937-938). Explained below are the various types of Students’ continuous assessment.
Summative assessment. This shows the capacity of the student to memorize and
grasp material during the examination. It is clearly seen at the end of the course when a
student receives his/her final examination grades. If a student fails to perform well in
his final results, then he/she is considered not to have passed the examination (Holmes,
2017, 1).
Formative assessment. This takes place during the whole period of learning. Any
marks obtained or given to a student indicates the presence of a student in the class and
his/her participation is active. Formative assessments allow the participation of students
in the class whereby their presence is an assessment in itself. Formative assessment
provides feedback to students. This feedback assists a student to improve and dedicate
much time to the materials which seem to be difficult to him. The educators get enough
time to accompany their learners from the beginning to the end (Ibarra-Sáiz et alii,
2020, 141; McMillan, 2007, 2-3; Wright, 2008, 243).
Interim assessments. This is a periodic assessment which can be done in
intervals. For example, it can be done after four, five or six weeks in the process of
learning. This is a kind of summative evaluation which tracks the student’s
characteristics in the academic arena. In many areas this kind of assessment is done in
joint examinations whereby several schools join together in order to evaluate their
students after a certain period of months. An interim assessment is similar to a
formative assessment in the sense that both portray what students know and understand

26
while they are still learning. However, the two differ because schools, districts, and
states can use the data from an interim assessment to measure academic progress. That
is not the case with formative assessments. Interim assessments are sometimes called
benchmark assessments, but there is a slight difference. Benchmark assessments are
given periodically, whereas interim assessments don’t necessarily follow a schedule
(Bulkley, 2010, 117).
Diagnostic assessment. This is used to evaluate the weaknesses and strengths so
as to determine what kind of help would require from the administration and other
workers/members in school. Some examples used in diagnostic assessment are; Short
quizzes, student interviews, journal entries, students’ reflections and classroom
discussions. These are the four types of assessments which are mainly used. The other
two are non-referenced assessments and criterion referenced assessments.

3.2. Final examination results

Academic performance is also indicated by results of tests and final

examinations. This is the center of every activity done in school. Every country has its
own academic approach or way of evaluating its students from one level to another. For
example, in Tanzania the system of education is divided into four levels phases. The
education system comprises 7+4+2+3+years (Mashala, 2019, 7; UNITED REPUBLIC
OF TANZANIA, 2014, 9). This means that.; the primary school level is done for 7
years, ordinary secondary school level is done for four years, advanced school level
(high school) is done for 2 years and tertiary education level is done for 3 years in
which a student is free to choose the field for specialization. At the end of each level
there is a final national examination which qualifies a learner to continue with the next
level. The selection and enrolment in every level depends on the performance of a
student in the final national examinations. In Tanzania, the sector of education is
managed by two ministries. The management of pre-primary, primary, secondary and
out-of-school education is conferred under the control of the President's Office -

27
Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG). PO-RALG oversees the
work of the local authorities, which are responsible for day-to-day operations of
primary and secondary schools such as resource mobilization, management of teachers,
financing, and payment of school supplies. While the Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training (MOVET) deals with higher education like colleges, vocational
training centers and Universities. MOVET operates the National Examination Council
of Tanzania (NECTA) which deals with the supervision of all examinations in all
primary and secondary levels of education in Tanzania as seen above (Mashala, 2019,
7). These examinations held at the end of each phase are listed below.
National Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE). This examination
determines the academic progress of Tanzanian students from primary to ordinary
secondary school level. If the school manages to have a good number of students who
perform well in these examinations, that school is said to have good and positive
academic performance. The final examination in ordinary secondary school is named as
Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE). This is to both government
and primary schools. The next level is the A-Level secondary education which has
Form 5 and 6.

“The Selection and enrolment in A-Level for Government and Non-Government

secondary education are based on a prescribed performance level in the relevant A-Level
subject combinations after attainment of appropriate credits in the Certificate of Secondary
Education Examination (CSEE). Form 4 and Form 6 examinations, mark the completion of
secondary education cycles and the results of these examinations are used for and selection of
students for further formal education and training such as Colleges and Universities. The
management, administration, and delivery of secondary education in Tanzania has been
changing over time” (Mashala, 2019, 7).

Many countries which have the system of doing examinations in their systems of
education, apart from the tests, group discussions and group works, continuous
assessments, they also use the final national examination results as one of the indicators
or determinants of academic performance in schools. The schools are arranged

28
according to their ranks of performance at the district level, regional level, and national
level. Schools which perform better in those examinations are appreciated and given
their recompense. The same to the students (top ten students), the government finds a
certain way of appreciating their efforts and encouraging them in their studies. Many
parents take their children to schools whose students excel in the final examination
results. Academic performance gets its meaning after the final results. Students who
fail in their final examinations, are considered to be weak in academics and have low
understanding capacity and its vice versa is true. This tendency of measuring the
capacity of a student through the final examinations is called summative assessment
(Holmes, 2017, 1).

