A grammar and

dictionary of
Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ
(Cayuga)
Carrie Dyck
Frances Froman
Alfred Keye
Lottie Keye

language
Studies of Amerindian Linguistics 1 science
press
Studies of Amerindian Linguistics

Editors:
Carolina González (Florida State University)
Siri Tuttle (Navajo Technical University in New Mexico)
Thiago Chacon (University of Brasilia)
Heriberto Avelino (National Institute for Anthropology and History)

In this series:

1. Dyck, Carrie, Frances Froman, Alfred Keye & Lottie Keye. A grammar and dictionary of
Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ (Cayuga).
A grammar and
dictionary of
Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ
(Cayuga)
Carrie Dyck
Frances Froman
Alfred Keye
Lottie Keye

language
science
press
Carrie Dyck, Frances Froman, Alfred Keye & Lottie Keye. 2024. A grammar and
dictionary of Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ (Cayuga) (Estudios de Lingüística Amerindia 1).
Berlin: Language Science Press.

This title can be downloaded at:

http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/398
© 2024, Carrie Dyck, Frances Froman, Alfred Keye & Lottie Keye
Published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Licence (CC BY 4.0):
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
ISBN: 978-3-96110-434-5 (Digital)
978-3-98554-092-1 (Hardcover)

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10473483
Source code available from www.github.com/langsci/398
Errata: paperhive.org/documents/remote?type=langsci&id=398

Cover and concept of design: Ulrike Harbort

Typesetting: Carrie Dyck, Sebastian Nordhoff
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Storage and cataloguing done by FU Berlin

Contents
Foreword xix

Preface xxi

Acknowledgements xxv

Funding acknowledgements xxvii

Abbreviations xxix

I Introduction 1

1 The Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih 3
1.1 Gaihwí:yo: and related matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Gayogohonǫˀnéha:ˀ, the Cayuga language . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Spelling systems 15
2.1 A modified Henry orthography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Spelling particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Sounds and spelling 19

3.1 Vowels and consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Vowel pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.1 Long versus short vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Consonant pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4 Alphabetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5 Accent and related pronunciation changes . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5.1 Counting syllables (or vowels) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.6 Non-final accent and lengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.6.1 Accenting and lengthening even-numbered penults . . . 25
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3.6.2 Accenting and lengthening odd-numbered penults . . . 25

3.7 Accent shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.8 Exceptions to non-final accent placement rules . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.8.1 Accenting short words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.9 Pronunciation changes related to the syllable count . . . . . . . 29
3.9.1 Exceptions to pronunciation changes related to the
syllable count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.10 Pronunciation changes in sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.10.1 Non-final and final accent in neutral sentences . . . . . 32
3.10.2 Accent in non-neutral sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.10.3 Accenting particles and particle groups in sentences . . 34
3.10.4 Accent and Euphonic H in sentences . . . . . . . . . . . 34

II Word classification 35

4 Defining nouns, verbs, and particles 37

4.1 Word class versus speech function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5 “Nouns” (words functioning as nouns) 41

5.1 Basic nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1.1 Basic nouns with nominalizer (nmlz) suffix . . . . . . 42
5.2 Body part nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.2.1 ‘Detached’ or unpossessed body part nouns . . . . . . . 44
5.3 Compound nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 Verbs that function as nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4.1 “Instrumental nouns” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.4.2 Words for human beings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.4.3 “Meaningful” verbal nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.5 Stative nouns and agentive stative nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.6 Incorporated noun stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.7 Atypical nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.8 Kinship terms (atypical words) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.8.1 Terms of address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.9 Loanwords (borrowed words) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

6 “Pronouns” (words and affixes functioning as pronouns) 57

6.1 Emphatic “pronouns” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.2 Possessive “pronouns” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

ii
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6.3 Demonstrative “pronouns” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

6.4 Definite “pronouns” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.5 Indefinite “pronouns” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.6 Interrogative “pronouns” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.7 Negative “pronouns” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.8 Reflexive and reciprocal “pronouns” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.9 Personal “pronouns” (pronominal prefixes) . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.9.1 Relative “pronouns” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

7 “Adjectives” (words functioning as adjectives) 65

8 “Adverbs” (words and affixes functioning as adverbs) 67

8.1 “Adverb” order in phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.2 “Adverbs” of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.2.1 “Adverbs” of time (particles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.2.2 Prefixes and suffixes functioning as “adverbs” of time . . 69
8.2.3 Verbs functioning as “adverbs” of time . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.3 “Adverbs” of place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.3.1 “Adverbs” of place (particles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.3.2 Prefixes that function as “adverbs” of place . . . . . . . 73
8.4 “Adverbs” of manner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.4.1 Prefixes and suffixes that function as “adverbs” of manner 74
8.4.2 Verbs functioning as “adverbs” of manner . . . . . . . . 75
8.5 “Adverbs” of degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.5.1 Particles functioning as “adverbs” of degree . . . . . . . 76
8.5.2 Suffixes functioning as “adverbs” of degree . . . . . . . . 77
8.5.3 Verbs functioning as “adverbs” of degree . . . . . . . . . 77
8.6 Negative “adverbs” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

9 Verbs 79
9.1 Verbs and noun incorporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.1.1 Verbs that optionally have an incorporated noun . . . . 81
9.1.2 Verbs that cannot have an incorporated noun . . . . . . 81
9.1.3 Verbs requiring an incorporated noun . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2 Transparent vs fixed expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.2.1 Types of fixed expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.3 Verbs and aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.3.1 Verbs occurring only in one aspect (stative or habitual) . 85
9.3.2 Three-aspect verbs (habitual, punctual, stative) . . . . . 85

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9.3.3 No-aspect verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

9.3.4 E-verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.4 Verb classes and pronominal prefix type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.5 Verb classes (subdivided by aspect, pronominal prefix type) . . . 89

III Word creation 91

10 Word suffixes 93
10.1 ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on (external locative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.2 ⌊-hneh⌋ at (external locative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.3 ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on versus ⌊-hneh⌋ at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
10.4 ⌊-:ˀah⌋ diminutive (dim) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.5 ⌊-:hah⌋ diminutive (dim) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.6 ⌊-go:wah⌋ augmentative (aug) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.7 ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
10.8 ⌊-neha:ˀ⌋ customary or characterizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
10.9 ⌊-geha:ˀ⌋ customary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
10.10 ⌊-ka:ˀ⌋ customary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10.11 ⌊-ǫ:weh⌋ typicalizer (typ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
10.12 ⌊-ho:nǫˀ⌋ populative (pop) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
10.13 ⌊-jih⌋ intensifier (ints) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
10.14 ⌊-shę:ˀ, -tsę:ˀ⌋ kinship declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10.15 Pluralizers (plrz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
10.15.1 ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ pluralizer (plrz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
10.15.2 ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ pluralizer (plrz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
10.15.3 Meaning of ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz versus ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ plrz . . . . . 131
10.15.4 Pluralizing nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

11 Noun suffixes 135

11.1 Noun identifier suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
11.1.1 ⌊-aˀ⌋ noun stem former (nsf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
11.1.2 Noun increments (incr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
11.1.3 ⌊-tr-aˀ⌋ and ⌊-(h)sr-aˀ⌋ nominalizer-noun stem
former (nmlz-nsf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
11.1.4 ⌊-ǫ-:-ˀ⌋ stative-nominalizer-noun stem former
(stat-nmlz-nsf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
11.1.5 ⌊-hkw-haˀ⌋ instrumental (instr-hab combination) . . 138

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11.2 Locative noun suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

11.2.1 ⌊-gǫ:⌋ in (internal locative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
11.2.2 ⌊-:kˀah⌋ beside (locative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
11.2.3 ⌊-kdagyeˀ⌋ alongside (locative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
11.3 Verbs that resemble noun suffixes (“suffix-like” verbs) . . . . . . 145

12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order) 147

12.1 Mood and negation prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
12.1.1 ⌊aˀ-⌋ factual (fac) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
12.1.2 ⌊ę-⌋ future (fut) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
12.1.3 ⌊a:-⌋ indefinite (indef) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
12.1.4 Negation prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
12.2.1 ⌊tsi-⌋ coincident (coin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
12.2.2 ⌊ti-⌋ contrastive (contr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
12.2.3 ⌊ni-⌋ partitive (part) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
12.2.4 ⌊s-, j-, ji-⌋ repetitive (rep) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
12.2.5 ⌊d-⌋ cislocative (cis) and ⌊heˀ-⌋ translocative (transl) 192
12.2.6 ⌊de-⌋ dualic (du) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.3.1 Legend for prepronominal prefix pronunciation charts . 212
12.3.2 Pronunciation changes at the end of the prepronominal
prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.3.3 Prepronominals in alphabetical order . . . . . . . . . . . 213

13 Verb post-pronominal prefixes 235

13.1 ⌊adad-⌋ reflexive (refl) or reciprocal (rec) . . . . . . . . . . 236
13.1.1 Verbs that require ⌊adad-⌋ refl or rec . . . . . . . . . . 238
13.2 ⌊ad-⌋ semireflexive (srf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
13.2.1 Verbs requiring ⌊ad-⌋ srf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
13.3 Pronunciation of the post-pronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . 243

14 Noun incorporation 247

14.1 Nouns that can be incorporated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
14.1.1 Placeholder incorporated nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
14.2 Nouns that cannot be incorporated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
14.2.1 Nouns that are not incorporable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
14.2.2 Excorporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
14.3 Verbs that cannot incorporate nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

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14.4 Verbs that can incorporate nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

14.4.1 Two-role verbs that can incorporate nouns . . . . . . . . 255
14.4.2 Stative-only verbs that can incorporate nouns . . . . . . 256
14.4.3 Obligatorily-incorporating verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

15 Verb suffixes 261

15.1 Verb distributive suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
15.1.1 ⌊-ˀse⌋ distributive (distr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
15.1.2 ⌊-ǫ⌋, ⌊-nyǫ⌋, ⌊-ǫ-nyǫ⌋, ⌊-hnǫ⌋, ⌊-hsǫ⌋, ⌊-drǫ⌋, ⌊-srǫ⌋
distributives (distr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
15.2 Role-adding suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
15.2.1 Causative (caus) suffixes (⌊-hd⌋, ⌊-ˀd⌋, and ⌊-d⌋) . . . . 269
15.2.2 Benefactive (ben) suffixes (⌊-hs⌋ and ⌊-ę, -nih⌋) . . . . 273
15.3 Change-of-state suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15.3.1 ⌊-hsd⌋ causative-instrumental (caus-instr) . . . . . 278
15.3.2 ⌊-(ę)ˀ⌋ inchoative (inch) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
15.3.3 ⌊-(n)heˀ⌋ inchoative (inch) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.4 Movement suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
15.4.1 ⌊-hs, -hn, -ˀn, -h-, -ˀh, -ˀdr⌋ dislocative (disl) . . . . . . 281
15.4.2 Dislocative stative-aspect verbs with ⌊-hk⌋ former or
⌊-:k⌋ modz suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
15.4.3 ⌊-gy⌋ progressive (prog) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
15.4.4 ⌊-gw, -go⌋, ⌊-hsi⌋ reversive (rev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
15.5 Aspect suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
15.5.1 Aspect meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
15.5.2 The habitual, punctual, and stative aspects . . . . . . . . 290
15.5.3 Meaning of the habitual aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
15.5.4 Meaning of the stative aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.5.5 Meaning of the punctual aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
15.5.6 No-aspect and punctual-aspect verbs . . . . . . . . . . . 305
15.6 Post-aspect (tense) suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
15.6.1 Variations on the habitual aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
15.6.2 Variations on the stative aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
15.7 Post-aspect suffixes (non-tense) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
15.7.1 ⌊-ˀs⌋ plural (pl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
15.7.2 ⌊-sgǫ:⌋ facilitative (facil) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
15.7.3 ⌊-ge:⌋ augmentative (aug) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
15.7.4 ⌊-jihwęh⌋ ‘completely, fully’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

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16 e-verbs 327
16.1 The purposive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
16.2 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
16.2.1 Prepronominal prefixes with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ . . . . . . . . . . . 330
16.2.2 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the habitual . . . . . . . . 332
16.2.3 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the punctual . . . . . . . 333
16.2.4 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the stative, with short-e . 340
16.3 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
16.3.1 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the habitual . . . 343
16.3.2 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the punctual . . . 344
16.3.3 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the stative . . . . 345
16.4 Dislocative e-verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
16.4.1 Dislocative e-verbs in the habitual . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
16.4.2 Dislocative e-verbs in the punctual . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
16.4.3 Dislocative e-verbs in the stative . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
16.5 Progressive verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
16.5.1 Stative progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
16.5.2 Punctual progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
16.5.3 Habitual progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

17 Negation 369
17.1 Negation of verb forms based on the three major aspects . . . . 372

18 Miscellaneous word formation topics 375

18.1 Possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
18.2 Pluralizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
18.3 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

19 Sound changes in word formation 379

19.1 Simplifying two consonants to one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
19.2 Preserving, merging, and deleting vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
19.3 [r] and [hr] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
19.4 [dy/gy] and [ty/ky] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
19.5 Euphonic sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
19.5.1 Joiner A [a] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
19.5.2 Joiner E [e] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
19.5.3 Euphonic D, Y, and W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
19.5.4 The prothetic vowel (euphonic [i]) . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
19.5.5 Euphonic H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

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IV Pronominal prefixes 399

20 Pronominal prefix meaning 401

20.1 Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
20.2 Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
20.3 Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
20.4 Clusivity (inclusive and exclusive) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
20.5 Combining person, number, gender, and clusivity . . . . . . . . 403
20.5.1 1st person pronominal prefix concepts . . . . . . . . . . 404
20.5.2 2nd person pronominal prefix concepts . . . . . . . . . . 404
20.5.3 3rd person pronominal prefix concepts . . . . . . . . . . 405
20.6 Pronominal prefixes and role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
20.6.1 Role and the reflexive and semireflexive prefixes . . . . 407
20.7 Three types of pronominal prefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
20.8 a- and p-series (non-interactive) prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
20.8.1 Terminology for a- and p-series (non-interactive)
pronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
20.8.2 The special status of the 3s ‘it’ role and prefixes . . . . . 413
20.9 interactive prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
20.9.1 Summary charts, pronominal prefix pronunciation and
meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
20.9.2 Recap: pronominal prefix meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation 421

21.1 Sound changes determined by C, A, E, I, and O stems . . . . . . 422
21.1.1 Determining the first sound of the stem (most verbs,
nouns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
21.2 Sound changes at the beginning of the pronominal prefix . . . . 428
21.2.1 Prefixes that sometimes begin with a Y . . . . . . . . . . 429
21.2.2 Prefixes that sometimes begin with YA . . . . . . . . . . 429
21.2.3 Prefixes that sometimes begin with an H . . . . . . . . . 429
21.2.4 Sound changes: prepronominal prefix-pronominal
combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
21.2.5 Explanation of pronominal prefix tables . . . . . . . . . 436
21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation . . . . . . 437
21.3.1 1st person, non-interactive (or interactive with implied ‘it’) 438
21.3.2 2nd person, non-interactive (or interactive with implied
‘it’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

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21.3.3 3rd person singular, non-interactive (or interactive with

implied ‘it’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
21.3.4 3rd person plural, non-interactive (or interactive with
implied ‘it’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
21.4.1 1st and 2nd person interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
21.4.2 3fi>1 and 3fi>2 interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
21.4.3 3s.m and 1 interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
21.4.4 3s.m and 2 interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
21.4.5 3s.fi/3ns and 1 interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
21.4.6 3s.fi/3ns and 2 interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
21.4.7 3>3 interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
21.5 Variation in pronominal prefix pronunciation before O/Ǫ and
E/Ę stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
21.5.1 Pronominal prefix variants before O and Ǫ stems . . . . 473
21.5.2 Pronominal prefix variants before E and Ę stems . . . . 475

22 Nouns and pronominal prefix selection 477

22.1 Unpossessed nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
22.1.1 Noun suffixes do not affect prefix choice . . . . . . . . . 478
22.1.2 Body part nouns inflected as unpossessed basic nouns . 479
22.2 Possessed nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
22.2.1 Possessed basic nouns (p-series) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
22.2.2 Possessed body part nouns (a-series) . . . . . . . . . . . 483
22.2.3 Body part nouns inflected as possessed basic nouns . . . 485

23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice 487

23.1 Verbs functioning as “kinship terms”, a-series prefixes . . . . . . 490
23.2 Verbs and nouns functioning as “kinship terms”, p-series prefixes 492
23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes . . . . 495
23.3.1 Same-generation kinship terms, interactive pronominal
prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
23.3.2 Different-generation kinship terms, interactive
pronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
23.3.3 Different-generation kinship terms taking
non-interactive a- or p-series prefixes . . . . . . . . . . 508

24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs 515

24.1 Personal stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice . . . . 517

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24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice . . . . . 518

24.2.1 Neuter stative-only verbs without an incorporated
noun, and NV fixed expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
24.2.2 Neuter stative-only verbs, with noun incorporation . . . 521
24.2.3 ⌊o-V⌋ and ⌊+V⌋, neuter stative-only verbs with noun
incorporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
24.2.4 Neuter stative-only positional verbs, with incorporated
noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
24.2.5 ⌊ga-V⌋ neuter stative-only verbs with noun incorporation 528
24.2.6 Neuter stative-only counting verbs, with an
incorporated noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
24.2.7 Neuter stative-only verbs, incorporating, conveying
possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
24.2.8 Neuter, stative-only verbs (fixed expressions) . . . . . . 538

25 Pronominal prefix choice for three-aspect verbs 541

25.1 Pronominal prefix choice for one-role, three-aspect verbs . . . . 541
25.1.1 One-role, three-aspect verbs, a-series prefixes in the
habitual and punctual, p prefixes in the stative . . . . . . 541
25.1.2 One-role, three-aspect verbs that always take p-series
prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
25.2 Pronominal prefix choice for two- and three-role, three-aspect
verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
25.2.1 Two- and three-role verbs, pronominal prefix choice . . 545
25.2.2 Two-role verbs that always take p-series prefixes . . . . 547
25.3 Pronominal prefix choice and variations on aspectual forms . . 548
25.3.1 Pronominal prefix choice for variations on the habitual
aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
25.3.2 Pronominal prefix choice for variations on the stative
aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550

26 e-verbs and pronominal prefix choice 553

26.1 Simple and complex motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ prefix choice . . . . . . 553
26.2 Dislocative e-verb prefix choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
26.3 Progressive verb prefix choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555

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V Sentences 559

27 Simple sentences 561

27.1 Commands (imperatives) and suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
27.1.1 2nd person (‘you’) commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
27.1.2 1st person (‘let me’ or ‘let us’) commands (suggestions) . 564
27.1.3 3rd person (‘someone’) commands . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
27.1.4 Statements functioning as commands or suggestions . . 566
27.1.5 Particles and particle groups used with commands . . . 567
27.1.6 Negative commands with ahgwih ‘don’t’ . . . . . . . . . 568
27.1.7 Negative suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
27.2 Yes-no questions with gęh, ę:ˀ, and do:gęhs . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
27.2.1 Yes-no questions with gęh, tęˀ gęh . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
27.2.2 Tag questions (asking for confirmation from the listener) 572
27.3 Negative questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
27.4 Equative sentences with linking verbs né:ˀ, deˀgę: . . . . . . . . . 574

28 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses (no linking words) 577

28.1 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses sharing the same role . . . . 577
28.2 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses (different roles) . . . . . . . . 578
28.2.1 Sentences with á:węˀ, wá:dǫh, á:yęˀ, a:wé:tˀah . . . . . . 578
28.2.2 Sentences with wę́:do:ˀ, wagyéhsaˀgeh . . . . . . . . . . . 579

29 Clauses with linking words (particles) 583

29.1 Clauses with shęh ‘that’, ⌊shęh ni-⌋ ‘how, what’, ne:ˀ ‘it is’ . . . . 583
29.2 Conditional clauses with gyę:gwaˀ, gęh, hę:gyeh ‘if, whether’ . . 585
29.3 Causative clauses with dęˀ ni:yoht shęh ‘why’, neˀ hǫ:niˀ ‘how’ . 586
29.4 Manner clauses with ⌊dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni-⌋ ‘how’, shęh ni:yoht ‘how so’ 587
29.5 Measuring clauses with ⌊do: … ni-⌋ ‘how much, many’ . . . . . . 588
29.6 Clauses with sǫ́: … (nˀaht) ‘who’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
29.7 Clauses with dęˀ … (hoˀdęˀ) ‘what’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
29.8 Clauses with hǫ:(weh) ‘the place where’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
29.9 Clauses with hwę:dǫh, nęh, nę:gyęh hwaˀ, ne:ˀ hwaˀ, etc. ‘when’ . 592
29.10 Clauses with (gaoˀ) shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before, until’ . . . . . . . . . 593
29.11 Clauses with shęh naˀonisheˀ, tsaˀonisheˀ, ⌊tsi-⌋ ‘while, when’ . . 593

30 Clauses with conjunctions 595

30.1 Hniˀ ‘and’ conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
30.2 Hne:ˀ, Ne:ˀ … (tsǫ: shęh) ‘but’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596

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30.3 Nigę́ˀǫh ‘or?’, Giˀ shęh ‘or’, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597

31 Comparisons, counting, measuring 599

31.1 Comparisons (more, the same, or less) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
31.2 Counting with basic nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
31.2.1 Counting one object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
31.2.2 Counting two objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
31.2.3 Counting three or more objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
31.3 Counting words that are not basic nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
31.3.1 Counting with placeholder words and placeholder
incorporated nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
31.3.2 Counting without noun incorporation . . . . . . . . . . 607

VI Discourse and discourse signposts 609

32 Word order effects 611

32.1 First position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
32.2 Last position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

33 Noun incorporation in discourse 615

33.1 Non-incorporated nouns in first position . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
33.2 Excorporated nouns in final position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

34 Pronominal prefixes in discourse 619

34.1 Pronominal prefixes and flexible word order . . . . . . . . . . . 619
34.2 Backgrounding and pronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
34.3 Foregrounding and pronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621

35 Discourse markers 623

35.1 Exclamations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
35.2 Evidential markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
35.2.1 Quotation markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
35.2.2 Hearsay markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
35.2.3 Doubt or certainty markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
35.2.4 Possibility markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
35.3 Interactional markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
35.3.1 Agreement markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
35.3.2 Disagreement markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
35.3.3 Acknowledgement markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

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35.3.4 Shared knowledge markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

35.4 Topic markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
35.4.1 Topic starters and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
35.4.2 Topic continuation markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
35.4.3 Topic changers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
35.4.4 Focus, contrastive focus, and emphasis markers . . . . . 632

VII Technical notes 635

36 Technical notes 637

36.1 Syllable structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
36.2 Prefixes, suffixes, affixes, and stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
36.3 Paradigm, inflection, and conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
36.4 Atypical words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
36.5 No prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
36.6 Potential change-of-state suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
36.6.1 ⌊-:⌋ (vowel length suffixes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
36.6.2 ⌊-(h)sˀ⌋ (the eventuative) (ev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
36.7 Aspect conjugation classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
36.7.1 List of aspect conjugation classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
36.8 Lexical aspect and sentential aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
36.9 Utterances, clauses, phrases, and sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
36.9.1 Simple and complex sentences, clause types . . . . . . . 660
36.9.2 Independent and dependent clauses, relative clauses . . 661

VIII Appendices 663

Appendix A: Noun dictionary 665

A.1 Basic nouns ending in ⌊-aˀ⌋ nsf, ⌊-tr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf or ⌊-hsr-aˀ⌋
nmlz-nsf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
A.2 Body part nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
A.3 Body part nouns (detached or unpossessed) . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
A.4 List of agentive stative nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
A.5 List of stative nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
A.6 Atypical nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
A.7 Frequently-incorporated nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
A.7.1 ⌊yaˀda⌋ ‘body’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680

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A.7.2 ⌊węna⌋ ‘word’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681

A.7.3 ⌊(r)ęna⌋ ‘song’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
A.7.4 ⌊rihwa⌋ ‘message’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
A.7.5 ⌊ˀnigǫha⌋ ‘mind’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
A.8 Instrumental nouns ending in ⌊-(h)kwaˀ⌋ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684

Appendix B: Verb dictionary 689

B.1 Single-aspect verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
B.1.1 Verbs taking a-series personal prefixes, stative aspect only 689
B.1.2 Verbs taking a-series personal prefixes, habitual aspect
only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
B.1.3 Verbs taking p-series personal prefixes, stative aspect only 692
B.1.4 Verbs taking p-series personal prefixes, habitual aspect
only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
B.1.5 Verbs taking a-series neuter prefixes, stative aspect only 699
B.1.6 Verbs taking a-series neuter prefixes, habitual aspect only 702
B.1.7 Verbs taking p-series neuter prefixes, or varying
between p- and a-series neuter prefixes, stative aspect only 703
B.1.8 Verbs taking p-series neuter prefixes, habitual aspect only 711
B.1.9 Conjugation of the irregular verb ⌊+e:s⌋, ⌊+i:s⌋, ⌊ǫ:s⌋ ‘long’ 711
B.1.10 Conjugation of ⌊+od⌋ ‘stand’, ⌊ǫd⌋ ‘attached, put in’ . . . 713
B.2 Three-aspect verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
B.2.1 Three-aspect verbs taking neuter prefixes, changing
from a- to p-series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
B.2.2 Three-aspect verbs taking p-series neuter prefixes . . . . 722
B.2.3 Three-aspect verbs taking personal prefixes, changing
from a- to p-series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
B.2.4 Three-aspect verbs taking only p-series personal prefixes 776
B.2.5 Three-aspect verbs taking interactive prefixes . . . . . . 785
B.3 List of e-verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
B.3.1 Simple verb of motion ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ with a-series personal
prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
B.3.2 Complex verbs of motion with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, taking a-series
pronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
B.3.3 Complex verbs of motion with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, taking a-series
neuter pronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
B.3.4 Complex verbs of motion with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, taking p-series
pronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802

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B.3.5 Complex verbs of motion with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, taking p-series

neuter pronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
B.3.6 Complex verbs of motion with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, taking
interactive pronominal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
B.4 List of counting verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
B.4.1 ⌊ǫ:⌋ ‘be a certain amount’, ‘three or more’, ‘a few’ . . . . 803
B.4.2 ⌊+age:⌋ ‘a number of items’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
B.4.3 ⌊d⌋ ‘stand’ and ⌊ǫd⌋ ‘attached’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
B.4.4 ⌊a…-yahshe:⌋ ‘two living things’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
B.4.5 ⌊p…-gaˀdeˀ⌋ ‘many’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807

Appendix C: Particle dictionary 809

C.1 Particle order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
C.2 A particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
C.3 D particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
C.4 E, Ę particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
C.5 G particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
C.6 H particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
C.7 I particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
C.8 J particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
C.9 N particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
C.10 O particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
C.11 Ǫ particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
C.12 S particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
C.13 T particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
C.14 W particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
C.15 Y particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038

Appendix D: Thematic dictionary 1039

D.1 Kinship terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039
D.2 Terms of address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
D.3 Words for human beings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
D.4 Clans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
D.5 Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
D.6 Chiefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
D.6.1 Onondaga Chiefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
D.6.2 Seneca Chiefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
D.6.3 Cayuga Chiefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
D.6.4 Mohawk Chiefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052

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Contents

D.6.5 Oneida Chiefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053

D.6.6 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
D.7 Months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
D.8 Periods of time in the day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
D.9 Yesterday, today, and tomorrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
D.10 Seasons and years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
D.11 Weekdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
D.12 Clock time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
D.12.1 On the hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
D.12.2 Past the hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
D.12.3 Before, to the hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
D.13 Place names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
D.14 Greetings, origins, and affiliations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
D.14.1 Greetings, social expressions, leave-taking . . . . . . . . 1063
D.14.2 Asking about jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
D.14.3 Asking someone’s age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
D.14.4 Asking someone’s name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
D.14.5 Asking where someone comes from . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
D.15 Numbers and money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
D.15.1 Counting to 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
D.15.2 Multiples of 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
D.15.3 Multiples of 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
D.15.4 Multiples of 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
D.15.5 Ordinal numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
D.15.6 Once, twice, three times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
D.15.7 Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
D.16 Government and business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
D.17 High language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
D.18 Betting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
D.19 Ceremonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
D.20 Gaihwí:yo: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
D.21 Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
D.22 Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
D.23 Songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
D.24 Social dances and songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
D.25 Restricted dances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094
D.26 Miscellaneous dances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094
D.27 Curing dances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094

xvi
 Contents

D.28 Sacred Society dances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095

D.28.1 Sustenance songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
D.28.2 Sustenance dances and songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
D.29 Important and mythical figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096

References 1097

Index 1101
Name index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101

xvii
Foreword
The Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ were a highly evolved Ǫgwehǫ́:weh civilization that gave birth
to a social democratic society and confederacy of five distinct Nations, Hwíhs
Niyǫhwęjá:ge:. Ǫgwehǫ́:weh translates spiritually as the Divine People, having
descended from the Sky World as Star People.
The social and spiritual order had women in the centre of this universe in a ma-
trilineal society – a dichotomy, opposite to that of patrilineal European societies.
Ǫgwehǫ́:weh theology centred on this social and spiritual order. The Ǫgwehǫ́:weh
civilization established this highly evolved social democracy and confederation
of nations when the rest of the world were led by kings, queens and popes.
The Ǫgwehǫ́:weh had in their theology that God or the Creator loved all, with
no fear of God. Their theology did not possess the abstract concepts of the fear
of God, original sin, baptism, a devil with cloven hoofs; and the idea that men
would be damned to hard labour every six days for their original sin and, women
would suffer with hard labour when delivering children, for their original sin.
The children were sacred and cherished, with no concept of having been born
with or from sin. Ǫgwehǫ́:weh children did not have to be baptized because of
sin. Women possessed stature and agency, simply because like the Creator they
could bring forth life. Man does not possess this biological trait.
The Ǫgwehǫ́:weh social democracy became known as the Haudenosaunee Con-
federacy (Hodinǫ̱sǫ́:nih, or ‘Men who build Longhouses’). Their language carried
all the traits and characteristics of their civilization, including virtues, ethics,
emotional intelligence (EQ-i), linguistic sovereignty, horticulture, a moral com-
pass, philosophies, psychologies, earth sciences, a cosmology, biology, homeo-
pathic sciences, the arts (music, dance, story telling, visual art, etc.), prophecies,
taboo manners and protocols, highly evolved rituals for mortal thanksgiving to
the Creator, knowledges of biodiversity, respect for the ecology / horticulture /
agriculture and its conservation, rituals for naming, and the idea that at the time
of ‘passing on’ or death, the people returned home to be with family and to be
with the Creator.
This Social Democracy evolved in the Finger Lake region of what is now New
York State in the USA. Geographically, these Five Nations all lived around a Fin-
ger Lake in a peaceful existence, governed by the protocols of a highly evolved
Foreword

democracy and a sacred trust in providence with the Creator. After the Five Na-
tion confederation, they had no use for a militia and army. They were living in
peace at the time of Contact. They are truly Divine Star People... (my bias).

— Dehaeho:węhs / Taeho:węhs / Amos Key Jr.

xx
Preface
In 1993, the Government of Ontario’s Ministry of Education provided funding
that led to a series of Iroquoian dictionaries and grammars. The Woodland Cul-
tural Centre (Brantford, Ontario, Canada) undertook a Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ (Ca-
yuga) dictionary and grammar project, under the guidance of the then-Director
of the Language Program, Amos Key, Jr. I was invited to join as a project lin-
guist and undertook fieldwork with the co-authors – Frances Froman, Lottie
Keye, and Alfred Keye – mainly between 1993 and 2002. I inherited and added
to a Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ database, originally curated by Cindy John (former Co-
ordinator with the Language Program at the Woodland Cultural Centre). The
database eventually became a dictionary, ((Froman et al. 2002)), and is also the
basis for this grammar. The latter took longer to produce, in part because I needed
to rethink the grammar’s organization.

(a) Frances Froman (b) Alfred Keye (c) Lottie Keye

Figure 1: The co-authors

My main contribution to this grammar is to describe not only form or struc-

ture, but also function or usage: with respect to form, Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ has
just three classes of words: nouns, verbs, and particles. However, the three
word classes have many more functions in Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ: for example, par-
ticles can function as “pronouns”, “adverbs”, “conjunctions”, “relativizers”, “de-
gree words”, “question words”, “evidentials”, “topic managers”, and more. I have
organized much of the grammar according to word function, which is why, for
example, the grammar has a section on words that function like “adjectives”, al-
though Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ does not have a word class of adjective (see §4).
Preface

While the present grammar is founded on the intellectual contributions of

Frances Froman, Lottie Keye, and Alfred Keye, they did not intend to make any
claims on behalf of other speakers. Nor would they necessarily agree with my
analyses. For example, while I enjoy making generalizations or rules, I have
also observed that Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ speakers place equal weight on excep-
tions. Respecting this value, I have tried to comment on exceptions, mysteries,
and areas requiring further investigation where relevant, especially since their
presence can lead to a rethinking of any generalizations. I hope that the Gayo-
go̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ examples are enough in number and organized well enough to be
treated as the ultimate authority. (The Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ language examples
without explicit attribution are from my fieldwork notes with the coauthors.)
Speaking of sources, I also relied on other examples of natural or constructed
speech, including audio transcripts and translations of stories and conversations.
Written transcripts and translations of Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ are a new type of
source not available even forty years before the publication of this grammar. One
of the principal sources is Mithun & Henry (1984), which has a rich set of conver-
sations constructed by the late Reg Henry and by Dr. Marianne Mithun. Other
sources are stories written or translated by Lottie Keye (Keye 2012, Keye 2016),
and Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ legends from a project with the Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation (see Carrier et al. 2013). I also relied on several unpublished gram-
matical descriptions, including Foster (1993), Sasse & Keye (1998), and Michelson
(2011).
Part I of the grammar is a brief introduction to Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ, spelling,
and sounds. Part II describes the three Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ word classes – nouns,
verbs, and particles – and also the functions (labelled as major “parts of speech”)
performed by these word classes. In Part II, (since it is an introductory section),
words are not segmented into morphemes (word parts), insofar as possible. Mor-
phemes are instead covered in Part III, which describes how prefixes, suffixes,
and stems combine in word creation.
Part IV describes pronominal prefixes separately, since pronominal prefix se-
lection and pronunciation are large topics. Part V describes how words combine
into sentences, with a focus on describing the fixed ordering of clause-initial par-
ticles. Part VI explores discourse - how sentences combine into larger units, in
particular examining how word order, noun incorporation, and particles convey
information in discourse or connected speech. Part VII contains some technical
(linguistic) notes, which were removed from the main text to avoid detracting
from the flow of the descriptions of Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ. Part VIII (Appendices)
includes a noun dictionary, verb dictionary, and particle dictionary, organized
according to the systems of classification outlined in the previous parts of the

xxii
grammar (particularly Parts II and III). Part VIII ends with a thematic dictionary.
The dictionaries in Part VIII were separated out from the previous sections to im-
prove the flow in Parts I–III, and so that teachers and learners would have useful
collections of organized Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ words.
Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ pronunciation and sound changes are described where
most relevant throughout the grammar, beginning with a basic introduction in
Chapter 3, followed by sound changes in word formation, Chapter 19, pronun-
ciation of prepronominal combinations, Chapter 12.3, pronunciation of the post-
pronominal prefixes, Chapter 13.3, and pronominal prefix pronunciation, Chap-
ter 21. Much more could be said on the topic of Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ phonology.
Parts I–IV of the grammar are the best-developed sections. However, Sec-
tions 15.5–15.6 (on aspect), Chapter 16 (on e-verbs and the purposive), and Chap-
ter 17 (on negation) in Part III, really require further investigation. As well,
Parts V (sentence formation or syntax) and VI (discourse are just the tip of the
iceberg. I hope that teachers and postsecondary learners find this grammar to be
a useful starting point for further investigation.

— Carrie Dyck, 2023

xxiii
Acknowledgements
Nyá:węh to the coauthors, the late Frances Froman, the late Lottie Key, and the
late Alfred Keye, to whom I am greatly indebted. Starting in the late 1970’s and
early 1980’s, these people dedicated their working and post-retirement lives and
intellects to teaching Gayogo̱ho:nǫhnéha:ˀ ‘the Cayuga language’ and Shęh Niyǫg-
waihóˀdę: ‘our ways, beliefs, doings’ – years before others thought it was impor-
tant to do so. Several other kind speakers, including Tom and Tracy Deer, Kehte
Deer, and the late Janie Johnson, also contributed greatly to informing this gram-
mar. The value of the grammar is in their shared wisdom.
Nya:wę́h hniˀ to Amos Key Jr. (formerly the Director of the Language Program,
Woodland Cultural Centre), who has been a driving force in Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ
language advocacy for over 40 years. He assembled the team for this grammar
(and a previously-published dictionary) and obtained the funding and in-kind
support for the project. Amos also contributed to language sessions, asked thought-
provoking questions and added wonderful examples of language and culture.
Nia:wenh to Angie Monture (former Executive Assistant, Language Program,
Woodland Cultural Centre), who provided excellent logistical and moral support.
Her skills, kindness, patience, and dedication ensured the success of this language
project, and many other projects besides. And finally, nyá:węh to Deb Lickers for
quietly and patiently taking care of finances.
Everyone just acknowledged contributed a sense of humour and an ethos of
humanity to the grammar project. For this and a great many other reasons,

Nya:wę́h swagwé:gǫh ‘thank you all’

Funding acknowledgements
The following funders were integral to the Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ dictionary and
grammar projects:

• The Woodland Cultural Centre provided in-kind support for the Gayo-
go̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ dictionary and grammar projects between 1992–2017.

• The Six Nations Polytechnical Institute provided in-kind support for the
Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ grammar project between 2010–2015.

• The Government of Ontario, Ministry of Education and Training, Work-

place Preparation Branch provided the following funding:
– 1993, Project no. 4 Aboriginal Language Standardization Project, Ca-
yuga Dictionary and Grammar.
– 1997, Project no. 4A, Aboriginal Language Standardisation Project,
Cayuga Dictionary and Grammar.