3.3. The school average/ school grades

Apart from the national grades and average, every school has its own means of
assessing the academic excellence to its students. As we have seen above, it needs a
certain level of performance so as to be promoted to the next academic level. During the
enrollments of students, the school provides some instructions to all parents before they
take children to such school. One of the instructions provided is the question of school
average. Usually, many schools, colleges and universities do have a matriculation
examination before the admission of the students. The enrolled ones are those who
manage to attain the average required by that school. “The selection of students for
admission in most dental schools in many countries rely on student’s high school
cumulative grade point average as their sole criterion” (Al-Asmar et alii, 2021, 2). The
entry examination determines the academic capacity of a student admitted in a certain
school. As we have already seen above that the main target of academic journey is to
excel in the final examinations results. Therefore, the school administration together
with all staff members continue dedicating their time and staying with students so as to
perform well in their preliminary (midterm tests, terminal examinations, annual

29
examinations, joint examinations and other pre national examinations) done before the
final the examinations.
The school average is set so as to motivate the students in their studies. In some
schools no any student can move from one class to another without scoring the average
set. In Tanzania, for example, this is mostly done in private schools where there is high
inter-school competition. The school average acts as a positive motivation or a catalyst
which mobilizes and encourages the students to remain in the mood and excel in their
examinations. The school which does not insist on the school average, performs poorly
in the final academics, hence the decrease of the number of students and loss of the
school attractiveness to the clients (parents and other school stakeholders). There is
always a close relationship between the school average and academic performance in
the final examinations. This is because the learners are trained to aim high and long for
better academic performance. The higher levels of entry points are always associated
with higher scores of students’ academic performance (Kapinga & Amani, 2016, 77). It
should be remembered that, it is possible that someone enters in school with good
points and gets out with a low average or poor academic performance.

3.4. Students’ reading, counting and writing competence

Reading, writing and counting is the basic education which is given to almost all
people in their early childhood. However, not all people do manage to study early in
their childhood. There is adult education special for those who did not have the
opportunity to study early in their childhood. All these begin with the basic education
mentioned above. Basic education is the key of social, economic and political life. It
makes people get integrated and come in contact with their culture and the whole world
at large. Reading enables us to know our culture of origin. Whoever begins learning
how to count read, write, does so according to the culture of the particular country or
zone or tribe.

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 “Early childhood is the child who is in the age range 0 to 8 years which is also called
the golden age. This age is the period when the child's brain is growing rapidly by about 85%
when reaching the age of 5 years with more than 100 million neurons connected. Child
development occurs continuously and moves up, starting from simple to complex patterns in
line with his age. Aspects of child development include cognitive, physical, linguistic, and
socio-emotional development. The non-repetitive period of golden age requires proper attention
and stimulation to optimize child development” (Pertiwi, 2017, 311).

Every nation is campaigning to do away with illiteracy to the extent of offering

free primary education and making it obligatory to every child who reaches at the age of
reasoning. The campaign against illiteracy centers on the provision of basic education to
all people (UNESCO et alii, 2015, 7-8). The basic education is reading, writing and
counting. This kind of education is often offered at school as a formal education. In the
past decades basic education was not necessarily offered at school but also at home
where the learner comes into a direct contact with the realty. This is called informal
education (Nanni, 20202, 53).
Academic excellence/performance is determined by looking at the number of
students who are competent in reading, counting and writing. If the number of illiterates
increases, it means that there is poor or low academic achievement in that particular
school. The graduates who excel in academic performance are also competent in
reading, counting and writing.

3.5. Individual and school level test results /GPA

Academic assessment is done at different levels like; individual, stream, class

school and national level. All these levels have their own way of grouping the
examination grades. The continuous assessment of a student helps in knowing the
capacity of a student in some of the subjects or in some fields of specialization. The
Grade Point Average (GPA) is an internationally recognized calculation used to find the
average result of all grades achieved throughout someone’s course (Kapinga & Amani,

31
2016, 81). For example, the grades of a student might be a pass, credit, high distinction,
distinction and so on. All grades, including fail grades and grades from any repeated
units, are given a numerical value and then those values are averaged which gives to a
student the so-called GPA. The GPA helps in tertiary providers compare individual’s
results with those of other students. (Sadler, 2015).
For high school students, grade point average is often a major focal point – a
barometer of their academic success. GPA is a factor in class rank, college admissions,
scholarship eligibility and more; it represents a student's body of academic work
throughout high school beginning in their freshman year. While GPA is only part of a
high school transcript, experts consider it a strong indicator of success. GPA is much
more predictive than (standardized) test scores, as will be enumerated later. GPA can be
calculated in many different ways. GPA is unique to each school district, county, state,
and community of some countries. Within a county, even, GPAs differ between public
and private schools. The typically common GPA includes a standard 0.0 through 4.0,
with letter grades matching those amounts.
For the 4.0 scale, that means an A equals 4.0 and an F is 0. Grading scales can
also be weighted, adding additional points for Advanced Placement or honors courses.
With a weighted GPA, a student can earn higher than a 4.0 by performing well in AP or
honors classes. A student's GPA is calculated by dividing grades earned across the total
number of courses taken. For a GPA to be calculated, all letter and word labels must be
given numerical equivalents, such as A = 4.0, B = 3.0, C = 2.0; D = 1.0 and F = 0.0. The
numerals are deemed to represent genuine measurements and, under this assumption,
facilitate the calculation of GPAs (Kapinga & Amani, 2016, 82). The table below shows
how a 4.0 GPA scale corresponds to numeric and letter grades.
Numeric Grade Letter Grade Grade Point
Average
90-100 A 4.0
80-89 B 3.0
70-79 C 2.0
60-69 D 1.0

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 Below 60 F 0.0
Table 1: Grade and point values for students’ marks (Chathuranga, 2016,102).

3.6. Students’ discipline

“The more students display incivilities, the more likely they will have negative
learning outcomes. The National Centre for Educational Statistics (2014) reported
students spend more time being disciplined for their incivilities than they do learning”
(Gaston, 2015, 5). Discipline is one of the most important aspects in a student’s life. It
is crucial to follow the discipline in school. Each school has its own regulations
(Student Handbook and a Student Code of Conduct handbook) used for guiding
students in their daily routine so as to create harmony in their studies. Some of the
school’s regulations which must be observed by the students are: punctuality, internal
and external cleanliness and smartness, keeping all school properties and cultivating the
sense of belonging to the school. The most reported misconducts which lead to
suspension and academic instability to students are: fighting, the use of vulgar/abusive
language, sexual intercourse, indecency, persistent absenteeism in school, disruption of
school and/or disorderly conduct and theft (Gaston, 2015, 4-5). Along with education,
students must learn the discipline in school because without discipline, students can’t be
well educated. Discipline can be considered as the potential of students to do a thing or
finish their task in a fixed time and come out with high academic performance. As we
have seen above, the meaning of discipline is to keep control so that students can attain
their objectives. Discipline in students’ life attracts all the right things, and because of
this, students gain success in each field of their life. In a student’s life, the discipline is
always catered as a guide to focus on their goals. The disciplined life is classified by
success, efficiency, and better time management in all spheres of human’s life.
One of the benefits of students’ discipline is the better performance in
academics. Being disciplined is most essential for better education. Discipline is
compulsory in students’ life because education is not completed without discipline. It
helps students to listen to their teachers carefully and also helps them to understand the

33
whole syllabus. If the students follow the discipline as stated above, they complete their
given assignments and all other academic activities within time. Therefore, a well-
trained student appears smart in all spheres of his life. Students’ discipline is also
accompanied by several indications like: time management and activeness. Good
discipline generates a positive attitude in students which is the most essential thing that
students need in their life. Discipline also creates confidence and eagerness in students
(Gaston, 2015, 4-5).

3.7. Student and teacher-self-efficacy

Psychologist Albert Bandura has defined self-efficacy as people's beliefs in their

capabilities to exercise control over their own functioning and over events that affect
their lives. One's sense of self-efficacy can provide the foundation for motivation, well-
being, and personal accomplishment. People's beliefs in their efficacy are developed by
four main sources of influence, including mastery experiences, vicarious experiences,
social persuasion, and emotional states. High self-efficacy has been linked with
numerous benefits to daily life, such as resilience to adversity and stress, healthy
lifestyle habits, improved employees’ performance, and educational achievement
(Bandura, 1977). Positive and negative experience the ability of an individual to
perform a given task. If one has performed well at a task given previously, that person is
likely to do better in another job provided to him/her.
Academic performance is the outcome of many people who have contributed
their efforts according to each one’s position. The school whose members especially
teachers and students do perform well in their processes of teaching and learning, has
competent teachers and students. This competence is demonstrated in the final
examinations results. Many people do think that students’ academic performance is just
the result of the efforts of teachers and students. However, even other non-teaching staff
members have their role in it. Teachers cannot manage to do all activities found in
school, rather they need assistance from other workers. Generally speaking, students’

34
and teachers’ self-efficacy determines or indicates the presence of high and positive
academic performance. "Mastery experiences are the most influential source of efficacy
information because they provide the most authentic evidence of whether one can
master whatever it takes to succeed. Success builds a robust belief in one's personal
efficacy" (Bandura, 1997; Kumar & Devi, 2016, 86; Perla & Martini, 2019).

3.8. Student and teacher -self-evaluation

Self-evaluation is an assessment of a ones’ own work products and processes in

a certain field. Students and teachers are invited to undergo self-evaluation so as to
analyze the strengths and weaknesses of their past academic activity. As one of the
indicators of academic competence, self-evaluation requires a clear and profound
analysis of the past methods of teaching and learning so as to improve more and more in
the future examinations and tests. The school which is well organized, engages in
evaluation of all groups found in school. This enables the school administration to
collect different ideas and information (Brown & Harris, 2014, 22; Panadero &
Romero, 2014, 134). Self-evaluation is a review of someone’s performance and
experience at work. It is an opportunity for teachers and students to honestly document
and examine how they feel about their role and their work. It is a self-diagnostic skill
that helps the school stallholders monitor their own skills and work, identify any
vulnerabilities and strengths, and find solutions.
By encouraging the students and teachers to regularly reflect on how they really
feel, rather than scrambling to remember everything they have done in the last year,
self-evaluation allows them to take control of their everyday teaching and learning
experiences. There are many strengths of self-evaluation, but the most critical strength
is that it allows all members to actively participate in their current role and in their
future. A huge strength of self-evaluation is that people can honestly assess their own
skills, talents and successes, but also identify the areas they need to improve from a
more practical and helpful perspective. Self-evaluation encourages personal

35
accountability and development. In self-evaluation, one uses the rubrics which contain
the following questions; where have I excelled? what achievements am I most proud of?
where do I feel you need more support? what goals do I wish I could have
accomplished? (Panadero & Romero, 2014, 136-137).