• The Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council provided the follow-
ing funding:
– 2005–2008, A new research paradigm for setting down the Cayuga
oral tradition. SSHRC Strategic Research Grant no. 856-2004-1082
– 2010–2015, Cayuga Language Maintenance. Community-University
Research Alliance (CURA) SSHRC grant no. 833-2009-1001

• Memorial University of Newfoundland provided cash and in-kind support,

including:
– 2010, the VP Research, the Dean of the School of Graduate Studies,
and the Dean of Arts, matching funding for the Cayuga Language
Maintenance SSHRC grant no. 833-2009-1001.
Abbreviations

Abbreviations
ø.punctual punctual suffix has been deleted / is not pronounced
3s 3s.zon (3rd singular zoic-neuter), as in 3s.a ‘it’ (a-series)
3p 3ns.zon (3rd non-singular zoic-neuter), as in 3p.a ‘they
(animals, things)’ (a-series)
a agent-like argument of canonical transitive verb, a-series
prefix, as in 3ns.m.a ‘they (males)’ (a-series)
alongside ⌊-kdagyeˀ⌋ “alongside” locative
at ⌊-hneh⌋ external locative
aug augmentative (either ⌊-ge:⌋ or ⌊-go:wah⌋)
ben benefactive
beside ⌊-:kˀah⌋ “beside” locative
caus causative
caus-instr causative-instrumental
cis cislocative
coin coincident
completely ⌊-jihwęh⌋ ‘completely, fully’
contr contrastive
customary customary
d dual (number), as in 2d.a ‘you two’ (a-series)
(d) one argument must be dual, as in 1>2(d) ‘I>you two’, ‘we
two>you’, etc.
declare.kinship ⌊-shęˀ, -tsęˀ⌋ kinship declaration suffix
dim diminutive
disl dislocative
distr distributive
du dualic (prepronominal prefix)
ex exclusive, as in 1p.ex.a ‘we all (exclusive)’ (a-series)
fac factual
facil habitual facilitative
fi feminine-indefinite, as in 3s.fi.a ‘she, someone’ (a-series)
former former
fut future
hab habitual
in ⌊-gǫ:⌋ internal locative (suffix)
in inclusive, as in 1d.in.a ‘we two (inclusive)’ (a-series)

xxx
inch inchoative
increment noun increment
indef indefinite (optative)
instr instrumental
int interactive series pronominal prefix, as in 2s>1s ‘you>me’
ints intensifier
length suffix consisting of ⌊-:⌋, agnostically named
modz modalizer
neg negative
nmlz nominalizer
noun used in glosses to denote where a noun should be inserted
no_aspect verb lacking an aspect suffix
ns non-singular, as in 3ns.m.a ‘they (males)’ (a-series)
(+ns) both arguments must be non-singular, as in 3fi>3fi(+ns) ‘they
(fe/males)>them(fe/males)’
nsf noun stem former
on ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ external locative
opp the opposite transitive arguments are included in the gloss, e.g.
2p>3s.m(opp) means either 2p>3ms ‘you all>him’ or 3ms>2p
‘he>you all’
p patient-like argument of canonical transitive verb, p-series
prefix, as in 1s.p ‘I’, ‘me’ (p-series)
p plural, as in 2p.a ‘you all’ (a-series)
(p) one argument must be plural, as in 1>2(p) ‘I>you all’, ‘we>you’,
etc.
part partitive
past past
pl plural (stative verb suffix)
plrz pluralizer (word suffix)
pop populative
purp purposive
prog progressive
proth prothetic
punc punctual
rec reciprocal
refl reflexive
rem remote
rep repetitive

xxxi
Abbreviations

rev reversive
s singular, as in 1s.a ‘I’ (a-series)
srf semireflexive
stat stative
transl translocative
typ typicalizer
zon zoic-neuter

xxxii
 Part I

Introduction
1 The Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih
The Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih ‘People of the Longhouse’ once lived in the Mohawk River
valley and around the Finger Lakes district in present-day New York State. The
Ganyęˀge̱hó:nǫˀ ‘Mohawk people’ resided between the Allegheny and Catskill
Mountains, while the Onǫdowáˀga:ˀ ‘Seneca people’ were settled along the Gene-
ssee River. In between, the Onǫda̱ ˀgehó:nǫˀ ‘Onondaga people’ lived near Syra-
cuse, New York, and the Ohnyahęhó:nǫˀ ‘Oneida people’ lived near Lake Oneida,
New York. The Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ ‘Cayuga people’ lived in an area between Lake Ca-
yuga and Lake Owasco in present-day Cayuga County, New York (Michelson
1988: 3–6, see Figure 1.1, page 4).
The Ǫgwehǫ́:weh ‘Real People’ or ‘Iroquois’1 formed the original Hwíhs Niy-
ohwęjá:ge: ‘Five Nations Iroquois Confederacy or League of the Iroquois’. The
League came about some time before European contact. According to the oral tra-
dition recorded in Gibson et al. (1992: xix-xxxi), Deganawí:daˀ ‘the Peacemaker’,
aided by Hayę́hwataˀ ‘He Who Makes a Wampum Belt’, first persuaded the Ga-
nyęˀge̱hó:nǫˀ and Ohnyahęhó:nǫˀ to join together in alliance, followed by the Onǫ-
da̱ ˀgehó:nǫˀ, Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ, and Onǫdowáˀga:ˀ. The central concepts of the Peace-
maker’s message (or Gayanę̱hsraˀgó:wah ‘the Great Law’) were Gaihwí:yo: ‘the
Good Message’, Ga̱ hsháhsdę̱hsraˀ ‘power, strength’, and Sgę:nǫˀ ‘peace’.
The Ganyęˀge̱hó:nǫˀ, Onǫda̱ ˀgehó:nǫˀ, and Onǫdowáˀga:ˀ formed the senior “side”
(moiety or phratry) of the League, while the Ohnyahęhó:nǫˀ and Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ
constituted the junior side. The moieties were metaphorically conceived as kin
belonging to the same Ganǫhsǫ́:nih ‘Longhouse’ or ‘household’: the senior moi-
ety were “fathers” (father or father’s brother) to the junior moiety, and were
also known as the ‘Three Brothers’. The junior moiety stood as “sons” (a man’s
1
The word ‘Iroquois’ is likely a “…pidginized Basque word learned by the French via some
native intermediary language.” (Bakker 1991: 1122). The Basques had extensive trading rela-
tionships with the Mi’kmaq, Innu, and Maliseet “…from the late 1540’s to the first decades
of the seventeenth century in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Atlantic seacoast.” (Bakker
1991: 1120). Consequently, a Basque-Algonquian pidgin or trade language developed to facili-
tate communication. In this pidgin, the word from which ‘Iroquois’ derives was something like
(h)ilokoa ‘killer-person’ (Bakker 1991: 1122–1123), a name reflecting the Iroquois’ reputation for
war-mongering. The original Basque roots are ⌊hil⌋ ‘kill’ and ⌊-ko-a⌋ ‘person originating from’
(Bakker 1991: 1121).
1 The Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih

Figure 1.1: The original homelands of the Ǫgwehó:weh (based on Map

of Ho-De-No-Sau-Nee-Ga: Or the territories of the People of the Long
House in 1720: Exhibiting the home country of the Iroquois with the abo-
riginal names of their villages, lakes, rivers, streams & ancient localities,
and the courses of their principal trails: [New York (State)] (1720), New
York lakes and rivers map (2013), Iroquois Six-Nations map c.1720 (2004).

brother’s son or a woman’s brother’s son) to the senior moiety (H. Woodbury,
in Fenton 1998: 54–55), and were known as the ‘Four Brothers’ (for reasons de-
scribed next).
In 1722 – after losing their homelands in present-day North Carolina in 1712
– the Dahsgáowęˀ ‘Tuscarora people’ were adopted into the League by the Gayo-
go̱hó:nǫˀ (Fenton 1998: 54, Schoolcraft 1846: 26). The League was afterwards known
as the Hyeí Niyǫhwęjá:ge: ‘Six Nations’. Meanwhile, the Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ had also
adopted the Ewáˀganhaˀ ‘Delaware’. Consequently, the junior moiety was known
as the ‘Four Brothers’.2
2
Shimony (1994: 117) points out that the Nanticoke, Tutelo, and Wyandot had also previously
been adopted.

4
 1.1 Gaihwí:yo: and related matters

The Ganyęˀge̱hó:nǫˀ were the ‘Keepers of the Eastern Door’ and the Onǫdowáˀ-
ga:ˀ, the ‘Keepers of the Western Door’ – terms which referred to the boundaries
of Ǫgwehǫ́:weh country. The Onǫda̱ ˀgehó:nǫˀ were Honadejíhsdane:t ‘Keepers of
the Fire’ – referring to the Council Fire of the Confederacy – at Onǫ́da̱ ˀgeh (Gib-
son et al. 1992: xxvi). The Grand Council consisted of 50 Hodiyanéhsǫˀ (hered-
itary chiefs, whose titles are listed in §D.6). To maintain peace between Hodi-
nǫ̱hsǫ́:nih nations, the Grand Council debated League affairs with the goal of
reaching Sga̱ ˀnígǫ̱ha:t ‘one mind’ or ‘consensus’.
After the American Revolution, the Council Fire and Grand Council were re-
established at Tahnawá:deˀ ‘Tonawanda’. A twin Council was also established at
Six Nations. It operates alongside the Six Nations Council, which was imposed
by the Government of Canada in 1924.

1.1 Gaihwí:yo: and related matters

Gaihwí:yo: (the ‘Good Message’, referred to earlier), can be characterized as the
League’s “…body of dicta, anecdotes, and laws…” (Shimony 1994: 192). It includes
the relatively newer prophecies of the Seneca prophet Sganyadáiyoˀ ‘Handsome
Lake’ (1735–1815). For this reason, Gaihwí:yo: is also known as the ‘Code of Hand-
some Lake’ or ‘the Code’.
Gaihwí:yo: is preached in two types of events, the Six Nations Convention
and the Chiefs’ Convention. (‘Six Nations’ in this context refers to the Hodinǫ̱h-
sǫ́:nih in general.) The Six Nations Convention is a series of meetings performed
during “…the biennial circuit which begins every fall at Tonawanda and which
is observed in turn at each of the other … participating Longhouses …” in New
York state, Quebec, and Ontario (Shimony 1994: 192). The Chiefs’ Conventions,
in contrast, are recitations of Gaihwí:yo: sponsored by individual Ganǫhsé:sǫˀs
‘Longhouses’ (singular Ganǫ́hse:s ‘Longhouse’). Each event lasts for four days.
It includes morning recitations of Gaihwí:yo:, followed by afternoon sessions
with elements such as Gaihwatéˀdǫh ‘explanation, clarification’, Ga̱ hsgyáǫnyǫhk
‘words of encouragement’, and Adatrewáhdǫ:ˀ ‘repentance, apology’. The orators
who recite Gaihwí:yo: perform these and other incredibly long speeches from
memory, having learned this oral tradition directly from earlier preachers.
The Ganǫhsé:sǫˀs referred to above are congregations of Godinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih ‘Long-
house followers’ who live according to the moral and ethical teachings of Sganya-
dáiyoˀ. The main components of the Hodinǫ̱hsó:nih Longhouse tradition are Gai-
hwí:yo:, the Geí Niyoihwá:ge: ‘Four Ceremonies’, the Ga̱ he:yǫ́ˀ Oíhwa̱ ˀgeh ‘fu-
neral rites’, Gayęˀgǫtwę́:ˀ neˀ Onǫ́hgwa̱ ˀtraˀ ‘tobacco burnings and ceremonies

5
1 The Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih

for Medicine Societies’, and Ohwęjagehgehá:ˀ Gáęnaˀ ‘Social dances and earth
songs’.
The Godinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih also observe “doings” tied to the agricultural cycle, for ex-
ample, the Adahyáohǫ:ˀ ‘Gathering of Fruit’ or ‘Strawberry Ceremony’ and the
Shadiyáǫdataˀ ‘Dry Up the Trees’ Ceremony (done at the end of the maple sap
run). The highlight of the year is the Tsaˀdego̱hsrahę́h Gaihwayáǫni: ‘Midwin-
ter Ceremony’, during which the Geí Niyoihwá:ge: are performed. The different
Longhouses at Six Nations put on Geí Niyoihwá:ge:, not necessarily at the same
time, but sometime during January or February of each year.
Many occasions (including ceremonies, and even run-of-the-mill meetings) be-
gin and end with Ganǫ́hǫnyǫh or Ganǫ́hǫnyǫhk ‘The Thanksgiving Address’ (de-
scribed in Foster 1974), during which an orator takes between several minutes to
several hours to thank the Creator for everything under the sun.

1.2 Land
The dispossession of the Hodinǫhsǫ́:nih from their traditional lands before and
after the American Revolution is well-documented elsewhere. Included in this
section are simplified maps for Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca migra-
tions, based on the synopsis in Michelson (1988: 3–6), which will provide some
notion of the changes from the original and present Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih lands.
The Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ villages (and other Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih villages) were destroyed
in the Sullivan Campaign of 1779, in retaliation for the Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ having sided
with the British during the American Revolution. Many Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ then re-
moved to Fort Niagara and ultimately to Six Nations of the Grand River.
Before the American Revolution, some of the Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ had settled with a
group of Onǫdowáˀga:ˀ on the Lower Sandusky River in Ohio. They were collec-
tively known as the ‘Sandusky Senecas’. In 1831, they moved to Miami, Oklahoma
(Michelson 1988: 5, Mithun 1979: 149), which is shown as the ‘Seneca-Cayuga
Tribe of Oklahoma’ in Figure 1.6 (page 9). Differences between Oklahoma and
Six Nations Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ ‘Cayuga language’ are summarized in §1.3.
The British Crown granted lands to the Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih in the 1784 Haldimand
Proclamation. For a map showing the approximate dates and locations of the
original Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih settlements on the lower Haldimand Tract, see Hill (2017:
140). For a map of the original Haldimand Tract and the current extent of Six
Nations, see (Six Nations Council 2008).
See Figure D.1 (page 1062) for Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ place names at Six Nations
and Figure D.2 (page 1062) for Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ place names in Ontario and
Quebec, Canada, and in New York State, USA.

6
 1.2 Land

Figure 1.2: Ganyęˀge̱hó:nǫˀ ‘Mohawk’ migrations

Figure 1.3: Ohnyahęhó:nǫˀ ‘Oneida’ migrations

7
1 The Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih

Figure 1.4: Onǫda̱ˀgehó:nǫˀ ‘Onondaga’ migrations

Figure 1.5: Onǫdowáˀga:ˀ ‘Seneca’ migrations

8
 1.3 Gayogohonǫˀnéha:ˀ, the Cayuga language

Figure 1.6: Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ ‘Cayuga’ migrations

1.3 Gayogohonǫˀnéha:ˀ, the Cayuga language

Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ belongs to the Ǫgwehǫwéhne̱ha:ˀ ‘Iroquoian language’ fam-
ily.3 It is closely related to Onǫda’gegá’ ‘Onondaga’ and Onödowá’ga:’ ‘Seneca’
and more distantly, to Ska:rù:rę’ ‘Tuscarora’, Kanien’kéha ‘Mohawk’, Onʌyotaʼa:ká:
‘Oneida’, and Tsalagi ‘Cherokee’.4 A simplified family tree is provided in Fig-
ure 1.7, page 10.
Ǫgwehǫ́:weh ‘Iroquoian’ speakers can often speak or understand more than
one language, at least with practice, because of similarities among the languages,
which are illustrated in Table 1.1, page 10.
Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha: is currently spoken at Six Nations of the Grand River near
Brantford, Ontario, Canada. At least in the past, the variety of Ganedagehonǫ́ˀ-
ne̱ha:ˀ ‘Lower Cayuga’ was spoken in the Lower End (Ganédageh ‘in the valley’),
while Dagęhyatgehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ ‘Upper Cayuga’ was spoken around the Upper End
(Dagę́hya:t ‘top of the mountain’).

3
Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ refers to the people, and Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ ‘the Cayuga way’ refers to the lan-
guage. However, Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ is often used in reference to the language.
4
The autonyms for each language are used in this paragraph. However, in the figures, the Gayo-
go̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ words are used instead.

9
1 The Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih

Onǫdowáˀga:ˀ
Dagęhyatgehó:nǫˀ
Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ
Ganedagehó:nǫˀ
Onǫdagehó:nǫˀ

Ohnyahęhó:nǫˀ

Otowe̱ˀgéha:ˀ Ganyęˀge̱hó:nǫˀ

Ǫgwehǫwéhne̱ha:ˀ Dahsgáowęˀ

Onenǫ̱ˀgéha:ˀ Tsalagi

Figure 1.7: Ǫgwehǫwéhne̱ha:ˀ language family (simplified). Based on

Schillaci et al. (2017), Eberhard et al. (2022). Otowe̱ˀgéha:ˀ ‘Northern
kind’, Onęnǫ̱ˀgéha:ˀ ‘Southern kind’. Strictly speaking, many of the lan-
guage names should end with ⌊-neha:ˀ⌋, without which, the words rep-
resent the names of peoples, not languages. The suffix has been omitted
to save space.

Table 1.1: Words for ‘two’ and ‘five’

Autonym English name ‘two’ ‘five’

Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ Cayuga tekni: hwihs
Kanien’kéha Mohawk tékeni wisk
Onʌyotaʼa:ká: Oneida tékni wisk
Onǫda’gegá’ Onondaga teknih hwiks
Onödowá’ga:’ Seneca tekni:h wis
Ska:rù:rę’ Tuscarora ne:kti:h wisk
Tsalagi Cherokee ta’li hiski

10
 1.3 Gayogohonǫˀnéha:ˀ, the Cayuga language

Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ speakers use GY and KY where Dagęhyatgehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ

speakers use DY and TY instead (1). Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ speakers also pronounce
underlined vowels (1a) differently than Dagęhyatgehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ speakers do (1b,
see §19).

(1) a. gyo̱hdǫ: ‘nine’ (Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ)

b. dyohdǫ: ‘nine’ (Dagęhyatgehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ)

A variety of Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ was also spoken in Oklahoma. The speech

of one Oklahoman speaker is described in Mithun (1989). The main changes are
summarized in this section. For the pronunciation of Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ see
§3, §19, §21.2.4, and §21.1.
Differences between Oklahoma and Six Nations Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha: include vo-
cabulary items, as shown in (2).

(2) The word for ‘car’ (Mithun 1989: 247)

a. gagá̱howanęˀs (Oklahoma speaker)
ga-gá̱h-owanę-ˀs
3s.a-eye-big.stat-pl
b. ga̱ˀdréhdaˀ (Six Nations speakers)
ga̱-ˀdréhd-aˀ
3s.a-drag-nsf

Noun incorporation is also different: Oklahoma Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ speakers

tend to avoid pronominal prefixes denoting possession in noun incorporation
words (3a), and also tended to avoid incorporation (4a).

(3) ‘She has a big house’ (Mithun 1989: 249)

a. ganǫhsuwá:nęh (Oklahoma speaker)
ga-nǫhs-uwá:n-ęh
3s.a-house-big-stat
b. gonǫhsowá:nęh (Six Nations speakers)
go-nǫhs-owá:n-ęh
3s.fi.p-house-big-stat

(4) ‘She has a big onion’ (Mithun 1989: 250)

a. kuwá:nęh ˀnúhsaˀ (Oklahoma speaker)
k-uwá:n-ęh ˀnúhs-aˀ
3s.a-big-stat onion-nsf

11
1 The Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih

b. go̱ˀnǫhsowá:nęh (Six Nations speakers)

go̱-ˀnǫhs-owá:n-ęh
3s.fi.p-onion-big-stat

As shown in examples (4a) and (5), Oklahoma Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ omitted

most instances of the /o-/ 3s.p prefix in nouns (5a, Mithun 1989: 251–252), and
shortened some words even further (6a), (but without changing accent place-
ment).

(5) ‘beans’ (Mithun 1989: 254)

a. sáheˀdaˀ (Oklahoma speaker)
sáheˀd-aˀ
beans-nsf
b. osáheˀdaˀ (Six Nations speakers)
o-sáheˀd-aˀ
3s.p-beans-nsf

(6) ‘butter’ (Mithun 1989: 255)

a. drá:htaˀ (Oklahoma speaker)
drá:ht-aˀ
butter-nsf
b. owidrá:htaˀ (Six Nations speakers)
o-widrá:ht-aˀ
3s.p-butter-nsf

Words with an O-like sound in Six Nations Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ instead have

a U-like sound in Oklahoma Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ (7a). (In contrast, Six Nations
Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ only has a few words with an U-like sound (see §3.2).

(7) ‘it is cold’ (Mithun 1989: 250–251)

a. utú:weˀ (Oklahoma speaker)
u-tú:weˀ
3s.p-cold.stat
b. otó:weˀ (Six Nations speakers)
o-tó:weˀ
3s.p-cold.stat

Six Nations and Oklahoma Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ had slightly different rules for
accent placement and related sound changes. For example, the accent was changed
for some Oklahoma words (8a).

12
 1.3 Gayogohonǫˀnéha:ˀ, the Cayuga language

(8) ‘in my eye’ (Mithun 1989: 252)

a. gegahá:gǫ: (Oklahoma speaker)
g-e-gah-á:gǫ:
1s.a-joinerE-eye-in
b. gegáhagǫ: (Six Nations speakers)
g-e-gáh-agǫ:
1s.a-joinerE-eye-in

Also, while whisper (devoicing) is obligatory for the first vowel of the word in
(9a) in Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ,5 , it was optional in Oklahoma Gayogo̱ho:nǫhnéha:ˀ
(9b). (Laryngealization, the sound change shown in the third vowel of both ex-
amples in (9), is obligatory in both Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ and in Oklahoma Gayo-
go̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ, Mithun 1989: 254).

(9) ‘on my hand’ (Mithun 1989: 253)

a. ge̱hsóhda̱ˀgeh (Six Nations speakers)
g-e̱-hsóhd-a̱-ˀgeh
1s.a-joinerE-hand-joinerA-on
b. gehsúhda̱ˀgeh (Oklahoma speaker)
g-e-hsúhd-a̱-ˀgeh
1s.a-joinerE-hand-joinerA-on

Similarly, devoicing does not affect the first vowel of the word in Ganedage-
honǫ́ne̱ha:ˀ (10a), but could do so in Oklahoma Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ (10b).6

(10) ‘three’ (Mithun 1989: 254)

a. ahsǫ́h (Six Nations)
b. a̱hsųh (Oklahoma)

5
In Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ the first vowel is devoiced in words beginning with a consonant-
vowel-H combination.
6
In Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ, words beginning with vowels are not devoiced.

13
2 Spelling systems
There are two spelling systems for Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ – the Linguistic and the
Henry orthographies. The Linguistic system was originally developed in the
1970s for Native Language Teacher Certification programs, and is used in aca-
demic articles and in major works such as Mithun & Henry (1984). The Linguis-
tic system more closely resembles the orthographies of the other Ǫgwehǫ́:weh
languages. Some examples of other orthographies are shown in Table 1.1 (page
10).
The Henry orthography was developed in the early 1980s by the late Reginald
Henry (credited as being the “father” of language revitalization at Six Nations).
It is used in educational settings at Six Nations, in Froman et al. (2002), and in
this grammar. The main difference between the two writing systems is in how
consonants are represented, as shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Consonant spellings compared

Linguistic Henry IPA gloss location

thęˀ tęˀ [tʰ] ‘no’ not word-final
taku:s dagu:s [d] ‘cat’ not word-final
ská:t sgá:t [tʰ] ‘one’ word-final
tkáhe:ˀ tgáhe:ˀ [tʰ] ‘it is setting over there’ before a consonant
kakhwaˀ gakwaˀ [kʰ] ‘food’ not word-final
kęh gęh [g] ‘question word’ not word-final
khehá:wahk kehá:wahk [kʰ] ‘my daughter’ word-final
knó:haˀ knó:haˀ [kʰ] ‘mother’ before a consonant
shęh sęh [sʰ] ‘that’ anywhere
tshǫ: tsǫ: [tsʰ] ‘just’ anywhere
tsyá:tahka já:dahak [dʒ, dz] ‘seven’ anywhere

a
Also spelled as tsá:tahk in the Linguistic orthography.
2 Spelling systems

2.1 A modified Henry orthography

A modified version of the Henry orthography is used in this book. This section
describes the departures from the original orthography.1
The original spelling system has a “lengthener” (length mark) <:> both after
long vowels and double vowels (1a). In contrast, the modified orthography does
not use a lengthener after double vowels (1b), but only after long or lengthened
vowels (2c).

(1) a. degaǫ:doˀjinéhtaˀ ‘they figure-skate’ (original)

b. degaǫdoˀjinéhtaˀ ‘they figure-skate’ (modified)

The original (Henry and Linguistic) systems have two ways of spelling accent-
related syllable pronunciations (which are described in 32). The original orthogra-
phies switch the glottal stop <ˀ> and vowel in certain syllables ending with glottal
stop <ˀ> (2a), but underline the vowel in certain syllables ending with H (2c). In
contrast, the modified orthography uses the underline convention for both types
of pronunciation change (2b, c). (The result is that words belonging to the same
paradigm are spelled the same way. For paradigm, see 640.)

(2) a. gˀanígǫ̱haˀ ‘the mind’ (original)

b. ga̱ˀnígǫ̱haˀ (modified)
c. ga̱hǫ́:ga:ˀ ‘elm’ (original and modified)

One of the main differences between the Henry and Linguistic orthographies is
the use of H in consonant spellings. For example, Linguistic <th> corresponds to
Henry <t>, and Linguistic <sh>, to Henry <s>, Table 2.1, (3a). In this grammar,
an extra <h> is added in the linguistic analysis for clarity, where relevant (3b, c).
The accent mark is also omitted from stand-alone particles (3b).

(3) a. sę́h ‘that’ (original)

b. shęh ‘that’ (modified)2
c. ehstaˀ
e-hst-haˀ
3fis.a-use-hab
‘she uses’, ‘people use’ (H is added in the linguistic analysis)
1
Also, language examples originally written in the linguistic orthography have been changed
to the modified Henry spelling system in this grammar.
2
Shęh is also spelled and pronounced as tsęh (Henry orthography), tshęh (Linguistic orthogra-
phy.)

16
 2.2 Spelling particles

2.2 Spelling particles

Particles (see §4) often undergo pronunciation changes (which are described in
34.) As a result, particles and particle groups are typically spelled several different
ways. To standardize the spelling, particles are spelled in their full or stand-alone
form in this work, as shown in Table 2.2. (Often, however, the common spellings
for particle groups are also shown.) In spelling particles, the accent mark is of-
ten omitted, partly because it is less prominent in particles and particle groups
(Rueentan 2014).
Table 2.2: Particle pronunciation

stand-alone (modified) spelling common spellings translation

haoˀ dęˀ nyoh haoˀ dę̱ ˀnyó “o.k.!”
toh gęh ǫh ne:ˀ to gęǫ ne:ˀ, to gaǫ ne:ˀ “I wonder if it is”

2.3 Brackets
The bracket conventions used in this work are shown in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Bracket usage

bracket type usage example

[…] International Phonetic [tʰ]
Alphabet (IPA)
⌊…⌋ underlying representa- ⌊a-⌋, ⌊aˀ-⌋, ⌊e-⌋ fac
tion,
allomorph,
spelling variant
<…> spelling variant <ˀ> glottal stop
<s>, S (alternative)

Symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are enclosed between
square brackets […].

17
2 Spelling systems

Morphemes and allomorphs are enclosed between floor brackets ⌊…⌋ instead
of the usual slash brackets /…/ mainly to avoid the extensive use of slash brackets.
As well, unlike slash brackets, the floor brackets represent not only morphemes,
but also allophonic and spelling variants. For example, the reader might see three
factual allomorphs referred to in the text, ⌊a-⌋, ⌊aˀ-⌋, or ⌊e-⌋. Such representa-
tions more closely align with the spelling and also serve to avoid unnecessarily
detailed underlying representations such as /a(ˀ)-, e-/ – or even “archiphonemic”
representations such as /A(ˀ)-/. The use of floor brackets for stems such as ⌊ihsag⌋
‘look for’ also signals the potential for spelling changes such as agíhsagǫh ‘I’m
looking for it’ versus ęhsíhsa:k ‘you will look for it’.
Orthographic representations are sometimes enclosed between angle brackets
for clarity (often just to highlight the presence of a glottal stop <ˀ>). Otherwise,
uppercase letters are used for denoting orthographic representations.

18
3 Sounds and spelling
3.1 Vowels and consonants
Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ has seven vowels (with underlyingly long counterparts, see
§3.2.1) and thirteen consonants.
Table 3.1: Vowels Table 3.2: Consonants

i(:) u(:) t,d k,g ˀ

e(:) ę(:) o(:) ǫ(:) s h
a(:) ts j
n
r
y w

The following descriptions use symbols from the International Phonetic Al-
phabet (IPA) for clarity. IPA letters are in square brackets.

3.2 Vowel pronunciation

The Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ vowel letters represent just one sound each. That being
said, vowels can also be modified – lengthened, whispered (devoiced), or glottal-
ized (produced with creaky voice) – depending on factors described in §3.9.

I sounds like the I [i] in magazine.

E sounds like the E [e] in hey.

A sounds like the A [ɑ] in father.

O sounds like the O [o] in so.

3 Sounds and spelling

U sounds like the U [u] in blue. Only a few words have this sound, including,
niwú:ˀuh ‘it is small’, niwuˀdrugye:ˀah ‘it is narrow’, and kyohsaˀgeh, kyuh-
saˀgeh ‘on my elbow’.
Ę sounds like the nasal E [ɛ̃] in English men or the nasal vowel in French frein
‘brake’. It can also sound more like the nasal O [ʌ̃] in money or like the U
́ dah] ‘hear, take it!’
in pun. Long Ę: can sound like [ɛ̃n], as in nę́:dah [nɛ̃n
This happens especially when long Ę: is before D, G, J, K, T, or TS.
Ǫ sounds like the nasal O [õ] in English known or the nasal vowel in French don
‘gift’. It can also sound more like the nasal OO [ũ] in noon. Long Ǫ: can
sound like [õn], as in ǫ́:dǫh [ṍndõh] ‘she says’. This happens especially
when long Ǫ: is before D, G, J, K, T, or TS.

3.2.1 Long versus short vowels

Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ distinguishes between long and short vowels. Long vowels
are nearly always long.
(1) Long vowels
a. onǫ́ˀa:ˀ ‘a head’
cf. o-nǫ́ˀa:-ˀ 3.p-head-nsf
b. sanǫˀá:ˀgeh ‘on your head’
cf. sa-nǫˀá:-ˀgeh 2s.a-head-on
c. honǫˀá:dę:s ‘he’s thick-headed’
cf. ho-nǫˀá:-dę:s 3s.m.p-head-thick.stat

Long vowels are only shortened when another vowel follows.

(2) Long vowel shortening
ęgatnǫ̱ˀaoháiˀ ‘I will wash my head’
cf. ę-g-at-nǫ̱ˀa-ohái-ˀ fut-1s.a-srf-head-wash-punc

In contrast, short vowels are typically short.

(3) Short vowels
agatǫdę́ˀǫh ‘I have heard it before’
cf. ag-at-hǫdę́ˀ-ǫh 1s.p-srf-hear-stat

However, short vowels can be lengthened according to rules described in §3.6.

(4) Short vowel lengthening
aga:tǫ́:deˀ ‘I hear it (right now)’
cf. ag-a:t-hǫ́:de-ˀ 1s.p-srf-hear-stat

20
 3.3 Consonant pronunciation

3.3 Consonant pronunciation

The consonant letters often represent several sounds. This is explained below
and in §36.1 (also see Table 2.1, page 15.)

T sounds like the T [tʰ] in ten. T either syllabifies as two separate consonants
[t.h] or as a single consonant [tʰ].

D sounds like the D [d] in den. In whispered syllables, it also sounds like T [t]
(see §3.9). D syllabifies as a single consonant [d].

K sounds like the K [kʰ] in Ken. K either syllabifies as two separate consonants
[k.h] or as a single consonant [kʰ].

G sounds like the hard G [g] in gum. In whispered syllables, it also sounds like K
[k] (see §3.9). G syllabifies as a single consonant [g]. In Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ,
G is never pronounced like the “soft G” in gem.

S sounds like the S [s] in sun. In some words, it sounds like the Z [z] in zoo, for
example in í:soˀ ‘many, much’. S syllabifies as a single consonant [s, z] or
as part of another consonant (as in [kˢ]).

SR – as in wę̱hnihSRí:yo: ‘nice day’ – sounds like the SHR [ʃɹ] in shrink. Some
speakers pronounce SR as FR [fɹ] instead, for example in words like ganǫ́hk-
wasraˀ (ganǫ́hkwaFRaˀ) ‘love’. SR syllabifies as two separate consonants,
[ʃ.ɹ] or [f.ɹ].

S sometimes represents two sounds, S and H, as in less heat. For example, the
word meaning ‘that’ is often spelled as sęh [sʰɛ̃h] instead of shęh. To more
closely mirror the pronunciation, the SH spelling is used in morpheme
breaks in this work, as in shęh ‘that’.1 SH either syllabifies as two separate
consonants [s.h] or as a single consonant [sʰ].

TS sounds like T, S, and H, as in let’s hide. TS either syllabifies as two separate

consonants [t.sʰ] or as a single consonant [tˢʰ].

J sounds like the J [dʒ] sound in judge or like the DZ [ʣ] in adze or gadzooks.
In whispered syllables (see §3.9), it sounds like the CH [ʧ] in chair, or like
[ts] as in let’s. J either syllabifies as two separate consonants [d.ʒ] or [d.z]
or as a single consonant, [dʒ, dz].
1
Morpheme breaks show a word’s prefixes, stem, and suffixes.

21
3 Sounds and spelling

N sounds like the N [n] in no. In whispered syllables (see §3.9), it sounds like the
N (devoiced [n̥ ]) in snore. N syllabifies as a single consonant.
R sounds like the R [ɹ] in raw. In whispered syllables (see §3.9), it sounds like the
R (devoiced [ɹ̥]) in three. R syllabifies as a single consonant, but is always
preceded by another consonant such as [t,d,k,g,s,n].
W sounds like the W [w] in we. In whispered syllables (see §3.9), it sounds like
the W (devoiced [w̥ ]) in sway. W syllabifies as a single consonant [w] or
as part of another consonant (such as [dʷ, gʷ]).
Y sounds like the Y [j] in you. In whispered syllables (see §3.9), it sounds like
the Y sound (devoiced [j])̥ that can be heard (but is not spelled) after F in
few, or after P in pure. Y syllabifies as a single consonant [j] or as part of
another consonant (such as [dʲ, gʲ]).
H sounds like the H in he. For syllabification purposes, when H is between two
vowels (syllables), it is part of both the first syllable (vowel) and the second
syllable (vowel).2 Examples are provided in the following sections.
H sounds are heard but not spelled in letters like T [th, tʰ], K [kh, kʰ], TS [tˢʰ]
and S (when S spells [sʰ]).
<ˀ> (glottal stop)3 is a true consonant in Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ (Although itis not
spelled in English, glottal stop can be heard in several English expressions,
including uh-uh [ˈʔʌʔʌ] ‘no’). For syllabification purposes, when <ˀ> occurs
between two vowels (syllables), it is part of both the first syllable (vowel)
and the second syllable (vowel). Examples are provided in the following
sections.

3.4 Alphabetization
In this work, words are alphabetized as in the roman alphabet with a few excep-
tions: alphabetization ignores the glottal stop <ˀ> and the lengthener < : >. For
example, items beginning with [ˀni] or [ni] are both listed under NI. Similarly,
[aˀa] is alphabetized as AA, and [a:] is treated as A. Alphabetization also ignores
the distinction between E and Ę, and between O and Ǫ. For example, items be-
ginning with [od] or [ǫd] are alphabetized under OD.
2
Technically speaking, intervocalic H and intervocalic glottal stop (described next) are ambisyl-
labic.
3
Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ language teachers refer to glottal stop <ˀ> as a “slow marker”.

22
 3.5 Accent and related pronunciation changes

3.5 Accent and related pronunciation changes

The unique rhythm of Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ arises from a combination of accent,
vowel lengthening and syllable shortening (described in the following sections).
Accented vowels have a higher pitch (musical tone) than unaccented vowels, and
appear near the end of the word. They are spelled with an acute accent mark
<´>4 . Lengthened or long vowels take twice as long to produce as short vowels.
Vowel lengthening (or length) is spelled with a colon <:>.5 Syllable shortening
is a cover term for a set of pronunciation changes, described later, which affects
certain syllables ending with H or glottal stop <ˀ>.
Accent is either final or non-final. Final accent falls on the last syllable
(vowel) of the word and non-final accent falls on the second-last, third-last, or
fourth-last syllable. Final accent is described in §3.10. (Briefly stated, non-final
accent switches to final accent under certain conditions.) Non-final accent place-
ment and the related rules of vowel lengthening and syllable shortening are de-
scribed below. All of these rules refer to the syllable count, described next.

3.5.1 Counting syllables (or vowels)

The rules of accent placement, vowel lengthening, and syllable shortening make
reference to two types of syllable count (5). (Since every syllable includes a vowel,
the words vowel and syllable are used interchangeably in this section. For syllable
structure, see §36.1.)

(5) Two types of syllable count

a. the odd/even count: starting from the beginning of the word,
vowels (syllables) are either odd-numbered (first, third, etc.) or
even-numbered (second, fourth, etc.).
i. The odd/even count is irrelevant for final syllables.
b. the word-final count: starting from the end of the word, vowels
(syllables) are either:
i. final
ii. second-last
iii. third-last, or
iv. fourth-last.
4
Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ language teachers also call the accent mark a “stress marker” or “stress
point”.
5
Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ language teachers refer to the colon < : > as a “lengthener”.

23
3 Sounds and spelling

The second-last syllable is also called the penultimate vowel/syllable or the

penult.
The odd/even count starts at the beginning of the word, as shown with a right-
wards arrow ‘→’ in Figure 3.1. The word-final count starts from the end of the
word instead, as shown with a leftwards arrow ‘←’.

ę sa de ję hę né: dahk
→ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4th- 3rd- 2nd- last ←
last last last
(penult)

Figure 3.1: The syllable count - ęsadejęhęné:dahk ‘you will prepare your
fire’

In most cases, long vowels count as one unit for the odd/even count (5a). How-
ever, the long ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefix always counts as two (Figure 3.2), as do under-
lyingly (or usually) long vowels, Figure 3.3 (page 25).

a : yet sę́ iˀ
→ 1 2 3 4 5
2nd-last last ←
(penult)

Figure 3.2: The syllable count and the ⌊a:-⌋ indef. a:yetsę́iˀ ‘she might
find it’

3.6 Non-final accent and lengthening

Non-final accent and lengthening are determined by making reference to the
odd/even and word-final counts described in §3.5.1. In a nutshell, even-numbered
penults are always accented (and lengthened, if possible). In contrast, odd-num-
bered penults are only sometimes accented (and lengthened, if possible). More
often than not, odd-numbered penults cannot be accented (or lengthened) and
the third-last vowel is accented instead.

24
 3.6 Non-final accent and lengthening

ak nǫˀ á : nǫ̱h wa:s

→ 1 2 3 4 5 6
2nd- last ←
last
(penult)

Figure 3.3: The syllable count and underlying long vowels -

aknǫˀá:nǫ̱hwa:s ‘I have a headache’

The phrase lengthen (if possible) refers to the condition in (6). Examples will
be provided below.

(6) condition on vowel lengthening: vowels cannot be lengthened if

they are followed by H, glottal stop <ˀ>, or another vowel.

3.6.1 Accenting and lengthening even-numbered penults

Even-numbered penults are always accented (7). They are also lengthened (if
possible, 7a). The even-numbered penults in (7b) and (7c) are accented but cannot
be lengthened because they are followed by H (7b) or glottal stop <ˀ> (7c).

(7) accent and lengthening of even-numbered, second-last vowels

a. de̱hǫgwe̱ˀdí:yo: (de̱h-hǫg-we̱ˀ-dí:-yo:) ‘he is not a nice man’
(lengthened)
b. taˀdewagéhdǫ:ˀ (taˀ-de-wa-géh-dǫ:ˀ) ‘I did not mean or intend it’ (not
lengthened, because followed by H)
c. ęyóˀga:ˀ (ę-yóˀ-ga:ˀ) ‘it will be night’ (not lengthened, because
followed by <ˀ>)

3.6.2 Accenting and lengthening odd-numbered penults

Odd-numbered penults are sometimes accented but more often than not, the
third-last vowel must be accented instead.
Odd-numbered penults followed by a single consonant are accented and also
lengthened (if possible, 8, 9). When odd-numbered penults are lengthened, the
even-numbered, third-last vowel is also lengthened (if possible, 8). Example (9)
shows a case where the even-numbered third-last vowel cannot be lengthened
because it is followed by glottal stop <ˀ>.

25
3 Sounds and spelling

(8) Accented odd-numbered penult, followed by a single consonant

(third-last vowel is also lengthened)
a. aga:tǫ́:deˀ (a-ga:t-hǫ́:-deˀ) ‘I heard it’

(9) Accented odd-numbered penult, followed by a single consonant

(third-last vowel is not lengthened)
a. ęhsnaˀjó:dęˀ (ęhs-naˀ-jó:-dęˀ) ‘you will boil it in a pot’

Odd-numbered penults with the vowel A cannot be accented (10a). (An as-
terisk denotes an ungrammatical form.) The even-numbered, third-last vowel is
accented instead (10b). Neither vowel is lengthened (10b).

(10) Unaccented odd-numbered penult with the vowel A

a. 7 *asatgǫ̱hsoháeˀ (a-sat-gǫ̱h-soh-há-eˀ)
b. 3 asatgǫ̱hsóhaeˀ (a-sat-gǫ̱h-sóh-ha-eˀ) ‘you have washed your face’6

Odd-numbered penults followed by two or more consonants cannot be ac-

cented (11a). An even-numbered, third-last vowel is accented instead (11b). Nei-
ther vowel is lengthened (11b).

(11) Unaccented odd-numbered penult followed by two or more consonants

a. 7 *gatgęhétsaˀ (gat-gęh-hét-sʰaˀ)
b. 3 gatgę́hetsaˀ (gat-gę́h-het-sʰaˀ) ‘a handle’

The accent rule illustrated in (11) also applies to odd-numbered penults fol-
lowed by T [th], K [kh], and J [dz, tʃ], which represent two consonants (12).

(12) Unaccented odd-numbered penult followed by T, K, J… (representing two

or more consonants)
a. 7 *hoyanétaˀ (ho-ya-nét-haˀ)
b. 3 hoyánetaˀ (ho-yá-net-haˀ) ‘the chief’s clan mother’

Finally, odd-numbered penults followed by H or glottal stop <ˀ> are not ac-
cented (13a). The third-last vowel is accented instead (13b). Neither vowel is
lengthened (13b).

(13) a. 7 *Gayogáhneh (Ga-yo-gáh-neh)

b. 3 Gayóga̱hneh (Ga-yó-ga̱h-neh) ‘Cayuga, Ontario’
6
For the doubled H and other details about syllabification, see §36.1.

26
 3.7 Accent shift

3.7 Accent shift

A non-final accent can shift from the predicted vowel (V2) to a preceding vowel
(V1) if there is no consonant between V1 and V2. For example, in (14a), the even-
numbered penult O should be accented. However, it is immediately preceded by
A, which is accented instead (14b).

(14) Accent shift from penult to third-last vowel

a. 7 *sayaˀdodrǫhgwaónihs (sa-yaˀ-dod-rǫhg-wa-ó-nihs
b. 3 sayaˀdodrǫhgwáonihs (sa-yaˀ-dod-rǫhg-wá-o-nihs) ‘you are
always shivering’

In (15a), the odd-numbered penult cannot be accented and so the even-numbered

third-last vowel should be accented instead. However, it is immediately preceded
by A, which ultimately receives the accent because of accent shift (15b). This is
the only instance where accent will fall on the fourth-last vowel.

(15) Accent shift from third-last to fourth-last vowel vowel

a. 7 *wanahaótrahǫˀ (wa-nah-ha-ót-rah-hǫˀ
b. 3 wanaháotrahǫˀ (wa-nah-há-ot-rah-hǫˀ) ‘hats lying on the ground’
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

3.8 Exceptions to non-final accent placement rules

Several exceptions to the rules of non-final accent placement (§3.6) are described
in this and the following section.
The vowels before certain endings are always accented and long. The relevant
endings are the ⌊-kˀah⌋ beside locative suffix, and the ⌊-:ˀah, -:ˀǫh⌋ and ⌊-:hah⌋
dim suffixes (16).

(16) a. ganǫhsá:kˀah (ga-nǫh-sá:k-ˀah) ‘beside the house’

cf. ganǫ́hsaˀ (ga-nǫ́h-saˀ) ‘house’
b. ohsno:wé:ˀah (ohs-no:-wé:ˀ-ˀah) ‘it is fairly fast’, ‘to arrive a little bit
early’
cf. ohsnó:weˀ (ohs-nó:-weˀ) ‘it is fast, quick’
c. gowa:nę́:hah (go-wa:-nę́:h-hah) ‘it is fairly big’
cf. gowá:nęh (go-wá:-nęh) ‘it is big’

27
3 Sounds and spelling

A number of words have underlyingly (typically) long vowels (see §3.2.1). If

the long vowel falls on the penult, it is accented – even if it is odd-numbered (17).

(17) a. knó:haˀ (knó:h-haˀ) ‘my mother’

b. kré:haˀ (kré:h-haˀ) ‘I am setting it on something’

Contrary to the rules of non-final accent placement (§3.6, example 10), an odd-
numbered penultimate A can be accented and lengthened if it is followed by a
single W or Y (18).

(18) a. gá:yęˀ (gá:-yęˀ) ‘it is lying there’

b. sá:węh (sá:-węh) ‘it is yours’
c. hadihá:wiˀs (ha-dih-há:-wiˀs) ‘they carry along’

The initial ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix of some nouns can optionally be deleted. However,
the noun is still accented as if the prefix were present. (Also see the Oklahoma
Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ examples in §1.3.)

(19) a. ohǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ, hǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ ‘potatoes’

b. ohsháihsdaˀ, sháihsdaˀ ‘snake’

The ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac prefix is optionally deleted if the following vowel is A (see §21).
However, the resulting word is still accented and lengthened as if the prefix
were present. Example (20a) illustrates a word with the factual prefix. The odd-
numbered penult is accented and lengthened, and the third-last vowel is also
lengthened (§3.6, example 8). Example (20b) shows the same word without a fac-
tual prefix. It is still accented and lengthened as if it had an odd-numbered penult.
For comparison, the ungrammatical example in (20c) illustrates the accent and
lengthening that would be predicted if the word had an even-numbered penult.

(20) a. 3 aˀa:kní:gęˀ ‘she or he and I saw it’

cf. aˀ-a:kní:-gę-ˀ fac-1d.ex.a-see-punc
b. 3 a:kní:gęˀ ‘she or he and I saw it’
cf. a:kní:-gę-ˀ deleted.factual-1d.ex.a-see-punc
c. 7 *akní:-gę-ˀ *1d.ex.a-see-punc

28
 3.9 Pronunciation changes related to the syllable count

3.8.1 Accenting short words

The non-final-accent rules described in §3.6 do not necessarily apply to short
words with either one or two syllables. Accenting two-vowel words is described
in this section. See §3.10.3 for accenting particles or one-vowel words.
Recall than in general, if an odd-numbered penult cannot be accented, the
third-last vowel is accented instead (§3.6, examples 10-13). However, while two-
vowel words have an odd-numbered penult, they do not have a third-last vowel
by definition, and so many two-vowel words cannot be accented according to
the rules in §3.6. For example, the first vowel in the word in Figure 3.4 is an
odd-numbered penult. Since it is an A (and is also followed by H), it cannot
be accented. Meanwhile, the accent cannot shift further leftwards, as happens
in longer words, because the odd-numbered, second-last vowel is also the first
vowel of the word.

hah do:s
→ 1 2
2nd-last last ←

Figure 3.4: The syllable count with short words - hahdo:s, hahdó:s ‘he
dives’

These two-vowel words are sometimes pronounced without an accent – that

is, with a low pitch on both vowels. Alternatively, they can be pronounced with
a final accent (21).

(21) a. hahdo:s, hahdó:s (hah-do:s, hah-dó:s) ‘he dives’

b. ohyaˀ, ohyáˀ (oh-yaˀ, oh-yáˀ) ‘berry, fruit ‘
c. dasha:, dashá: (das-ha:, das-há:) ‘here, take this!’

3.9 Pronunciation changes related to the syllable count

In Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ (Lower Cayuga), odd-numbered syllables ending with H
or glottal stop <ˀ> are pronounced differently than their even-numbered coun-
terparts.7 (The best way to understand the following description is to listen to a
speaker pronouncing all of the words in the following examples.)
7
The pronunciation changes are collectively known as laryngeal metathesis, and are de-
scribed in Foster (1982) and Doherty (1993).

29
3 Sounds and spelling

Odd-numbered syllables ending with H are often whispered (22-25). (Techni-

cally, the entire syllable is devoiced.) Vowel underlining identifies the relevant
syllables, which often sound as if they have been shortened to a single consonant.
For example, the syllables dǫ̱h and de̱h can simply sound like a T (22–23).

(22) ehyádǫ̱hkwaˀ (eh-yá-dǫh-kwaˀ) ‘pencil’ (sounds like ehyáTkwaˀ)

cf. ehyá:dǫh (eh-yá:-dǫh) ‘she writes’ (all three sounds in dǫh are clearly audible)

(23) de̱hęnaǫháˀ (de̱h-hę-ná-ǫh-haˀ) ‘they (m) race’ (sounds like Tęnáǫhaˀ)

cf. degęnáǫhaˀ (de-gę-ná-ǫh-haˀ) ‘they (animals) are racers’ (both sounds in de are
clearly audible)

Whispered vowels are sometimes hard to hear, especially in the first syllable
in a word (24–25).

(24) gǫ̱hswáhęhs (gǫ̱hs-wáh-hęhs) ‘I hate you’ (sounds like KHswáhęhs)

cf. gǫnǫ́hweˀs (gǫ-nǫ́h-weˀs) ‘I like you’ (both sounds in gǫ are clearly audible)

(25) sa̱hsgá:ne:s (sa̱hs-gá:-ne:s) ‘you long for something’ (sounds like

SSgá:ne:s)
cf. hahsgá:ne:s (hahs-gá:-ne:s) ‘he longs for something’ (all sounds in hahs are clearly
audible)

Odd-numbered syllables ending with glottal stop <ˀ> often sound quite differ-
ent from their even-numbered counterparts. (Technically, the entire syllable is
creaky-voiced or glottalized.) The pronunciation changes are described next.
First, the glottal stop <ˀ> sound might disappear (26).

(26) ga̱ˀdréhdaˀ (ga̱ˀd-réh-daˀ) ‘car, vehicle’ (odd-numbered ga̱ ˀ sounds more

like ga. It is hard to hear any [ˀ] sound.)
cf. agéˀdre̱hdaˀ (a-géˀd-re̱h-daˀ) ‘my car, vehicle’ (in even-numbered géˀ, the <ˀ> sound
is clearly audible)

Alternatively, the glottal stop <ˀ> sound might be heard before the odd-numbered
vowel (whereas in related words, it sounds as if it is after the vowel (27).

(27) ęhsade̱ˀnyę́:dęˀ (ęh-sa-de̱ˀn-yę́:-dęˀ) ‘you will try’ (odd-numbered de̱ˀ

sounds more like dˀe or de)
cf. sadeˀnyę́:dęh (sa-deˀn-yę́:-dęh) ‘sample it! try it!’ (in even-numbered deˀ, all three
sounds are ‘in place’, and clearly audible)

The odd-numbered vowel might also disappear entirely, leaving just the glottal
stop <ˀ> sound (28).

30
 3.9 Pronunciation changes related to the syllable count

(28) sayę́de̱ˀǫh (sa-yę́-de̱ˀ-ˀǫh)8 ‘you are really good at something’

(odd-numbered de̱ˀ sounds like [tˀ], an ejective consonant, and no vowel
can be heard)
cf. ęsayędéˀǫhǫ:k (ę-sa-yę-déˀ-ˀǫh-ǫ:k) ‘you will be really good at it’ (in even-numbered
deˀ, all three sounds are ‘in place’, and clearly audible)

Odd-numbered syllables ending with glottal stop <ˀ> have been spelled in var-
ious ways, summarized in (29). In this book, the underlining convention shown
in (29d) is used, in order to make the spelling of odd-numbered syllables ending
with H and glottal stop <ˀ> consistent (see §2).

(29) ways of spelling shortened syllables ending with glottal stop <ˀ>
a. without <ˀ>: gadréhdaˀ (gad-réh-daˀ)
b. by moving <ˀ>: gˀadréhdaˀ (gˀad-réh-daˀ)
c. by moving <ˀ> and underlining the vowel gˀa̱dréhdaˀ (gˀa̱d-réh-daˀ)
d. by underlining the vowel: ga̱ˀdréhdaˀ (ga̱ˀd-réh-daˀ)

3.9.1 Exceptions to pronunciation changes related to the syllable

count
Contrary to the rules just described, all odd-numbered syllables remain unchanged
or fully pronounced if they begin with H (30a, b, c), glottal stop <ˀ> (30d, e), or
with consonants containing H, such as T ([tʰ], 30f), or K ([kʰ], 30g).

(30) no pronunciation changes, because the syllable begins with H or <ˀ>

a. onóhaˀtaˀ (o-nóh-haˀt-haˀ) ‘soap’
b. sheˀshę́nyǫgwęh (sʰeˀs-hę́n-yǫg-węh) ‘you have overpowered
someone’
c. heˀsáˀdre: (heˀ-sáˀd-re:) ‘drive over there’
d. heyótsˀahdǫh (he-yót-sˀah-dǫh) ‘it is all gone’
e. agáˀahdraˀ (a-gáˀ-ˀahd-raˀ) ‘my basket’
f. ęwáhtehgyaˀk (ę-wáht-hehg-yaˀk) ‘it will erode’
g. koˀáˀgeh (kʰoˀ-ˀáˀ-geh) ‘on my lap’
h. dęhsekahsǫ́:goˀ (dęh-sek-hah-hsǫ́:-goˀ) ‘you will divide it into parts’

Similarly all odd-numbered syllables remain fully pronounced when they are
the first syllable of the word and not preceded by a consonant (31).
8
This example is from Mithun & Henry (1984).

31
3 Sounds and spelling

(31) a. oˀdáihę: (oˀ-dá-ih-hę:) ‘it is hot’

b. oháhaˀ (oh-háh-haˀ) ‘road’

And lastly, final syllables ending with <ˀ> or H are always fully pronounced,
whether they are odd- or even-numbered (32).

(32) a. ga̱ˀdréhdaˀ (gad-réh-daˀ) ‘car, vehicle’

b. oˀwáhǫh (oˀ-wáh-hǫh) ‘meat’

3.10 Pronunciation changes in sentences

Whereas §3.6 described the kinds of pronunciation changes (accent and length-
ening) affecting words in isolation, the following sections describe the pronun-
ciation changes that affect connected words (words in sentences).

3.10.1 Non-final and final accent in neutral sentences

In neutral sentences or ordinary statements, words have either a non-final or final
accent. Non-final accent (§3.6) applies to words in isolation (33) or sentence-final
words (34). In contrast, final accent applies to words in mid-sentence (for which
reason, it is also called continuing accent (35).

(33) word in isolation, non-final accent

Aga:tǫ́:deˀ. ‘I heard it’

(34) sentence-final word, non-final accent

Neˀ gi ̱ˀ tsǫ́: aga:tǫ́:deˀ
The just only I.heard.it
‘I just heard it’

(35) mid-sentence word, final (continuing) accent

Aga:tǫ:déˀ tsǫ:, tę́ˀ ní:ˀ degé:gę:ˀ.
I.heard.it just not I I.didn’t.see.it
‘I just heard it, I didn’t see it.’

When accent placement changes from non-final to final, the vowel lengthen-
ing described in §3.6 and §6 is not affected. For example, the vowels that are
lengthened in non-finally-accented aga:tǫ́:deˀ (34) will remain long in finally-
accented aga:tǫ:déˀ (35).

32
 3.10 Pronunciation changes in sentences

3.10.2 Accent in non-neutral sentences

Other types of accent, for example, accent in non-neutral sentences, is understud-
ied.9 Some preliminary information about emphatic statements and questions is
provided here.10
For emphasis, speakers sometimes use final accent instead of the expected non-
final accent. For example, the single-word sentence dó:gaˀ ‘I do not know’ would
normally have a non-final accent, but in (36), it has a final accent, which seems
to convey emphasis.
(36) Do:gáˀ! ‘I do not know!’ (emphatic sentence)
A special accent pattern is used in “WH questions”.11 The words after the ques-
tion word(s) are accented non-neutrally: either all of the vowels are accented
(they all have a high pitch), or all are unaccented (they all have a low pitch,
Mithun & Henry 1984, 37).
(37) WH-question accent (WH words are italicized)
a. Gaę nhǫ́: dísáhdę́gyǫ́:/disahdęgyǫ:?
Which place you.come.from.there
‘Where do you come from?’
b. Dęˀ hoˀdę́ˀ syá:sǫ́h/sya:sǫh?
What kind you.are.called
‘What is your name?’
c. Dęˀ hoˀdę́ˀ ę́hsnége̱há/ęhsnege̱haˀ?
What kind you.will.drink
‘What will you drink?’
Another accent pattern is found in “yes-no” questions with gęh ‘Q’.12 The word
before gęh is often pronounced with a non-final accent (as if it were sentence-
final, 38). The particle gęh often remains unaccented, and the words after gęh are
accented like a regular sentence.
(38) Wadę́ganyahs gęh satse:nę́ˀ só:wa:s?
it.bites Q your.pet dog
‘Does your dog bite?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 335)
9
Hatcher Jr (2022) will add greatly to our knowledge of this topic.
10
For the accent patterns in speeches, see Foster (1974).
11
The term “WH questions” refers to questions which in English begin with ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’,
‘where’, or ‘why’.
12
“Yes-no” questions elicit answers that may begin with “yes” or “no”.

33
3 Sounds and spelling

3.10.3 Accenting particles and particle groups in sentences

Particles are accented differently from other words, mainly because they are
short words with only one vowel.
Particles tend to be unaccented when they occur next to longer words, which
makes them sound like part of the longer word (39).

(39) Heshawęhę́ tsǫ: ‘he speaks without thinking’

cf. hehsawęhę́tsǫ: (alternative spelling, reflecting the pronunciation)

Particles often occur in groups, which tend to share one accent (as if they were
one word, not several). The particle group (bolded and surrounded by []) at the
beginning of (40a) shares a final accent and the one at the beginning of (40b)
shares a non-final accent. Also (but not illustrated here) particle groups are less
obviously accented than other words (as described in Rueentan 2014), and may
even remain unaccented.

(40) Particle groups

a. [dęˀ hoˀdę́ˀ] niyawę̱ ˀǫ́h neˀ swéˀgeh hne:ˀ
What kind it.happened the long.ago in.fact
‘…what happened a long time ago.’ (Henry 2005)
b. [dęˀ hoˀdę́ˀ gę:s] nigagye̱háˀ neˀ swéˀgeh.
What emphasis kind usually I.did the long.ago
‘…what I used to do a long time ago.’ (Henry 2005)

3.10.4 Accent and Euphonic H in sentences

Euphonic H is described in §19.5.5. The short version is that certain words end
with an H when they are sentence-final (41), but lack the final H when not
sentence-final (42).

(41) Ó:. Dę́ˀ hoˀdę́ˀ haya:sǫh?

Oh, what kind he.is.called
‘Oh. What is his name?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah
dialogue; sentence-final H)

(42) Elsie eya:sǫ́ neˀ gonǫhgę́:t, …

Elsie she.is.called the she.has.fair.hair
‘The fair one is named Elsie…’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah
dialogue; not sentence-final, no H)

34
 Part II

Word classification
Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ words fall into just three classes – nouns, verbs, and par-
ticles. (The residue, atypical words, do not fall neatly into these three classes;
see §36.4.) The classes are defined next, and the distinction between word classes
and speech functions is explained.
4 Defining nouns, verbs, and particles
nouns, verbs, and particles are uniquely defined by the three criteria in Ta-
ble 4.1.
Table 4.1: Three word classes

class/examples num. vowels internal structure closed class

particles max. 1 no yes
i:ˀ ‘I, we’
ihs ‘you’
gę:s ‘usually’
hniˀ ‘and’
nouns min. 2 yes yes
ganǫ́hsaˀ ‘house’
syaˀdáˀgeh ‘on your body’
verbs min. 2 yes no
í:ge:s ‘I eat’
godrę́:no:t ‘she is singing’

Particles have only one vowel, while verbs and nouns require at least two.
Particles also have no internal structure (no prefixes or suffixes, for which see
§36.2), while verbs and nouns do. (In addition, nouns have different prefixes and
suffixes than verbs; see examples 1, 2, and Part III). Finally, verbs form an open
class, while the noun and particle classes are closed.1

(1) a noun with internal structure (prefixes and suffixes)

ganǫhsa̱ˀsǫ́:ˀah

1
Open classes can grow over time, as speakers coin new words. In contrast, closed classes do
not easily admit new words. For example, speakers will create new verbs to denote people,
places, or things, instead of creating new nouns for this function.
4 Defining nouns, verbs, and particles

ga-nǫhs-a̱ˀ-sǫ:ˀah
3s.a-house-nsf-plrz
‘houses’

(2) a verb with internal structure

dewage̱hęna̱ˀtraˀehsdǫ́hǫgyeˀ
de-wage-hęnaˀtra-ˀe-hsd-ǫh-ǫgyeˀ
du-1s.a-knife-hit-caus-stat-prog
‘I am going along stabbing things.’

A small group of atypical words do not neatly fall into the above categories.
They are described in §36.4.

4.1 Word class versus speech function

While it is true that Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ has just three word classes, two of
these word classes perform many more speech functions. The difference between
speech function and word class is explained below.
The function of a word is often different from its class. To illustrate, let us take
it for granted for now that degáhswa̱ ˀne:t ‘pie’ (3a) is a verb. Despite being a
verb, degáhswa̱ ˀne:t functions as a “noun” in that it names an object in sentence
(3b) – naming objects is one of the primary functions of nouns.

(3) a verb functioning as a “noun”

a. degáhswa̱ˀne:t ‘pie’ (literally, ‘its upper back is doubled’ – possibly
referring to the pie plate)
b. Swá:yęˀ diˀ hne:ˀ sga̱hoˀdę́:ˀęh degáhswa̱ˀne:t?
you.have so in.fact some pie
‘Do yous have any kind of pie?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 294,
Dwade:kǫ́:nih dialogue)

Table 4.2 summarizes the relationship between word class and speech function.
While nouns only function as “nouns”, verbs and particles perform all of the
remaining speech functions.
In this work, small caps denote word classes, and double quotes refer to speech
functions –wherever the distinction is relevant. For example, degáhswa̱ ˀne:t ‘pie’
is a verb functioning as a “noun”, while ganǫ́hsaˀ ‘house’ is a noun functioning
as a “noun”.

38
 4.1 Word class versus speech function

Table 4.2: word class versus word function

word class speech function word class and speech

function
nouns “noun” noun functioning as a “noun”
verbs “verb”, “noun”, verb functioning as a “verb”,
“pronoun”, “adjective”, “noun”, etc.
“adverb”
particles “pronoun”, “adverb”, particle functioning as a
“conjunction”, “pronoun”, “adverb”, etc.
“relativizer”, “degree word”,
“question word”, “filler” or
“fluency word” (discourse
particle)

Typically, speech functions are divided into major and minor ones (for reasons
not relevant to this discussion). The five major speech functions of “noun”, “pro-
noun”, “adjective”, “adverb”, and “verb” are covered in the following chapters,
while the minor speech functions in Figure 4.2 are covered in Part V and Part VI.
Also, since the following chapters are organized according to function (rather
than word class), they often cover a range of items: for example, the section
on “pronouns” describes anything functioning as a “pronoun”, including verbs,
some particles, and the pronominal prefixes.

39
5 “Nouns” (words functioning as nouns)
Words functioning as “nouns” name people, places, things, ideas, and abstrac-
tions. Both nouns proper and words functioning as “nouns”, are described next.

5.1 Basic nouns

The function of basic nouns is to name people, places, objects, and abstract con-
cepts. Basic nouns consist of a prefix, a stem, and a suffix (defined in §36.2). Most
basic nouns end with the ⌊-aˀ⌋ noun stem former (nsf) suffix. Sometimes this
suffix is ⌊-ęˀ⌋ or ⌊-a:ˀ⌋ instead. (For examples, see §A.1). The suffix just identifies
the word as a noun, while the stem carries the core meaning.
Most basic nouns begin with a prefix, either ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊o-⌋ (1), while some begin
with ⌊ę-⌋ or ⌊wę-⌋ (2), and some with ⌊a-⌋ (3).1

(1) a. ga̱há:daˀ ‘forest, bush’

b. onę́nyo̱ˀgwaˀ ‘pills’

(2) a. ęhníˀda:ˀ ‘a month, a moon’

b. ęˀníhsga:ˀ, węˀníhsga:ˀ ‘wheel, circle, hoop’

(3) a. adáˀditraˀ ‘cane’

b. adęnidéǫsraˀ ‘the act of kindness’
1
It is possible to analyse [a] in this type of word as the noun prefix counterpart (i.a) of the verb
prefix /wa-/ 3s.a ‘it’ (i.b). Alternatively, [a] may be analysed as part of the stem, in which case,
nouns beginning with [a] have no prefix and are atypical (which is defined in §5.7.)

(i) a. akyęda̱hkwaˀ
a/ø-kyęda̱hkw-aˀ
3s.a-/no.prefix.chair-nsf
‘chair’
b. wakyęda̱hgówanęh
w-akyęda̱hg-owanęh
3s.a-chair-big.stat
‘it is a big chair’
5 “Nouns” (words functioning as nouns)

The type of pronominal prefix must be memorized for nouns (§22): for exam-
ple, ga̱ há:daˀ ‘forest, bush’ always begins with ⌊ga-⌋, and onę́nyo̱ˀgwaˀ ‘pills’ can
only begin with ⌊o-⌋. However, a few basic nouns can take either ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊o-⌋ (4).
Still others either begin with ⌊o-⌋ or are missing a prefix (5). Finally, some begin
either with ⌊o-⌋ or with ⌊a-⌋ (6, see previous footnote about the analysis of [a]).

(4) a. ga̱hnyę́da̱hsaˀ, ohnyę́da̱hsaˀ ‘beak’

b. ga̱hǫ́ˀji ̱hsdaˀ, ohǫ́ˀji ̱hsdaˀ ‘a motor, engine’
c. ga̱hsdágwaˀ, ohsdágwaˀ ‘dirty clothes’
d. gajíhoha:ˀ, ojíhoha:ˀ ‘straight pin, pin, brooch, safety pin’
e. ga̱héhnaˀ, ohéhnaˀ ‘cargo, bundle, load’
f. gáidrę̱ hdaˀ, owídrę̱ hdaˀ ‘sleep’, ‘a dream’

(5) a. ohsgwáęˀdaˀ, sgwáęˀdaˀ ‘coltsfoot’

b. ohǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ, hǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ ‘potato’
c. ohtahyǫ́:ni:, tahyǫ́:ni: ‘wolf’

(6) a. ogyáǫhsraˀ, agyáǫhsraˀ ‘a trick’

b. odǫ́hne̱ˀtsaˀ, adǫ́hne̱ˀtsaˀ ‘ladder or stairs’

The basic noun template in Table 5.1 summarizes the order and types of prefix,
stem, and suffix characteristic of basic nouns.
Table 5.1: Basic nouns (alienable)

pronominal stem nsf

prefix
⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a noun ⌊-aˀ⌋
⌊o-⌋ 3s.p
⌊(a-)⌋ 3s.a

5.1.1 Basic nouns with nominalizer (nmlz) suffix

Several basic nouns have an additional suffix (the nominalizer, nmlz), which
appears after the stem and before the nsf suffix (7). The nominalizer allows a
verb stem like ⌊tgiˀ⌋ ‘ugly’ to become a basic noun.

42
 5.2 Body part nouns

(7) gatgíˀtraˀ
ga-tgíˀ-tr-aˀ
3s.a-ugly.stat-nmlz-nsf
‘junk’

The template for such nouns is shown in Table 5.2. For more examples, see
§A.1.
Table 5.2: Basic noun with nmlz

pronominal stem nmlz nsf

prefix
⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a verb ⌊-tr⌋ ⌊-aˀ⌋
⌊o-⌋ 3s.p ⌊-hsr⌋
⌊(a-)⌋ 3s.a

5.2 Body part nouns

Body part nouns function to name body parts.2 They begin with a pronominal
prefix (in bold) describing the possessor of the body part, and end with ⌊-aˀgeh⌋
on.

(8) a. kyohsáˀgeh, kyuhsáˀgeh ‘on my elbow’

b. sǫtsáˀgeh ‘on your (s.) knee’
c. ekséˀda̱ˀgeh ‘on her belly’
d. enę́tsa̱ˀgeh ‘on her arm’
e. ga̱hnyęda̱hsáˀgeh ‘on its beak’
f. ga̱hsíˀda̱ˀgeh ‘on my foot’
g. ga̱hyagwiyáˀgeh ‘on my toes’

While such nouns end with ⌊-aˀgeh⌋ on, the suffix meaning is often not promi-
nent: in (9), ge̱hsína̱ ˀgeh is understood to mean ‘my leg’, rather than ‘on my leg’.

2
Also known as inalienable nouns, they describe parts that are not normally separable from
the body.

43
5 “Nouns” (words functioning as nouns)

(9) Awatǫgaék ge̱hsína̱ˀgeh.

it.stiffened.up on.my.leg
‘My leg stiffened up.’
Table 5.3 shows the order and types of prefix, stem, and suffix characteristic
of body part nouns. For more examples, see §A.2.
Table 5.3: Body part (inalienable) nouns

pronominal stem external locative

prefix on
a seriesa noun ⌊-aˀgeh⌋

a
For a series, see §22.

5.2.1 ‘Detached’ or unpossessed body part nouns

Body part noun stems (described in the previous section) can also be inflected
(§36.3) with the same prefixes and suffixes as basic nouns (10). Nouns inflected
in this way tend to have the special meaning of being detached (or alienable,
11). They also appear in a type of compound noun (12, §5.3). For more examples,
see §A.3.
(10) body part noun inflected as a basic noun
a. á:gwa̱hdaˀ, ogwáhdaˀ ‘sole, ball of foot’
b. awę́yǫ̱hsaˀ ‘heart’
c. awę́ˀna̱hsaˀ ‘tongue’
d. awę́ˀyo̱hga:ˀ ‘thumb’
e. ogáhaˀ ‘eye’
f. ogǫ́daˀ ‘bridge of one’s nose’
g. ogǫ́hsaˀ ‘face’
(11) detached meaning
a. onę́:tsaˀ ‘arm’ (said, for example, when holding doll’s arm for show)
b. onǫ́ˀa:ˀ ‘a severed head’
(12) compound noun
gwihsgwíhs onǫ́ˀa:ˀ ‘pig’s head’

44
 5.3 Compound nouns

5.3 Compound nouns

Compound nouns consist of two words (or more) that function together to name
a single object, idea, abstraction, person, etc. The last word of the compound de-
scribes a general category (as in oˀwáhǫh ‘meat’), while the non-final words de-
note a sub-category (a ‘type of’ something, as in gwihsgwíhs oˀwáhǫh ‘pig meat’,
(13) - (16) and Table 5.4.

(13) gwihsgwíhs oˀwáhǫh

pig meat
‘pig meat, pork chop, bacon’

(14) dewahǫhdé:s oˀwáhǫh

deer meat
‘deer meat, venison’

(15) dakshaeˀdóhs oˀwáhǫh

chicken meat
‘chicken’

(16) ohsohgwi:yóˀs watgǫhsgwa̱ˀtróˀ onǫhsagahę́:dǫˀ

nice.colours window.pane windows
‘stained glass windows’

Table 5.4: compound nouns

non-final word(s) final word

an instance of a a general category
category

5.4 Verbs that function as nouns

verbs often function as “nouns”, naming a person, place, thing, or abstraction.
Two types are described next.

45
5 “Nouns” (words functioning as nouns)

5.4.1 “Instrumental nouns”

“Instrumental nouns” are verbs functioning as “nouns”. They end with the ⌊-
(h)kw-haˀ⌋ instr-hab suffix combination, and typically denote an object used as
an instrument. (Related verbs are shown in the comparative “cf.” examples in 17.)

(17) a. ehyádǫ̱hkwaˀ ‘pencil’ (literally, ‘instrument that people write with’)

cf. ehyá:dǫh ‘she or someone writes’
b. ǫtgahiˀdáhkwaˀ ‘toy’ (literally, ‘instrument that people play with’)
cf. ǫtgáhiˀtaˀ ‘what she or someone plays with’

Instrumental nouns most commonly have the structure shown in Table 5.5. For
a list of examples, see §A.8.
Table 5.5: Instrumental nouns

pronominal stem type instr-hab

prefix
⌊e-⌋, ⌊ǫ-⌋, etc. verb ⌊-hkw-haˀ⌋
3s.fi.a ([-hkwaˀ])

5.4.2 Words for human beings

Several verbs function as “nouns” in naming human beings, or the stages of
being human. As verbs, such words often have a sentence-like meaning (as shown
by the translations in 18). A list of example words is provided in §5.4.2.

(18) a. nihú:ˀuh ‘little boy’ (noun-like meaning), ‘he is small’ (verbal or

sentence-like meaning)
b. hǫgwéˀdase:ˀ ‘young man’ (noun-like meaning), ‘he is a new person’
(verbal or sentence-like meaning)
c. nitawenǫ́:hah ‘middle-aged male’ (noun-like meaning), ‘he has come
from somewhere’ (verbal or sentence-like meaning)

46
 5.5 Stative nouns and agentive stative nouns

5.4.3 “Meaningful” verbal nouns

“Meaningful” verbal nouns are verbs that function as “nouns”, naming objects,
places, and abstract concepts (19). As verbs, they have sentence-like meanings.3
Many of the words listed in the “Related” sections are verbs functioning as
“nouns”.

(19) a. degahęnáˀtra̱ˀse:ˀ ‘scissors’ (literally, ‘it has two blades’)

b. ga̱hnyaˀsesgó:wah ‘giraffe’ (literally, ‘it has a great big long neck’)
c. hadihnyǫˀǫ́hsratęhs ‘ironworkers’ (literally, ‘they climb iron (for a
living)’)
d. degaihó:węhs ‘computer’ (literally, ‘it splits words’)

Related
⇒ Clans, §D.4
⇒ Nations, §D.5
⇒ Chiefs, §D.6

5.5 Stative nouns and agentive stative nouns

Stative nouns are related to verbs in the stative aspect (see §15.5.4.3). They often
denote the result of an action (see example 21).
There are two types of stative nouns. The first type, stative nouns proper
(20), either begin with [a] (20a)4 or with the ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a prefix (20b). They end
with the ⌊-ǫ-:-ˀ⌋ stat-nmlz-nsf combination.

(20) stative nouns

a. adówadǫ:ˀ ‘the hunt’
b. gayaˀdowéhdǫ:ˀ ‘the idea of thinking’

3
This observation may explain why speakers say that Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ words mean more
than English words do: “You don’t need a thesaurus in Gayogo̱ho:nǫnéha:ˀ.” (unattributed quo-
tation).
4
As mentioned in an earlier footnote, nouns beginning with [a] can be analyzed as beginning
with ⌊ø-⌋ (no pronominal prefix), or as beginning with ⌊a-⌋ 3s.a (a prefix unique to nouns).

47
5 “Nouns” (words functioning as nouns)

The template for stative nouns is shown in Table 5.6. A list is provided in §A.5.

Table 5.6: Stative nouns

pronominal prefix stem stative nominal combo

⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a ⌊wa-⌋ ⌊(a-)⌋ verb ⌊-ǫ-:-ˀ⌋ stat-nmlz-nsf

The second type, agentive stative nouns, are verbs in the stative aspect,
functioning as “nouns”. They take a ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊wa-⌋ 3s.a pronominal prefix, and
end with a stative suffix such as ⌊-ǫh⌋ or ⌊-ǫ:⌋ (21).5

(21) agentive stative “nouns”

a. gagánya̱ˀgǫh ‘payment’
b. wagyǫ: ‘something thrown away’, ‘discards’

The template for agentive stative nouns is shown in Table 5.7. A list is
provided in §A.4.

Table 5.7: Agentive stative nouns

pronominal prefix stem stative aspect

⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a ⌊wa-⌋ 3s.a verb ⌊-ǫh⌋, ⌊-ǫ:⌋, (etc.)

5.6 Incorporated noun stems

Incorporated noun stems are basic or body-part noun stems (for stems, see §36.2).
They appear within a verb – a state of affairs known as noun incorporation
(§14).
5
Agentive stative verbs functioning as “nouns” take 3s.a ‘it’ prefixes. In contrast, regular stative
aspect verbs typically take 3s.p ‘it’ prefixes, as in the following example, which is related to
(21b).

(i) heyó:gyǫ:
he-y-ó:gy-ǫ:
cis-3s.p-throw-stat
‘it has thrown it’

48
 5.7 Atypical nouns

The following examples illustrate two independent nouns and their related
noun stems (22), (23a), two incorporating verbs (22), (23b), and the resulting
words in which the noun is incorporated into the verb (22), (23c).6

(22) incorporated basic nouns

a. o-wí:y-aˀ ‘offspring’ (stand-alone noun) → ⌊wiy⌋ (noun stem)
b. ahá-nę̱ hsgoˀ ‘he will steal’ (incorporating verb)
c. aha-wiy-á-nę̱ hsgoˀ ‘he kidnapped a child’ (incorporated noun + verb)

(23) incorporated body part nouns

a. ha-hsíˀd-a̱ˀgeh ‘on his foot’ (stand-alone noun) → ⌊hsiˀd⌋ (noun stem)
b. o-tgiˀ ‘it is dirty’, ‘it is ugly’ (incorporating verb)
c. ho-hsíˀd-a-tgiˀ ‘his feet are dirty’ (incorporated noun + verb)

Some incorporated nouns also take an extra suffix when they incorporate – a
noun increment (incr) (24).

(24) hǫgweˀdí:yo:
h-ǫgwe-ˀd-í:yo:
3s.m.a-person-incr-nice.stat
‘he is a nice person’
cf. hǫ́:gweh (atypical word)
h-ǫ́:gwe-h
3s.m.a-person-euph.h
‘man’

A list of frequently-incorporated nouns can be found in §A.7.

5.7 Atypical nouns

Atypical nouns lack a pronominal prefix, which is required for all other nouns,
or are otherwise odd. They function as “nouns” (naming people, objects, and
abstract concepts).
Some atypical nouns consist of two repeated syllables (reduplication) and
in many cases, they imitate the sound of the animal they name (onomatopoeia
25). Such nouns have no prefixes or suffixes.

6
English words with a structure similar to (22), (23c) include ‘brain-wash’ and ‘white-wash’.

49
5 “Nouns” (words functioning as nouns)

(25) a. dihsdihs ‘house woodpecker’

b. diˀdi:ˀ ‘blue jay’
c. duwísduwi:ˀ ‘killdeer’
d. gáˀga:ˀ ‘crow’, ‘raven’
Like the examples in (25), the atypical nouns in (26) also have no prefixes (or
suffixes).
(26) a. dago:s, dagu:s ‘cat’
b. só:wa:s ‘dog’
Some atypical nouns end with the ⌊-aˀ⌋ nsf suffix (27), but are missing a pronom-
inal prefix (no.prefix). (Similar examples were described in the section on basic
nouns, §5.1.)
(27) a. nawę́ˀdaˀ
ø-nawęˀd-aˀ
no.prefix-sugar-nsf
‘sugar’
b. tsaˀgę́:daˀ
ø-tsaˀgę́:d-aˀ
no.prefix-corn.tassel.nsf
‘corn tassel’
c. yahgęhdaˀ
ø-yahgęhd-aˀ
no.prefix-morel-nsf
‘morel, black type of mushroom’
Some atypical nouns begin with GW and mostly refer to birds or other animals
that have some ability to fly or jump high. Like other atypical nouns, these nouns
have no pronominal prefix (28).
(28) a. gwáoh ‘screech owl’
b. gwáˀda: ‘flying squirrel’
c. gwaˀyǫˀ ‘rabbit’
d. gwę̱ ˀdihs ‘night hawk’
Some atypical nouns begin with JI or J, and mainly denote animals (including
some birds) (29). Many such nouns have a verb-like internal structure, but like
other atypical nouns, do not have a pronominal prefix.

50
 5.7 Atypical nouns

(29) a. jidę́:ˀęh
ji-dę́:-ˀęh
ji-stem-dim
‘bird’
b. jíhnyo̱ˀgęˀ
ji-hny-oˀgęˀ
ji-stick-together.stat
‘chipmunk’
c. jihsda: ‘grasshopper’ (possibly related to ⌊ga-jihsd-aˀ⌋ ‘lamp, light’)

Some atypical nouns begin with SGWA, which possibly has something to do
with frogs. Again, these atypical nouns have no pronominal prefix (30).

(30) a. sgwagwáǫdǫˀ ‘toad’

cf. (possibly,
sgwagwá-ǫd-ǫˀ
frog-rooted.distr.stat)
b. sgwá:yęh ‘otter’
cf. (possibly,
sgwa-yęh
frog-verb.stat)
c. sgwáˀahdaˀ ‘frog’
cf. (possibly,
sgwáˀahd-aˀ
frog-nsf)
cf. (possibly,
sgwáˀ-ahdaˀ
frog-be.full.of.food.stat)

Finally, the atypical nouns in (31) resemble verbs but otherwise – like other
atypical nouns – lack a pronominal prefix.

(31) a. dogriyaˀgǫˀ ‘buffalo’

cf. (possibly includes
⌊+iyaˀg-ǫh⌋
cut.across-stat)
b. drę́:na: ‘skunk’
cf. (possibly,
ø-drę́:n-a:
no.prefix-smell-hold.stat)

51
5 “Nouns” (words functioning as nouns)

c. hehshai: ‘fox’
cf. (possibly,
ø-hehsa-i:ˀ
no.prefix-decayed.tree-coloured.stat)
d. tgwiyó:gęˀ ‘channel catfish’
cf. (possibly,
ø-t-gwiy-ó:gę:
no.prefix-srf-twig-together.stat)
e. tsahgó:wa:ˀ ‘pigeon’
cf. (possibly includes
⌊-go:wah⌋)
big)

The template for atypical nouns is shown in Table 5.8. For a list of atypical
nouns, see §A.6.
Table 5.8: Atypical nouns

pronominal prefix stem

ø (no.prefix) noun (+suffixes)
verb (+suffixes)

5.8 Kinship terms (atypical words)

Kinship terms function to name family members, and (more metaphorically)
sides or moieties in the League, the longhouse, or clans (32).

(32) a. heˀgę́:ˀęh ‘my younger brother’

b. gakéno̱haˀahsǫ́:ˀǫh ‘my aunts’
c. hehjíˀah ‘my older brother’
d. ǫgyá:gyoh ‘my brother-in-law, sister-in-law’
e. haˀnih ‘my father’
f. ǫgyá:tsih ‘my friend, my boyfriend, my girlfriend’
g. haˀní:hah ‘my godfather’
h. hehso:t ‘my grandfather’
i. agya:dę́:nǫhk ‘my relative’

52
 5.8 Kinship terms (atypical words)

Many kinship terms are atypical, in the sense that they have both verb-like and
noun-like properties (Koenig & Michelson 2010). For example, the interactive
type of pronominal prefix (§20.7) present in many kinship terms is otherwise
used exclusively with verbs.
In verbs, interactive pronominal prefixes refer to two people or groups of peo-
ple (such as the speaker and a male, for the verb in 33a). However for kinship
terms, the same kind of pronominal prefix refers to just one person or group
(such as a male in 33b. Also see Koenig & Michelson 2010: 170–171). (For kinship
term pronominal prefix choice, see §23.)

(33) a. henǫ́hkwaˀ ‘I love him’, with ⌊he-⌋ 1s>3s.m referring to the speaker
and a male (verb)
b. heˀgę́:ˀęh ‘my younger brother’, with ⌊he-⌋ 1s>3s.m referring to a
male (kinship term)

While kinship terms take verb-like pronominal prefixes, they are not other-
wise verbal. For example, they cannot be negated in the same way as verbs
(Koenig & Michelson 2010: 180). Verbs are negated with ⌊tęˀ de-⌋, while kinship
terms are negated with ⌊tęˀ … deˀgę:⌋ (34).7

(34) Tęˀ deˀóyanreˀ.

not it.is.not.good
‘it is not good.’ (negated verb)

(35) Tęˀ kehawahk deˀgę:.

not my.daughter it.is.not
‘she is not my daughter’ (negated kinship term)

The template for kinship terms is shown in Table 5.9. For a list of kinship terms,
see §D.1.
Table 5.9: Kinship terms

interactive kinship stem

pronominal
prefix
⌊he-⌋, etc. ⌊ˀgę:ˀęh⌋, etc.