3.9. Retention capacity/ intelligence and aptitude of the students

Higher retention capacity of the students communicates their higher or positive

academic performance and fitness. This is clearly seen in the examinations, tests and
group works done by the students in the class. Man’s ability to learn, to solve problems,
ability to recognize problems, to analyze values, norms, and social issues is called
intelligence. Intelligence is a general mental capability that involves the ability to
reason, plan, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and language, and learn. Intellectual
ability involves comprehension, understanding, and learning from experience.
Intelligence is sometimes referred to as Intelligence Quotient (IQ), cognitive
functioning, intellectual ability, aptitude, thinking skills and general ability (Kumar &
Gupta, 2013, 4-7). Intelligence testing is the estimation of a student's current intellectual
functioning through performance of various tasks designed to assess different types of
reasoning. Students with low IQ are considered as slow learners while those with high
IQ are considered to have higher learning and understanding capacity. However, it
should be remembered that, the final examinations results are not the only measures of
man’s intelligence (Kumar & Gupta, 2013, 4-7).

4. Conclusion

Talking about academic performance is tantamount to touching the hinge of any

scholastic institution. While academic performance characterizes the student
individually, one can get some general characteristics of groups of students from it. This

36
is where the importance lies in having reliable methods of performance evaluation.
There are several ways to assess student achievement. In general, it involves
determining the actual production of a student regarding formal activities. Various
theories explain the meaning of academic performance by indicating its characteristics
as stipulated in the third part of this chapter (Olufemi et alii, 2018, 43).
Generally speaking, academic performance is not an easy task which can be
attained within a single day, rather it needs some components which in one way or
another affect its trend. The higher or lower academic performance is determined by the
school climate which must be safe and must evolve in social, economic and political
factors. All these factors determine the rhythm and momentum of scholastic activities
(National Centre for Educational Statistics, 2018).

37
Chapter three
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

Having seen the meanings and determinants of school climate and academic
performance in any academic institution, elaborated below are the common and
different elements which describe the whole theme discussed in the first and second
chapters.

1. Common factors between school climate and academic performance

The main two themes expressed in this work have some meeting points in which
reflect their positive or negative contribution to the processes of learning and teaching
as carried out by the ones concerned in a particular school at a specific time towards a
certain goal set by the authority. Every scholastic institution participates in the training
and formation of the citizens according to the system of education accepted by the
particular government.

1.1. Inter-personal relationship

The relationship existing between all stakeholders of education makes sense in

academic fields. This manifests the role of every member in the community be it in
school climate or in academic achievements. For example, the role of the parents
assists in forming their children, at the same time the role of the students is very
essential because they are the main and first members to benefit from this interpersonal
relationship. Interpersonal relationship cultivates a nice and admirable school climate.
Academic performance has to do with the good and well organized team-work of all
personnel and all members required because a solid, friendly and healthy relationship
leads to higher academic performance. It makes all members feel at home and cultivate

38
the sense of responsibility/ the sense of belonging. Three major relationship sources are
influential in students’ academic and non-academic lives: parents/caregivers, teachers,
and peers. Each of them is linked significantly to students’ healthy functioning and
development. In terms of parents/caregivers, better academic functioning has been
associated with parents’ positive expectations for their child, the academic goals parents
hold for the child, consistent feedback on the child’s behaviour and performance, and
the educational values and standards they hold for their child (Martine, 2014, 1).

“Interpersonal relationships, formed and developed through human interaction in social

circumstances, are based on communication and interaction, and affect individuals’ social skills,
self-consciousness, academic performance, and mental health. The dominant reasons for the
formation of interpersonal relationships are professional interest or desire for real friendship”
(Ye, 2020, 2).

The role of the teacher is also influential in students’ academic and non-
academic development. His/her role within the classroom appears to be the single most
important factor in our educational setting. Although the majority of studies in the field
of interaction analysis have focused upon the relationship of teaching techniques to
academic achievement, there is an increasing interest in the interpersonal relationships
between teacher and students, students and parents, teachers/workers and parents,
workers themselves and parents themselves. Consequently, teachers often have rather
detailed knowledge of various teaching techniques, but limited awareness of the
importance of the interpersonal process in teaching. Effective relationships between
teachers and students are essential if students are to have more time to learn and
teachers are to have more time to teach. Furthermore, a school climate is established
through the working relations which exist between a teacher and the stakeholders of the
school. Interpersonal interaction skills revolve around the ability of the teacher to
provide certain core conditions which are essential in creating a positive educational
setting. These conditions consist of warmth, empathy, respect, genuineness,
concreteness, self-disclosure, immediacy, and confrontation. These three conditions
apply to both school climate and academic performance (Martine, 2014, 1).