7
Kehte Deer, p.c.

53
5 “Nouns” (words functioning as nouns)

5.8.1 Terms of address

Terms of address are similar to kinship terms. However, their function is to
address a person by their kinship status instead of using their name (36). For a
list of such words, see §D.2.

(36) Sgę:nǫ́:, gwadreˀ! ‘Hello, granddaughter!’

5.9 Loanwords (borrowed words)

Loanwords, adapted from other languages, function as “verbs” (37) and as “nouns”
(38–40). In Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ, loanwords are often used jokingly (37c, d).

(37) a. dehsádesmack ‘smack your lips!’

b. ató:strok ‘he had a stroke’
c. ebossgó:wah ‘she is the big boss’
d. ęgadehórsenęht ‘I will get off a horse’ (humorous expression)
e. deyagodehighlightdǫh ‘where she has it highlighted’

Some loanwords sound similar to the original word in the source language
(37–38).

(38) jigupsǫ́:ˀǫh ‘cups’ (said to be a “slang” word for ‘tea cups’)

Other loanwords have been adapted to sound better in Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ.

For example, P in the source languages in (39) became GW or G in Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ
(39).

(39) a. gwę́:niˀ ‘penny’ (from English ‘penny’)

b. dagu:s ‘cat’ (from Dutch Der Poes ‘the cat’)

Some loanwords look even more like regular Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ words be-
cause they have acquired Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ prefixes or suffixes. The nouns in
(40a, b) begin with ⌊o-⌋ or ⌊ga-⌋, like basic nouns, and the ones in (40b–e) are
incorporated into verbs and either have noun increments (incr) (40b) or nom-
inalizer (nmlz) suffixes (40c–e).

(40) a. odi:
o-di:
3s.p-tea
‘tea’ basic noun

54
 5.9 Loanwords (borrowed words)

b. ogwę́niˀ̱ daˀ
o-gwęni-ˀd-aˀ
3s.p-penny-incr-nsf
‘penny’ basic noun
c. gajobtrowá:nęh
ga-job-tr-owá:n-ęh
3s.a-job-nmlz-big-stat
‘big job’ verb
d. gajobtrí:yo:
ga-job-tr-í:yo:
3s.a-job-nmlz-good.stat
‘nice job’ verb
e. hojobtrí:yo:
ho-job-tr-í:yo:
3s.m.p-job-nmlz-good.stat
‘he has a good job’ verb

55
6 “Pronouns” (words and affixes
functioning as pronouns)
“Pronouns” are words, phrases, or prefixes whose function is to substitute for
nouns or noun phrases. (Noun phrases consist of a noun plus related words.) For
example, the emphatic “pronoun” háǫhęˀ (1a) can refer to or substitute for any
male in a conversation, including the noun in (1b) and the noun phrases in (1c–d).
The various types of pronouns are described next.

(1) a. háǫhęˀ ‘he alone’ (emphatic “pronoun”)

b. háǫhęˀ = haˀnih ‘my father’ (kinship term)
c. háǫhęˀ = neˀ Dave hyanóˀseh ‘your uncle Dave’ (noun phrase)
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 339, Oˀdréhdatgiˀ dialogue)
d. háǫhęˀ = neˀ hahędage̱hó:nǫˀ ‘the farmer’ (noun phrase)

6.1 Emphatic “pronouns”

Like other pronouns, emphatic “pronouns” substitute for nouns or noun phrases.
However, emphatic “pronouns” also add emphasis in the context of a conversa-
tion. For example, háǫhęˀ ‘he alone’ in (2) emphasizes who actually spoke (that
is, he, not someone else).

(2) haǫhę́ˀ ahęˀ.

he.alone he.spoke
‘He spoke.’

Emphatic “pronouns” can be omitted from the sentence. While this causes a
change in meaning (the emphasis is lost), the result is still a complete sentence
(3). Pronouns like háǫhęˀ are optional because verbs like ahęˀ ‘he spoke’ already
have a pronominal prefix (see Part IV).

(3) Ahęˀ. ‘He spoke.’

6 “Pronouns” (words and affixes functioning as pronouns)

The words functioning as emphatic “pronouns” are either particles or verbs.

The following emphatic “pronouns” are described in the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ ‘I’, ‘we’ particle

⇒ I:s, Ni:s ‘you’ (any number of people) particle
⇒ Haǫhęˀ, Haǫhaˀ ‘he’ verb
⇒ Gaǫhęˀ, Gaǫhaˀ ‘she’ verb
⇒ Aǫhęˀ, Aǫhaˀ ‘it’ verb
⇒ Honǫ:hęˀ ‘they (males)’ verb
⇒ Gonǫ:hęˀ ‘they (females or mixed)’ verb
⇒ Onǫ:hęˀ ‘they (animals)’ verb

The following particle groups include emphatic “pronouns” and are described
in the Particle dictionary, §C. Any emphatic “pronoun” from the preceding list
can be used in place of the emphatic “pronouns” shown below.

Related

⇒ Dęˀ ni:ˀ ‘I am for sure’

⇒ Seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ ‘me too’, ’us too’
⇒ I:ˀ hne:ˀ ‘no, I am’
⇒ I:ˀgeh (gwa:dih) ‘on my side’, ‘as for me’
⇒ I:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘me first’
⇒ I:ˀ seˀ ‘I am’
⇒ Nę: ne:ˀ I:s ‘how about you?’
⇒ Nę: diˀ Ni:s ‘how about you?’
⇒ Ni:ˀ gyę:ˀ, ni:ˀ gę:ˀ ‘I did it’
⇒ Tęˀ I:ˀ ‘not me’, ‘not us’
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ ni:ˀ ‘no, not me’

58
 6.2 Possessive “pronouns”

6.2 Possessive “pronouns”

Like other pronouns, possessive “pronouns” substitute for nouns or noun phrases.
Possessive “pronouns” specifically substitute for a possessed object (4).

(4) a. Tęˀ gęh neˀ desá:węh?

Not Q the it.isn’t.yours
‘Isn’t that yours?’
b. Ne:ˀ hne:ˀ gó:węh.
it.is in.fact hers
‘That’s hers, in fact.’

The words functioning as possessive “pronouns” are verbs. The following pos-
sessive “pronouns” are described in the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Aga:węh ‘it’s mine’, ’it’s ours’, ‘my’, ’our’

⇒ Sa:węh ‘it’s yours’ (one person’s), ‘your’
⇒ Ho:węh ‘it’s his’
⇒ Go:węh ‘it’s hers’, ’it’s someone’s’
⇒ O:węh ‘it belongs to it’ (an animal), ‘its’
⇒ Hona:węh ‘it’s theirs’ (males only), ‘it belongs to them’ (males only),
‘their’
⇒ Gona:węh ‘it’s theirs’ (females or mixed group), ‘it belongs to them’
(females or mixed group), ‘their’
⇒ Ona:węh ‘it’s theirs’ (animals), ‘it belongs to them’ (animals), ‘their’

6.3 Demonstrative “pronouns”

Like other pronouns, demonstrative “pronouns” (5) also substitute for nouns or
noun phrases. Demonstrative “pronouns” additionally provide information about
a person’s or object’s relative distance from the speaker.

(5) Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ ho:wę́h nę́:-gyęh.

it.is also in.fact it.is.his this.one
‘This one is also his.’

59
6 “Pronouns” (words and affixes functioning as pronouns)

(6) Sǫ: hne:ˀ nˀáht tó:-gyęh?

Who in.fact a.certain.person that.one
‘Who is that?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah dialogue)
The words functioning as demonstrative “pronouns” are all particles or par-
ticle groups. The following demonstrative “pronouns” are described in the Par-
ticle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ ⌊-gyęh⌋ element meaning ‘this, ‘that’

⇒ Gwa̱ -toh ‘that one’, ’just such a one’
⇒ Neˀ toh ‘that is’, ‘that one’
⇒ Neˀ to: ne:ˀ ‘that’s the one’
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ’these’
⇒ Nę:-dah ‘this’, ’this way’
⇒ Nę:-gyęh ‘this one’
⇒ Si:-gyęh ‘that one over there’
⇒ To, To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’
⇒ To:-gyęh ‘that one’
⇒ Toh-jih ‘just the one’, ’just such a one’

6.4 Definite “pronouns”

Like other pronouns, definite “pronouns” also substitute for nouns or noun phrases.
In addition, definite “pronouns” are used when the object or person (etc.) is
known to both speaker and listener. The words functioning as definite “pro-
nouns” are all particles or particle groups. The following definite “pronouns”
are described in the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Dęˀ gwaˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘whatever one (of several)’

⇒ Gaę ‘which’

60
 6.5 Indefinite “pronouns”

⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni- ‘whichever one (of several)’, ’whichever person’

⇒ Hoˀdęˀ ‘kind’
⇒ Shęh hoˀdęˀ ‘a certain something’, ’that which’

6.5 Indefinite “pronouns”

Like other pronouns, indefinite “pronouns” also substitute for nouns or noun
phrases. In addition, indefinite “pronouns” are used when the object or person
(etc.) is not known to the speaker. The indefinite “pronouns” are particles, par-
ticle groups, or combinations of verb+particle. The following indefinite “pro-
nouns” are described in the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Do: gwaˀ ni:yǫ: ‘a certain amount’, ’a certain measure’, ’however

much’
⇒ ⌊-ga:ˀ⌋ element (referring to living beings)
⇒ Gwe:gǫh, Agwe:gǫh, Ogwe:gǫh ‘all’, ’everything’
⇒ Hegwe:gǫh, Neˀ hegwe:gǫh ‘the whole thing’
⇒ Hejo:yaˀ tsǫ: ‘another thing again’
⇒ ⌊-nˀaht, -noht⌋ element meaning ‘some person’
⇒ O:yaˀ ‘another’, ’other’, ’else’
⇒ Sga̱ hoˀdę:ˀęh ‘something’
⇒ Sga̱ hoˀdę:ˀęh o:yaˀ ‘anything else’
⇒ Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ’any (person, thing)’
⇒ Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht ‘anybody at all’, ’anyone at all’, ’any living thing’,
’somebody’, ’whoever’
⇒ Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht o:yaˀ ‘someone else’
⇒ Sǫ:-ga:ˀ ‘any one’, ’any living thing’
⇒ Sǫ:-ga:ˀah ‘someone’, ’anyone’, ’anything (living)’

61
6 “Pronouns” (words and affixes functioning as pronouns)

6.6 Interrogative “pronouns”

Like other pronouns, interrogative “pronouns” substitute for nouns or noun phrases.
However, interrogative “pronouns” are used in questions, while the “pronouns”
described elsewhere are used in statements. The words functioning as interrog-
ative “pronouns” are particles. The following interrogative “pronouns” are de-
scribed in the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ’how’

⇒ Gaę ‘which’
⇒ Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ’any (person, thing)’

6.7 Negative “pronouns”

Several “pronouns” have negative counterparts, formed by adding tęˀ ‘not’ before
the “pronoun”. The following negative “pronouns” are described in the Particle
dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Tęˀ gwa̱ ˀ-toh ‘none at all’

⇒ Tęˀ giˀ ni:ˀ ‘no, not me’
⇒ Tęˀ i:ˀ ‘not me’, ‘not us’
⇒ Tęˀ sga̱ hoˀdęˀ ‘nothing’, ’not anything’
⇒ Tęˀ sǫ:-ga:ˀ ’nobody’, ’no one’

6.8 Reflexive and reciprocal “pronouns”

The function of reflexive “pronoun” (meaning ‘oneself’) is performed by the
⌊adad-⌋ reflexive prefix (§13.1), and the function of reciprocal “pronoun” (mean-
ing ‘one another’) is performed by the combination of the ⌊de-⌋ dualic (§12.2.6)

62
 6.9 Personal “pronouns” (pronominal prefixes)

and ⌊adad-⌋ reciprocal prefixes (see §20.6.1).1 The ⌊adad-⌋ prefix is used with
verbs that express two roles, such as the perceiver and the percept, or the “doer”
and undergoer. (For roles, see §20.6.1.)
The ⌊-adad⌋ refl prefix means that the verb’s two roles are fulfilled by the
same person or group: for example, in (7) both the perceiver and the perceived
are the same person.

(7) ⌊-adad⌋ refl

agadadé:gęˀ ‘I saw myself’ (with refl)
cf. agé:gęˀ ‘I saw (it)’ (no refl)

The ⌊de-⌋ du and ⌊-adad⌋ rec combination denotes an action that affects all of
the participants in a similar or reciprocal manner: for example, in (8), everyone
benefits equally.

(8) ⌊-adad⌋ rec (pronounced as ⌊-adag⌋ in this example)

dedwadagyénawahs ‘let us all help one another’ (with du and rec)
cf. dwayénawahs ‘let all of us help (it)’ (no du or rec)

6.9 Personal “pronouns” (pronominal prefixes)

Like other pronouns, personal “pronouns” substitute for nouns or noun phrases.
However, personal “pronouns” are not emphatic in meaning, which distinguishes
them from emphatic “pronouns” such as háǫhęˀ ‘he alone’ (see §6.1.)
The function of personal “pronouns” is performed by the pronominal prefixes
(bolded in 9). Pronominal prefixes are required by all verbs and most nouns (ex-
cept the atypical words described in §36.4).

(9) a. swahnę́:ye:s ‘you all are tall’

b. hahnę́:ye:s ‘he is tall’
c. ehnę́:ye:s ‘she or someone is tall’
d. ga̱hnę́:ye:s ‘it (animal) is tall’

6.9.1 Relative “pronouns”

The pronominal prefixes described in the previous section may sometimes func-
tion as relative “pronouns” in a specific type of noun phrase (a group of related
words, functioning as a “noun”). The noun phrase in question consists of a “noun”
1
The ⌊adad-⌋ prefix has two linguistic names, depending on how it is used.

63
6 “Pronouns” (words and affixes functioning as pronouns)

and a dependent clause (a type of sentence) that modifies the meaning of the
“noun” in some way (see §36.9.2). For example in (10), the meaning of neˀ hagehsot-
gę́hę:ˀ ‘my late grandfather’ is further specified by the dependent clause to-gyę́h
dahayagę́ˀ ‘he was going out from there’ (shown in square brackets).
The pronominal prefix in the dependent clause creates a link between the
clause and the noun it modifies, thus relating the noun to the clause. In example
(10), the prefix ⌊ha-⌋ 3s.m.a in dahayagęˀ ‘he went out’ performs this function.

(10) …neˀ hagehsotgęhę́:ˀ to-gyę́h dahayagę́ˀ…

The my.late.grandfather there he.went.out…
…my late grandfather, (who) was going out from there… (Henry, 2005)

64
7 “Adjectives” (words functioning as
adjectives)
Words functioning as “adjectives” describe qualities, characteristics, or states.
Stative-only (or “adjectival”) verbs perform this function (1, see §9.3.1, §B.1).
Since stative-only verbs require a pronominal prefix, they also describe who or
what has the characteristic in question.

(1) a. ohsnó:weˀ ‘it is fast, quick’

b. go̱haˀdí:yo: ‘she is a good singer, she has a good voice’
c. ogá:yǫh ‘it is old’
d. go̱hsdę́:ˀęh ‘she is old’
e. onówęht ‘it is absurd, unbelievable’
f. agadatsę́hse: ‘I am tired’
g. hohsgénhaˀseh ‘he is greedy’
h. dewadagwę́hdę: ‘it is flat’
i. ohdaht ‘it is filling’
j. oyá:nreˀ ‘it is nice, good, beautiful’

“Adjectives” often modify nouns (2), or noun phrases such as neˀ Mary (3), to
further specify ‘who’ or ‘what’ has the quality or characteristic in question.

(2) onahsę́: daksháheˀdohs

they.are.fat chickens
‘fat chickens’, ‘The chickens are fat.’

(3) Godiˀgrǫ́ˀ neˀ Mary.

she.is.shy the Mary
‘Mary is shy.’

Many adjectival verbs incorporate (include) the noun that they modify (4,
see §5.6, §14.)
7 “Adjectives” (words functioning as adjectives)

(4) adjectival verb with incorporated noun ⌊di-tra-⌋ ‘tea’

oditragáˀǫh ‘good tea’
cf. ogáˀǫh ‘it is good-tasting, it tastes good’ (adjectival verb without incorporated noun)

Finally, adjectival verbs by nature invite comparisons (5, see §31.1).

(5) ne:ˀ gwahs dwakyęda̱hgówanęh

it.is emphasis biggest.chair
‘the biggest chair’

66
8 “Adverbs” (words and affixes
functioning as adverbs)
Words functioning as “adverbs” modify the meaning of verbs or sentences by
specifying (or questioning) the time, manner, place, or degree of an activity, hap-
pening, or state. The order of “adverbs” in phrases is described next, and then a
description of the words, prefixes, and suffixes that function as “adverbs” follows.

8.1 “Adverb” order in phrases

“Adverbs” tend to occur in specific positions in a phrase. For example, some must
be first in the phrase (or before the verb, as in honákwę̱ˀǫh in 1). Others have to
occur after another word, but close to the beginning of the sentence, (2). Many
other “adverbs” can appear wherever they make sense in the sentence (3). The
typical positions of particles functioning as “adverbs” are described in §C.1.

(1) clause-initial
ahsǫh ne:ˀ honákwę̱ ˀǫh.
still it.is he.is.angry
‘He is still angry.’

(2) after another word, close to the beginning of the sentence

a. jidwáhshe:t e:ˀ
let’s.count again
‘Let’s count again!’
b. I:ˀ gęh e:ˀ sgwatró:wi:?
I Q again you.talk.about.me
‘Are you talking about me again?’ (said jokingly)

(3) wherever relevant in the sentence

a. Gǫdagyeˀ ętsahdę́:diˀ.
right.away you.will.leave
‘You will leave right away!’
8 “Adverbs” (words and affixes functioning as adverbs)

b. Tę́ˀ. Hęgyę́ˀ-tsǫ:. Shede̱hjí:hah ní:ˀ ęgahdę:díˀ gǫdagyeˀ.

no, never.mind-just early.morning I I.will.leave right.away
‘No, never mind, I’ll go there right away, early in the morning.’
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 494, Ękníyętoˀ dialogue)

8.2 “Adverbs” of time

“Adverbs” of time either describe or question when an activity or action takes
place (4).

(4) Neˀ giˀ ę:ˀ e:ˀ toh iheˀs.

The just affirm again that.one he.is
‘He is here again!’

8.2.1 “Adverbs” of time (particles)

The following particles function as “adverbs” of time and are described in the
Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Ahsǫh ‘still’, ‘yet’

⇒ Daji:hah gwaˀ ‘soon’, ‘a short while’
⇒ E:ˀ ‘again’, ‘still’
⇒ Gaę niyo:weˀ tsǫ: ‘whenever’
⇒ Gaoˀ nawahtgeh ‘the time before then’
⇒ Gę:s ‘generally’, ‘used to’, ‘usually’, ‘normally’
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’
⇒ Gǫdagyeˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right away’
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’
⇒ Gwahs hwaˀ ‘this time for sure’
⇒ Gwahs waˀ-heh tsǫ: ‘just now’, ‘just a few seconds ago’
⇒ ⌊-heh⌋ element related to time
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’
⇒ Hwę:dǫh ‘when’
⇒ Hwę:dǫh gwaˀ ‘sometime’, ‘whenever’, ‘once’
⇒ Hya:ˀ ‘first’, ‘before anything else’

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 8.2 “Adverbs” of time

⇒ Naˀgę:ˀ, ohnaˀgę:ˀ ‘late’

⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘before all else’, ‘first’
⇒ Ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘this (coming) time’
⇒ Ne:ˀ seˀ gę:s neˀ ‘back then’, ‘a long time ago’
⇒ Nę: hwaˀ waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘nowadays’
⇒ Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this time’
⇒ Ogwęhę:gyeˀ ‘now and then’, ‘now and again’
⇒ Ohę:dǫ: ‘early’, ‘first’
⇒ Ohnaˀgę:ˀ, naˀgę:ˀ ‘late’
⇒ Ohnaˀgęhjih ‘late’, ‘back then’
⇒ O:nęh, neˀ o:nęh ‘now’, ‘when’, ‘then’, ‘at this time’
⇒ O:nęh e:ˀ ‘again!’
⇒ O:nęh gwaˀ ‘suddenly’, ‘already’, ‘finally’, ‘all at once’
⇒ O:nęh to:hah ‘soon’, ‘almost’
⇒ Tęˀ ahsǫh ‘not yet’
⇒ Tęˀ hwę:dǫh ‘never’, ‘not ever’
⇒ Tgǫhaǫgyeˀ ‘sometimes’
⇒ Tgwahaǫ:ˀ ‘sometimes’
⇒ Tgwęhę:ˀ ‘sometimes’
⇒ To: niyonisheˀ to: ‘a certain amount of time’
⇒ To: niyo:weˀ ne:ˀ ‘when’
⇒ Tǫ:-hwaˀ ‘that time’
⇒ To:hah ‘a place’, ‘a time’
⇒ Waˀ- element meaning ‘current moment’
⇒ Waˀ-gyęh ‘presently’, ‘so now’, ‘then’
⇒ Waˀ-heh ‘just now’, ‘finally’
⇒ Waˀ-heh-geha:ˀ ‘finally’, ‘at long last’
⇒ Waˀ-jih ‘after a while’, ‘eventually’, ‘just a while ago’
⇒ Waˀ-ji-:hah ‘presently’, ‘a little later’, ‘after a bit’, ‘after a while’, ‘after-
wards’, ‘later’
⇒ Waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘today’, ‘now’

8.2.2 Prefixes and suffixes functioning as “adverbs” of time

Several verb prefixes and suffixes function as “adverbs” of time. For example, the
⌊ts(i)-⌋ coin prefix means ‘at the same time’ as another activity (5, see §12.2.1).

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8 “Adverbs” (words and affixes functioning as adverbs)

(5) De̱ˀagowihsrá:t tsaˀǫ́nagraˀt.

she.had.no.breath while.she.was.born
‘She had no breath when she was born.’

Similarly, the combination ⌊shęh n(i)-verb⌋ ‘that part-verb’ can describe ac-
tions extending over a certain period of time, or occurring while some other
action happens (6, see §12.2.3).

(6) Agiˀda̱ˀǫ́h ǫ shęh naˀonishéˀ hohta:ˀ.

I.was.sleeping I.guess that it.took.time he.was.speaking
‘I slept while he spoke.’

The ⌊s-, j-⌋ rep prefix can also function as an “adverb” of time, describing a
repeated action (7, see 12.2.4).

(7) a. sawada̱hǫ́:dǫ:ˀ ‘it asked again’

cf. awada̱hǫ́:dǫ:ˀ ‘it asked’
b. jago:kǫ́:ni: ‘she is cooking again’
cf. gokǫ́:ni: ‘she is cooking’

8.2.3 Verbs functioning as “adverbs” of time

Several verbs function as “adverbs” of time, identifying the time of an activity,
happening, or state (8). For more examples, see “Related”.

(8) a. sǫ́:deˀ ‘last night’ (atypical verb)

b. Awędędáˀǫh ‘Monday (present)’ (literally, ‘the day was finished’,
verb)

Related
⇒ Months, D.7
⇒ Periods of time in the day, D.8
⇒ Yesterday, today, and tomorrow, D.9
⇒ Seasons and years, D.10
⇒ Weekdays, D.11
⇒ Clock time, D.12

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 8.3 “Adverbs” of place

8.3 “Adverbs” of place

“Adverbs” of place specify (or question) where an activity or action takes place
(9–10). For more examples, see “Related”.

(9) To hǫ: hayę́hęˀ.

there place he.puts.it
‘He is always putting it there.’

(10) Tohgeh gęh nhǫ:wéˀ toh naˀá:weh?

there-on Q place that it.happened
‘Where did that happen?’

Related
⇒ Location, 18.3
⇒ Place names, D.13

8.3.1 “Adverbs” of place (particles)

particles, particle groups, and particle-verb combinations may function as
“adverbs” of place, specifying the location of an action or activity. The following
“adverbs” of place are described in the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Ahsdeh ‘outside’, ‘outdoors’

⇒ Akda:gyeˀ ‘beside’, ‘the edge’
⇒ Da: gwa:dih ‘over here’, ‘this side’
⇒ Da: hǫ:weh hǫ: ‘this is where’
⇒ E: gwa:dih ‘on the other side’
⇒ E: ni-noun+adih ‘on the other side of noun’
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ gwa:dih ‘whichever way’, ‘whichever side’
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ hǫ:weh ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘wherever’, ‘around’
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ…ni-noun ‘wherever noun is’

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8 “Adverbs” (words and affixes functioning as adverbs)

⇒ Gaę gwaˀ tsǫ: ‘wherever’, ‘somewhere’

⇒ Gaę niyó:weˀ ‘how far’, ‘which distance’
⇒ Gaoˀ ‘this side’, ‘this way’
⇒ Gaˀ- element referring to a location
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘around’, ‘anywhere’, ‘there-
abouts’
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah tohgeh ‘thereabouts’
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’
⇒ Hehdaˀgeh gwa:dih ‘below’, ‘low’
⇒ Hehdaˀgeh hǫ: ‘downstairs’
⇒ Hehdage̱hjih ‘the bottom’, ‘low’
⇒ Hejo:yaˀ tsǫ: ‘elsewhere’
⇒ He:tgęh ‘above’, ‘up’, ‘superior’
⇒ He:tgę̱hjih ‘the very top’, ‘high up’
⇒ He:yo: dagwaishǫ: ‘straight ahead’
⇒ Hę:gyeh gaę hǫ:weh ‘no matter where’, ‘no matter which place’
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’
⇒ I:nǫh ‘far’
⇒ I:wa:kˀah ‘near’
⇒ Neˀ gwaˀ toh ‘here (rather than there)’
⇒ Neˀ to gyę:ˀ hǫ:weh ‘it is where’
⇒ Nę: toh gwa:dih ‘on this side’
⇒ Nę:-gyęh gwa:dih ‘here’, ‘this side’, ‘over here’
⇒ Nę: toh ‘here’
⇒ Nigwa:dih ‘-ward, direction’
⇒ Niyo:weˀ, ni:yo:ˀ, nyo:ˀ ‘a certain distance’, ‘a certain time’
⇒ Ohę:dǫ: shęh ‘ahead’, ‘in front’, ‘forward’
⇒ Ohnaˀgę: gwa:dih shęh ‘behind’
⇒ Ohnaˀgęhjih ‘late’, ‘back then’, ‘the bottom’
⇒ Ohnaˀgǫ: ‘underneath’, ‘beneath’, ‘under’
⇒ Senyęˀsgwadih ‘to your left’
⇒ Sewaihǫhsdǫh gwa:dih ‘to your right’
⇒ Sganyęˀsgwadih ‘to its left’
⇒ Shęh hǫ: heyodokdaˀǫh ‘the bottom’
⇒ Si: ‘over there’
⇒ Si gwa:dih ‘over there’

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 8.4 “Adverbs” of manner

⇒ Si gwa:di:hah ‘just this side of’

⇒ Si hne:ˀ si gwa:dih ‘over there’
⇒ Si: hǫ:weh ‘way over there’
⇒ Sǫ: gwadih ‘on some other side’
⇒ Tęˀ gaˀ-toh ‘nowhere’, ‘not anywhere’
⇒ To:, toh, tǫ: ‘there’, ‘that place’
⇒ To: gwa:dih ‘on that side’
⇒ To: hǫ:weh ‘there’, ‘where’
⇒ Toh-geh ‘there’

8.3.2 Prefixes that function as “adverbs” of place

Verb prefixes functioning as “adverbs” of place include the partitive (11a), cis-
locative (11b), translocative (11c), and coincident-dualic (11d) prepronom-
inal prefixes, which are described in the “Related” sections.
(11) a. nita:wé:nǫ: ‘a stranger’ (literally, ‘he comes from somewhere’)
b. desáˀdre: ‘drive over here’
c. heˀsáˀdre: ‘drive over there’
d. tsaˀdę́hsyę:ˀ ‘you will put, lay them side by side’

Related

⇒ ⌊tsi-⌋ (coincident) prefix, 12.2.1

⇒ ⌊ni-⌋ (partitive) prefix, 12.2.3
⇒ ⌊d-⌋ (cislocative) and ⌊heˀ-⌋ (translocative) prefixes, 12.2.5

8.4 “Adverbs” of manner

“Adverbs” of manner describe (or question) how an activity takes place (12).
(12) Sgę:nǫ:ˀǫ́h hodrihsdǫ̱hǫ́:gy.eˀ
slowly he.is.sneaking.around
‘He is sneaking around slowly.’

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8 “Adverbs” (words and affixes functioning as adverbs)

8.4.1 Prefixes and suffixes that function as “adverbs” of manner

Several verb prefixes and suffixes function as “adverbs” of manner, describing or
questioning how an activity takes place. For example, the combination ⌊shęh ni-⌋
‘that part’ means something like ‘how’, ‘the manner in which’ (13).

(13) Dękde:níˀ shęh niwagri ̱hóˀdę:

I.will.change that how.I.do.things
‘I am going to change my outlook’

Similarly, verbs with ⌊ti- … -ˀah⌋ contr-…-dim have the “adverb”-like meaning
of ‘any old way’ (14).

(14) tihe:ˀáh tsǫ:

he.is.walking.along-ish just
‘He is just walking along any old way.’
cf. iheˀ ‘he is walking, moving’

The ⌊de-⌋ du prefix can function as an “adverb” of manner describing a two-

part motion (15).

(15) dęhadagyáˀda̱hgwaˀt ‘he will do push ups’

The ⌊-ge:⌋ aug suffix can function as an “adverb” of manner, describing an

activity done ‘in a big way’ (16).

(16) ahęnatgwéni ̱ˀge: ‘the big win’, ‘victory’ (literally, ‘they won big’)
cf. ęhsa:tgwé:niˀ ‘you will win’

The ⌊-sgǫ:⌋ facil suffix also functions as an “adverb” of manner (17).

(17) sadahǫdǫ́sgǫ: ‘you are nosy’ (literally, ‘you ask easily’, ‘you are always
asking questions’)
cf. sadahǫ́:dǫ: ‘you ask’

The above affixes are described in the “Related” sections listed below.

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 8.5 “Adverbs” of degree

Related

⇒ The ⌊ti-⌋ (contrastive) prefix, 12.2.2

⇒ The ⌊ni-⌋ (partitive) prefix, 12.2.3
⇒ The ⌊de-⌋ (dualic) prefix, 12.2.6
⇒ ⌊-ge:⌋ (augmentative), 15.7.3
⇒ ⌊-sgǫ:⌋ (facilitative), 15.7.2

8.4.2 Verbs functioning as “adverbs” of manner

Several verbs function as “adverbs” of manner, describing how an activity takes
place (18–20). In (18), ohsnó:weˀ ‘it is fast’ modifies the meaning of adwákyuˀkdęˀ
‘it gets dull’.

(18) Ohsno:wéˀ gę:s adwákyuˀkdęˀ.

it.is.fast usually it.gets.dull
‘It gets dull fast.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 159, Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ:ˀǫh
dialogue)

(19) …tręhs gę:s wagyesˀagéh aˀosdagwá:ęh.

…too.much usually it.is.easy it.gets.dirty
‘…because it gets dirty too easily.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225,
Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

(20) Wę:dó:ˀ da:ga̱hyadǫ̱hsríyaˀksǫ:k.

it.is.hard the.paper.should.be.cut
‘The paper is hard to cut.’

Some verbs also express an “adverb”-like meaning that is not specifically spelled
out in a prefix or suffix (21).

(21) a. ętsę́hsga:ˀ ‘you take off abruptly, quickly, suddenly’

b. hahsgyáǫhaˀ ‘he walks quickly’, ‘he gives someone encouragement’

8.5 “Adverbs” of degree

“Adverbs” of degree describe the extent or degree of a characteristic or activity
(22). For more examples, see Comparisons, §31.1.

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8 “Adverbs” (words and affixes functioning as adverbs)

(22) a. Stǫ:háh segę́i:s.

a.little move
‘Move a little bit!’
b. Trǫhgeh tsǫ: jǫgwaihóˀdeˀ.
barely just we.are.working
‘We’re barely working.’

8.5.1 Particles functioning as “adverbs” of degree

particles may function as “adverbs” of degree, specifying the degree or extent
of an action or activity. The following “adverbs” of degree are described in the
Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Ahsǫh ‘more’
⇒ Aǫgo̱hdǫh ‘exceptional’, ‘over the top’, ‘extremely’, ‘too much so’
⇒ Do:gęhs ‘really’, ‘very’
⇒ Do̱hgá:ˀah ‘a few’
⇒ Do:s ‘really’, ‘very’
⇒ Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘quite’, ‘kind of’
⇒ Gwahs ‘really’, ‘just’, ‘quite’, ‘intensifier’
⇒ Gwahs ǫ:weh ‘really’
⇒ Gwe:gǫh, agwe:gǫh, ogwe:gǫh ‘completely’, ‘totally’
⇒ Heyohe:ˀ ‘more’
⇒ I:soˀ ‘much’, ‘many’, ‘lots’, ‘very’
⇒ I:so:ˀah ‘a fairly big bit’
⇒ Ji ‘too much’
⇒ Ji aǫgo̱hdǫh ‘too much so’
⇒ Ji trehs ‘more (than usual)’, ‘too much so’
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘that is only’, ‘that is all’
⇒ Nę: tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ni- ‘just a little bit’, ‘very little’
⇒ Nę: tsǫ: ni- ‘just’
⇒ O:weh, neˀ ǫ:weh ‘really’
⇒ Stǫ:hah, stǫ:hǫh ‘a little bit’
⇒ Tęˀ degę:hęh ‘not too many’
⇒ To hę:gyeh shęh ‘really’

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 8.5 “Adverbs” of degree

⇒ Trǫhgeh tsǫ: ‘barely’

⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’
⇒ Waˀ-jih gyę:ˀ ‘almost’, ‘just about’

8.5.2 Suffixes functioning as “adverbs” of degree

Several suffixes may function as “adverbs” of degree. The ⌊-ˀah⌋ and ⌊-hah⌋ dim
suffixes convey the idea that a quality exists to a more modest degree (23).

(23) a. sgęnǫgowá:hah ‘slowly’, ‘fairly slow’

cf. sgęnǫ:ˀǫh ‘slowly’
b. gowa:nę́:hah ‘it is fairly big’
cf. gowá:nęh ‘it is big’
c. niyǫ́:sˀah ‘just a little bit long’
cf. í:yǫ:s ‘it is long’

The ⌊-jih⌋ ints and ⌊-jihwęh⌋ completely suffixes convey the idea that a qual-
ity exists to a more extreme degree (24).

(24) a. owíhjih ‘it is overcooked’

cf. deyó:wi:h ‘it is undercooked’, ‘it is not ripe’
b. ohę́hjiẖ węh ‘it is really dried out’
cf. ohę: ‘it is dry’

8.5.3 Verbs functioning as “adverbs” of degree

Several verbs may function as “adverbs” of degree, describing the extent of a
quality or activity: when áǫgo̱hdǫh modifies the meaning of other verbs, it means
‘extremely’ or ‘too much’ (25). For more examples, see §8.5.1
(25) a. Aǫgohdǫ́h ohdrǫhk.
it.surpasses it.is.dangerous
‘It is extremely dangerous.’
b. Aǫgohdǫ́h ǫgeˀdra̱héhs tsęh nagadekǫ́:niˀ.
it.surpasses I.went.overboard that how.much.I.ate
‘I ate too much.’

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8 “Adverbs” (words and affixes functioning as adverbs)

8.6 Negative “adverbs”

Negative “adverbs” begin with tęˀ ‘not’. The following negative “adverbs” are
described in the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Tęˀ ahsǫh ‘not yet’

⇒ Tęˀ hwę:dǫh ‘never’, ‘not ever’
⇒ Tęˀ gaˀ-toh ‘nowhere’, ‘not anywhere’

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9 Verbs
Verbs describe actions (1), types of movement (2), states or characteristics (3),
ways of existing (4), mental activities (5), perceptions (6), and object locations (7).
They also function as “nouns” (§5), “adjectives” (§7) and “adverbs” (§8).

(1) actions
a. kdakseˀ ‘I am running’
b. ę́:ge:k ‘I will eat’
c. dęyǫ́na̱hsgwahk ‘she will jump’
d. ęgaǫgidagráhdęˀ ‘they are going to trip me, make me fall’

(2) movement
a. dagę́:neˀ ‘they are coming
b. ǫkníˀdreˀ ‘we two are riding along in a vehicle’
c. swatahí:neˀ ‘you all are walking’

(3) states or characteristics

a. hahnę́:ye:s ‘he is tall’
b. aknó:shę: ‘I am envious’
c. aknǫhǫkdá:nih ‘I am sick’

(4) existence (or non-existence)

a. To: gi ̱ˀ tsǫ: ní:yǫ:.
that just only it.is
‘That’s just all there is.’
b. iheˀs ‘he is here’

(5) mental activities, feelings

a. ihse: ‘you want, hope, think’
b. gonǫ́hkwaˀ ‘I love you’
c. desaˀnigǫ́hęhdǫh ‘you are sad’
9 Verbs

(6) perceptions
a. ęsé:gęˀ ‘you will see’
b. ęsa:tǫ́:dęh ‘you will hear it’
c. ęwágeshoˀ ‘I will smell it’ (unintentionally)
d. ęwádehswaht ‘I will smell it’ (on purpose)

(7) object location

a. gá:yę:ˀ ‘it is lying’
b. ganí:yǫ:t ‘it is hanging’

Verbs are the only required element in a sentence. As such, they often express
the meaning of an entire sentence (8).

(8) verbs as sentences

a. degaǫdatgǫhsóhaeˀ ‘they are washing each other’s faces’
b. ahadadrihwagwé:nyęˀ ‘he had earned it for himself’

Verbs minimally require a pronominal prefix. They also usually require an as-
pect suffix (Chafe 1967). However, no-aspect verbs, including “commands” and
“suggestions” (described in §27.1) do not have an aspect suffix (for which, see
§15.5.6.1).
Verbs will be classified according to the criteria in (9), which are defined in the
following sections.

(9) criteria for verb classification

a. noun incorporation
b. transparent or fixed expressions
c. aspect
d. pronominal prefix type

9.1 Verbs and noun incorporation

Verbs can be classified according to their ability to incorporate (include) a noun
stem (§14). This criterion yields three types of verbs, described next.

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 9.1 Verbs and noun incorporation

9.1.1 Verbs that optionally have an incorporated noun

Some verbs can take an incorporated noun but do not require one. For example,
the verbs in (10) and (11) have an incorporated noun and are well-formed – they
sound like words. However, the same verbs – ęhsní:nǫˀ and ęgyę́:to – lack an
incorporated noun and are still perfectly good words.

(10) ęyagwahgwęnyahnínǫnyǫ:ˀ ‘we all will buy clothes’

cf. ahgwę́nyaˀ ‘clothes’
cf. ęhsní:nǫˀ ‘you will buy it’

(11) hękhǫnaˀdáyętoˀ ‘I will plant potatoes there’

cf. ohǫ́naˀdaˀ ‘potatoes’
cf. ęgyę́:toˀ ‘I will plant it or something’

9.1.2 Verbs that cannot have an incorporated noun

Some verbs cannot take an incorporated noun because their meaning does not
allow for it. These are “activity” or “action” verbs that only express one role
(§20.6). For example, the verbs shown in (12) express just one role, that of “doer”
(either a single “doer” or multiple “doers”). However, their meaning does not
include that of an undergoer. In contrast, the verb in (11) above, hękǫna̱ ˀdáyętoˀ,
requires both a “doer” (‘I’) and an undergoer (‘potatoes’).

(12) a. ga̱hnih ‘it is barking’

b. gadá:węh ‘I am swimming’
c. hęnadawęhs ‘they (males) are swimming’
d. saˀe:yǫˀ ‘she returned’
e. nǫdáhse:ˀ ‘you came from there’
f. haˀgáge:t ‘I stopped by there’
g. agiˀ ‘I said’

9.1.3 Verbs requiring an incorporated noun

Some verbs require an incorporated noun. (As such, they are unlike minimal
verbs, which only require a pronominal prefix, a verb stem, and an aspect suffix.)
For example, the verb ⌊+i:yo:⌋ ‘be good, nice’ never occurs without an incorpo-
rated noun. It incorporates the noun ⌊nahsgw⌋ ‘domestic animal’ in (13a) but

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9 Verbs

instead takes the noun ⌊yęhsr⌋ ‘blanket’ in (13b). A plus ‘+’ sign before a verb
stem means that the verb in question requires an incorporated noun.
Many obligatorily incorporating verbs function as “adjectives”, describing at-
tributes of the incorporated noun (13–14).