39
 The importance of the interpersonal relationship between teachers, students, and
parents is more significant in academic arena. Few individuals would argue that
teachers do not have the potential to affect a student's academic, social, and emotional
growth more than any other person outside the family unit. These relationships can be
improved or hampered, depending on the communication between the three (workers,
parents and students). Poor interpersonal communication often results in poor
relationships, thereby, creating problems that are difficult to solve.

1.2. Learning and teaching methodologies and facilities

The processes of teaching and learning require the application of some methods
which enhance the attainment of good academic performance. These methods are like;
participatory method, student’s centered method, teacher’s centered method and group
discussions which can be used by the teachers so as to foster all learning activities.
These methods are accompanied by the availability of good and modern learning and
teaching facilities like: lecture halls, libraries, books, laboratories, laboratory apparatus,
schemes of works, lessons plans and class notes. All these create a nice and comfortable
environment which favors a student in his scholastic journey (Noor, 2021, 34-35).
These facilities are found both in the school climate and in the academic performance as
indicators which ensure the presence of good academic performance.
A well-established school climate is also reflected in the academic achievement
of the students. The final results of the learners can be colorful due to the participation
of many individuals who have fulfilled their duties according to their responsibilities.
This occurs under the supervision of the school administration which provides a
conducive environment to its members (all workers and students). Therefore, it is not
easy to talk about students’ academic performance without including the school climate
which is the main part of academic institutions. That is why when we discuss about
academic performance and school climate, we include the aspect of learning strategies
and facilities.

40
1.3. Teachers’ and students’ security

A safe and secure environment is a prerequisite for effective teaching and

learning. Threats to the safety and security of people and property can arise from natural
hazards – for example earthquake, floods and storms – or from human actions – such as
vandalism, arson, violent crime and cyber link crime. The aspect of security is very
wide because it encompasses many areas like: political, social and digital/technological/
computer security (Boutnaru, 2015, 124-125). Furthermore, threats to the safety and
security of people and property can arise from natural hazards – for example
earthquake, floods and storms – or from human actions – such as vandalism, arson, and
violent crime and economical securities. The teachers and students, need to be in the
free and secure areas so as to fulfil their responsibilities accordingly. Psychological
calmness results in a peace of mind which is in the healthy body. A secured teacher,
teaches well because he/she is sure of his/her rights and duties. Also, a secured student,
studies and performs well in the final examinations. The question of teacher’s and
student’s security carries the core of academic arena. It creates confidence and courage
to all members. It increases the will to study more and more. This is seen in the school
climate in which people feel free and work courageously without any element of fear or
bullyism (Cohen, 2010, 5). It should be remembered that the positive academic
performance implies the presence of peaceful mind to the students in school climate.

1.4. Schools’ discipline at large

School discipline addresses schoolwide, classroom, and individual student needs

through broad prevention, targeted intervention, and development of self-discipline.
Schools often respond to disruptive students with exclusionary and punitive approaches
that have limited value. The school maintains its order and tradition almost every day so
as to achieve its vision and mission. School climate includes the aspect of discipline

41
because it is the engine and the centre of everything. Furthermore, even academic
performance comes to its fulfilment due to the highly and observed discipline. The
school discipline goes hand in hand with time management which results into
punctuality and effective performance in any activity performed in the academic field.
Any academic institution has to formulate its own way of maintaining the school
discipline at large (Gerlinger et alii, 2021, 1493). The school discipline helps the
students and teachers to fulfil their responsibilities according to their limits. School
climate and academic performance are the outcomes of the school discipline.

1.5. Teachers’ and students’ academic competence

The processes of teaching and learning need competent participants. The

competence needed depends on the role of every person. In our case, teacher’s
disciplinary and pedagogical competence can enable the transmission of the new
knowledge from one person to another, in this case from a teacher to students. Students
who participate in the class should be very keen and attentive in order to understand
well the lesson. It should be remembered that a competent teacher does not necessarily
become a good teacher who can impart the knowledge he/she has to others. However,
even students themselves should be competent and active in listening and grasping all
what the teacher presents in the class. Every part expects the other to do better in the
final academic performance (Davies et alii, 2020, 1174).

2. Differences between school climate and academic performance

Having seen the similarities existing between the school climate and academic
performance, this part analyses the differences between the two elements before
mentioned.