(13) ⌊+i:yo:⌋ ‘be good, nice’

a. ganahsgwí:yo: ‘a nice pet’
cf. ganáhsgwaˀ ‘tame animal’, ‘pet’, ‘domestic animal’
b. oyęhsrí:yo: ‘nice blanket’
cf. oyę́hsraˀ ‘blanket(s)’

(14) ⌊+owa:nęh⌋ ‘be big’

a. ga̱hǫhsrowá:nęh ‘big box’
cf. ga̱hǫ́hsraˀ ‘box’
b. ojǫˀdowá:nęh ‘big fish’
cf. ojǫ́ˀdaˀ ‘fish’

9.2 Transparent vs fixed expressions

Verbs can be classified as either transparent or fixed expressions.1
Transparent expressions just have one straightforward (literal) meaning. For
example, in example (13a, previous page), the transparent verb ɡanahsgwí:yo: has
parts meaning ‘pet’ ⌊nahsgw⌋ and ‘nice’ ⌊+iyo:⌋, and the word straightforwardly
means ‘nice pet’. As well, substituting the pronominal prefix and the incorpo-
rated noun results in a new word, oyęhsrí:yo:, which also has a straightforward
meaning, ‘nice blanket’ (13b).
In contrast, fixed expressions have both a transparent (or literal) meaning and
a non-transparent meaning. The non-transparent meaning is dominant. For ex-
ample, in (15a), the intended, fixed meaning is ‘sandpiper’ (a type of shore bird)
and the transparent (and not usually relevant) meaning of the word is ‘good
sand’.

(15) a. oˀnehsí:yo:
‘sandpiper’ (fixed meaning); ‘good sand’ (transparent meaning)
cf. oˀnéhsaˀ ‘sand’
b. ganiga:hęhsrí:yo:
‘cotton’, ‘silk’ (fixed meaning); ‘good material’ (transparent meaning)
cf. onigá:hęhsraˀ ‘material’, ‘cloth’
1
Fixed expressions are the verb bases described in Foster et al. (1989).
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 9.2 Transparent vs fixed expressions

In order to convey the fixed meaning of ‘sandpiper’ in (15a), the pronominal

prefix, incorporated noun, and verb must remain constant or fixed, while other
parts can change as needed. (For example, one could add the ⌊-ˀs⌋ pl suffix to cre-
ate oˀnehsí:yoˀs ‘sandpipers’.) Similarly, all other fixed expressions require spe-
cific prefixes, incorporated nouns, or suffixes in order to fully express their non-
transparent meaning.

9.2.1 Types of fixed expression

For fixed expressions, the verb stem and at least one other part remain fixed or
constant. The various types of fixed expression are described in this section.
In some cases, the combination of ⌊incorporated noun-verb⌋ stem conveys a
fixed meaning. For example, in (16a), the meaning of ‘offending someone’ is con-
veyed by the combination of ⌊ˀnigǫha+ˀe:k⌋ ‘mind+hit’.

(16) fixed expressions with incorporated noun ⌊ˀnigǫha⌋ ‘mind’

a. ęhsheˀnigǫ́haˀe:k ‘you will offend someone’ (literally, ‘you will hit
someone’s mind’)
b. hoˀnigǫháędaˀs ‘he understands’ (literally, ‘his mind settles’)
c. ęhsheˀnigǫhǫ́:niˀ ‘you will influence, persuade someone’ (literally,
‘you will make someone’s mind’)

In other cases, the combination of ⌊prefix-…verb stem⌋ conveys a fixed mean-

ing. Example (17a) illustrates the verb ⌊yena:⌋ ‘to catch or receive something’.
In the related expression in (17b) the fixed parts are the ⌊t-⌋ du prepronominal
prefix and ⌊yena:⌋; this combination means ‘to do something together’. In (17c),
the fixed parts include the incorporated noun ⌊rihwa⌋ ‘word’ and ⌊yena:⌋, which
together mean ‘to accept advice’. Finally, in (17d), the ⌊adag-⌋ refl prefix and
⌊yena:⌋ together mean ‘to wrestle’.

(17) the transparent expression ⌊yena:ˀ⌋ ‘to catch, receive, accept’, and related
fixed expressions
a. agyé:na:ˀ ’I caught, received it’ (minimal verb, ⌊yena:ˀ⌋ transparent
expression)
b. athadiyé:na:ˀ ‘they did it together’, ‘they were accomplices’
(⌊du-…yena:⌋ fixed expression)
c. ęhsrihwayé:na:ˀ ‘you will accept advice, a suggestion’ (⌊rihwa-yena:⌋
fixed expression)
d. ęhsadagyé:na:ˀ ‘you will wrestle’ (⌊refl-yena:⌋ fixed expression)

83
9 Verbs

Like other verbs, fixed expressions may also have free elements: for example
both of the words in (18) begin with ⌊tsi-⌋ coin, which can be freely added to
the relevant verbs to transparently mean ‘when’. Meanwhile, the words in (18)
also include fixed ⌊incorporated noun-verb stem⌋ combinations – the combina-
tion ⌊ǫgweˀd-ase:⌋ (18a) means ‘young person’, while ⌊ksaˀd-ase:⌋ (18b) means
‘teenager’.

(18) ⌊tsi-verb⌋ ‘while, when’

a. tsihǫgwe̱ˀda:sé: hohsę:
while.he.was.young he.is.fat
‘When he was young, he was fat.’
cf. hǫgwéˀdase:
h-ǫgwéˀd-ase:
3s.m.a-person-new.stat
‘young man’
b. tsiyeksa̱ˀdá:se: ‘when she was a teenager…’
cf. eksaˀdasé:ˀah
e-ksaˀd-asé:-ˀah
3s.fi.a-child-new.stat-dim
‘teenage girl’

9.3 Verbs and aspect

Verbs can be classified according to the types of aspect suffixes they take. Before
getting into details, some background information is provided next.
The three main types of aspect suffix are the punctual, habitual, and stative
(see §15.5). While there is only one punctual suffix, ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc, there are several
habitual and stative suffixes. For example, the habitual endings include ⌊-s⌋, ⌊-
haˀ⌋, and ⌊-h⌋. As shown in (19), a given verb normally takes just one of the
possible habitual (or stative, not shown) aspect endings.

(19) verbs in the habitual aspect

a. degáˀswe:s ‘I am going deaf’
b. hęnáˀswa̱hthaˀ ‘they are firemen’
c. sgegę̱ hęˀda:nih ‘you are sick of me’

In this work, verbs with the punctual suffix are described as “punctual verbs”,
while verbs with any of the habitual suffixes are “habitual verbs”, and verbs with
any of the stative suffixes are “stative verbs”.

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 9.3 Verbs and aspect

9.3.1 Verbs occurring only in one aspect (stative or habitual)

Some verbs occur only in one aspect, either the stative or the habitual. Stative-
only verbs take only a stative aspect suffix (20). A smaller set of habitual-only
verbs exclusively occur in the habitual aspect (21).

(20) stative-only verbs

a. ohsnó:weˀ ‘it is fast, quick’
b. go̱haˀdí:yo: ‘she is a good singer, she has a good voice’
c. ogá:yǫh ‘it is old’

(21) habitual-only verbs

a. gagrahs ‘it stinks’
b. agadǫ̱hswéˀdanih ‘I am hungry’
c. gotgǫ́:nyohs ‘she has high standards’
d. akneˀdraˀdá:nih ‘I feel nausea’, ‘I am nauseous’

9.3.2 Three-aspect verbs (habitual, punctual, stative)

Three-aspect verbs can take three all aspects – the habitual, punctual, and sta-
tive. The three-aspect verb in (22) takes the ⌊-h⌋ hab (22a), the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc (22b)
and the ⌊-:⌋ stat (22c) aspect endings.

(22) ⌊hsęnǫni⌋ ‘store something’

a. se̱hsę:nǫ́:nih
s-e̱-hsę:nǫ́:ni-h
2s.a-joinerE-store-hab
‘you are storing it right now’
b. ęhsehsęnǫ́:niˀ
ę-hs-e-hsęnǫ́:ni-ˀ
fut-2s.a-joinerE-store-punc
‘you will store it’
c. ga̱hsę:nǫ́:ni:
ga̱-hsę:nǫ́:ni-:
3s.a-store-stat
‘stored items’

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9 Verbs

Verbs that take other types of habitual and stative endings are shown in (23)
and (24). (The punctual suffix only has one form, ⌊-ˀ⌋.2 )

(23) ⌊ˀhoweg⌋ ‘cover something’

a. geˀhó:we:s
g-e-ˀhó:we:-s
1s.a-joinerE-cover-hab
‘I am covering something’
b. ęhseˀhó:we:k
ę-hs-e-ˀhó:we:k
fut-2s.a-joinerE-cover.ø.punc
‘you will cover something’
c. ageˀhowé:gǫh
ag-e-ˀhowé:g-ǫh
1s.p-joinerE-cover-stat
‘I did cover something’

(24) ⌊de-…-ęnahsgwahgw⌋ ‘jump’

a. deyǫna̱hsgwáhkwhaˀ
de-yǫ-na̱hsgwáhkw-haˀ
du-3s.fi.a-jump-hab
‘she is jumping’
b. dęyǫ́na̱hsgwahk
d-ę-yǫ́-na̱hsgwahk
du-fut-3s.fi.a-jump.ø.punc
‘she will jump’
c. desęna̱hsgwáhgwęh
de-s-ę-na̱hsgwáhgw-ęh
du-2s.a-srf-jump-stat
‘you have jumped’

9.3.3 No-aspect verbs

No-aspect verbs lack an aspect suffix. The example shown in (25) is a type of
command. In contrast, the comparative example in (25) illustrates a verb with a
2
The punctual suffix is not pronounced in words ending with a consonant, which is why the
verbs in (23b) and (24b) do not have an overt ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc ending. The term zero punctual
(ø.punc) describes this state of affairs.

86
 9.4 Verb classes and pronominal prefix type

punctual suffix, which functions as a statement. For the meaning of no-aspect

verbs, see §15.5.6.1.

(25) sadahǫ́:dǫ:
s-ad-ahǫ́:dǫ:
2s.a-srf-ask.no_aspect (a command)
‘ask!’
cf. ęsada̱hǫ́:dǫ:ˀ
ę-s-ad-a̱hǫ́:dǫ:-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-ask-punc (a statement)
‘you will ask’

9.3.4 E-verbs
E-verbs (26) are different from the three-aspect verbs described earlier. The dif-
ferences are too great to be summarized here and are covered in §16.

(26) a. í:geˀ ‘I am walking, moving’

b. dagę́:neˀ ‘they (z) are coming’

9.4 Verb classes and pronominal prefix type

Verbs are also classified by the type of pronominal prefix they take (27). Verbs
either take interactive (int-, a- and p-series) or non-interactive (a- or p-series)
prefixes. The verbs taking non-interactive prefixes also subdivide into personal
and neuter types (27b). (For definitions of int, a- and p-series prefixes, see §20.7.)

(27) Verb classes, distinguished by pronominal prefix type

a. interactive – taking int-, a- and p-series prefixes
b. non-interactive – exclusively taking either a- or p-series prefixes
i. personal – either taking all of the a-series prefixes or all of the
p-series prefixes
ii. neuter – taking only the neuter ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a or ⌊(y)o-⌋ 3s.p prefix

Interactive verbs (27a) can take all of the interactive pronominal prefixes – the
int series (28a), the a-series (28b) and the p-series (28c). (For this type of verb,
the a- and p-series prefixes have a special interactive meaning, with an implied
‘it’ (shown in brackets in 28).

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9 Verbs

(28) a. agǫ́:gęˀ ‘I saw you’ (singular) (int prefix)

b. ahá:gęˀ ‘he saw (it)’ (a-series prefix, used in an interactive sense with
implied object ‘it’)
c. ahó:gęˀ ‘(it) saw him’, ‘he was seen’ (p-series prefix, used in an
interactive sense with implied subject ‘it’)

In contrast, non-interactive verbs (27b) exclusively take either the a-series

(29a) or the p-series (29b).

(29) a. hahnę́:ye:s ‘he is tall’ (a-series exclusively)

b. hohsę: ‘he is fat’ (p-series exclusively)

Non-interactive verbs (27b) further divide into personal or neuter types. Per-
sonal verbs take a full range of a-series (30a) or p-series (30b) prefixes. In contrast,
neuter verbs only take neuter ‘it’ prefixes (31).

(30) personal verbs

a. hahnę́:ye:s ‘he is tall’, ehnę́:ye:s ‘she is tall’, gahnę́:ye:s ‘it (animal) is
tall’, khnę́:ye:s ‘I am tall’ (etc.) (a-series exclusively)
b. hohsę: ‘he is fat’, gohsę: ‘she is fat’, ohsę: ‘it is fat’, agáhsę: ‘I am fat’
(etc.) (p-series exclusively)

(31) neuter verbs

a. gá:dę:s ‘it is thick, dense’ (a-series prefix)
b. wagyé:sęh ‘it is easy’ (a-series prefix)
c. otó:weˀ ‘it is cold (weather)’ (p-series prefix)

That being said, neuter verbs can also take non-neuter, p-series prefixes, but
only in order to denote the ownership of an incorporated noun (32, see §24.2.7).

(32) ⌊+es⌋ ‘long’, i:yǫ:s ‘it is long’ (a-series prefix)

sanóˀje:s ‘your tooth is long’ (non-neuter p-series prefix, denoting
possession)
cf. onóˀjaˀ ‘tooth’ (p-series prefix)

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 9.5 Verb classes (subdivided by aspect, pronominal prefix type)

9.5 Verb classes (subdivided by aspect, pronominal prefix

type)
To summarize, verbs can be classified according to the criteria of noun incorpo-
ration, meaning (fixed or transparent), aspect, and pronominal prefix type. The
main criteria used in this work are aspect and pronominal prefix type.3 The verb
classes defined by these criteria are summarized in (33–34).
The stative-only and habitual-only verbs in (33), described earlier in §9.3.1,
either take a- or p-series prefixes exclusively. Their prefix type, together with
the neuter vs. personal distinction, results in four sub-classes of verb.

(33) stative-only or habitual-only verbs (including NV fixed expressions)4

a. with a-series prefixes
i. neuter verbs (only taking ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a or ⌊w(a)-⌋ 3s.p prefix)
ii. personal verbs (taking any personal prefix)
b. with p-series prefixes
i. neuter verbs (only taking ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix)
ii. personal verbs (taking any personal prefix)

The three-aspect verbs in (34), described earlier in §9.3.2, fall into two major
types. The first type (34a) takes a-series prefixes in the habitual and punctual, but
p-series prefixes in the stative. The second type (34b) takes p-series prefixes in
all three aspects. The pronominal prefix type, together with the neuter, personal,
and interactive distinction, results in the following sub-classes in (34).

(34) three-aspect verbs (including NV fixed expressions)

a. with a-series prefixes in the habitual and punctual and p-series
prefixes in the stative
i. neuter verbs
ii. personal verbs
iii. interactive verbs
b. with p-series prefixes in the habitual, punctual, and stative
i. neuter verbs
3
In the Verb dictionary (§B) information about noun incorporation and fixed expressions is also
provided where relevant.
4
NV is an abbreviation for fixed expressions that require an ⌊incorporated noun-verb⌋ combi-
nation.

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9 Verbs

ii. personal verbs

iii. interactive verbs

Pronominal prefix choice is described further in §24 (stative-only and habitual-

only verbs) and in §25 (three-aspect verbs).
Finally, for e-verbs, see §16.

90
 Part III

Word creation
Most of the Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ prefixes and suffixes are described in the follow-
ing sections. However, the large topic of pronominal prefixes is described in a
separate section (Part IV).
10 Word suffixes
Word suffixes can attach to any type of word – nouns, verbs, or particles, Ta-
ble 10.1. (In contrast, noun suffixes (§11) only attach to nouns and verb suffixes
(§15) only attach to verbs.)
In Table 10.1, noun refers to a noun stem potentially followed by suffixes that
are unique to nouns. Similarly verb refers to a verb stem potentially followed by
suffixes that are unique to verbs.
Table 10.1: Word suffixes

word type word suffix

noun ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on
verb ⌊-hneh⌋ at
particle ⌊-:ˀah, -ˀah⌋ dim
⌊-:hah⌋ dim
⌊-go:wah⌋ aug
⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past
⌊-neha:ˀ⌋ customary
⌊-geha:ˀ⌋ customary
⌊-ka:ˀ⌋ customary
⌊-ǫ:weh⌋ typ
⌊-ho:nǫˀ⌋ pop
⌊-jih⌋ ints
⌊-shę:ˀ, -tshę:ˀ⌋ decla.kina
⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh, -shǫ:ˀah⌋ plrzb
⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrzc

a
The community spelling for this suffix is <-sę:ˀ, -tsę:ˀ>.
b
The community spelling for this suffix is <-sǫ:ˀǫh, -sǫ:ˀah>.
c
The community spelling for this suffix is <-sǫˀ>.

Words can take more than one word suffix, as shown in (1).
10 Word suffixes

(1) a. Gwahsdǫhó:nǫˀ
gwahsdǫ-hó:nǫˀ
Boston-pop1
‘Americans’
b. Gwahsdǫhonǫˀgeh
gwahsdǫ-honǫ-ˀgeh
Boston-pop-on
‘United States’
c. Gwahsdǫhonǫˀge̱hó:nǫˀ
gwahsdǫh-honǫh-ˀge̱-hó:nǫˀ
Boston-pop-on-pop
‘United States citizen’
The ⌊-jih⌋ ints and ⌊-go:wah⌋ aug endings tend to occur before other word
suffixes (2).
(2) a. oyajihó:nǫˀ
o-ya-ji-hó:nǫˀ
3s.p-other-ints-pop
‘stranger, alien’
cf. oyá:jih
o-yá:-jih
3s.p-other-ints
‘another type’
b. gi ̱hęˀgowáhneh
gi ̱hęˀ-gowá-hneh
river-aug-at
‘to the big river’
cf. gi ̱hę:gó:wah
gi ̱hę:-gó:wah
river-aug
‘the big river’

Word suffixes are described in the following sections.

10.1 ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on (external locative)

The ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on suffix denotes an outside location (‘on’ or ‘at’). It attaches to basic
nouns (3), body part nouns (4), verbs (5), and several particles (6).
1
Gwahsdǫh originates from Boston, but means ‘America’.

94
 10.1 ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on (external locative)

(3) basic nouns with ⌊-ˀgeh⌋

a. ahsgwáˀgeh
ahsgwá-ˀgeh
roof-on
‘on the roof’
cf. ahsgwaˀ
ahsgw-aˀ
roof-nsf
‘the roof’
b. oíhwa̱ˀgeh
o-ríhwa̱-ˀgeh
3s.p-matter-on
‘the reason, idea for something’
cf. oíhwaˀ
o-ríhw-aˀ
3s.p-matter-nsf
‘message,word, affair, business’
c. adę́ˀhęˀgeh
adę́ˀhę-ˀgeh
fence-on
‘on the fence’
cf. adę́ˀhęˀ
adę́ˀh-ęˀ
fence-nsf
‘fence’

(4) body part nouns with ⌊-ˀgeh⌋

a. snętsáˀgeh
s-nętsá-ˀgeh
2s.a-arm-on
‘on your (sg.) arm’
b. knętsáˀgeh
k-nętsá-ˀgeh
1s.a-arm-on
‘on my arm’
c. enę́tsa̱ˀgeh
e-nę́tsa̱-ˀgeh
3s.fi.a-arm-on
‘on her arm’

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10 Word suffixes

(5) verbs with ⌊-ˀgeh⌋

a. otówe̱ˀgeh
o-tówe̱-ˀgeh
3s.p-cold.stat-on
‘North’
cf. otó:weˀ
o-tó:weˀ
3s.p-cold.stat
‘it is cold’
b. onénǫ̱ˀgeh
o-nénǫ̱-ˀgeh
3s.p-warm.stat-on
‘South’
cf. oné:nǫˀ
o-né:nǫˀ
3s.p-warm.stat
‘it is mild, warm’
c. eˀnikǫhkwáˀgeh
e-ˀnikǫhkw-há-ˀgeh
3s.fi.a-sew-hab-on
‘sewing room’
cf. eˀníkǫhkwaˀ
e-ˀníkhǫkw-haˀ
3s.fi.a-sew-hab
‘she sews’
d. ekǫnya̱ˀtáˀgeh
e-kǫnya̱ˀt-há-ˀgeh
3s.fi.a-cook-hab-on
‘kitchen’
cf. ekǫ́nya̱ˀtaˀ
e-kǫ́nya̱ˀt-haˀ
3s.fi.a-cook-hab
‘she cooks’
e. Ga̱hnawiyóˀgeh
ga̱-hnaw-iyó-ˀgeh
3s.a-flowing.water-good.stat-on
‘Oklahoma’
cf. ga̱hna:wí:yo:
ga̱-hna:w-í:yo:
3s.a-flowing.water-good.stat
‘nice rapids’

96
 10.2 ⌊-hneh⌋ at (external locative)

(6) particles with ⌊-ˀgeh⌋

í:ˀgeh
i:-ˀgeh
I-on
‘on my side’, ‘as for me’

10.2 ⌊-hneh⌋ at (external locative)

The ⌊-hneh⌋ at suffix denotes a location in place or time. It attaches to atypical
words functioning as “nouns” (7) and verbs functioning as “nouns” (8). (Examples
of ⌊-hneh⌋ at attaching to basic nouns or body part nouns are not attested.)

(7) atypical words functioning as “nouns”

a. gi ̱hęˀgowáhneh
gi ̱hęˀ-gowá-hneh
river-aug-at
‘to the big river’
cf. gi ̱hę:gó:wah
gi ̱hę:-gó:wah
river-aug
‘the big river’
b. hęnǫ́gwe̱hneh
hęn-ǫ́gwe̱-hneh
3ns.m.a-people-at
‘men’s washroom’
cf. hęnǫ́:gweh
hęn-ǫ́:gweh
3ns.m.a-people
‘men’
c. gęnhéhneh
g-ęnhé-hneh
3s.a-summer-at
‘summer’
d. Gwésa̱hsneh
gwésa̱hs-hneh
partridge-at
‘Akwesasne’ (place name)

97
10 Word suffixes

e. go̱hsréhneh
go̱hsré-hneh
cold.place-at
‘winter’
f. Hyáikneh
hyá-ik-hneh
berry-ripen-at
‘June’
g. Jíhsgę̱ hneh
jíhsgę̱ -hneh
corn.husk-at
‘August’
h. Sáˀgę̱ hneh
sáˀgę̱ -hneh
cough-at
‘September’
i. Saˀgę̱ hnehgó:wah
saˀgę̱ -hneh-gó:wah
cough-at-aug
‘October’

(8) verbs functioning as “nouns”

a. Ohwęjagáyǫ̱hneh
o-hwęja-gáyǫ̱-hneh
3s.p-land-old.stat-at
‘Europe’

10.3 ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on versus ⌊-hneh⌋ at

The ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on and ⌊-hneh⌋ at suffixes both mean ‘on’, ‘at’, or ‘to’, but are used
in different contexts. The ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on suffix attaches to basic nouns and body part
nouns (9) while ⌊-hneh⌋ at does not appear to (10).2

2
It may be that ⌊-hneh⌋ at attaches to words ending with a vowel sound, while ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on
attaches to words ending with a consonant. However, some of the words in (10–11) are coun-
terexamples.

98
 10.3 ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on versus ⌊-hneh⌋ at

(9) ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on with basic and body part nouns

a. gáǫda̱ˀgeh
gá-ǫd-a̱-ˀgeh
3s.a-log-joinerA-on
‘on the log’
b. gwę̱ ˀnóhsa̱ˀgeh
g-wę̱ ˀnóhs-a-ˀgeh
1s.a-tongue-joinerA-on
‘on my tongue’

Meanwhile, either suffix can be used with personal names (10).

(10) ⌊-hneh⌋ at and ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on after personal names

a. Arniegeh, Arnihneh
Arnie-ˀgeh/hneh
Arnie-on/at
‘at Arnie’s place’
b. Alvahneh, Alvaˀgeh
Alva-ˀgeh/hneh
Alva-on/at
‘at Alva’s place’
c. Elsahneh
Elsa-hneh
Elsa-at
‘at Elsa’s place’
d. Mariaˀgeh
Maria-ˀgeh
Maria-on
‘at Maria’s place’
e. Tómhneh
Tom-hneh
Tom-at
‘at Tom’s place’
f. Sawęhe:sgeh
Sawęhe:s-ˀgeh
Sawęhe:s-on
‘at Sawęhe:s’s place’ (verb functioning as a “name”)

99
10 Word suffixes

g. Jiˀdá:wi:sgeh
jiˀdá:wi:s-ˀgeh
Jiˀdá:wi:s-on
‘at Jiˀdawís’s place’ (verb functioning as a “name”)
h. Alfredgeh
Alfred-ˀgeh
Alfred-on
‘at Alfred’s place’

Finally, the ⌊-hneh⌋ at ending also attaches to atypical nouns (11a). In (11b, c),
both ⌊-hneh⌋ at and ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on appear in the same word, but in different order.

(11) a. hyáikneh
hya-ik-hneh
berry-ripen-at/on
‘June’ (in the past) (atypical word functioning as a “noun”)
b. hyáikhne̱hgeh
hya-ik-hne̱h-ˀgeh
berry-ripen-at/on
‘berry ripening time’ (in the past) (atypical word functioning as a
“noun”)
c. gęnęnagéhneh
g-ęnęn-agé-hneh
3s.a-fall-on-at
‘fall’ (season)

10.4 ⌊-:ˀah⌋ diminutive (dim)

The ⌊-:ˀah⌋ dim (denoting smallness and related concepts described below) at-
taches to atypical words functioning as “nouns” (12), verbs proper and verbs
functioning as “nouns” (13), kinship terms (14), and basic nouns (15a). The vowel
before the suffix is long, except with kinship terms (14).

(12) atypical words functioning as “nouns”

gwa̱ˀyę́:ˀah
gwa̱ˀyę́:-ˀah
rabbit-dim
‘cottontail rabbit’

100
 10.4 ⌊-:ˀah⌋ diminutive (dim)

cf. gwaˀyǫˀ
‘rabbit’

(13) verbs (a-b), and verbs functioning as “nouns” (c-f)

a. niyǫ́:sˀah
ni-y-ǫ́:s-ˀah
part-3s.p-long.stat-dim
‘just a little bit long’
cf. í:yǫ:s
í:-y-ǫ:s
part-3s.p-long.stat
‘it is long’
b. ohsno:wé:ˀah
o-hsno:wé:-ˀah
3s.p-fast.stat-dim
‘to arrive a little bit early’
cf. ohsnó:weˀ
o-hsnó:weˀ
3s.p-fast.stat
‘it is fairly fast’, ‘it is fast, quick’
c. nigęhné:sˀah
ni-g-ęhn-é:s-ˀah
part-3s.a-cloth-long.stat-dim
‘a short length of cloth’
cf. tsǫ́: nigę́hne:s
tsǫ́: ni-g-ę́hn-e:s
just part-3s.a-cloth-long.stat
‘just a length of cloth’
d. Nigahnegá:ˀah
ni-ga-hneg-á:-ˀah
part-3s.a-water-hold.stat-dim
‘Little Water Medicine’ (name of a ceremony)
e. aˀonihshé:ˀah
aˀ-o-nihshé:-ˀah
factual-3s.p-take.time.punc-dim
‘a short duration’
cf. to naˀónisheˀ
to n-aˀ-ó-nishe-ˀ
that part-fac-3s.p-take.time-punc
‘it took that long’

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10 Word suffixes

f. haksaˀdasé:ˀah
ha-ks-a-ˀd-asé:-ˀah
3s.m.a-child-joinerA-increment-new.stat-dim
‘teenager’
cf. haksá:ˀah
ha-ks-á:-ˀah
3s.m.a-child-nsf-dim
‘a male child, boy’

(14) kinship terms

a. hehjíˀah
he-hjí-ˀah
1s:3ms-older.sibling-dim
‘my older brother’
cf. hehjiˀ
he-hjiˀ
1s:3ms-older.sibling
‘my older brother’ (affectionate term)
b. kehjíˀah
keh-jí-ˀah
1s:3fis-older.sibling-dim
‘my older sister’
cf. kehjiˀ
ke-hjiˀ
1s:3fis-older.sibling
‘my older sister’ (affectionate term)

The ⌊-:ˀah⌋ dim suffix conveys smallness, a small amount, a short segment of
time, and related concepts (15), also (13a,c).

(15) smallness
a. owi:yá:ˀah
o-wi:yá:-ˀah
3s.p-offspring-dim
‘baby’
cf. neˀ owí:yaˀ
neˀ o-wí:y-aˀ
the 3s.p-offspring-nsf
‘its young, offspring’

102
 10.4 ⌊-:ˀah⌋ diminutive (dim)

b. ohstwáhsˀah
o-hstwá-hs-ˀah
3s.p-shrink-hab-dim
‘young animal, little animal, tadpole’
cf. wahstwahs
wa-hstwa-hs
3s.a-shrink-hab
‘it shrinks’
c. oˀgá:sˀah
o-ˀgá:s-ˀah
3s.p-evening.stat-dim
‘evening’
cf. deyóˀga:s
de-yó-ˀga:s
du-3s.p-evening.stat
‘the night is coming’, ‘early night’

The ⌊-:ˀah⌋ dim suffix also denotes the diminished degree or importance of
some activity (16).

(16) a. ihé:ˀah
i-h-é:-ˀah
proth-3s.m.a-go.stat-dim
‘he is just walking along’
cf. iheˀ
i-h-e-ˀ
proth-3s.m.a-go-stat
‘he is walking, moving’
b. a:wé:tˀah
a:-w-é:t-ˀah
indef-3s.a-think.caus-dim
‘it is implied, pretend’
cf. á:we:ˀ
á:-w-e:-ˀ
indef-3s.a-think-punc
‘it should want, think’

The ⌊-:ˀah⌋ dim ending and the ⌊ti-⌋ contr prefix together denote oddness (17,
see §12.2.2).

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10 Word suffixes

(17) ⌊ti-verb-ˀah⌋ ‘odd’, ‘strange’, ‘unusual’

a. tiyó:tˀah
ti-yó:-t-ˀah
contr-3s.p-stand.stat-dim
‘it is queer, unusual, odd’
b. tiganǫ̱hsa:dé:ˀah
ti-ga-nǫ̱hs-a:dé:-ˀah
contr-3s.a-house-exist.stat-dim
‘not a normal house’
c. tęhayętó:ˀah
t-ę-ha-yętó:-ˀah
contr-fut-3s.m.a-plant.punc-dim
‘he will just plant it any old way or place, helter-skelter’

Finally, the ⌊-:ˀs-ˀah⌋ pl-dim combination means ‘a diminished degree of some

quality’ (18a, b).3

(18) ⌊stative.only.verb-:ˀs-ˀah⌋ pl-dim

a. hahe:tgę́:sˀah
ha-he:tgę́:-s-ˀah
3s.m.a-ugly.stat-pl-dim
‘he is unattractive’
cf. hahé:tgęˀ
ha-hé:tgęˀ
3s.m.a-ugly.stat
‘he is ugly’
b. onǫhsatgí:sˀah
o-nǫhs-a-tgí:-s-ˀah
3s.p-house-joinerA-ugly.stat-pl-dim
‘ugly house’
cf. onǫ́hsatgiˀ
o-nǫ́hs-a-tgiˀ
3s.p-house-joinerA-ugly.stat
‘dirty house’

3
The plural (pl) and pluralizer (plrz) suffixes are distinct. The ⌊-ˀs, -s⌋ plural attaches only
to stative verbs and is described in §15. In contrast, the ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh, -shǫ:ˀah⌋ and ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plu-
ralizer suffixes, described in this chapter, attach to any category of word.

104
 10.5 ⌊-:hah⌋ diminutive (dim)

10.5 ⌊-:hah⌋ diminutive (dim)

The ⌊-:hah⌋ dim suffix means ‘fairly’, ‘somewhat’ or ‘a little bit’ (19). It attaches
to verbs (19), atypical verbs functioning as “nouns” (20a), and some particles (23).
The vowel before the suffix is always long.

(19) verbs
a. ga̱hwajiyowanę́:hah
ga-hwajiy-owanę́:-hah
3s.a-family-big.stat-dim
‘my family is fairly big’
cf. ga̱hwajiyówanęh
ga-hwajiy-ówanęh
3s.a-family-big.stat
‘big family’
b. niyǫ́:hah
ni-y-ǫ́:-hah
part-3s.p-certain.amount.stat-dim
‘few, a little bit’
cf. ní:yǫ:
ní:-y-ǫ:
part-3s.p-certain.amount.stat
‘amount of things’
c. sgęnǫgowá:hah
s-g-ęnǫ-gowá:-hah
rep-3s.a-originate.from-aug-dim
‘slowly, fairly slow’
cf. sgę:nǫgó:wah
s-g-ęnǫ-gó:wah
rep-3s.a-originate.from-aug
‘really well’
d. gowa:nę́:hah
g-owa:n-ę́:-hah
3s-big-stat-dim
‘it is fairly big’
cf. gowá:nęh
g-owá:n-ęh
3s-big-stat
‘it is big’

105
10 Word suffixes

e. ihé:hah
i-h-é:-hah
proth-3s.m.a-think.stat-dim
‘he thinks highly of himself’
cf. ihe:
i-h-e:
proth-3s.m.a-think.stat
‘he wants, thinks’

With expressions of time, the ⌊-:hah⌋ dim ending denotes an earlier time. (20)

(20) a. shede̱hjí:hah
shede̱h-jí:-hah
early.morning-ints-dim
‘early morning’
cf. tsishéhde̱hjih
tsi-shéde̱h-jih
coin-early.morning-ints
‘this morning’
b. gagwide̱hjí:hah
ga-gwide̱h-jí:-hah
3s.a-early.spring-ints-dim
‘early spring’
cf. gagwíde̱hneh
ga-gwíde̱-hneh
3s.a-early.spring-at
‘springtime, in the spring’
c. ęgyoˀgá:hah
ę-g-yo-ˀgá:-hah
fut-cis-3s.p-evening.punc-dim
‘early night’
cf. ęyóˀga:ˀ
ę-yó-ˀga:-ˀ
fut-3s.p-evening-punc
‘tonight’

The ⌊-:hah⌋ dim ending also denotes an approximate time (21. Note the stacked
dim-at-dim suffixes in this example).

106
 10.5 ⌊-:hah⌋ diminutive (dim)

(21) oˀga:sˀahné:hah
o-ˀga:s-ˀah-hné:-hah
3s.p-evening.stat-dim-at-dim
‘eveningish’
cf. oˀgá:sˀah
o-ˀgá:s-ˀah
3s.p-evening.stat-dim
‘evening’

The ⌊-:hah⌋ dim suffix attaches to words describing various stages of being
human (22).

(22) verbs functioning as “nouns”

a. hagęhjí:hah
ha-gęhjí:-hah
3s.m.a-old.stat-dim
‘he is getting old’
cf. hagę́hjih
ha-gę́hjih
3s.m.a-old.stat
‘old man’
b. nitawe:nǫ́:hah
ni-t-haw-e:nǫ́:-hah
part-cis-3s.m.p-originate.from.hab-dim
‘middle-aged male’
cf. nita:wé:nǫh
ni-t-ha:w-é:nǫ-h
part-cis-3s.m.p-originate.from-hab
‘stranger’ (literally, ‘where he comes from’)
c. niyagawe:nǫ́:hah
ni-yagaw-e:nǫ́:-hah
part-cis-3s.fi.p-originate.from.hab-dim
‘middle-aged female’
cf. niyagawé:nǫh
ni-yagaw-é:nǫ-h
part-cis-3s.fi.p-originate.from-hab
‘female stranger’

Finally, when attached to particles, the ⌊-:hah⌋ ending means ‘an indefinite
place or amount’ (23).

107
10 Word suffixes

(23) particles
a. ga̱ˀ tó:hah
gaˀ tó:hah
indefinite.location there-dim
‘somewhere’
cf. ga̱ˀ toh
gaˀ toh
indefinite.location there
‘anywhere’
b. stǫ́:hah
stǫ́:-hah
particle-dim4
‘a little bit’

10.6 ⌊-go:wah⌋ augmentative (aug)

The ⌊-go:wah⌋ aug ending means ‘big’, or ‘great’. It attaches to nouns of any type
(24) and to verbs functioning as “nouns” (25).
(24) nouns (basic and atypical)
a. dagu:sgó:wah
dagu:s-gó:wah
cat-aug
‘big cat’
cf. dagu:s
‘cat’
b. onǫhdagó:wah
o-nǫhd-a-gó:wah
3s.p-bur-joinerA-aug
‘burdock’
cf. onǫ́hdaˀ
o-nǫ́hd-aˀ
3s.p-bur-nsf
‘bur’
c. otręˀdagó:wah
o-tręˀd-a-gó:wah
3s.p-fly-joinerA-aug
‘horsefly’
4
While ⌊-hah⌋ is the dim suffix, the meaning of ⌊stǫ́:⌋ element is unclear.

108
 10.6 ⌊-go:wah⌋ augmentative (aug)

cf. otrę́ˀdaˀ
o-trę́ˀd-aˀ
3s.p-fly-nsf
‘fly’
d. gwa̱ˀyǫgó:wah
gwa̱ˀyǫ-gó:wah
rabbit-aug
‘jackrabbit’
cf. gwa̱ˀyǫˀ
‘rabbit’
e. Gayane̱hsraˀgó:wah
ga-yane̱hsr-aˀ-gó:wah
3s.a-law-joinerA-aug
‘the Great Law’
cf. gayáne̱hsraˀ
ga-yane̱hsr-aˀ
3s.a-law-nsf
‘rights’, ‘laws’, ‘code’
f. ohstowagó:wah
o-hstow-a-gó:wah
3s.p-feather-joinerA-aug
‘Great Feather Dance’
g. awęheˀgó:wah
awęheˀ-gó:wah
wing-aug
‘eagle’
(25) verbs functioning as “nouns”
a. ga̱hnyaˀsesgó:wah
ga̱-hnyaˀs-es-gó:wah
3s.a-neck-long.stat-aug
‘giraffe’
cf. ga̱hnyáˀse:s
ga̱-hnyáˀs-e:s
3s.a-neck-long.stat
‘it has a long neck’
b. okdehatgiˀgó:wah
o-kdeh-a-tgiˀ-gó:wah
3s.p-root-joinerA-ugly.stat-aug
‘great distorted root’ (a herb)

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10 Word suffixes

cf. okdéhatgiˀ
o-kdéh-a-tgiˀ
3s.p-root-joinerA-ugly.stat
‘dirty or ugly root’
c. gayęˀgwasgó:wah
ga-yęˀgw-a-k-s-gó:wah
3s.a-tobacco-joinerA-eat-hab-aug
‘tobacco worm’
cf. gayę́ˀgwa:s
ga-yęˀgw-a-k-s
3s.a-tobacco-joinerA-eat-hab
‘it eats tobacco’
d. gawęno̱hgriya̱ˀsgó:wah
ga-węno̱hgr-iya̱ˀk-s-gó:wah
3s.a-weed-cut-hab-aug
‘weed or brush cutter’
cf. gawęno̱hgrí:yaˀs
ga-węno̱hgr-í:yaˀk-s
3s.a-weed-cut-hab
‘it cuts weeds’

10.7 ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past

The ⌊-gęhę:⌋ past ending attaches to verbs (26), verbs functioning as “nouns” (27),
basic nouns (28) and kinship terms (29). With verbs, ⌊-gęhę:⌋ denotes a former
time (26).

(26) verbs
a. ní:ˀ agawęgę́hę:ˀ
ní:ˀ ag-aw-ę-gę́hę:ˀ
I 1s.p-own-stat-past
‘it used to be mine’
cf. agá:węh
ag-á:w-ęh
1s.p-own-stat
‘mine’

110
 10.7 ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past

b. howę́gę̱ hę:ˀˀ
ho-wę-gę̱ hę:ˀˀ
3s.m.p-own.stat-stat-past5
‘it used to be his’
cf. hó:węh
hó:-w-ęh
3s.m.p-own-stat
‘his’

For verbs functioning as “nouns” (27), basic nouns (28), and kinship terms (29),
the ⌊-gęhę:⌋ ending tends to mean ‘former’ or ‘late’.

(27) verbs functioning as “nouns”

eksaˀdasé:gę̱ hę:ˀˀ
e-ks-a-ˀd-asé:-gę̱ hę:ˀˀ
3s.fi.a-child-joinerA-increment-new.stat-past
‘a former teenage girl’
cf. eksaˀdasé:ˀah
e-ks-a-ˀd-asé:-ˀah
3s.fi.a-child-joinerA-increment-new.stat-dim
‘teenage girl’

(28) basic nouns

a. oˀnhǫhsagę́hę:ˀ
o-ˀnhǫhs-a-gę́hę:ˀ
3s.p-egg-joinerA-past
‘it used to be an egg’ (e.g. a broken robin’s egg or a dinosaur’s egg)
cf. oˀnhǫ́hsaˀ
o-ˀnhǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.p-egg-nsf
‘egg’
b. akyęda̱hkwáˀgę̱ hę:ˀˀ
akyęda̱hkw-áˀ-gę̱ hę:ˀˀ
chair-joinerA-past
‘a former chair’
5
Also,
i. howę́hne:ˀ
ho-w-ę́-hne:ˀ
3s.m.p-own-stat-rem
‘it used to be his’

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10 Word suffixes

c. gokyęda̱hkwáˀgę̱ hę:ˀˀ
go-kyęda̱hkw-áˀ-gę̱ hę:ˀˀ
3s.fi.p-chair-joinerA-past
‘it used to be her chair’
cf. akyę́da̱hkwaˀ
akyę́da̱hkw-aˀ
chair-nsf
‘chair’

(29) kinship terms

a. knoha:ˀahgęhę:ˀ
k-noha:ˀah-gęhę:ˀ
1s.a-aunt-past
‘my late aunt’
cf. kno:há:ˀah
k-no:há:ˀah
1s.a-aunt
‘my aunt’
b. hehjiˀahgę́hę:ˀ
he-hji-ˀah-gę́hę:ˀ
1s:3ms-older.sibling-dim-past
‘my former older brother’
cf. hehjíˀah
he-hjí-ˀah
1s:3ms-older.sibling-dim
‘my older brother’
c. haˀnígę̱ hę:ˀ
ha-ˀní-gę̱ hę:ˀ
3s.m.a-father-past
‘my former father’
cf. haˀnih
ha-ˀnih
3s.m.a-father
‘my father’
d. knoháˀgę̱ hę:ˀˀˀ
k-noháˀ-gę̱ hę:ˀˀˀ
1s.a-mother-past
‘my former mother’

112
 10.8 ⌊-neha:ˀ⌋ customary or characterizer

cf. knó:haˀ
k-nó:haˀ
1s.a-mother
‘my mother’
e. ǫgya:dáogę̱ hę:ˀˀ
ǫgy-a:d-áo-gę̱ hę:ˀˀ
1p.p-srf-ceremonial.friend-past
‘my former ceremonial friend’
cf. ǫgya:dáoˀ
ǫgy-a:d-áoˀ
1p.p-srf-ceremonial.friend
‘my ceremonial friend’
f. ǫgyatsihgę́hę:ˀ
ǫgy-atsih-gę́hę:ˀ
1p.p-friend-past
‘my former friend’
cf. ǫgyá:tsih
ǫgy-á:tsih
1p.p-friend
‘my friend’

10.8 ⌊-neha:ˀ⌋ customary or characterizer

The ⌊-neha:ˀ⌋ customary or characterizer ending attaches to atypical words
(30). It means a ‘typical way or kind’ (which speakers often translate as ‘Indian’
when the word in question describes traditional ways or objects).

(30) atypical words functioning as “nouns”

a. ǫgwehǫwéhne̱ha:ˀ
ǫgweh-ǫwéh-ne̱ha:ˀ
people-typ-customary
‘Indian way’
cf. ǫgwehǫ́:weh
ǫgweh-ǫ́:weh
people-typ
‘Indian’
b. hnyǫˀǫhnéha:ˀ
hnyǫˀǫh-néha:ˀ
white.stat-customary
‘white kind’

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10 Word suffixes

cf. hahnyǫ́ˀǫh
ha-hnyǫ́ˀǫh
3s.m.a-white.stat
‘white man’
c. shede̱hjihahnéha:ˀ
shede̱h-ji-hah-néha:ˀ
early.morning-ints-dim-customary
‘brunch time, mid-morning, early morning’
cf. shede̱hjí:hah
shede̱h-jí:-hah
early.morning-ints-dim
‘early morning’

10.9 ⌊-geha:ˀ⌋ customary

The ⌊-geha:ˀ⌋ customary suffix means a ‘typical way or kind’ (which speakers
often translate as ‘Indian’ when the word in question describes traditional ways
or objects). It attaches to atypical words functioning as “nouns” (31–33) and to
verbs (32). The names of many social dances (§D.24) end with ⌊-geha:ˀ⌋ (33).

(31) atypical words functioning as “nouns”

ǫgwehǫwéhge̱ha:ˀ
ǫgweh-ǫwéh-ge̱ha:ˀ
people-typ-customary
‘Indian kind, type’ (e.g. of clothes)
cf. ǫgwehǫ́:weh
ǫgweh-ǫ́:weh
people-typ
‘Indian’

(32) verbs
otowe̱ˀgéha:ˀ
o-t-howe̱ˀ-géha:ˀ
3s.p-srf-cold.stat-customary
‘the northern kind’
cf. otówe̱ˀgeh
o-t-howe̱-ˀgeh
3s.p-srf-cold.stat-on
‘north’

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 10.10 ⌊-ka:ˀ⌋ customary

(33) social dances

a. twę:twę́:tge̱ha:ˀ
twę:twę́:t-ge̱ha:ˀ
duck-customary
‘duck dance’
cf. twę́:twę:t
‘duck’
b. hnyagwaiˀgéha:ˀ
hnyagwaiˀ-géha:ˀ
bear-customary
‘Bear Dance’
cf. hnyagwái:
‘bear’

10.10 ⌊-ka:ˀ⌋ customary

The ⌊-ka:ˀ⌋ customary ending also means ‘a typical way or kind’. It attaches to
atypical words functioning as “nouns” (34) and verbs functioning as “nouns” (35).

(34) atypical words functioning as “nouns”

a. ahsdéhka:ˀ
ahsdéh-ka:ˀ
outside-customary
‘outside type’
cf. ahsdeh ‘outside’
b. go̱hsréhka:ˀ
go̱hsréh-ka:ˀ
cold.place-customary
‘winter kind’
cf. go̱hsréhneh
go̱hsré-hneh
cold.place-at
‘winter’

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10 Word suffixes

(35) verbs functioning as “nouns”

a. ędéhka:ˀ
ęd-é-h-ka:ˀ
day-go-no_aspect-customary
‘day kind’
cf. ę́:deh
ę́:d-e-h
day-go-no_aspect
‘day’
b. ahsǫ́hehka:ˀ
ahsǫ́h-e-h-ka:ˀ
night-go-no_aspect-customary
‘night kind’
cf. ahsǫ́heh
ahsǫ́h-e-h
night-go-no_aspect
‘night’
c. ga̱hnyǫ́ˀǫhka:ˀ
ga̱-hnyǫ́ˀǫh-ka:ˀ
3s.a-white.stat-customary
‘white man’s kind’
cf. hahnyǫ́ˀǫh
ha-hnyǫ́ˀǫh
3s.m.a-white.stat
‘white man’

10.11 ⌊-ǫ:weh⌋ typicalizer (typ)

The ⌊-ǫ:weh⌋ typ ending attaches to basic nouns (36) and atypical words function-
ing as “nouns” (37). Speakers often translate this ending as ‘Indian’, ‘traditional’,
or ‘ceremonial’.

(36) basic nouns

a. ahdahgwa̱ˀǫ́:weh
ahdahgw-a̱ˀ-ǫ́:weh
shoe-nsf-typ
‘shoe’ (a special type for a corpse at a funeral), ‘a moccasin’

116
 10.11 ⌊-ǫ:weh⌋ typicalizer (typ)

cf. ahdáhgwaˀ
ahdáhgw-aˀ
shoe-nsf
‘shoe’
b. oyęhsra̱ˀǫ́:weh
o-yęhsr-a̱ˀ-ǫ́:weh
3s.p-blanket-nsf-typ
‘shawl’ (for dancing, or the type put on a corpse at a funeral)
cf. oyę́hsraˀ
o-yę́hsr-aˀ
3s.p-blanket-nsf
‘blanket’
c. ohnyǫsa̱ˀǫ́:weh
o-hnyǫs-a̱ˀ-ǫ́weh
3s.p-squash-nsf-typ
‘squash’ (used for soup at the longhouse, usually hubbard squash)
cf. ohnyǫ́hsaˀ
o-hnyǫ́h-saˀ
3s.p-squash-nsf
‘squash’
d. oyęgwa̱ˀǫ́:weh
o-yęgw-a̱ˀ-ǫ́:weh
3s.p-tobacco-nsf-typ
‘tobacco’ (ceremonial, home-grown and not processed)
cf. oyę́ˀgwaˀ
o-yę́ˀgw-aˀ
3s.p-tobacco-nsf
‘tobacco’
e. onęhęˀǫ́:weh
o-nęhę-ˀ-ǫ́:weh
3s.p-corn-nsf-typ
‘corn’ (flint corn)
cf. onę́hę:ˀ
o-nę́hę:-ˀ
3s.p-corn-nsf
‘corn’
f. ganǫhsa̱ˀǫ́:weh
ga-nǫhs-a̱ˀ-ǫ́:weh
3s.a-house-nsf-typ
‘cookhouse’ (at the longhouse)

117
10 Word suffixes

cf. ganǫ́hsaˀ
ga-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.a-house-nsf
‘house’
g. ganaˀja̱ˀǫ́:weh
ga-naˀj-a̱ˀ-ǫ́:weh
3s.a-pot-nsf-typ
‘cooking pots used at the longhouse’
cf. ganájaˀ
ga-náj-aˀ
3s.a-pot-nsf
‘pot’, ‘bottle’, etc.

(37) atypical words functioning as “nouns”

ǫgwehǫ́:weh
ǫgwe-h-ǫ́:weh
person-euph.h-typicalizer
‘Indian’
cf. ǫ́:gweh
ǫ́:gwe-h
person-euph.h
‘person’

Ǫ́:weh also appears as a stand-alone word in particle groups, where it means

‘really’ or ‘truly’ (see §C.11).

(38) particle groups

a. gwahs ǫ́:weh
really truly
‘truly’
b. neˀ ǫ́:weh
the truly
‘that, really’
c. shęh ǫ́:weh
that truly
‘it is really’

118
 10.12 ⌊-ho:nǫˀ⌋ populative (pop)

10.12 ⌊-ho:nǫˀ⌋ populative (pop)

The ⌊-ho:nǫˀ⌋ pop ending means ‘people living at’. It attaches to basic nouns (39)
and to verbs functioning as “nouns” (40). It usually follows the ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on suffix
(but see 40b, c, and 41).

(39) basic nouns

a. Ga̱hnawa̱ˀgehó:nǫˀ
ga̱-hnaw-a̱-ˀgeh-hó:nǫˀ
3s.a-rapids-joinerA-on-pop
‘Caughnawagans’
cf. Ga̱hnáwa̱ˀgeh
ga̱-hnáw-a̱-ˀgeh
3s.a-rapids-joinerA-on
‘Caughnawaga’
b. ganyada:ˀge̱hó:nǫˀ
ga-nyada:-ˀgeh-hó:nǫˀ
3s.a-lake-on-pop
‘lake people, cottagers’
cf. ganyadá:ˀgeh
ga-nyadá:-ˀgeh
3s.a-lake-on
‘to, at the lake’
c. ǫhnyaˀge̱hó:nǫˀ
ǫhny-a-ˀgeh-hó:nǫˀ
river.flats-joinerA-on-pop
‘people of the river flats’
cf. ǫhnyáˀgeh
ǫhny-á-ˀgeh
river.flats-joinerA-on
‘on the river flats’
d. oyajihó:nǫˀ
o-ya-ji-hó:nǫˀ
3s.p-other-ints-pop
‘stranger, alien’
cf. oyá:jih
o-yá:-jih
3s.p-other-ints
‘another type’

119
10 Word suffixes

e. Ganeda̱ˀgehó:nǫˀ
ga-ned-a̱-ˀgeh-hó:nǫˀ
3s.a-valley-joinerA-on-pop
‘Lower End People’
cf. Ganéda̱ˀgeh
ga-néd-a̱-ˀgeh
3s.a-valley-joinerA-on
‘Lower End’ (literally, ‘in the valley’)
f. hadihǫwaˀge̱hó:nǫˀ
hadi-hǫw-a-ˀge̱-hó:nǫˀ
3ns.m.a-boat-joinerA-on-pop
‘sailors, navy men, merchant marines’
cf. ga̱hǫ́:waˀ
ga̱-hǫ́:w-aˀ
3s.a-boat-nsf
‘boat’

(40) verbs functioning as “nouns”

a. Ga̱hnawiyoˀge̱hó:nǫˀ
ga̱-hnaw-iyo-ˀge̱h-hó:nǫˀ
3s.a-rapids-beautiful.stat-on-pop
‘Oklahomans’
cf. Ga̱hnawiyóˀgeh
ga̱-hnaw-iyó-ˀgeh
3s.a-rapids-beautiful.stat-on
‘Oklahoma’
b. Ganǫhgwa̱ˀtrohó:nǫˀ
ga-nǫhgwa̱ˀtr-o-hó:nǫˀ
3s.a-medicine-submerged.stat-pop
‘Sour Spring People’
cf. Ganǫ́hgwa̱ˀtroˀ
ga-nǫ́hgwa̱ˀtr-oˀ
3s.a-medicine-submerged.stat
‘Sour Springs’
c. Dagęhyathó:nǫˀ
da-g-ęhy-a-t-hó:nǫˀ
cis-3s.a-mountain.top-stand.stat-pop
‘Upper End People’

120
 10.13 ⌊-jih⌋ intensifier (ints)

cf. Dagę́hya:t
da-g-ęhy-a:-t
cis-3s.a-mountain.top-stand.stat
‘Upper End’ (literally, ‘top of the mountain’)

(41) a. Gwahsdǫhó:nǫˀ
gwahsdǫ-hó:nǫˀ
America-pop6
‘Americans’
b. Gwahsdǫhonǫˀge̱hó:nǫˀ
gwahsdǫh-honǫh-ˀge̱-hó:nǫˀ
America-pop-on-pop
‘United States citizen’
cf. Gwahsdǫhonǫˀgeh
gwahsdǫ-honǫ-ˀgeh
America-pop-on
‘United States’

10.13 ⌊-jih⌋ intensifier (ints)

The ⌊-jih⌋ ints ending means ‘really so’, ‘even more so’. It attaches to verbs (42),
atypical words (43), and nouns (both atypical, 44a, and basic, 44b). It also attaches
to several particles (45).

(42) verbs
a. ahóhda̱ˀjih
a-hó-hda̱-ˀ-jih
fac-3s.m.p-get.full-punc-ints
‘he really got full’
cf. ahóhdaˀ
a-hó-hda-ˀ
fac-3s.m.p-get.full-punc
‘he got full’
b. Sgęnǫ́jih gęh?
s-g-ęnǫ́-jih gęh
rep-3s.a-originate.from.stat-ints Q
‘are you (really) well?’

6
Gwahsdǫh is a loanword adaptation of ‘Boston’.

121
10 Word suffixes

cf. Sgę́:nǫˀ.
s-g-ę́:nǫˀ
rep-3s.a-originate.from.stat
‘hello’
c. ohnáˀgę̱ ˀjih
o-hná:gę̱ ˀ-jih
3s.p-under.stat-ints
‘back then, back there, late, the bottom’
cf. ohnáˀgę:ˀ
o-hná:gę:-ˀ
3s.p-under.stat-nsf
‘behind, late’

(43) atypical words

hé:tgę̱ hjih
hé:tgę̱ h-jih
above-ints
‘the very top’
cf. hé:tgęh
‘above, up’

(44) nouns
a. dagú:jih
dagú:s-jih
cat-ints
‘cat’ (term of endearment)7
cf. dagu:s
‘cat’
b. oyájih
o-y-á-jih
3s.p-other-joinerA-ints
‘another type’
cf. ó:yaˀ
ó:-y-aˀ
3s.p-other-nsf
‘another’

The particles in (45) are described in the Particle dictionary (§C).

7
The [s] deletes from dagu:s before the ⌊-jih⌋ ints suffix.

122
 10.14 ⌊-shę:ˀ, -tsę:ˀ⌋ kinship declaration

(45) a. Toh-jih ‘just the one’, ’just such a one’

b. Waˀ-jih ‘after a while’, ’eventually’, ’just a while ago’
c. Waˀ-jih ‘wait!’
d. Waˀ-jih gyę:ˀ ‘almost’, ’just about’
e. Waˀ-jih hya:ˀ ‘wait a minute’, ’wait a while’, ‘wait!’

10.14 ⌊-shę:ˀ, -tsę:ˀ⌋ kinship declaration

The ⌊-shę:ˀ, -tsę:ˀ⌋ declare.kinship ending attaches to kinship terms, and to
words functioning as “kinship terms”. Its function is to declare a kinship rela-
tionship.

(46) a. ǫgyaˀsé:ˀshęˀ
ǫgy-aˀsé:ˀ-shęˀ
1d.p-doubled.stat-declare.kinship
‘our cousins’
cf. ǫgyáˀse:ˀ
ǫgy-áˀse:ˀ
1d.p-doubled.stat
‘my cousin’
b. hoˀníshęˀ
ho-ˀní-shęˀ
3s.m.p-father-declare.kinship
‘he has a father’
cf. haˀnih
ha-ˀnih
3s.m.a-father
‘my father’, ‘Dad’
c. agaǫdáoˀtsę:ˀ
a-gaǫ-d-áoˀ-tshę:ˀ
fac-3ns.fi.a-srf-run.stat-declare.kinship
‘they (fe/males) became ceremonial friends’
cf. honadáoˀsǫˀ
hon-ad-áoˀ-shǫˀ
3s.m.p-srf-run.stat-plrz
‘they are friends’

123
10 Word suffixes

d. hohsó:tsęˀ
ho-hsó:t-shęˀ
3s.m.p-grandparent-declare.kinship
‘he has a grandparent’
cf. hohso:t
ho-hso:t
3s.m.p-grandparent
‘his Grandma’
cf. hehso:t
he-hso:t
1s:3ms-grandparent
‘my grandfather’
e. honó:haˀtsęˀ
ho-nó:haˀ-tshęˀ
3s.m.p-mother-declare.kinship
‘he has a mother’
cf. honó:haˀ
ho-nó:haˀ
3s.m.p-mother
‘his mother’

10.15 Pluralizers (plrz)

The two pluralizer endings, ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ plrz and ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz are described next.
§10.15.4 also includes a discussion of the inherent plural meaning of basic nouns.

10.15.1 ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ pluralizer (plrz)

The ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ plrz ending attaches to nouns (47–50), verbs functioning as “nouns”
(48), kinship terms (49), and numbers (51).
With nouns, ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ plrz possibly means a variety of items, or a dissimilar
group of items (47, see §10.15.3 for further comments).
(47) nouns
a. ga̱ˀdrehda̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh8
ga̱-ˀdrehd-aˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
3s.a-car-nsf-plrz
‘many, a variety of cars’
8
The community spellings of the plrz suffixes, <-sǫ:ˀǫh, -sǫ:ˀah> and <-sǫˀ>, are used in the
unsegmented words, while the linguistic spelling with SH is used in the morpheme breaks.
See §2 for more explanation.

124
 10.15 Pluralizers (plrz)

cf. ga̱ˀdréhdaˀ
ga̱-ˀdréhd-aˀ
3s.a-car-nsf
‘car(s)’
b. ohǫda̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
o-hǫd-a̱ˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
3s.p-sapling-nsf-plrz
‘bushes’
cf. ohǫ́:daˀ
o-hǫ́:d-aˀ
3s.p-sapling-nsf
‘whip(s)’
c. jidęˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
jidęˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
bird-plrz
‘birds’
cf. jidę́:ˀęh
jidę́:-ˀeh
bird-dim
‘bird(s)’
d. agetgwę̱ ˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
ag-e-tgwę̱ ˀd-aˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
1s.p-joinerE-wallet-nsf-plrz
‘my suitcases (ones that are scattered around)’
cf. agétgwę̱ ˀdaˀ
ag-é-tgwę̱ ˀd-aˀ
1s.p-joinerE-wallet-nsf
‘my suitcase(s), wallet(s), purse(s)’
e. hadiksa̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
hadi-ks-a̱ˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
3ns.m.a-child-nsf-plrz
‘male children’
cf. hadiksá:ˀah
hadi-ks-á:ˀ-ˀah
3ns.m.a-child-nsf-dim
‘two boys’
f. gaeksa̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
gae-ks-a̱ˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
3ns.fi.a-child-nsf-plrz
‘female or mixed children’

125
10 Word suffixes

cf. gaeksá:ˀah
gae-ks-á:-ˀah
3ns.fi.a-child-nsf-dim
‘two girls’

(48) verbs functioning as “nouns”

a. ehstaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
e-hsd-haˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
3s.fi.a-use-hab-plrz
‘tools’ (literally, ‘what people use’)
cf. ehstaˀ ‘she uses’ or
e-hsd-haˀ
3s.fi.a-use-hab
‘people use’
b. ga:gǫgweˀdase:sǫ́:ˀǫh
ga:g-ǫgweˀd-ase:-shǫ́:ˀǫh
3ns.fi.a-people-new.stat-plrz
‘young women’ (picked out from a group of women)
cf. ga:gǫgwéˀdase:
ga:g-ǫgwéˀd-ase:
3ns.fi.a-people-new.stat
‘young women’

(49) kinship terms

a. gakeyadreˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
gakey-adreˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
1s:3ns-join.stat-plrz
‘my grandchildren’
cf. gakéyadreˀ
gakéy-adreˀ
1s:3ns-join.stat
‘my grandchildren’ (said when reckoning a bloodline)
b. gwadreˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
gw-adreˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
1:2(p)-join.stat-plrz
‘grandchildren’ (term of address said by any old person to young
children)
cf. gwadre:ˀ
gw-adre:ˀ
1:2(p)-join.stat
‘grandchild’ (term of address said by any old person to a young child)

126
 10.15 Pluralizers (plrz)

The ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ plrz ending also turns uncountable nouns (mass nouns) into
countable objects (50).

(50) uncountable (mass) nouns and countable objects

a. ohnaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
o-hn-aˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
3s.p-grease-nsf-plrz
‘greasy people’ count
cf. ohnaˀ
o-hn-aˀ
3s.p-grease-nsf
‘gravy’ mass
b. gakwaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
ga-kw-aˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
3s.a-food-nsf-plrz
‘variety of foods’ count
cf. gakwaˀ
ga-kw-aˀ
3s.a-food-nsf
‘food’ mass

With numbers, the ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ plrz ending means ‘a number of each type’ (51),
‘around a certain time’ (52) or ‘at a time’ (53).

(51) sgatsǫ́:ˀǫh gagéhǫˀ

sgat-shǫ́:ˀǫh gagéhǫˀ
one-plrz they.lie.around
‘one of each thing lying around’

(52) O: hwihsǫ:ˀǫ́h hęwáge̱hoˀ

O: hwihs-shǫ:ˀǫ́h hęwáge̱hoˀ.
oh five-plrz I.will.lie.around
‘Oh, I’ll be here around 5 o’clock.’

(53) Sgatsǫ:ˀǫ́h shę́h ta:dí:yǫˀ

Sgat-shǫ:ˀǫ́h shę́h ta:dí:yǫˀ
one-plrz that they.males.arrived
‘They came in one by one’

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10 Word suffixes

10.15.2 ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ pluralizer (plrz)

The ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz ending attaches to nouns (54), kinship terms (55), numbers (56),
and verbs (57–58). It possibly means ‘a group of similar items’ (see §10.15.3 for
further comments).
(54) nouns
agetgwę̱ ˀdáˀsǫˀ
ag-e-tgwę̱ ˀd-áˀ-shǫˀ
1s.p-joinerE-wallet-nsf-plrz
‘my suitcases’ (i.e. a bunch of suitcases, bundled together or mentally
grouped as a unit)
cf. agétgwę̱ ˀdaˀ
ag-é-twę̱ ˀd-aˀ
1s.p-joinerE-wallet-nsf
‘my suitcase(s), wallet(s), purse(s)’

(55) kinship terms

a. gakeyadréˀsǫˀ
gakey-adréˀ-shǫˀ
1s:3ns-join.stat-plrz
‘my grandchildren’
cf. gakéyadreˀ
gaké-yadreˀ
1s:3ns-join.stat
‘my grandchildren’ (said when reckoning a bloodline)
b. ǫdę́nǫ̱hksǫˀ
ǫ-dę́-nǫ̱hk-shǫˀ
3s.fi.a-srf-relative-plrz
‘relatives’
cf. agya:dę́:nǫhk
agya:-dę́:-nǫhk
1d.ex.a-srf-relative
‘my relative’
c. gakehji ̱ˀáhsǫˀ
gake-hji ̱-ˀáh-shǫˀ
1s:3ns-older.sibling-dim-plrz
‘my older siblings’
cf. kehjíˀah
keh-jí-ˀah
1s:3fis-older.sibling-dim
‘my older sister’

128
 10.15 Pluralizers (plrz)

With numbers, ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz denotes an approximate time (56a), as does ⌊-

shǫ́:ˀǫh⌋ plrz (51). It can also mean groups of one, two, three, (etc.) at a time
(56b, c).

(56) numbers
a. hwihsǫˀ
hwihs-shǫˀ
five-plrz
‘five-ish, around 5:00’
cf. hwihs ‘five’
b. sgatsǫˀ
sgat-shǫˀ
one-plrz
‘one at a time’
cf. sga:t
‘one’
c. deknísǫˀ
dekní-shǫˀ
two-plrz
‘by twos’, ‘two at a time’
cf. dekni:
‘two’

With counting expressions (verbs), ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz means ‘apart’ (57a), ‘each’
(57b), or ‘at a time’ (57c, see §31).

(57) verbs (counting expression with ⌊pronominal prefix-incorporated

noun-verb-sǫˀ⌋)
a. jo̱hsíˀdatsǫˀ
j-o-hsíˀd-a-t-shǫˀ
rep-3s.p-foot-joinerA-stand.stat-plrz
‘one foot apart’
cf. jo̱hsíˀda:t
j-o-hsíˀd-a:-t
rep-3s.p-foot-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one foot’
b. sga̱ˀdréhdatsǫˀ
s-ga̱-ˀdrehd-a-t-shǫˀ
rep-3s.a-car-joinerA-stand.stat-plrz
‘one car at a time’, ‘each car’, ‘per car’

129
10 Word suffixes

cf. sga̱ˀdréhda:t
s-ga̱-ˀdrehd-a:-t
rep-3s.a-car-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one car’
c. degadiyáhshesǫˀ
de-gadi-yáhshe-shǫˀ
du-3p.a-two.things.stat-plrz
‘two things at a time’
cf. degadiyáhshe:
de-gadi-yáhshe:
du-3p.a-two.things.stat
‘two of them’, ‘they are two (things)’

Finally, when attached to verbs, ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz means ‘several objects’ (58).

(58) verbs (⌊verb-shǫˀ⌋)

a. hoyę́twę̱ hsǫˀ
ho-yętw-ę̱ h-shǫˀ
3s.m.p-plant-stat-plrz
‘he planted several things’
cf. hoyę́:twęh
ho-yę́:tw-ęh
3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he planted’
b. sawę́hsǫˀ
sa-węh-shǫˀ
2s.p-own.stat-plrz
‘your belongings, property’
cf. sá:węh
sa-węh
2s.p-own.stat
‘you own something’
c. ogáyǫ̱hsǫˀ
o-gáy-ǫ̱h-shǫˀ
3s.p-old-stat-plrz
‘old things’
cf. ogá:yǫh
o-gá:y-ǫh
3s.p-old-stat
‘it is old’

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 10.15 Pluralizers (plrz)

d. shǫgwaęnáwisǫˀ
shǫgwa-ęn-áwi-shǫˀ
3ms:1p-song-give.stat-plrz
‘he has given us songs’
cf. agwe:gǫ́h shǫgwaęná:wih
agwe:gǫ́h shǫgwa-ęn-á:wi-:
all.of.us 3ms:1p-song-give-stat
‘he has given all of us songs’
e. de̱honę̱ hsóweksǫˀ
de̱-hon-ę̱ hs-ówek-shǫˀ
du-3ns.m.p-shoe-be.covered.stat-plrz
‘they have their shoes on’
f. ędwana̱ˀdá:ksǫ:ˀ
ę-dwa-na̱ˀdá:-k-shǫ:ˀ
fut-1p.in.a-bread-bite.punc.plrz9
‘we all will have a snack’

10.15.3 Meaning of ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz versus ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ plrz

The ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz and ⌊-shǫ́:ˀǫh⌋ plrz endings appear to have subtly different
meanings (59–61). Possibly, ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz denotes ‘a group of similar items, lumped
together’, while ⌊-shǫ́:ˀǫh⌋ plrz could mean ‘a group of dissimilar items’, or ‘sim-
ilar items lying around in different locations’ (62). Another difference is that
⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ plrz does not attach to verbs proper (only to verbs functioning as
“nouns” and to kinship terms), while ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz does attach to true verbs. Mean-
while, both endings attach to basic nouns and numbers.

(59) a. hwihsǫˀ
hwihs-shǫˀ
five-plrz
‘five-ish’ (around 5 o’clock)
b. hwihsǫ́:ˀǫh
hwihs-shǫ́:ˀǫh
five-plrz
‘five-ish’ (around 5 o’clock)

9
In punctual aspect forms, the plrz ending is long ⌊-shǫ:ˀ⌋.

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10 Word suffixes

(60) a. sgatsǫˀ shęh da̱ha:dí:yǫˀ

sgat-shǫˀ shęh da̱ha:dí:yǫˀ
one-plrz that they.came.in
‘they came in one by one’
b. sgatsǫ́:ˀǫh shęh da̱ha:dí:yǫˀ
sgat-shǫ́:ˀǫh shęh da̱ha:dí:yǫˀ
one-plrz that they.came.in
‘they came in one by one’
(61) a. nihodi ̱hoˀdę́: hadíksa̱ˀsǫˀ
nihodi ̱hoˀdę́: hadíksa̱ˀ-shǫˀ
what.they.are.like boy-plrz
‘they are acting like boys’
b. nihodi ̱hoˀdę́: hadiksa̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
nihodi ̱hoˀdę́: hadiksa̱ˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
what.they.are.like boy-pluralizer
‘they are acting like boys’
(62) a. agetgwę̱ ˀdáˀsǫˀ
age-tgwę̱ ˀd-áˀ-shǫˀ
1s.p-wallet-nsf-plrz
‘my suitcases’ (i.e. a bunch of suitcases, bundled together or mentally
grouped as a unit)
b. agetgwę̱ ˀdaˀsǫ́ˀ gaęgwaˀtsǫ́: tiyo:né:noˀ
ag-e-tgwę̱ ˀd-aˀ-shǫ́ˀ gaęgwaˀtsǫ́: tiyo:né:noˀ
1s.p-joinerE-suitcase-nsf-plrz just.all they.have.disappeared
‘my suitcases have all disappeared’
c. agetgwę̱ ˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
age-tgwę̱ ˀd-aˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
1s.p-suitcase-nsf-plrz
‘my suitcases (ones that are scattered around)’
cf. agétgwę̱ ˀdaˀ
agé-tgwę̱ ˀd-aˀ
1s.p-wallet-nsf
‘my suitcase(s), wallet(s), purse(s)’

10.15.4 Pluralizing nouns

Even without a ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ plrz or ⌊-shǫˀ⌋ plrz ending, basic nouns can be inter-
preted as plural in meaning, given the appropriate context. For example in (63),

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 10.15 Pluralizers (plrz)

both ohwáhdaˀ ‘maple tree’ and ǫ́:gweh ‘person’ refer to more than one person
or thing.

(63) Haˀhéˀsǫˀ. Tonhǫ́: o:nę́h ni ̱héˀ shę nhǫ́: ohwáhdaˀ.

he.walked.on there then he.was that where maple.tree
‘He walked on and found himself under the tall trees.’ (Carrier et al., 2013)

(64) Oˀdǫ́hgwaˀ, ne:ˀ godí:nyohs ǫ́:gweh.

fever it.is they.are.dying person
‘There is a fever that is killing your people.’ (Carrier et al., 2013)

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11 Noun suffixes
Noun suffixes attach exclusively to nouns. (They are unlike the word suffixes
described in §10, which attach to nouns, verbs, or particles). Noun suffixes appear
in the order shown in Table 11.1. They can be classified into two types, “noun
identifiers”, whose function is to identify the relevant words as nouns, and the
locative noun suffixes.
Table 11.1: Noun suffixes

stem noun identifier locative noun suffixes

noun ⌊-aˀ⌋ nsf ⌊-gǫ:⌋ in (internal locative)
⌊-ˀd-aˀ⌋ increment-nsf ⌊-:kˀah⌋ “beside” locative
⌊-hsr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf ⌊-kdagyeˀ⌋ “alongside” locative
⌊-tr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf
⌊-hkw-aˀ⌋ instr

11.1 Noun identifier suffixes

Some suffixes either identify words as nouns, or turn verbs into nouns. They are
described in this and the following sections.

11.1.1 ⌊-aˀ⌋ noun stem former (nsf)

The ⌊-aˀ⌋ nsf (1) attaches to basic nouns (§5.1). The purpose or meaning of the
suffix is to identify the word as a noun.

(1) a. ga̱ˀdréhdaˀ
ga̱-ˀdréhd-aˀ
3s.a-car-nsf
‘car’
11 Noun suffixes

cf. ga̱ˀdréhde:s
ga̱-ˀdréhd-e:s
3s.a-car-long.stat
‘long car’
b. awę́nǫ̱hgraˀ
awę́nǫ̱hgr-aˀ
no.prefix-weed-nsf
‘weeds’
cf. owę́nǫ̱hgre:s
o-wę́nǫ̱hgr-e:s
3s.p-weed-long.stat
‘tall weeds’
c. onóˀjaˀ
o-nóˀj-aˀ
3s.p-tooth-nsf
‘teeth’
cf. onóˀje:s
o-nóˀj-e:s
3s.p-tooth-long.stat
‘a fang’

11.1.2 Noun increments (incr)

The ⌊-ˀd⌋ incr attaches to some atypical words (36.4) when such words are in-
corporated (2, for incorporation, see §5.6).

(2) a. hǫgweˀdí:yo:
h-ǫgwe-ˀd-í:yo:
3s.m.a-person-increment-nice.stat
‘he is a nice person’
cf. hǫ́:gweh
h-ǫ́:gweh
3s.m.a-person
‘man’ atypical word
b. sgagwéni ̱ˀda:t
s-ga-gwéni ̱-ˀd-a:-t
rep-3s.a-penny-increment-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one penny’
cf. gwé:nihs ‘penny’ (loan word, noun)

136
 11.1 Noun identifier suffixes

c. ga̱hnyagwáiˀda̱ˀgę:t
ga̱-hnyagwái-ˀd-a̱-ˀgę:t
3s.a-bear-increment-joinerA-light.coloured.stat
‘polar bear’
cf. hnyagwái ‘bear’ (animal name, noun)

11.1.3 ⌊-tr-aˀ⌋ and ⌊-(h)sr-aˀ⌋ nominalizer-noun stem former

(nmlz-nsf)
When added to verb stems, the ⌊-tr-aˀ⌋ and ⌊-(h)sr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf combination
results in a basic noun (3, also described in §5.1.1).

(3) a. atgáhnye̱ˀtraˀ
at-gáhnye̱ˀ-tr-aˀ
ø.prefix.srf-play-nmlz-nsf
‘sports, games’
cf. satgáhnyeˀ
s-at-gáhnyeˀ
2s.a-srf-play.no_aspect
‘play!’
b. gaihwanéˀaksraˀ
ga-ihwa-néˀak-sr-aˀ
3s.a-matter-sin-nmlz-nsf
‘sin’
cf. ęgrihwanéˀa:k
ę-g-rihwa-néˀa:k
fut-1s.a-matter-sin.ø.punc
‘I will sin’
c. oyę́hsraˀ
o-yę́-hsr-aˀ
3s.p-lie-nmlz-nsf
‘blanket(s), quilt(s)’
cf. gá:yęˀ
gá:-yę-ˀ
3s.a-lie-stat
‘it is lying on the ground’
d. adeˀnyędę́hsraˀ
ade-ˀnyędę́-hsr-aˀ
ø.prefix.srf-measure-nmlz-nsf
‘measurement(s)’

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11 Noun suffixes

cf. ęhsade̱ˀnyę́:dęˀ
ę-hs-ade̱-ˀnyę́:dę-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-measure-punc
‘you will try, measure’
e. ga̱hyádǫ̱hsraˀ
ga̱-hyádǫ̱-hsr-aˀ
3s.a-write-nmlz-nsf
‘paper’
cf. ehyá:dǫh
e-hyá:dǫ-h
3s.fi.a-write-hab
‘she or someone writes’

11.1.4 ⌊-ǫ-:-ˀ⌋ stative-nominalizer-noun stem former

(stat-nmlz-nsf)
The ⌊-ǫ-:-ˀ⌋ stat-nmlz-nsf combination (4) turns a stative aspect verb into a type
of abstract noun (see §5.5).

(4) gayaˀdowéhdǫ:ˀ
ga-yaˀdowéhd-ǫ-:-ˀ
3s.a-think-stat-nmlz-nsf
‘the idea of thinking’
cf. dewagyaˀdowehdǫh
de-wag-yaˀdowehd-ǫh
du-1s.p-think.stat
‘I have already thought about it’, ‘I am thinking about it’

11.1.5 ⌊-hkw-haˀ⌋ instrumental (instr-hab combination)

The ⌊-hkw-haˀ⌋ instr-hab combination (spelled <-hkwaˀ> or <-hgwaˀ>) attaches
to verb stems, resulting in a verb in the habitual aspect (5), which functions as
an “instrumental noun” (for which, see §5.4.1). The ⌊-hkw-haˀ⌋ instr-hab com-
bination is glossed as ⌊-hkwaˀ⌋ instr throughout this book, except where the
⌊-hkw-haˀ⌋ analysis is needed for clarity.

(5) a. ehyádǫ̱hkwaˀ
e-hyádǫ̱-hkwaˀ
3s.fi.a-write-instr
‘pencil’ (literally, ‘what she or one uses for writing’)

138
 11.1 Noun identifier suffixes

cf. ehyá:dǫh
e-hyá:dǫ-h
3s.fi.a-write-hab
‘she writes’
b. ǫtgahiˀdáhkwaˀ
ǫ-t-gahiˀd-á-hkwaˀ
3s.fi.a-srf-play.with-joinerA-instr
‘toy’ (literally, what she or one uses for playing)
cf. ǫtgáhiˀtaˀ
ǫ-t-gáhiˀt-haˀ
3s.fi.a-srf-play.with-hab
‘what she plays with’
c. wadǫnyedáhkwaˀ
w-ad-ǫnyed-á-hkwaˀ
3s.a-srf-cause.to.breathe-joinerA-instr
‘gill’
cf. wadǫ́nyetaˀ,
w-ad-ǫ́nyet-haˀ
3s.a-srf-cause.to.breathe-hab
‘how it breathes’ ‘it’s a breather’
d. godi:tshe:nę́ˀ hadiˀdrǫdáhkwaˀ
godi:tshe:nę́ˀ hadi-ˀdrǫ-d-á-hkwaˀ
tame.animals 3p.a-live-euphonic.d-joinerA-instr
‘pasture’
cf. gadíˀdrǫˀ
gadí-ˀdrǫˀ
3p.a-live.stat
‘they (animals) live’ (describing a shed or dog house, etc.)
e. ǫdręnáęda̱hkwaˀ
ǫ-d-ręn-á-ę-d-a̱-hkwaˀ
3s.fi.a-srf-song-joinerA-lie-euphonic.d-joinerA-instr
‘church’
cf. honadręnáęˀ
hon-ad-ręn-á-ęˀ
3ns.m.p-srf-song-joinerA-lie.stat
‘they are praying’ (Christian activity)

⌊+ędahkwaˀ⌋, ⌊+odahkwaˀ⌋, and ⌊+ǫdahkwaˀ⌋ (⌊verb-instr⌋)

Many instrumental nouns (§5.4.1) end with ⌊+ędahkwaˀ⌋, ⌊+odahkwaˀ⌋, or ⌊+ǫdahkwaˀ⌋,
which are combinations of an obligatorily-incorporating verb and the ⌊-hkwaˀ⌋

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11 Noun suffixes

instr suffix. The approximate meanings of each combination are illustrated in

(6–8).

(6) ⌊+ę-d-a-hkwaˀ⌋ lie.stat-euphonic.d-joinerA-instr ‘a place to put

something’
ehwihsdáęda̱hkwaˀ
e-hwihsd-á-ęda̱hkwaˀ
3s.fi.a-money-joinerA-lie.stat-euphonic.d-joinerA-instr
‘a bank’

(7) ⌊+od-a-hkwaˀ ⌋ stand-joinerA-instr ‘a standing object’

ǫdręnodáhkwaˀ
ǫ-d-ręn-odáhkwaˀ
3s.fi.a-srf-song-stand.stat-joinerA-instr
‘musical instruments’

(8) ⌊+ǫd-a-hkwaˀ⌋ attached/sticking.out-joinerA-instr ‘an object that sticks

out’, ‘an attached object’
ǫtnaˀdáǫda̱hkwaˀ
ǫ-t-naˀd-á-ǫda̱hkwaˀ
3s.fi.a-srf-bread-joinerA-attached/sticking.out.stat-joinerA-instr
‘a bread pan’

11.2 Locative noun suffixes

The three locative noun suffixes (see Table 11.1) denote various types of location,
including, ‘in’, ‘at’, ‘beside’, and ‘alongside’. They are described next.

11.2.1 ⌊-gǫ:⌋ in (internal locative)

The ⌊-gǫ:⌋ in (internal locative) ending means ‘in, inside, under’. It can attach
to basic nouns (9, §5.1) and is required for some body part nouns (10, §5.2).