42
2.1. Student’s role - Teacher’s role

The school climate speaks more about the role of the teachers because they are
the ones to prepare nice environment for learners while the academic performance
concentrates more on students who are the first beneficiaries of teaching activities. In
the academic field, every member has a role to fulfil as far as daily life is concerned. To
begin with the role of a teacher. A teacher, as part of the school climate needs to be well
equipped in his/her subjects concerned. Needs to have pedagogical competence so as to
motivate the process of learning to the students. Has to manage the discipline of
students in the class. Should conduct a roll call so as to control students’ attendance in
the class. The role of a teacher in academic performance seems to be very important
because he/she acts as a guide and instructor of the students. A teacher analyses the
materials to be taught according to the curriculum and syllabus. In education, the
character of students and the school at large becomes one of the goals, and the teacher
acts as the pilot of achieving these educational goals (Lian et alii, 2020, 928). The
teacher creates learning opportunities like: naming student roles and responsibilities
when students first arrive in the learning environment. Be open to students having more
ideas about roles and responsibilities they would like to own. Inviting students to be
strategic partners in their learning affirms their roles in the classroom, thus, building
confidence and character in themselves.
The teacher's role is that of a facilitator of learning experiences. The teacher
motivates and guides student activities rather than dictating them. The student-centred
language arts classroom, focuses on the individual student. The teacher uses the
student's own experiences and innate ability to communicate experiences to build skills
of oracy and literacy. The skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking are taught in
interrelated patterns. The effective teacher in this kind of classroom knows how to use
the student's ability to express personal experiences as a basis for moving to more
abstract skills, such as reading and writing. With this type of approach, the interaction
between student and teacher helps to guide the learning to encompass student needs and

43
interests. Teacher-student interaction must be based on firm foundations of mutual trust
and understanding in order to be an effective mechanism for helping students. This
relationship forms the importance of mutual trust, between student and teacher. The
consistent and personal contact with the children, engaged them in conversation about
their activities, assisted in tasks, and instructed them when it seemed important and
necessary (Martine, 2014, 3).
The students’ role is mostly seen in the academic performance because they are
the ones who are supposed to activate their cognitive processes of learning so as to
grasp and understand what the teacher teaches them. Students should create self-esteem
and self-efficacy which orient them towards their goal (Tus, 2020, 46). Academic
performance depends much on the student’s discipline both inside and outside the
classroom. Students contribute to class nature and accountability. They are inquisitive
and active participants. They take personal accountability and motivate group
discussions among themselves. Student accountability encourages student learning, and
helps improve academic performance and achievements.

2.2. Individual focus - Group focus

School climate is larger than any person’s experience. When people work
together, a group process emerges that is bigger than any one person’s actions. A
comprehensive assessment of school climate includes major spheres of school life, such
as safety, relationships, teaching and learning, and the environment as well as larger
organizational patterns. School climate focuses on the group of persons (stake holders
of the school) and influences other variables while the academic performance deals with
individuals (the performance of each student and his/her life after school). As we have
defined above school climate navigates through all surrounding conditions which favor
the life of every group in school. It aims at creating suitable conditions to attract many
parents who would wish to take their children to such school (Hadiyanto, 2018, 18).
This needs a full participation of the administrative teamwork (members who are

44
responsible in the welfare of the school). It acts as an intervention to reduce
academic/school failure at large. Furthermore, school climate includes the interaction of
various organs working together so to attain the vision and mission of a certain
institution.
School climate reflects how members of the school community (as a group)
experience the school, including interpersonal relationships, teacher and other staff
practices, and organizational arrangements. School climate includes factors that serve as
conditions for learning and that support physical and emotional safety, connection and
support, and engagement. A positive school climate reflects attention to fostering social
and physical safety, providing support that enables students and staff to realize high
behavioural and academic standards as well as encouraging and maintaining respectful,
trusting, and caring relationships throughout the school community.
Academic performance deals with individual groups especially students.
Students are divided into various groups according to each one’s understanding capacity
and many other factors as quoted below.

“Factors such as intelligence, self-concept, gender, study habit, maturation, home

background, amongst others, just to mention a few, have been extensively explored as being
responsible for academic achievement, especially in secondary school students. Other factors
that have been researched into in the past include: child rearing patterns, peer group influence,
socio-economic background and learning environment. Another major factor that is believed to
be responsible for academic achievement in students is their personality traits” (Eyong et alii,
2014, 12).

The main focus is not on the group, but on the individuals according to their
strengths and weaknesses. In some schools, students are divided into various streams
according to their performances in the internal tests, mid-terms, semestrial and annual
examinations. This is clearly seen in the classes, in the examination room, after the
examination results and in the higher education, every one concentrates on his/ her
performance, which is needed for further studies. Every one acquires his/her results
individually.

45
2.3. Objective-Subjective

As it is defined by Cohen et alii (2009, 182), school climate is said to be

objective due to its independent variables which constitute the internal and external
structure of any academic institution. It is easily obtained and covers a wide range in
terms of members and area (Macku et alii, 2020, 1). Its structure remains favourable to
everyone in all times. To add more, the objectivity of school climate relies on its
arrangement, functioning and existence, whereby it does not depend on the presence,
absence, size, and such like characteristics of individuals or students. School climate
also does not depend on some one’s mood or emotions.

“Objective data can be relatively easily quantified and defined without the necessity of
examining personal feelings. The measured values can be more reliably compared with each
other. Overall, objective indicators describe the state of the environment and society, which can
explain the potential for individuals to have good lives. Thus, a significant relationship between
objective indicators and subjective life satisfaction is expected” (Macku et alii, 2020, 2).