(9) basic nouns

a. ga̱hǫ́wagǫ:
ga̱-hǫ́w-a-gǫ:
3s.a-boat-joinerA-in
‘in a boat’

140
 11.2 Locative noun suffixes

cf. ga̱hǫ́:waˀ
ga̱-hǫ́:w-aˀ
3s.a-boat-nsf
‘boat’
b. oyádagǫ:
o-yád-a-gǫ:
3s.p-track-joinerA-in
‘in the basement, track’
cf. oyá:daˀ
o-yá:d-aˀ
3s.p-track-nsf
‘basement, track’
c. ohǫ́dagǫ:
o-hǫ́d-a-gǫ:
3s.p-sapling-joinerA-in
‘in the bushes’
cf. ohǫ́:daˀ
o-hǫ́:d-aˀ
3s.p-sapling-nsf
‘whip, sapling’
d. ǫgwanadá:gǫ:
ǫgwa-nad-á:-gǫ:
1p.p-town-joinerA-in
‘in our community’
cf. ǫgwa:ná:daˀ
ǫgwa:-ná:d-aˀ
1p.p-town-nsf
‘our community’
e. adę́ˀhęgǫ:
adę́ˀhę-gǫ:
ø.prefix.fence-joinerA-in
‘in the yard’
cf. adę́hęˀ
adę́hę-ˀ
no.prefix.fence-nsf
‘fence’
f. ohnégagǫ:
o-hnég-a-gǫ:
3s.p-water-joinerA-in
‘in the lake, water’

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11 Noun suffixes

g. ganyadá:gǫ:
ga-nyadá:-gǫ:
3s.a-lake-in
‘underneath the lake’
h. ǫhnyá:gǫ:
ǫhnyá:-gǫ:
no.prefix.river.flats-joinerA-in
‘in the river flats’
i. ganéˀdagǫ:
ga-néˀd-a-gǫ:
3s.a-valley-joinerA-in
‘under the valley’
j. ohéhdagǫ:
o-héhd-a-gǫ:
3s.p-earth-joinerA-in
‘under the ground’

(10) body part nouns

a. senhǫ́hdagǫ:
se-nhǫ́hd-a-gǫ:
2s.a-underarm-joinerA-in
‘your underarm’
b. sragwáhdagǫ:
s-ragwáhd-a-gǫ:
2s.a-sole-joinerA-in
‘the ball of your foot’
c. seséhdagǫ:
se-séhd-a-gǫ:
2s.a-nape-joinerA-in
‘the nape of your neck’

11.2.2 ⌊-:kˀah⌋ beside (locative)

The ⌊-:kˀah⌋ beside (locative) ending attaches to basic nouns (11, §5.1) and atyp-
ical words functioning as “nouns” (12, §36.4). The vowel preceding the suffix is
always long.

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 11.2 Locative noun suffixes

(11) basic nouns

a. ganǫhsá:kˀah
ga-nǫhs-á:-kˀah
3s.a-house-joinerA-beside
‘beside the house’
cf. ganǫ́hsaˀ
ga-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.a-house-nsf
‘house’
b. akyęda̱hkwá:ˀkˀah
akyęda̱hkw-á:-kˀah
no.prefix.chair-joinerA-beside
‘beside the chair’
cf. akyę́da̱hkwaˀ
akyę́da̱hkw-aˀ
no.prefix.chair-nsf
‘chair’
c. ga̱hę:dá:ˀkˀah
ga̱-hę:d-á:ˀ-kˀah
3s.a-field-joinerA-beside
‘by the field’
cf. ga̱hę́dagǫ:
ga̱-hę́d-a-gǫ:
3s.a-field-joinerA-in
‘in the field, meadow’
d. wadęhę́:kˀah
w-adęhę́:-kˀah
3s.a-fence-joinerA-beside
‘alongside the fence’
cf. adę́hęˀ
adę́hę-ˀ
no.prefix.fence-nsf
‘fence’

(12) atypical words functioning as “nouns”

gi ̱hę́:kˀah
gi ̱hę́:-kˀah
no.prefix.river-beside
‘along the river’

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11 Noun suffixes

cf. gi ̱hę:
gi ̱hę:
no.prefix.river
‘river’

The ⌊-:kˀah⌋ ending also resembles a verb (13). However, words with the verb
proper begin with ⌊ni-⌋ part, while words with the ⌊-:kˀah⌋ beside ending do
not. Also, the verb ⌊kˀah⌋ means ‘short’ while the ⌊-:kˀah⌋ suffix means ‘beside’.

(13) nigaˀdre̱hdá:kˀah
ni-ga-ˀdre̱hd-á:-kˀah
part-3s.a-car-joinerA-short.stat
‘short car’

11.2.3 ⌊-kdagyeˀ⌋ alongside (locative)

The ⌊-kdagyeˀ⌋ alongside (locative) ending attaches to basic nouns (14, §5.1)
and atypical words functioning as “nouns” (15, §36.4).

(14) basic nouns

ganǫhsakdá:gyeˀ
ga-nǫhs-a-kdá:gyeˀ
3s.a-house-joinerA-alongside
‘along the house’
cf. ganǫ́hsaˀ
ga-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.a-house-nsf
‘house’

(15) atypical words functioning as “nouns”

gi ̱hę́kdagyeˀ
gi ̱hę́-kdagyeˀ
no.prefix.river-alongside
‘along the river’
cf. gi ̱hę:
gi ̱hę:
no.prefix.river
‘river’

144
 11.3 Verbs that resemble noun suffixes (“suffix-like” verbs)

The atypical word in (16) also resembles the ⌊-kdagyeˀ⌋ suffix and denotes a
location.

(16) akdá:gyeˀ ‘the edge’, ‘beside’

11.3 Verbs that resemble noun suffixes (“suffix-like” verbs)

“Suffix-like” verbs are obligatorily-incorporating, stative-only verbs (see §9.1.3).
They resemble noun suffixes in that they also appear after noun stems and modify
the meaning of the noun. However suffix-like verbs describe a state or attribute
(17, see §9.3.1 for more examples), while noun suffixes either denote the noun
word class (§11.1) or various locations (§11.2).

(17) “suffix-like” verb stem ⌊+deˀ⌋ ‘existing’, not a noun suffix

a. ohwę́jadeˀ
o-hwę́j-a-deˀ
3s.p-earth-joinerA-exist.stat
‘existing earth, land’
cf. ohwę́jagǫ:
o-hwę́j-a-gǫ:
3s.p-earth-joinerA-in
‘under the earth, ground’
b. gáǫdadeˀ
gá-ǫd-a-deˀ
3s.a-log-joinerA-exist.stat
‘a beam’
cf. gáǫ:daˀ
gá-ǫ:d-aˀ
3s.a-log-nsf
‘a log’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and
verb affix order)
The order of verb prefixes and suffixes is summarized in Table 12.1. All of the
affixes except for the pronominal prefixes are described in the following sections.
(Pronominal prefixes are described in §20.)
Table 12.1: Verb affix order

pre-pron pron post-pron inc noun verb verb

stem suffixes

The prepronominal prefixes appear before the pronominal ones, and have two
main functions, either conveying mood, or “adverb”-like concepts. The ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac,
⌊ę-⌋ fut, and ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefixes together express mood (the speaker’s assess-
ment of whether an action, etc., is likely, true, or desirable). The remaining pre-
pronominal prefixes express concepts such as location (⌊haˀ-⌋ transl), negation
(⌊deˀ-⌋ neg), and repetition (⌊s-⌋ rep).
When combined, the prepronominal prefixes appear in a set order, shown in
Table 12.2, page 148. The ⌊ę-⌋ fut and ⌊a:-⌋ indef occur after the ⌊de-⌋ dualic and
before the ⌊s-⌋ rep and ⌊d-⌋ cislocative. In contrast, the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac appears before
the ⌊de-⌋ du and after the ⌊s-⌋ rep and ⌊d-⌋ cis.
Many verbs require specific prepronominal prefixes or combinations to ex-
press specific or fixed meanings: for example, the combination of the ⌊ti-⌋ con-
trastive and ⌊t-ˀah⌋ ‘stand-dim’ means ‘odd’ (1, see §9.2).
(1) tiyó:tˀah
ti-yó:-t-ˀah
contr-3s.p-stand-dim
‘it is queer, unusual, odd’

12.1 Mood and negation prefixes

Unlike other prepronominal prefixes, the mood and negation prefixes all interact
with the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix (as described in later sections).
12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.2: Prepronominal prefix order

initial transl du mood rep

fac.dual cisl
rep.fac
cisl.fac
⌊i-⌋ proth ⌊heˀ-⌋ ⌊de-⌋ du ⌊ę-⌋ fut ⌊s-⌋ rep
transl
⌊tsi-⌋ coin ⌊ad-⌋ fac.du ⌊a:-⌋ indef ⌊d-⌋ cis
⌊ti-⌋ contr ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac ⌊sa-⌋ rep.fac
⌊ni-⌋ part ⌊da-⌋ cis.fac
⌊deˀ-⌋ neg

The mood prefixes are the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac, ⌊ę-⌋ fut, and ⌊a:-⌋ indef. The ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
expresses the idea that an event or happening is a fact (for example, because it
has happened in the past, 2a). The ⌊ę-⌋ fut conveys that an event or happening
is certain to occur (2b). The ⌊a:-⌋ indef means that an event or happening is
desirable or possible (2c).
(2) mood prefixes
a. akní:nǫˀ
a-k-hní:nǫ-ˀ
fac-1s.a-buy-punc
‘I bought it’
b. ękní:nǫˀ
ę-k-hní:nǫ-ˀ
fut-1s.a-buy-punc
‘I will buy it’
c. a:kní:nǫˀ
a:-k-hní:nǫ-ˀ
indef-1s.a-buy-punc
‘I might, should, could, or would buy it’
The prefixes used for negation are the ⌊deˀ-⌋ neg (3a, b) and ⌊ti-⌋ contr (3c,
d).

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 12.1 Mood and negation prefixes

(3) negation prefixes

a. tęˀ de̱hóyętwęh
tęˀ de̱-hó-yętw-ęh
not neg-3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he did not plant’
b. tęˀ dejo:drę́:no:t’
tęˀ de-j-o:-d-rę́:n-o:t
not neg-rep-3s.p-srf-song-stand.stat
‘it is not singing again’
c. tęˀ ta:gaesayę́:de:
tęˀ t-a:-gaesa-yę́:de:
not contr-indef-3ns>2s-recognize.no_aspect
‘they will not recognize you’
d. tęˀ ta:gé:gęh
tęˀ t-a:-gé:-gę-h
not contr-indef-1s.a-see-euph.h/no_aspect
‘I will not or should not see it’

12.1.1 ⌊aˀ-⌋ factual (fac)

The ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac means that the event described by the verb is a fact or certainty
(in the speaker’s opinion). Verbs with the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac grammatically require the ⌊-
ˀ⌋ punc suffix.1 However, this grammatical requirement can be obscured, since
the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punctual is sometimes deleted for ease of pronunciation. The term zero
punctual (ø.punc) describes such cases (see §19.1).
When the event described by the verb has already happened or can be observed
to be a fact, the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac can denote past activities or events (4).

(4) a. akní:nǫˀ
a-k-hní:nǫ-ˀ
fac-1s.a-buy-punc
‘I bought it’
b. ǫge:gáˀ giˀ!
I.did.like.it just
‘I did like it!’ (said when you have just finished tasting something)
cf. ǫge:-gá-ˀ
fac.1s.p-like.the.taste.of-punc
1
Verbs with the fac are different from verbs with the ⌊a:-⌋ indef or ⌊ę-⌋ fut. The latter do not
always require the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix.
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c. A:yę́ˀ ji tręhs tsishede̱hjíh agáhyagoˀ.

it.seems too.much this.morning I.picked.fruit
‘It seems to me I picked too much fruit this morning.’
cf. a-g-áhya-go-ˀ
fac-1s.a-fruit-pick-punc
d. Aǫgo̱hdǫ́h ǫgeˀdra̱héhs í:soˀ.
too.much 1s.pverdid.it a.lot
‘I ate too much.’
cf. ǫg-e-ˀdra̱héhs
fac.1s.a-joinerE-exceeded-ø.punc
e. Dęˀ hne:ˀ ni:yóht shęh ahádo̱ˀne:k?
what in.fact reason that he.withdrew
‘Why did he leave?’
cf. a-há-d-o̱ˀne:k
fac-3s.m.a-srf-withdraw.ø.punc
f. Né:ˀ he:gę́: agyǫ́hsętoˀ.
it.is it.is.seen she.cried
‘All she did was cry.’
cf. a-g-yǫ́-hsęto-ˀ
fac-du-3s.fi.a-cry-punc
g. Neˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀ asiˀ.
the just that.one you.said.it
‘That’s just what you said.’
cf. a-s-i-ˀ
fac-2s.a-say-punc
h. Hotgǫˀǫ́h asyǫˀ!
what.the you.arrived
‘What the... you made it!’ ‘For heaven’s sake, you got here!’
cf. a-s-yǫ-ˀ
fac-2s.a-arrive-punc

Verbs with the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac can also mean (perhaps humorously) that a near-
future event is all but certain (5).

(5) a. Ogwęhę:gyéˀ gę́:s asyǫˀ.

now.and.again usually you.arrived
‘Now and again (in general) you’ll be here.’
cf. a-s-yǫ-ˀ
fac-2s.a-arrive-punc

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 12.1 Mood and negation prefixes

b. Ne:ˀ ǫh neˀ o:nę́h haˀgahé:ˀ edwadri ̱hóˀda:t.

it.is I.guess the now the.time.has.arrived for.us.to.work
‘And it is now time for us to work.’
cf. e-dwa-d-ri ̱hóˀda:t
fac-1p.in.a-work.ø.punc

The ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac with present events and performatives

Verbs with the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac can denote events happening at the moment of speech.
They are also used while performing the action in question (6).
(6) a. ǫgí:daˀ
ǫg-í:d-aˀ
fac.1s.p-sleep-punc
‘I slept’, ‘I am sleeping’ (said when you want to be left alone)
b. ǫknéhagoˀ
ǫk-néhago-ˀ
fac.1s.p-amazed-punc
‘I am amazed’, ‘I was amazed’
c. sagádǫnhe:t
s-a-g-ád-ǫnhe:t
rep-fac-1s.a-srf-live.ø.punc
‘I am alive again’
d. O:nę́h gwaˀ edwawayę:nę́:daˀ.
now emphasis we.finished
‘We’re finished already.’
cf. e-dwa-wayę:nę́:d-aˀ
fac-1p.in.a-finish-punc
e. Waˀhéˀ tsǫ́: ahá:tgęh.
just.now just he.got.up
‘He just now got up.’
cf. a-h-á:t-gęh
fac-3s.m.a-srf-awaken.ø.punc

The ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac with hypotheticals

Verbs with the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac also appear in a type of hypothetical clause (sentence)
beginning with gyę́:gwaˀ ‘if’. (For clause types, see Part V.) Unlike other factuals,
they function as suggestions and describe an imaginary event instead of a real
one (7).

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(7) a. Gyę:gwáˀ aha:gwé:niˀ?

if he.was.able
‘Maybe if he could do it, if he is able?’
cf. a-ha:-gwé:ni-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-be.able-punc
b. Gyę:gwáˀ ahógaęˀ/ahágaęˀ?
if he.was.willing
‘Maybe if he would agree, if he is willing?’
cf. a-ha/ho-gaę-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a/3s.m.p-be.willing-punc
c. Gyę:gwáˀ o:nę́h ahahdę́:diˀ?
if now he.left
‘What if he should leave now?’
cf. a-ha-hdę́:di-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-leave-punc

12.1.2 ⌊ę-⌋ future (fut)

Verbs with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut describe events that are likely, probable, or certain to
happen (8), and events that are just about to happen (especially in sentences that
question someone’s intentions, 8d).

(8) a. Waˀjih, ętsyáˀdęˀ.

wait you.will.fall.into.it
‘Wait, you might fall’
cf. ę-t-s-yáˀd-ę-ˀ
fut-cis-2s.a-body-fall.into-punc
b. Ahí:ˀ giˀ to nęyá:węh.
I.thought just that it.will.happen
‘I just thought that’s what would happen.’
cf. n-ę-yá:w-ę-h
part-fut-3s.p-happen-euph.h
c. O:nę́h to:háh ęshá:yǫˀ.
now almost he.will.go.back
‘He is almost ready to go back’.
cf. ę-s-há:-yǫ-ˀ
fut-rep-3s.m.a-arrive-punc

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 12.1 Mood and negation prefixes

d. Ętné:ˀ gęh?
we.two.will.come Q
‘Do you want to come along with me?’
cf. ę-tn-é:-ˀ
fut-1d.in.a-go.purp-punc
e. Ęhsné:ˀ gęh diˀ?
we.two.will.come Q then
‘Are you coming along then?’
cf. ę-hsn-é:-ˀ
fut-2d.a-go.purp-punc
f. Hwę:dǫ́h ęyǫhdę́:diˀ?
when she.will.go.away
‘When is she going away?’
cf. ę-yǫ-hdę́:di-ˀ
fut-3s.fi.a-leave-punc

Verbs with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut grammatically require the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix (except for
verbs expressing a type of negative command, see §27.1.6). The grammatical re-
quirement can be obscured because the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc is sometimes deleted for ease
of pronunciation. The term ‘zero punctual’ (ø.punc) describes such cases (see
§19.1.)

⌊ę-⌋ fut in dependent clauses

Verbs with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut appear in dependent clauses (shown in square brackets)
where they can denote future events. (For clause types, see Part V.) The exam-
ples in (9) show that the ⌊ę-⌋ fut corresponds to a range of English translations,
including future tense (‘you will leave’), infinitival (‘what to do’ ‘for us to quit’),
and present tense (‘when I grow up’).

(9) a. Daskro:wíˀ [hwę:dǫ́h ęsahdę́:diˀ].

tell.me when you.will.leave
‘Tell me [when you will leave].’
cf. ę-s-ahdę́:di-ˀ
fut-2s.a-leave-punc
b. [Nęh toh hędwa:yǫ́ˀ] nę:dáh nędwá:ye:ˀ.
when there we.will.arrive this.way we.will.do.it
‘[When we arrive there], we will do it this way.’
cf. h-ę-dwa:-yǫ́-ˀ
transl-fut-1p.in.a-arrive-punc

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

c. Haoˀ dahskro:wíh [dęˀ ni:ˀ hoˀdę́ˀ nęga:gye:ˀ]

o.k. tell.me what I kind what.I.will.do
‘O.k., you tell me [what to do]!’
cf. n-ę-g-a:g-ye:-ˀ
part-fut-1s.a-srf-do-punc
d. Onęh diˀ to:háh hęgahé:ˀ [ędwę́ni ̱hę:ˀ].
now so almost the.time.will.arrive we.will.quit
‘Now it is almost time [for us to quit].’
cf. ę-dw-ę́-ni ̱hę:-ˀ
fut-1p.in.a-srf-quit-punc
e. Agwaˀnigǫháˀ [shęh niyo:wéˀ hędwawayę:nę́:daˀ].
we.are.waiting that a.certain.distance we.will.finish
‘We’re waiting [until we are finished].’
cf. h-ę-dwa-wayę:nę́:d-aˀ
transl-fut-1p.in.a-finish-punc
f. Ęgahyagwahsé:k hęˀ ni:ˀ [nęh ęgáhdo:k]
I’ll.be.a.fruit.picker even me when I.will.grow.up
‘I will be a fruit-picker [when I grow up].’
cf. ę-g-áhdo:k
fut-1s.a-mature.ø.punc

Verbs with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut also appear in conditional dependent clauses (10a),
including indirect questions (10b, §29.2). In both cases, the English translation
corresponds to a present tense verb, not a future tense one. (For clause types, see
Part V.)

(10) a. Ahgwíh dęhsyéhs ohne:gáˀ [gyę:gwáˀ ihsé: ęsa:dó:wiˀ].

don’t you.will.mix alcohol if you.want you.will.drive
‘Do not mix booze [if you want to drive].’ (‘Do not drink and drive.’)
cf. ę-s-a:d-ó:wi-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-drive-punc
b. Daskro:wíh [ędwé: gęh].
you.tell.me we.will.go Q
‘Tell me [if you are coming along].’
cf. ę-dw-é-:
fut-1p.in.a-go-purp

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 12.1 Mood and negation prefixes

⌊ę-⌋ fut and positive commands

Although verbs with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut are generally statements of fact, they can also
function as a type of command (11), (see §27.1).

(11) a. ęhsyeh
ę-hs-yeh
fut-2s.a-awaken.ø.punc
‘wake up!’
b. ęhsyǫ́:gyaˀt
ę-hs-yǫ́:gyaˀt
fut-2s.a-smile.ø.punc
‘smile!’
c. Gǫdagyéˀ ętsahdę́:diˀ.
right.away you.will.leave
‘You will leave right away.’
cf. ę-t-s-ahdę́:di-ˀ
fut-cis-2s.a-leave-punc
d. Da:-nę:dáh haˀgahéˀ gaóˀ ędihswatríhs
and-this it.is.time closer you.all.will.bump.up.against
ęhswada̱hǫhsí:yohs.
you.all.will.listen
‘Now is the time to come closer and listen.’
cf. ę-di-hswa-t-ríhs
fut-cis-2p.a-srf-bump.ø.punc
cf. ę-hswa-d-a̱hǫhs-í:yohs
fut-2p.a-srf-ear-make.good.ø.punc

Ahgwih ⌊ę-⌋ fut and negative commands

Together with ahgwih ‘don’t’, verbs with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut can form a type of negative
command (12, see §27.1.6). Ahgwih is optional or left out when the context makes
the meaning clear. With these negative commands, the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix is often
missing for grammatical reasons (12c). Such verbs are termed no-aspect forms,
as described in §15.5.6.1.2

2
Verbs glossed as no_aspect lack a ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix for grammatical reasons. Verbs glossed as
ø.punc have no overt ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix for reasons of pronunciation.

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

(12) a. Ahgwíh dęhsnigǫ̱háęˀ.

don’t you.won’t.bother
‘Don’t bother it’
cf. d-ę-hs-ˀnigǫháę-ˀ
du-fut-2s.a-annoy-punc
b. Ahgwíh ęhsáhsdihs.
don’t you.won’t.care.for.it
‘Don’t disturb, handle it.’
cf. ę-hsá-hsdihs
fut-2s.p-care.for.it.ø.punc
c. Ahgwíh ędíhsa̱ˀdre:.
don’t you.won’t.drive
‘Don’t drive over here.’
cf. ę-dí-hsa̱-ˀdre:
fut-cis-2s.p-drive.no_aspect

12.1.3 ⌊a:-⌋ indefinite (indef)

The ⌊a:-⌋ indef (formerly called the optative) conveys the idea that an event
is desirable, wishful, or possible. Compared to verbs with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut (8), verbs
with ⌊a:-⌋ indef convey the idea that events that are desirable, wishful, or less
certain to take place (13).
(13) a. a:kní:nǫˀ
a:-k-hní:nǫ-ˀ
indef-1s.a-buy-punc
‘I might, could, should, would buy it’
b. Dewagegaę́hs to há:ge:ˀ.
I’m.unwilling there I.would.go.there
‘I am unwilling to go there.’
cf. h-á:-g-e:-ˀ
transl-indef-1s.a-go-punc

Verbs with the ⌊a:-⌋ indef can also combine with tęˀ dáǫ ‘definitely not’, to
denote an undesirable future event (14).
(14) a. Tęˀ daǫ́ to na:yá:węh.
definitely.not that it.would.happen
‘That will never happen.’
cf. n-a:-yá:w-ę-h
part-indef-3s.p-happen-euph.h/ø.punc

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 12.1 Mood and negation prefixes

b. Tęˀ daǫ́ a:hǫwayená:waˀs.

definitely.not they.would.help.him
‘Definitely not. No one will help him.’
cf. a:-hǫwa-yená:waˀs
indef-3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-help.ø.punc

Verbs with the ⌊a:-⌋ indef grammatically require the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix (13). How-
ever, this grammatical requirement is obscured when the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc is deleted for
ease of pronunciation. (The term ø.punc describes such cases, as in example 14,
see §19.1.) In addition, ⌊a:-⌋ indef verbs appear without the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc when they
denote actions that are tentative or unlikely to materialize. In this case, they are
classified as no-aspect verbs (15, see §15.5.6.1).

(15) To giˀ shę́h há:ge:.

there just that I.should.go.there
‘Just maybe I should go there.’
cf. h-á:-g-e-:
transl-indef-1s.a-go-purp.no_aspect

⌊a:-⌋ indef in dependent clauses

Verbs with the ⌊a:-⌋ indef often appear in dependent clauses (shown in [] square
brackets) – for example, after verbs meaning ‘want’ or ‘think’ (16). (For clause
types, see Part V.)

(16) a. Ahí:ˀ giˀ [to na:yá:węh].

I.thought just that what.should.happen
‘I just thought [that’s what should happen].’
cf. n-a:-yá:w-ę-h
part-indef-3s.p-happen-euph.h/ø.punc
b. I:wí: [to na:yá:węh].
I.want that what.should.happen
‘I want or intend [for that to happen].’
cf. n-a:-yá:w-ę-h
part-indef-3s.p-happen-euph.h/ø.punc
c. Gaę ni:gá: i:séˀ [á:se:k]?
Which a.certain.one you.want you.should.eat
‘Which one do you want [to eat]?’
cf. á:-s-e:-k
indef-2s.a-joinerE-eat.ø.punc

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Verbs with the ⌊a:-⌋ indef also appear in conditional clauses with gyę́:gwaˀ ‘if’
(§29.2). The main clause (outside of the [] square brackets ) is also an indefinite-
punctual verb (17). (For clause types, see Part V.)
(17) A:ga̱hya:góˀ [gyę:gwáˀ a:sgyená:wahs].
I.would.pick.fruit if you.would.help.me
‘I would pick fruit [if you would help me].’
cf. a:-sg-yená:wahs
indef-2s>1s-help.ø.punc

⌊ta:⌋ contrastive-indefinite and negative future events

Verbs with the ⌊ta:-⌋ contr-indef combination denote negative future events
(18). Such verbs grammatically lack a ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix – they are no-aspect forms
(18b, e). This is because they describe non-events, or activities that by definition
will not materialize. Meanwhile, the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc is reserved for actual events (see
the ‘cf.’ example in 18a. Also see §15.5.6.1.)
(18) a. tęˀ ta:hayę́:toh
tęˀ t-a:-ha-yę́:to-h
not contr-indef-3s.m.a-plant-euph.h/no_aspect
‘he won’t plant it’
cf. ęháyętoˀ
ę-há-yęto-ˀ
fut-3s.m.a-plant-punc
‘he will plant it’
b. Tęˀ daǫˀ toh tá:ge:.
definitely.not there I.wouldn’t.go.there
‘No, I definitely won’t go there.’
cf. t-á:-g-e-:
contr-indef-1s.a-go-purp.no_aspect
c. Ga̱ˀtoh tsǫ: ta:se:tsę́i.
nowhere just you.wouldn’t.find.it
‘You won’t find it anywhere.’
cf. t-a:-s-e:-tsęi
contr-indef-2s.a-find.no_aspect
d. Tęˀ niˀ ta:gye:na:.
not I I.wouldn’t.accept.it
‘No, I won’t accept it.’
cf. t-a:-g-ye:na:
contr-indef-1s.a-accept.no_aspect

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 12.1 Mood and negation prefixes

e. Tęˀ hwę:dǫh to ta:gye:.

not ever that I.wouldn’t.do.it
‘No, I won’t ever do that.’
cf. t-a:-g-ye:
contr-indef-1s.a-do.no_aspect

12.1.4 Negation prefixes

The ⌊deˀ-⌋ neg and ⌊ti-⌋ contr prefixes, described next, are both used in negation.

⌊deˀ-⌋ negative (neg)

The ⌊deˀ⌋ neg conveys the absence or opposite of a quality, characteristic, or
activity. It negates habitual verbs (19), stative-only verbs (20), and the stative
forms of three-aspect verbs (21, see §17.1).

(19) habitual
tęˀ deháyętwahs
tęˀ de-há-yętw-a-hs
not neg-3s.m.a-plant-joinerA-hab
‘he is not a planter’
cf. hayę́:twahs
ha-yę́:tw-a-hs
3s.m.a-plant-joinerA-hab
‘he is a planter’

(20) stative-only
a. detgáhe:ˀ
de-t-gá-he:ˀ
neg-cis-3s.a-setting.on.top.of.stat
‘it is not setting over there’
cf. tga̱he:ˀ
t-ga̱-he:ˀ
cis-3s.a-setting.on.top.of.stat
‘it is setting there’
b. tęˀ dejo:drę́:no:t
tęˀ de-j-o:-d-rę́:n-o:t
not neg-rep-3s.p-srf-song-stand.stat
‘it is not singing again’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

cf. jodrę́:no:t
j-o-d-rę́:n-o:t
rep-3s.p-srf-song-stand.stat
‘it is singing again’
c. tęˀ deyo:tó:weˀ
tęˀ de-yo:-t-hó:weˀ
not neg-3s.p-srf-cold.stat
‘it is not cold’
cf. otó:weˀ
o-t-hó:weˀ
3s.p-srf-cold.stat
‘it is cold’

(21) stative, three-aspect verb

tęˀ dehóyętwęh
tęˀ de-hó-yętw-ęh
not neg-3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he is not planting’, ‘he hasn’t planted’
cf. hoyę́:twęh
ho-yę́:tw-ęh
3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he is planting’

On a related theme, the words in (22) illustrate that concepts requiring the
negative in Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀnéha:ˀ sometimes have no corresponding negative in
the English translation.

(22) a. tęˀ desadagáideˀ

tęˀ de-s-ad-agáideˀ
not neg-2s.p-srf-well.stat
‘you feel sick’, ‘you are not well’
b. tęˀ degá:dę:s
tęˀ de-gá:-dę:s
not neg-3s.a-thick.stat
‘it is thin’, ‘it is not thick’
c. deˀagadǫ́tgadeˀ, dewagadǫtgá:dǫˀ
deˀ-ag-ad-ǫ́tgadeˀ
de-wag-ad-ǫtgá:dǫˀ
neg-1s.p-srf-happy.stat
‘I am unhappy’, ‘I am not happy’

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 12.1 Mood and negation prefixes

d. desatnigǫhahdó:gęh
de-sa-t-ˀnigǫh-ahdó:g-ęh
neg-2s.p-srf-mind-mature-stat
‘you are immature in mind’, ‘your mind is not mature’
e. tęˀ dehóge̱ˀo:t
tęˀ de-hó-ge̱ˀ-o:t
not neg-3s.m.p-hair-stand.stat
‘he is bald’, ‘he has no hair’
f. dehonǫdánhęh
de-ho-nǫdánh-ęh
neg-3s.m.p-guilty-stat
‘he is innocent’, ‘he is not guilty’
g. deˀaǫwé:saht
deˀ-a-ǫwé:saht
neg-3s.p-pleasant.stat
‘it is unpleasant’, ‘it is not pleasant’
h. dehoihwa:dó:gę:
de-ho-ihwa:-dó:gę:
neg-3s.m.p-matter-true.stat
‘he is a traitor’, ‘he has not done right’
i. sgahoˀdę́ˀ dehoihwáęˀ
sgahoˀdę́ˀ de-ho-ihw-á-ęˀ
nothing neg-3s.m.p-matter-joinerA-lie.stat
‘he is innocent’, ‘nothing lies on him’
j. tęˀ detga:yéiˀ, tęˀ detga:yí:ˀ
tęˀ de-t-ga:-yéiˀ/yí:ˀ
not neg-cis-3s.a-right.stat
‘it is bad, false, wrong’, ‘it is not right’
k. dehoˀnigǫ́ha:t
de-ho-ˀnigǫ́h-a:-t
neg-3s.m.p-mind-joinerA-stand.stat
‘he is ignorant, unthinkingly foolish’, ‘he is not smart’
l. deyago̱ˀnigǫ̱há:gǫ:t
de-yago̱-ˀnigǫ̱h-á:-gǫ:t
neg-3s.fi.p-mind-joinerA-persevere.stat
‘she is uncompromising, unbending’, ‘her mind does not dither’

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m. dedisa̱ˀnigǫ̱hí:yo:
de-di-sa̱-ˀnigǫ̱h-í:yo:
neg-cis-2s.p-mind-good.stat
‘you are grumpy, grouchy’, ‘you are not happy’
n. desa:tǫ́:da:s
de-s-a:t-hǫ́:da:-s
neg-2s.a-srf-listen-hab
‘you are disobedient’, ‘you do not listen’
o. tęˀ deyǫtwaji:yǫ́:nih
tęˀ de-yǫ-t-hwaji:y-ǫ́:ni-h
not neg-3s.p-srf-family-make-hab
‘she is barren’, ‘she cannot make a family’
p. desęˀnigǫhgáę
de-s-ę-ˀnigǫh-gáę
neg-2s.p-srf-mind-willing.stat
‘you suffer’, ‘your mind is not willing’
q. dewagegáę
de-wag-e-gáę
neg-1s.p-joinerE-willing.stat
‘I am unwilling’, ‘I do not want to do it’
r. dehsnǫ́hweˀs
de-hs-nǫ́hwe-ˀs
negative-2s.a-like-hab
‘you dislike’, you do not like’
s. desrihwanǫ́hweˀs
de-s-rihwa-nǫ́hwe-ˀs
neg-2s.a-matter-like-hab
‘you disapprove’, ‘you do not approve’

Finally, several particles require the following verb to begin with ⌊deˀ-⌋ neg.
They are described in the Particle dictionary §C.

Related

⇒ Tęˀ gęh deˀ- ‘didn’t?’

⇒ Tęˀ de̱ˀgę: ‘it isn’t’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

⇒ Tęˀ ne:ˀ de̱ˀgę: ‘without’, ‘lacking’

⇒ Tęˀ dedo:gęhs ‘it isn’t true’, ‘not really’

⌊ti-⌋ contrastive (contr) and negation

The ⌊ti-⌋ contr is also used in negation (23). Affirmative verbs beginning with
the ⌊a:-⌋ indef or ⌊ę-⌋ fut prefixes are negated with the ⌊(tęˀ) ta:-⌋ ‘not contr.indef’
combination. (Tęˀ ‘not’ is optional, see §17.1.) Such verbs grammatically lack a ⌊-ˀ⌋
punc suffix, or are no-aspect forms, see §15.5.6.1).
(23) (tęˀ) ta:hayę́:toh
tęˀ t-a:-ha-yę́:to-h
not contr-indef-3s.m.a-plant-euph.h/no_aspect
‘he won’t plant’
cf. ęháyętoˀ
ę-há-yęto-ˀ
fut-3s.m.a-plant-punc
‘he will plant’

12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

Adverb-like prepronominals modify the meaning of an event or happening – for
example, describing the location of an activity with ⌊haˀ-⌋ cis ‘there’, or repeti-
tion with ⌊s-⌋ rep ‘again’. (Also see §8.) Unlike the mood and negation prefixes
described earlier, the adverb-like prefixes do not interact with the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc as-
pect (see §12.1).
The adverb-like prepronominals figure into two types of expressions – trans-
parent ones (with verbs that optionally take the prepronominal) and fixed expres-
sions (with verbs that require specific prepronominals to complete their meaning,
see §9.2). In the first case, the prefix adds a straightforward or transparent mean-
ing. For example the ⌊he-⌋ transl in (24a) contributes the meaning ‘there’, which
is missing from the example that does not have this prefix (24b).
(24) verb with optional ⌊he-⌋ transl
a. hé:ye:t
hé:-ye:-t
transl-3s.fi.a-stand.stat
‘she is standing over there’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

b. í:ye:t
í:-ye:-t
proth-3s.fi.a-stand.stat
‘she is standing (here)’

The second type of verb requires a specific prepronominal (and possibly other
elements) to express particular, fixed or non-transparent meanings. For example,
while the verb ⌊t⌋ without a fixed prepronominal means ‘stand’ (24b), the same
verb with a fixed ⌊tsaˀ-…incorporated noun-t⌋ combination means ‘the same
kind of incorporated noun’ (25a), and with a fixed ⌊s-…incorporated noun-t⌋
combination, means ‘one incorporated noun’ (25b).

(25) fixed expressions (verbs) requiring specific elements

a. tsaˀgaˀdre̱hdá:t
tsaˀ-gá-ˀdre̱hd-a:-t
coin.fac-3s.a-car-joinerA-stand.stat
‘the same kind of car’
b. sganǫ́hsa:t
s-ga-nǫ́hs-a:-t
rep-3s.a-house-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one house’

Each of the following sections begins with a description of the transparent

meaning of the relevant prepronominal – the meaning expressed when the prefix
is not part of a fixed expression. Then follow descriptions of fixed expressions
that require the prepronominal prefix in question. Finally, several sections end
with a description of particles that require a following verb to begin with the
prepronominal prefix in question.

12.2.1 ⌊tsi-⌋ coincident (coin)

The ⌊tsi-⌋ coin means ‘while’, or ‘when’ (26a–d). Verbs with ⌊tsi-⌋ can form a type
of dependent clause within a complex sentence (shown in [] square brackets in
(26e, f), see §29.11). (For clause types, see Part V.)

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

(26) ⌊tsi-verb⌋ ‘while, when’

a. tsaˀónihseˀ
ts-aˀ-ó-ni ̱hse-ˀ
coin-fac-3s.p-take.time-punc
‘it took a certain amount of time’, ‘while a certain amount of time
passed’
b. tsaˀta:dí:yǫˀ
ts-aˀ-t-ha:dí:-yǫ-ˀ
coin-fac-cis-3ns.m.a-arrive-punc
‘while they were arriving…’
c. tsihágę̱ hjih
tsi-há-gę̱ hjih
coin-3s.m.a-old.person.stat
‘when he was an old man…’
d. tsiyagwaksaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
tsi-yagwa-ksaˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh
coin-1p.ex.a-child-plrz
‘when we were children…’
e. [tsihǫgwe̱ˀda:sé:] hohsę:
tsi-h-ǫgwe̱ˀd-a:sé: hohsę:
coin-3s.m.a-person-new.stat he.is.fat
‘When he was young, he was fat.’
cf. hǫgwéˀdase:
h-ǫgwéˀd-ase:
3s.m.a-person-new.stat
‘young man’
f. [hohsę́: tsaˀoni ̱hséˀ] hǫgwéˀdase:.
hohsę: ts-aˀ-o-ni ̱hsé-ˀ hǫgwéˀdase:
he.is.fat coin-fac-3s.p-take.time-punc he.was.a.young.man
‘When he was young, he was fat.’

⌊tsi-verb⌋ (fixed expressions)

The fixed expression (verb) in (27) requires ⌊tsi-⌋. The parts that can change are
the mood prefix (fac, indef, or fut) and the pronominal prefix.

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

(27) tsaˀgeht
ts-aˀ-g-eht
coin-fac-1s.a-do.on.purpose.ø.punc
‘I did it on purpose’

⌊tsi-incorporated noun-verb⌋ ‘be the same kind of incorporated

noun’
The expression in (28) is fixed, except that the incorporated noun can be changed.
(Also see Comparisons, §31.1.)

(28) ⌊tsi-…incorporated noun-t⌋ ‘be the same kind of incorporated noun’

tsaˀgaˀdre̱hdá:t ahahní:nǫˀ
tsaˀ-gá-ˀdre̱hd-a:-t ahahní:nǫˀ
coin-fac-3s.a-car-joinerA-stand.stat he.bought.it
‘he bought the same kind of car (as me)’

For the words in (29), all of the parts are fixed. (These verbs function as adverbs
of time, §8.2.)

(29) ⌊tsi-…period of time-verb⌋ ‘past period of time’

a. tsiyaǫdadǫgę́hdǫh
tsi-ya-ǫda-dǫgę́hd-ǫh
coin-3s.p-day-make.right-stat
‘Sunday (past)’
b. tsiyonakdóhaes
tsi-yo-nakd-óhae-s
coin-3s.p-bed-clean-hab
‘Saturday (past)’
c. tsigaǫ̱hyáhęh
tsi-ga-ǫ̱hy-á-hęh
coin-3s.a-sky-joinerA-mid.stat
‘at noon (past)’
d. tsishéhde̱hjih
tsi-shéhde̱hjih
coin-ø.prefix-morning
‘this morning (earlier on in the day)’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

e. tsigóhsreh
tsi-g-óhsreh
coin-3s.a-winter/year
‘last winter’

⌊tsaˀde-verb⌋
The following verbs (fixed expressions) require the ⌊tsaˀde-⌋ coincident.dualic
combination to express concepts like similarity or equality.