Therefore, school climate draws its objective meaning from the vision and
mission of the school which bears the main goal. School environment bears the
overview of the main purpose of any institution. It touches the common elements and
objective goals to be reached by every person according to his/her career.
York et alii (2015, 3) defines academic performance basing on the student’s
persistence and achievement in academic arena in accordance with the level required.
Unlike school climate, academic performance is said to be subjective because its
evaluation approach is based on the assumption that, in order to understand individual
personal achievement, it is necessary to examine the individual’s feelings concerning
the diverse parts of their life directly, within an individual’s expected life standards.
Subjective indicators are usually obtained through a progressive assessment where there
is a scale describing the degree or the value of the marks used (for how to express

46
subjective satisfaction through the use of a scale see, for example, the arrangement of
final examinations results). Not anything subjective depends on the choice/ opinions of
others or the whole group or entity a larger because it bears the character of
individualism. It considers the benefit of every precipitant (Macku et alii, 2020, 2).
.

2.4. Process - Result

As we know that school climate is not something that happens overnight. It is

not a “project” that you can do once and then move on. Rather, improving school
climate is an ongoing process, one that takes time and requires the support of everyone
in the building, especially instructional staff members who work with students on a
daily basis. It takes time and commitment from variety of people in a variety of roles. In
its totality, school climate is the process of shaping up the learning and teaching arena.
We continue rehabilitating school areas but it needs a lot of time and determinations.
School climate includes processes like: preparations, evaluation, understanding findings
and action planning. It finally concludes with revaluation for better performance. A
critical part of a successful school environment is the climate and culture. This has a
direct impact on student learning and achievement outcomes. School climate focuses on
the perceptions, experiences and ideas from all educational stakeholders. School climate
can be determined by gathering data from key school personnel like teachers,
leadership, students and families. As each of these groups provides feedback, the data
collected can be used to inform continuous improvement efforts for the school
(Hadiyanto, 2018, 19).
Academic performance has always been associated to the evaluation of tests
results, which correspond to students’ participation in teaching and learning processes.
“Today, there is a clear need for education to learn about the factors that influence a
student’s academic performance, considering the performance to be the quantitative
result obtained during the learning process, based on the evaluations carried out by the
teachers through objective test evaluations” (Noemy et alii, 2017, 1105). The results of

47
students reflect the collection of a many elements and processes involved in school
climate. For example, in Tanzania, The National Examinations Council of Tanzania
(NECTA) is Government Institution which was established by the Parliamentary Act
No. 21 of 1973. NECTA is responsible for the administration of all National
Examinations in Tanzania. It is the same institution which releases the final national
examinations results ( https://www.necta.go.tz ).

3. Conclusion

School climate is the bearer of academic performance, it inculcates every step

needed in the acquisition of the institution’s vision and mission. This chapter underlines
some of the elements which appear to be more applicable to school climate and
academic performance without ignoring the uniqueness of the two dimensions
mentioned in the subtopic above. Generally speaking, school climate and academic
performance influence each other due to the benefits and products attained from the two
parts. However, it should be remembered that, the positive or negative school climate
contributes to the final product. To some extent, the efficacy of school climate depends
on the disposition of the teachers and students. Their positive collaboration and
readiness to participate in the processes of teaching and learning bear much fruit. This
collaboration should be motivated by the relationship between the stakeholders of the
school. Martine proposes this collaboration in three levels;

“Interpersonal, substantive, and pedagogical. The ‘interpersonal relationship’ refers to

the connection between the student and the teacher (i.e., the human connection). The
‘substantive relationship’ refers to the relationship between the student and the subject matter,
content, and nature of tasks in the teaching and learning context. The ‘pedagogical relationship’
refers to the relationship between the student and the teaching or instruction itself” (Martine,
2014, 6).

48
 This connective instruction refers to the ‘who’ (interpersonal), ‘what’
(substantive), and ‘how’ (pedagogical) of the teacher-student connection. Thus, students
are optimally motivated and engaged when they connect to ‘who’ the teacher is, ‘what’
the teacher is saying and ‘what’ tasks and activities are being administered, and ‘how’
the teacher administers these messages and tasks.
GENERAL CONCLUSION

The objectives set by the researcher were to describe the similarities and
differences between school climate and academic performance. School climate, being
the main hinge in academic arena, displays the internal and external structure of any
scholastic institution. The current research has highlighted some theories and
determinants of school climate as discussed in the first chapter. School climate is in the
eye of the beholder. It cannot be described using objective school characteristics and
processes. Furthermore, it is a latent property of the school that cannot be measured
directly. However, it is manifested through a number of indicators and it is stable over
time. It has four main dimensions physical, cultural, social and individual (Chrikina &
Khavenson, 2018, 156). Therefore, school climate should be well and clearly known to
all stakeholders of a certain institution because it acts as the motherboard of all activities
done in school/college/university.
Academic performance, is considered to be the result or outcome which reflects
the efforts invested in the learner who integrates him/herself with the school
environment. Academic achievement gives the meaning to the process of learning
carried out by a student. Everyone’s results and competence show the value of time
dedicated and use of all surrounding materials for self-academic enrichment (Kumar, et
alii, 2021, 3091-3092)
School climate and academic performance include some common characteristics
such as: interpersonal relationships, teaching facilities and the school discipline at large.
Apart from these similarities, every party has its own elements which make it appear
categorically distinguished according to its usage in each part (Ye, 2020, 2).

49
 Conclusively, school climate and academic performance are like two parts of the
same coin which remain joined in order to display the realty of any scholastic
institution. This work makes us conclude that, the success or failure of the students or
any school depends on the positive or negative interaction between the students and the
internal and external school climate in the field as seen in the first and second chapters
above (Kumar, et alii, 2021, 3091-3092; Konold et alii, 2018, 2).
However, the writing of this research work has not been an easy task, but there
have been some hindrances in the attainment of the desired goal. These hindrances are
like: a range of external factors, such as home environments, time, space, certain natural
phenomena (severe weather conditions or pandemic diseases like covid-19), and social
events (poverty and lack of competence in informatics) (Kumar, et alii, 2021, 3096).
Furthermore, as a future educationist/pedagogist, the researcher desires: to add
more knowledge in informatics so as to much with the current sophisticated world, to
cement on unity among the individuals and to cultivate the sense of responsibility to the
community life. To add more, any achievement of the common goal is not attained at a
moment, it needs a lot of time, initiatives, unity and determination so as to move
forward towards the proposed goal. In this sense, student achievements in standardized
tests, teaching and learning processes in the classroom, schooling rate, social cohesion
and citizenship, moral and ethical values, leadership behaviours, confidence level,
culture and climate, parental participation and teacher effectiveness/performance are
accepted as the most important characteristics of effective schools (Özgenel, 2020, 38).
Finally, listed below are some of the theories on school climate and academic
performance which the researcher wishes to study in the future if and only if time,
space, moral, political and economic support are available. Ecological Systems theory
by U-Bronfenbrenner, 1992. Risks and resilience respective theory by Rutter, 2006
(VicHealth, 2015, 5) and Stage environmental fit theory by Eccles & Midgely, 1989
(Morrison & Eccles, 2007, 522).

50
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Ed. Editor
Eds. Editors
Educ. Education
SYMBOL
& And

ACRONYMS
APA American Psychological Association
CCTV Closed Circuit Television
COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease 2019
DC District of Columbia
LAS Libreria Ateneo Salesiano
NECTA National Examinations Council of Tanzania
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
USA United States of America

58
GENERAL INDEX

GENERAL INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….....
1

Chapter one……..…………………………………………………………………….…
3
SCHOOL CLIMATE …………………………………………..……………..………
3
1. Definitions ………………………………………………………...…………………
3
1.1. The historical analysis of the concept of school climate………………………………
3
1.2. The meaning of school climate according to Damiano ………………………………
5
1.3. The meaning of school climate according to Cohen …………………………………
7
2. Theories and characteristics of school climate……………..…….…………..……
8
3. Determinants of the characteristics of school climate ………….………………..
10
3.1. Institutional environment……………………………………………………………… 10
3.2. Community dimension ……………………………………………………………………
13
3.3. Safety dimension …………………………………………………………………………
15
4. Conclusion ……………………………..…………………………………………...
18

59
 Chapter two ………………...…………………………………….……………………
19
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE ………………………………………….…………
19
1. Definitions ……………………………………………………..……………………
19
1.1. The meaning of academic performance according to Martinez………………………
20
1.2. Academic performance according to York et alii………………………………………
21
2. Theoretical perspectives on the academic performance ………….…………….
22
3. Characteristics/indicators of academic performance………...…………….……
24
3.1. Students’ continuous assessments……………………………………………………… 24
3.2. Final examination results ……………………………………………………………… 26
3.3. The school average/ school grades………………………………………………………
28
3.4. Students’ reading, counting and writing competence …………………………………
29
3.5. Individual and school level test results /GPA …………………………………………
30
3.6. Students’ discipline ………………………………………………………………………
32
3.7. Student and teacher-self-efficacy ………………………………………………………
33
3.8. Student and teacher -self-evaluation ……………………………………………………
34
3.9. Retention capacity/ intelligence and aptitude of the students…………………………
35

60
 4. Conclusion...……………………………..…………..…………..………….………
35

Chapter three…………………………….………………………………….…………. 37
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES……………….………………………….…
37
1. Common factors between school climate and academic performance. …..……..
37
1.1. Inter-personal relationship………………………………………………………………
37
1.2. Learning and teaching methodologies and facilities …………………………………
39
1.3. Teachers’ and students’ security……………………………………………………… 40
1.4. Schools’ discipline at large …………………………………………………………… 40
1.5. Teachers’ and students’ academic competence ………………………………………
41
2. Differences between school climate and academic performance.…………..……
41 2.1. Student’s role - Teacher’s role
………………………………………………………… 42
2.2. Individual focus - Group focus …………………………………………………………
43
2.3. Objective-Subjective ………………………………………………………………………
45
2.4. Process – Result ……………………………………………………………………………
46
3. Conclusion……………………………………………………..……………………
47

GENERAL CONCLUSION………….…………………………...………………….
48

61
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...……………………………………………………….…………
50
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………...
57
SYMBOL ……………………………………………………………….……………. 57
ACRONYMS ………………………………………………………………………… 57

62