(30) ⌊tsaˀde-…verb⌋ ‘side by side’

a. tsaˀdę́hsyę:ˀ
tsaˀd-ę́-hs-yę-:ˀ
coin.du-fut-2s.a-lay-punc
‘you will put, lay them side by side’
b. tsaˀdégayęˀ
tsaˀdé-ga-yę-ˀ
coin.du-3s.a-lie-stat
‘they are lying, setting side by side’
c. tsaˀdeganǫhsa̱hęh tsaˀdegayę́ˀ sa̱hdáhgwaˀ
in.the.middle.of.the.house lying.side.by.side your.shoes
‘your shoes lie side by side in the middle of the house’
d. tsaˀdęjatáhahk
tsaˀd-ę-j-at-háh-a-hk
coin-du.fut-2d.a-srf-road-joinerA-pick.up.ø.punc
‘you two will walk side by side’

(31) ⌊tsaˀde-…ahd⌋ ‘be the same, similar’

a. tsaˀdé:yoht
tsaˀdé:-yo-ht
coin.du-3s.p-resemble.stat
‘they are the same, similar’
b. A:yę́:ˀ neˀ to:há tsaˀde:yóht nę́:gyęh. Né:ˀ sadeˀnyę́:dęh.
it.seems the almost it.is.the.same this.one It.is you.try.3s.pn
‘It seems to be the same style as the one you were trying on.’ (Mithun
& Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawítraˀ dialogue)

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

(32) ⌊tsaˀde-…ahshe:dęh⌋ ‘be the same number of’

tsaˀdeyo̱hshé:dęh
tsaˀde-yo̱-hshé:d-ęh
coin.du-3s.p-count-stat
‘it is the same number of’

(33) ⌊tsaˀde-…aˀs⌋ ‘be the same size’

tsaˀdé:waˀs
tsaˀdé:-w-aˀs
coin.du-3s.a-be.a.certain.size.stat
‘they are (literally, ‘it is’) the same size’

(34) ⌊tsaˀde-…ǫ:⌋ ‘be of equal amount, number of items’

tsaˀdé:yǫ:
tsaˀdé:-y-ǫ:
coin.du-3s.p-be.a.certain.number.of.stat
‘of equal number, amount’

(35) ⌊tsaˀde-yo/wa-ahsęnǫh⌋ ‘be half, be in the middle’

tsaˀdeyo̱hsę́:nǫh, tsaˀdewa̱hsę́:nǫh
tsaˀde-yo̱/wa̱-hsę́:n-ǫh
coin.du-3s.p/3s.a-half-stat
‘half’, ‘middle’

⌊tsaˀde-incorporated noun-verb⌋ (fixed expressions)

The fixed combination of ⌊tsaˀde-incorporated noun-hęh⌋ means ‘half, in the
middle of’. It modifies the meaning of whatever noun is incorporated (36).

(36) ⌊tsaˀde-incorporated noun-hęh⌋ ‘half incorporated noun, in the

middle of incorporated noun’
a. tsaˀdewę̱ hníhsra̱hęh
tsaˀde-w-ę̱ hníhsr-a̱-hęh
coin.du-3s.a-day-joinerA-sitting.on.top.of.stat
‘half a day’
b. tsaˀdegáǫhya̱hęh
tsaˀde-gá-ǫhy-a̱-hęh
coin.du-3s.a-sky-joinerA-sitting.on.top.of.stat
‘high noon’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

c. tsaˀdeganǫ́hsa̱hęh
tsaˀde-ga-nǫ́hs-a̱-hęh
coin.du-3s.a-house-joinerA- sitting.on.top.of.stat
‘in the middle of the house’
d. tsaˀdewa̱hsǫ́:tęh
tsaˀde-w-a̱hsǫ́:t-hęh
coin.du-3s.a-night- sitting.on.top.of.stat
‘at midnight’

The fixed combination of ⌊tsaˀde-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ means ‘two of

the same kind of…’. It specifies the number of whatever noun is incorporated (37).

(37) ⌊tsaˀde-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘be two of the same kind of

incorporated noun’
tsaˀdeyoyę́hsrage:
tsaˀde-yo-yę́hsr-age:
coin.du-3s.p-blanket-be.two.or.more.stat
‘they are two of the same kind of blanket’

The fixed combination of ⌊tsaˀde-…incorporated noun-oˀdę:⌋ means ‘be simi-

lar’, ‘look the same’. It modifies the meaning of whatever noun is incorporated
(38a). In addition, when describing people or animals, the incorporated noun is
always ⌊yaˀd⌋ ‘body’ (38b–38c).

(38) ⌊tsaˀde-……yaˀd-oˀdę:⌋ ‘look similar, be similar’

a. tsaˀdega̱ˀdréhdo̱ˀdę:
tsaˀde-ga̱-ˀdréhd-o̱ˀdę:
coin.du-3s.a-car-be.a.kind.stat
‘the cars look the same’
b. tsaˀdegaeya̱ˀdóˀdę:
tsaˀde-gae-ya̱ˀd-óˀdę:
coin.du-3ns.fi.a-body-be.a.kind.stat
‘they are a group of people that are similar, look the same’ (i.e.
nationalities or identical twins)
c. tsaˀdegadiya̱ˀdóˀdę:
tsaˀde-gadi-ya̱ˀd-óˀdę:
coin.du-3p.a-be.a.kind.stat
‘they look the same’ (animals)

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

d. Sowasǫ:ˀǫ́h tsaˀdegadiya̱ˀdóˀdę:
dogs they.look.the.same
‘the dogs all look the same’

⌊tsaˀdet/tsaˀdeg-verb⌋
The following fixed expressions (verbs) begin with ⌊tsaˀdet-⌋ or ⌊tsaˀdeg-⌋ coin.du.cis.

(39) ⌊tsaˀdet-…deˀ⌋ ‘same height’

tsaˀdétgadeˀ
tsaˀdét-ga-deˀ
coin.du.cis-3s.a-exist.stat
‘the same height’

(40) ⌊tsaˀdeg-…ad-ǫda-verb⌋ ‘during the week (this week or last)’

a. tsaˀdegyadǫ:dáik(hne:ˀ)
tsaˀdeg-y-ad-ǫ:d-á-i-k-hne:ˀ
coin.du.cis-3s.p-srf-period.of.time-joinerA-stuck.on.stat-modz-rem
‘last week’
b. tsaˀdegyadǫ́dai
tsaˀdeg-y-ad-ǫ́d-a-i
coin.du.cis-3s.p-srf- period.of.time -joinerA-stuck.on.stat
‘during the week’
c. tsaˀdegyadǫ́dadeˀ
tsaˀdeg-y-ad-ǫ́d-a-deˀ
coin.du.cis-3s.p-srf-period.of.time-joinerA-exist.stat
‘during the week’

12.2.2 ⌊ti-⌋ contrastive (contr)

The ⌊ti-⌋ contr conveys the idea that actions or characteristics are out of the
ordinary or random (41). It is also used in negation (see §12.1.4).

(41) a. tisǫgwe̱ˀdá:deˀ
ti-s-ǫgwe̱ˀd-á:deˀ
contr-2s.a-person-exist.stat
‘you are a different person’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

b. tiyoyę̱ hsrá:deˀ
ti-yo-yę̱ hsr-á:deˀ
contr-3s.p-blanket- exist.stat
‘it is an odd-ball blanket’
c. tihéhsǫˀ
ti-h-é-hsǫˀ
contr-3s.m.a-go-plrz
‘he is a wanderer, loiterer’
d. tigęnenǫ́:gyeˀs
ti-gęn-enǫ́:-gye-ˀs
contr-3p.a-originate.from-prog-hab
‘they are roaming about’

⌊ti-verb⌋
The verbs in (42) require the ⌊ti-⌋ contr prefix to express their fixed meaning.

(42) a. tiyó:tˀah
ti-yó:-t-ˀah
contr-3s.p-stand.stat-dim
‘it is queer, unusual, odd’
b. tiga:gwé:gǫh
ti-ga:-gwé:g-ǫh
contr-3s.a-all-stat
‘all over the place’, ‘here and there’
c. tiyogwé:gǫh
ti-yo-gwé:g-ǫh
contr-3s.p-all-stat
‘all of it’
d. tigǫ́:nihs
ti-g-ǫ́:ni-hs
contr-1s.a-make-hab
‘I use something in place of’ (something else)
e. tęwadadǫ́:niˀ
t-ę-wa-dad-ǫ́:ni-ˀ
contr-fut-3s.a-refl-make-punc
‘it will emerge or appear unintentionally’, ‘it will do it by itself’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

The fixed expressions (verbs) in (43) require the ⌊taˀde-⌋ contr.du combina-
tion to convey their special meanings.

(43) a. taˀdehoˀnigǫ̱há:nih
taˀde-ho-ˀnigǫ̱h-á:-nih
contr.du-3s.m.p-mind-joinerA-ben.hab
‘he is unconcerned, indifferent’
b. taˀdegri ̱hwáhsnyeˀ
taˀde-g-ri ̱hw-áhsnye-ˀ
contr.du-1s.a-matter-care.for-stat
‘I oppose it’, ‘I do not agree’
c. taˀdeyogaháędaht
taˀde-yo-gah-á-ędaht
contr.du-3s.p-eye-joinerA-cause.to.lie.ø.punc
‘it is fuzzy, out of focus, opaque, unclear’

⌊ti-…verb-ˀah⌋ ‘do something any old way’

The fixed combination of ⌊ti-…verb-ˀah⌋ means ‘do something any old way’ (44).

(44) ⌊ti-…verb-ˀah⌋ ‘do something any old way’

a. tihe:ˀáh tsǫ:
ti-h-e:-ˀáh tsǫ:
contr-3s.m.a-go-dim just
‘he is just walking along’
cf. iheˀ
i-h-e-ˀ
proth-3s.m.a-go-stat
‘he is walking, moving’
b. tahayętó:ˀah
t-a-ha-yętó:-ˀah
contr-fac-3s.m.a-plant-dim
‘he planted it any old way’
cf. aháyętoˀ
a-há-yęto-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-plant-punc
‘he planted it’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

⌊ti-…(incorporated noun)-deˀ(ah)⌋ ‘a different or odd kind of

(incorporated noun)’
The fixed combination of ⌊ti-…(incorporated noun)-deˀ(ah)⌋ means ‘a differ-
ent or odd kind of (incorporated noun)’ (46–45). The ⌊-ˀah⌋ dim is sometimes
absent (45), (46). Finally, the incorporated noun is not required (47).

(45) ⌊ti-…(incorporated noun)-deˀah⌋ ‘a different or odd incorporated

noun’
tiganǫ̱hsa:dé:ˀah
ti-ga-nǫ̱hs-a:-dé:-ˀah
contr-3s.a-house-joinerA-exist.stat-dim
‘not a normal house compared to the others’

(46) ⌊ti-…(incorporated noun)-deˀ⌋ ‘a different or odd incorporated noun’

a. tiyoyę̱ hsrá:deˀ
ti-yo-yę̱ hsr-á:-deˀ
contr-3s.p-blanket-joinerA-exist.stat
‘it is an odd-ball blanket’
b. tigaˀdre̱hdá:deˀ
ti-ga-ˀdrehd-á:-deˀ
contr-3s.a-car-joinerA-exist.stat
‘it is a different car from the others’
c. tiganǫ̱hsá:deˀ
ti-ga-nǫ̱hs-á:-deˀ
contr-3s.a-house-joinerA-exist.stat
‘it is a different house from the others’

(47) “Ó:. Tigá:déˀ gę́h diˀ ni:yóht tó:gyęh?”

Oh it.is.different Q so it.is.a.certain.kind that.one
‘“Oh, is that a different kind?”‘ (Henry 2005)
cf. ti-gá:-déˀ
contr-3s.a-exist.stat

⌊taˀde-…incorporated noun-deˀ⌋ ‘two different incorporated nouns’

The fixed combination of ⌊taˀde-…incorporated noun-deˀ⌋ means ‘two differ-
ent incorporated nouns’ (48).

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

(48) ⌊taˀde-…incorporated noun-deˀ⌋ ‘two different incorporated nouns’

taˀdega̱ˀdrehdadéˀ hodiˀdre̱hdáęˀ de̱hęnadade̱ˀgę́:ˀęh
two.different.cars they.own two.brothers
‘The two brothers have two different cars.’
cf. taˀde-ga̱-ˀdrehd-a-déˀ
contr.du-3s.a-vehicle-joinerA-exist.stat

12.2.3 ⌊ni-⌋ partitive (part)

The ⌊ni-⌋ part denotes
…manner or extent. A verb form with the partitive prefix describes the man-
ner in which an action is carried out or the extent or degree to which the
condition or state described by the verb holds true (e.g., it is really expen-
sive). (Michelson 2011: 98)
Examples are provided in the following sections.

⌊ni-verb⌋
Many verbs require the ⌊ni-⌋ part as a fixed element. Some examples are listed in
49, and more are provided in the following sections. For a more comprehensive
list, see §B.

(49) a. shęh ní:waˀs

shęh ní:-w-aˀs
that part-3s.a-be.a.certain.size.stat
‘sizes’, ‘how big they are’
b. ní:yoht
ní:-yo-ht
part-3s.p-resemble.stat
‘what it is like’ (preceded by a particle such as dęˀ ‘what’, neˀ ‘the’)
c. ní:yǫ:
ní:-y-ǫ:
part-3s.p-be.a.certain.amount.stat
‘an amount of things’
d. ⌊ni-…+oˀdę:⌋ ‘a type of’, as in:
ni-ga-ęn-óˀdę:
part-3s.a-song-be.a.type.of.stat
‘a type of song’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

e. niyó:weˀ
ni-yó:-weˀ
part-3s.p-be.a.certain.distance.stat
‘how far in distance’
f. niwuˀdrugyé:ˀah
ni-w-uˀdrígyé:ˀah
part-3s.a-narrow.stat
‘it is narrow’
g. niyo:há:kˀah
ni-yo:-há:-kˀah
part-3s.p-measuring.line-short.stat
‘it is short in height’
h. niyǫ́:hah
ni-y-ǫ́:-hah
part-3s.p-be.a.certain.amount.stat-dim
‘a few, a little bit’
i. niyǫ́:sˀah
ni-y-ǫ́:s-ˀah
part-3s.p-long.stat-dim
‘just a little bit long’
j. niwagri ̱hú:ˀuh
ni-wag-ri ̱h-ú:ˀuh
part-1s.p-matter-small.stat
‘I am sensitive’
k. nitgá:deˀ
ni-t-gá:-deˀ
part-cis-3s.a-exist.stat
‘how high it is (inanimate object)’, ‘the height of something’
l. nigáha:ˀ
ni-gá-ha:-ˀ
part-3s.a-hold-stat
‘how much it holds’
m. niyohnodá:kˀah
ni-yo-hnod-á:-kˀah
part-3s.p-water-joinerA-short.stat
‘it is shallow’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

n. niwú:ˀuh
ni-w-ú:ˀuh
part-3s.a-small.stat
‘it is small, little’

⌊ni-⌋ part with verbs of direction or origin

Several verbs with the ⌊ni-⌋ part describe actions or states originating from or
extending in a certain direction (50–52).

(50) ⌊ni-...e:no:ˀ⌋ ‘to come from some place’

a. nita:wé:nǫ:
ni-t-ha:w-é:nǫ-:
part-cis-3s.m.p-originate.from-stat
‘a stranger’
b. Do: nidihsé:no:?
do: ni-di-hs-é:no-:
how part-cis-2s.p-originate.from-stat
‘How old are you?’
c. Gaę diˀ nhǫ:wéh niha:wé:no:?
Gaę diˀ nhǫ:wéh ni-ha:w-é:no-:
which then place part-3s.m.p-originate.from-stat
‘Where, then, did he go?’
d. Gaę nhǫ: nǫdi:sé:nǫ:?
Gaę nhǫ: nǫdi:-s-é:nǫ-:
which place part-cis-2s.p-originate.from-stat
‘Where are you from?’

(51) ⌊nǫda-…e:⌋ ‘to come from some place’

a. Gaę nǫdáhse:?
Gaę nǫdá-hs-e-:
which part-fac-cis-2s.a-go-purp
‘Where do you come from?’
b. nǫdá:ge:
nǫdá:-g-e-:
part-fac-cis-1s.a-go-purp
‘where I came from’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

(52) ⌊ni-…ohsr-iyaˀgǫˀ⌋ ‘to be a certain age’

ni ̱hosriyáˀgǫˀ
ni ̱-h-ohsr-iyáˀg-ǫˀ
part-3s.m.a-winter-cross.stat-plural
‘his age’

For more examples, see ⌊naˀde-a-adreˀ⌋ ‘to be a certain distance apart’, §12.2.3
and ⌊ni-yo-yaˀdǫh⌋ ‘in the direction of’, §12.2.3.

⌊ni-⌋ part with verbs describing group affiliation

Several verbs with the ⌊ni-⌋ part element convey the idea of being part of a group
(53). (Also see Clan names, §D.4.)

(53) a. Gayogo̱ho:nǫ́h gęh ni:s nahsyáˀdoˀdę:?

Cayuga Q you what.kind.of.body
‘Are you Cayuga?’
cf. n-a-hs-yaˀd-oˀdę:
part-fac-2s.a-body-be.a.certain.kind.stat
b. Gayogo̱ho:nǫ́h niwago̱hwę́joˀdę:.
Cayuga what.my.kind.of.land.is
‘I am of the Cayuga nation.’
cf. ni-wag-ohwęj-oˀdę:
part-1s.p-land-be.a.certain.kind.stat
c. Dęˀ ni:s hoˀdę́ˀ nisaˀsyáoˀdę:.
what you kind what.my.clan.is
‘What is your clan?’
cf. ni-sa-ˀsya-oˀdę:
part-2s.p-clan-be.a.certain.kind.stat
d. nǫgesyáoˀdę:
n-ǫge-sya-oˀdę:
part-fac.1s.p-clan-be.a.certain.kind.stat
‘I am ... clan’
e. niwage̱hsyáoˀdę:
ni-wage-hsya-oˀdę:
part-1s.p-clan-be.a.certain.kind.stat
‘I am ... clan’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

⌊ni-⌋ part with verbs describing measures or degrees

Several verbs with the ⌊ni-⌋ part convey the idea that a state or activity exists
in degrees and can be measured (54, see Comparisons, §31.1.)
(54) a. niyó:tgiˀ
ni-yó:-tgiˀ
part-3s.p-ugly.stat
‘how dirty or filthy it is’
cf. otgiˀ
o-tgiˀ
3s.p-ugly.stat
‘it is dirty or filthy’
b. niyéha:ˀ
ni-yé-ha:-ˀ
part-3s.fi.a-hold-hab
‘how much she holds’
cf. eha:ˀ
e-ha:-ˀ
3s.fi.a-hold-hab
‘she is holding something’
c. nigá:nǫ:ˀ
ni-gá:-nǫ:ˀ
part-3s.a-expensive.stat
‘how much it costs’
cf. ganǫ:ˀ
ga-nǫ:ˀ
3s.a-expensive.stat
‘it is expensive’
d. ní:ga:ˀ
ní:-g-a:ˀ
part-3s.a-hold.stat
‘how much is contained in’
cf. í:ga:ˀ
í:-g-a:ˀ
prothetic-3s.a-hold.stat
‘it holds something’ (as in odí: í:ga:ˀ ‘there is tea in there’)

⌊ni-⌋ part with verbs describing a period of time

Several verbs with the ⌊ni-⌋ part describe an action that extends over a certain
period of time (55).

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

(55) a. na̱ˀónisheˀ
n-a̱ˀ-ó-nishe-ˀ
part-fac-3s.p-take.time-punc
‘it took an amount of time’
i. nęyónisheˀ
n-ę-yó-nishe-ˀ
part-fut-3s.p-take.time-punc
‘it will take an amount of time’
b. na̱ˀá:węh
n-a̱ˀ-á:w-ę-h
part-fac-3s.p-happen-euph.h/ø.punc
‘it happened (a fact)’
i. nęyá:węh
n-ę-yá:w-ę-h
part-fut-3s.p-happen-euph.h/ø.punc
‘it will happen’
ii. na:yá:węh
n-a:-yá:w-ę-h
part-indef-3s.p-happen-euph.h/ø.punc
‘it might, could, or would happen’
c. nigyé:haˀ
ni-g-yé:-haˀ
part-1s.a-do-hab
‘I do it all the time’
i. nę́:gye:ˀ
n-ę́:-g-ye:-ˀ
part-fut-1s.a-do-punc
‘I will do it’
ii. niyó:yę:
ni-yó:-yę:
part-3s.p-do.stat
‘what it is doing’

⌊shęh na̱ˀonisheˀ⌋ ‘while’

The fixed combination of ⌊shęh na̱ˀonisheˀ⌋ means ‘while’ (56, see §29.11).

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(56) a. Agiˀda̱ˀǫ́h ǫ: shęh na̱ˀonishéˀ hohta:ˀ.

I.slept it.seems that during.the.time he.spoke
‘I slept while he spoke.’
cf. n-a̱ˀ-o-nishé-ˀ
part-fac-3s.p-take.time-punc
b. Agahyagóˀ shęh na̱ˀonishéˀ odahyǫ́:ni:.
I.picked.fruit that during.the.time there.was.lots.of.fruit
‘I picked fruit while it was plentiful.’

⌊ni-a-ǫ:⌋ ‘how many living things’

The fixed combination of ⌊ni-a-ǫ:⌋, with an a-series pronominal prefix, means
‘how many living things’ (57). (Also see Comparisons, §31.)

(57) ⌊ni-a-ǫ:⌋ ‘how many living things’

a. nigę́:nǫ:
ni-gę́:n-ǫ:
part-3p.a-certain.number.of.living.things.stat
‘how many of them’ (animals)
b. nigá:gǫ:
ni-gá:g-ǫ:
part-3ns.fi.a-certain.number.of.living.things.stat
‘how many of them’ (people, females or mixed)

⌊ni-p-at/(incorporated noun)-gaˀdeˀ⌋ ‘to be/have many living things’

The fixed combination of ⌊ni-p-at/-gaˀdeˀ⌋, with a p-series pronominal prefix,
means ‘to be many living things’ (58). (Also see Comparisons, §31.)

(58) ⌊ni-p-at/at-gaˀdeˀ⌋ ‘to be so many living things’

niyonatgáˀdeˀ
ni-yon-at-gáˀdeˀ
part-3p.p-srf-be.many.stat
‘there are so many’ (animals)

The fixed combination of ⌊ni-p-incorporated noun(living thing)-gaˀdeˀ⌋, with

a p-series pronominal prefix, means ‘to have many living things’ (59). (Also see
Comparisons, §31.)

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

(59) ⌊ni-p-incorporated noun(living thing)-gaˀdeˀ⌋ ‘to have many living

things’
honahsgwagáˀdeˀ
ho-nahsgw-a-gáˀdeˀ
3s.m.p-domestic.animal-joinerA-be.many.stat
‘he has many pets’

⌊ni-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘to be a certain amount of incorporated

nouns’
The fixed combination of ⌊ni-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ means ‘to be a certain
amount of incorporated nouns’ (60). (Also see Comparisons, §31.)

(60) ⌊ni-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘to be a certain amount of

incorporated nouns’
a. niyowęyohgá:ge:
ni-yo-węyohg-á:ge:
part-3s.p-thumb-certain.number.of.stat
‘it is so many inches’
b. nigaˀahdrá:ge:
ni-ga-ˀahdr-á:ge:
part-3s.a-basket-certain.number.of.stat
‘that many baskets’
c. nigagǫ̱ˀtrá:ge:
ni-ga-gǫ̱ˀtr-á:ge:
part-3s.a-pound-certain.number.of.stat
‘that many pounds’
d. nigahǫhsrá:ge:
ni-ga-hǫhsr-á:ge:
part-3s.a-box-certain.number.of.stat
‘amount of boxes’
e. nigana̱ˀjá:ge:
ni-ga-na̱ˀj-á:ge:
part-3s.a-pail-certain.number.of.stat
‘amount of pails’

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f. nigayá:ge:
ni-ga-yá:-ge:
part-3s.a-bag-certain.number.of.stative
‘amount of bags’
g. niwęˀnhotrá:ge:
ni-w-ęˀnhotr-á:ge:
part-3s.a-ball-certain.number.of.stat
‘amount of balls’
h. nigawęná:ge:
ni-ga-węn-á:ge:
part-3s.a-word- certain.number.of.stat
‘as many words’
i. niyǫgwe̱ˀdá:ge:
ni-y-ǫgwe̱ˀd-á:ge:
part-3s.a-person- certain.number.of.stat
‘that many people’

⌊numeral … ni-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘three (etc.) nouns’

The fixed combination of ⌊numeral … ni-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ means
‘three (etc.) nouns’ (61). The numeral specifies the number of objects. (For pronom-
inal prefix selection, see Comparisons, §31.)

(61) ⌊numeral … ni-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘three (etc.) nouns’

a. ahsę́h niganǫ̱hsá:ge:
ni-ga-nǫ̱hs-á:ge:
part-3s.a-house-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘three houses’
b. ahsę́h niwahda̱hgwá:ge:
ni-w-ahda̱hgw-á:ge:
part-3s.a-shoe-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘three shoes’
c. ahsę́h niyohsi ̱ˀdá:ge:
ni-yo-hsi ̱ˀd-á:ge:
part-3s.p-foot-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘three feet’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

d. ahsę́h niyohǫnáˀdage:, ahsę́h nigahǫnáˀdage:

ni-yo/ga-hǫnáˀd-á:ge:
part-3s.p/3s.a-potato-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘three potatoes’

⌊naˀde-a-adreˀ⌋ ‘to be a certain distance apart’

The fixed combination of ⌊naˀde-a-adreˀ⌋, with an a-series pronominal prefix,
means ‘to be a certain distance apart’ (62).

(62) ⌊naˀde-a-adreˀ⌋ ‘to be a certain distance apart’

a. Jo̱hsiˀdatsǫ́ˀ naˀdegęna:dréˀ ganáˀjo̱hkwaˀ.
one.foot.apart they.are.a.distance.apart bottles
‘The bottles are one foot apart.’
cf. naˀ-de-gęn-a:dréˀ
part-du-3p.a-distance.apart.stat
b. Jo̱hsiˀdatsǫ́ˀ naˀdegaǫdréˀ todinę̱ hę́:dreˀ.
one.foot.apart they.are.a.distance.apart they.are.standing.in.line
‘People are standing in a straight line one foot apart.’
cf. naˀ-de-gaǫ-dréˀ
part-du-3ns.fi.a-distance.apart.stat

⌊ni-yo-yaˀdǫh⌋ ‘in the direction of’

The fixed combination of ⌊ni-yo-yaˀdǫh⌋ means ‘in the direction of’ (63).

(63) ⌊ni-yo-yaˀdǫh⌋ ‘in the direction of’

a. (shęh) niyóya̱ˀdǫh ‘a direction’
cf. ni-yo-yaˀdǫh
part-3s.p-be.a.direction.stat
b. Otowe̱ˀgéh niyoya̱ˀdǫ́h haˀdehagáhne:ˀ
north direction he.goes.and.looks.over.there
‘He goes outside and looks to the north.’

Clauses and particle expressions with ⌊ni-⌋ part

Clause types requiring a verb that begins with ⌊ni-⌋ part are described in the
following sections.

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Related

⇒ Comparisons, counting, measuring, §31 ⇒ Comparisons (more, the

same, or less), §31.1
⇒ Clauses with shęh ‘that’, ⌊shęh ni-⌋ ‘how, what’, ne:ˀ ‘it is’, §29.1
⇒ Causative clauses with dęˀ ni:yoht shęh ‘why’, neˀ hǫ:niˀ ‘how’, §29.3
⇒ Manner clauses with dęˀ ni- ‘how’, shęh ni:yoht ‘how so’, etc., §29.4
⇒ Measuring clauses with ⌊do: … ni-⌋ ‘how much, many’, etc., §29.5
⇒ Clauses with hwę:dǫh, nęh, do: niyowi ̱hsdaˀe:ˀ, nę:gyęh hwaˀ, ne:ˀ hwaˀ
‘when’, §29.9
⇒ Clauses with (gaoˀ) shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ’until’, §29.10
⇒ Clauses with shęh naˀonisheˀ, tsaˀonisheˀ, ⌊tsi-⌋ ‘while’, ‘when’, §29.11

The following particles (listed in the Particle dictionary, §C) require the next
verb to begin with the ⌊ni-⌋ part.

Related

⇒ Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni- ‘how’, ’what way’ (“adverb” of manner)

⇒ Dęˀ ni:yoht shęh ‘why?’
⇒ Do: ‘how’
⇒ Do: ni-…nisheˀ ‘how long’, ‘how much time’
⇒ Do: ni-…ǫ: ‘how many people
⇒ Do: niyowi ̱hsda̱ ˀe:ˀ ‘what time is it?’, ‘when?’
⇒ Gaoˀ ni- ‘less so’
⇒ Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ’until’
⇒ Gwahs shęh ni- ‘as … as’
⇒ Hne:ˀ shęh ‘because’
⇒ Ji trehs ‘because’, ‘overly’
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’
⇒ Ne:ˀ dagaihǫ:niˀ ‘the reason why’, ‘that’s why’, ‘because’
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘because’, ‘it is just’
⇒ Shęh ‘that’
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ’because’
⇒ Shęh naˀonisheˀ, tsaˀonisheˀ, ⌊tsi-⌋ ‘while’, ’when’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

⇒ Shęh ni:yoht ni- ‘how’, ‘the manner in which’

⇒ Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘as far as’, ’as much as’
⇒ Toh shęh ni- ‘to that degree’

12.2.4 ⌊s-, j-, ji-⌋ repetitive (rep)

The ⌊s-, j-, ji-⌋ rep means ‘again’, and also describes a repeated action (64). Related
meanings are covered in the following sections.

(64) a. shoyę́:twęh
s-ho-yę́:tw-ęh
rep-3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he planted it again’
cf. hoyę́:twęh
ho-yę́:tw-ęh
3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he planted it’
b. sawá:dǫˀ
s-a-w-á:dǫ-ˀ
rep-fac-3s.a-become.well-punc
‘it became again’, ‘it became well again’ (i.e. it was sick)
cf. awá:dǫˀ
a-w-á:dǫ-ˀ
fac-3s.a-become.well-punc
‘it has become’, ‘it became’
c. sawada̱hǫ́:dǫ:ˀ
sa-w-ad-a̱hǫ́:dǫ:-ˀ
rep-fac-3s.a-srf-ask-punc
‘it asked again’
cf. awada̱hǫ́:dǫ:ˀ
a-w-ad-a̱hǫ́:dǫ:-ˀ
fac-3s.a-srf-ask-punc
‘it asked’
d. jago:kǫ́:ni:
j-ago:-k-ǫ́:ni-:
rep-3s.fi.p-food-make-stat
‘she is cooking again’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

cf. gokǫ́:ni:
go-k-ǫ́:ni-:
3fis-food-make-stat
‘she is cooking’
e. jodrę́:no:t
j-o-d-rę́:n-o:t
rep-3s.p-srf-song-stand.stat
‘it is singing again’
cf. odrę́:no:t
o-d-rę́:n-o:t
3s.p-srf-song-stand.stat
‘it is singing’
f. jotó:weˀ
j-o-t-hó:weˀ
rep-3s.p-srf-cold.stat
‘it is cold again’
cf. otó:weˀ
o-t-hó:weˀ
3s.p-srf-cold.stat
‘it is cold’
g. jidwáhshe:t
ji-dwá-hshe:t
rep-1p.in.a-count.no_aspect
‘let’s count again’
cf. dwa̱hshe:t
dwa̱-hshe:t
1p.in.a-count.no_aspect
‘let’s count’

⌊s-, j-, ji-⌋ rep with verbs of motion

With verbs of motion, the ⌊s-, j-, ji-⌋ rep means ‘coming back to the place of origin’
or ‘returning to the place of origin’. For example, sáeyǫˀ means ‘she returned’ (65),
not ‘she arrived again’.

(65) a. saˀé:yǫˀ
s-aˀ-é:-yǫ-ˀ
rep-fac-3s.fi.a-arrive-punc
‘she returned’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

cf. aˀé:yǫˀ
a-ˀé:-yǫ-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-arrive-punc
‘she arrived’
b. sa̱hahdę́:diˀ
s-a̱-ha-hdę́:di-ˀ
rep-fac-3s.m.a-leave-punc
‘he went home’
cf. ahahdę́:diˀ ‘he left’,
a-ha-hdę́:di-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-leave-punc
‘he went away’
c. hęhsge:ˀ
h-ę-hs-g-e-:-ˀ
transl-fut-rep-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I am going back there, returning’
cf. hę́:geˀ
h-ę́:-g-e-ˀ
transl-fut-1s.a-go-punc
‘I will go there’
d. ihsgeˀs
i-hs-g-e-ˀs
proth-rep-1s.a-go-hab
‘I have returned home’
cf. í:geˀs
í:-g-e-ˀs
proth-1s.a-go-hab
‘I am here’
e. shahá:wiˀ
s-ha-há:wi-ˀ
rep-3s.m.a-carry-punc
‘he brought it with him’
cf. hadihá:wiˀs
hadi-há:wi-ˀs
3ns.m.a-carry-hab
‘they carry it along’

⌊s-, j-, ji-⌋ rep with proper names and titles

The ⌊s-, j-, ji-⌋ rep appears in words describing unique people or places, where
it means ‘The One Who…’ or ‘The Place Where…’ (66). Many Hereditary Chief
names begin with the repetitive prefix (see §D.6).

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

(66) a. Shoyǫ́:we:s
s-ho-yǫ́:w-e:s
rep-3s.m.p-wampum-long.stat
‘He has Long Wampum’ (Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ Chief Title)
b. Sga̱ˀna:wá:dih
s-ga̱-ˀna:w-á:dih
rep-3s.a-pond-side.stat
‘Opposite Side of the Pond, Swamp’ (Onondaga Chief Title)
c. Sganyada:digó:wah
s-ga-nyada:-di-gó:wah
rep-3s.a-lake-side.stat-aug
‘Europe’
d. Sganyádaes
s-ga-nyáda:-es
rep-3s.a-lake-long.stat
‘Long Lake’, ‘Skaneateles, N.Y.’

⌊s-/j-/ji-verb⌋ (fixed expressions)

The verbs in (67) require the ⌊s-, j-, ji-⌋ rep prefix to express a fixed meaning.

(67) a. hęjéhe:ˀ
h-ę-j-é-he:ˀ
transl-fut-rep-3s.fi.a-sitting.on.top.of.punc
‘it will be her birthday’3
b. sa̱hęnada:tré:waht
sa̱-hęn-ada:t-hré:waht
rep-3ns.m.a-refl-punish.ø.punc
‘they repented’
c. ęhsgáeyǫˀt
ę-hs-gáe-yǫˀt
fut-rep-3ns.fi.a-cause.to.arrive.ø.punc
‘they will bring it back’
d. sgadę́hda:ˀ
s-ga-dę́hda:ˀ
rep-3s.a-lie.spread.out.on.the.ground.stat
‘to resurface something’
3
This verb requires both the transl and the rep.

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

e. ęjisatgánya̱ˀgęˀ
ę-ji-s-at-gánya̱ˀg-ę-ˀ
fut-rep-2s.a-srf-pay-ben-punc
‘you will be reimbursed, refunded’
f. jǫkihędǫ́ˀse:ˀ
j-ǫki-hędǫ́-ˀs-e-:-ˀ
rep-3s.fi/3ns>1ns-lead-disl-go-purp-stat
‘she has gone on before us’ (ceremonial language, said of a recently
deceased woman)
g. shonǫ́ˀne:t
s-ho-nǫ́ˀ-ne:t
rep-3s.m.p-head-keep.in.line.stat
‘he is behind him, he is next in line’
h. ęjijadrihwa̱hsrǫ́:niˀ
ę-ji-j-ad-rihw-a̱-hsrǫ́:ni-ˀ
fut-rep-2d.a-srf-matter-joinerA-fix-punc
‘you two will reconcile’
i. sawę́hsga:ˀ
sa-w-ę́hs-ga:-ˀ
rep-3s.a-foot-make.a.rattling.noise-punc
‘it spun out, took off with a rattling sound’

⌊s/j/ji-…incorporated noun-adih⌋ ‘other side of incorporated noun’

The fixed combination of ⌊s/j/ji-…incorporated noun-adih⌋ means ‘other side
of incorporated noun’ (68). (Also see Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, §C.5.)

(68) ⌊s/j/ji-…incorporated noun-adih⌋ ‘other side of incorporated noun’

a. jo̱háhadih
j-o̱-háh-adih
rep-3s.p-road-side.stat
‘the other side of the road’
b. swa̱háhadih
s-wa̱-háh-adih
rep-3s.a-road-side.stat
‘the other side of the road’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

⌊s/j/ji-…incorporated noun-t⌋ ‘one incorporated noun’

The fixed combination of ⌊s/j/ji-…incorporated noun-t⌋ means ‘one incorpo-
rated noun’ (69). (Also see Counting with basic nouns, §31.2 and Neuter stative-
only counting verbs, with an incorporated noun, §24.2.6.)

(69) ⌊s/j/ji-…incorporated noun-t⌋ ‘one incorporated noun’

a. sganǫ́hsa:t
s-ga-nǫ́hs-a:-t
rep-3s.a-house-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one house’
cf. ganǫ́hsaˀ
ga-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.a-house-nsf
‘house’
b. swahdáhgwa:t
s-w-ahdáhgw-a:-t
rep-3s.a-shoe-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one shoe’
cf. ahdáhgwaˀ
ahdáhgw-aˀ
no.prefix.shoe-nsf
‘shoes’
c. sgayę́hsra:t, joyę́hsra:t
s-ga-/jo-yę́hsr-a:-t
rep-3s.a/rep.3s.p-blanket-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one blanket’
cf. oyę́hsraˀ
o-yę́hsr-aˀ
3s.p-blanket-nsf
‘blankets’
d. sga̱hǫ́na̱ˀda:t, jo̱hǫ́na̱ˀda:t
s-ga-̱/jo-hǫ́na̱ˀd-a:-t
rep-3s.a/rep.3s.p-potato-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one potato’
cf. ohǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ
o-hǫ́na̱ˀd-aˀ
3s.p-potato-nsf
‘potatoes’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

⌊s/j/ji-…t-sǫˀ⌋ ‘one each, one per, one at a time’

The fixed combination of ⌊s/j/ji-…t-sǫˀ⌋ means ‘one each, one per, one at a time’
(70).

(70) ⌊s/j/ji-…t-sǫˀ⌋ ‘one each, one per, one at a time’

a. sgatsǫˀ
s-ga-t-shǫˀ
rep-3s.a-stand.stat-plrz
‘one at a time’, ‘one each’
cf. sga:t
s-ga:-t
rep-3s.a-stand.stat
‘one thing’
b. sgatsǫ́ˀ ęsáhshe:t
by.ones you.will.count
‘count by ones, one by one’
c. sgatsǫ́ˀ shę́h da̱ha:dí:yoˀ
one.by.one that they(males).came.in
‘they came in one by one’

⌊s/j/ji-…incorporated noun-t-sǫˀ⌋ ‘each, per incorporated noun’, ‘one

incorporated noun at a time’
The fixed combination of ⌊s/j/ji-…incorporated noun-t-sǫˀ⌋ means ‘each, per
incorporated noun’, or ‘one incorporated noun at a time’ (71).

(71) ⌊s/j/ji-…incorporated noun-t-sǫˀ⌋ ‘each, per incorporated noun’, or

‘one incorporated noun at a time’
a. jo̱hsˀdatsǫ́ˀ
j-o̱-hsíˀd-a-t-shǫˀ
rep-3s.p-foot-joinerA-stand.stat-plrz
‘a one foot distance’
cf. jo̱hsíˀda:t
j-o̱-hsíˀd-a:-t
rep-3s.p-foot-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one foot’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

b. sga̱ˀdréhdatsǫˀ
s-ga̱-ˀdréhd-a-t-shǫˀ
rep-3s.a-car-joinerA-stand.stat-plrz
‘each car’, ‘one car at a time’
cf. sga̱ˀdréhda:t
s-ga̱-ˀdréhd-a:-t
rep-3s.a-car-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one car’
c. Jo̱hsiˀdatsǫ́ˀ naˀdegaǫdréˀ todinę̱ hę́:dreˀ
one.foot.apart they(fe/males).are.meeting they(males).are.standing
‘People are standing in a straight line one foot apart.’
d. Jo̱hsiˀdatsǫ́ˀ naˀdegęna:dréˀ ganáˀjo̱hkwaˀ
one.foot.apart they(fe/males).are.meeting bottle
‘The bottles are standing one foot apart.’
e. Sga̱ˀdrehdatsǫ́ˀ shę́h gęnatsahá:goˀ
each.car that they(things).gathered.together.on.the.road
‘Each car turned in (at the same place)’

12.2.5 ⌊d-⌋ cislocative (cis) and ⌊heˀ-⌋ translocative (transl)

The ⌊d-⌋ cis and ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl prefixes convey opposite locations or directions,
as illustrated in (72–73) and described in the next sections.

(72) a. dahsá:dih
da-hs-á:di-h
cis-2s.p-throw-euph.h/no_aspect
‘throw it towards me’
b. heˀsá:dih
heˀ-s-á:di-h
transl-2s.p-throw-euph.h/no_aspect
‘throw it away from me’

(73) a. tgayę́twa̱hsǫˀ
t-ga-yę́tw-a̱-hs-ǫˀ
cis-3s.a-plant-joinerA-hab-plural
‘it is planted over there’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

b. hegayętwáhsǫˀ
he-ga-yętw-á-hs-ǫˀ
transl-3s.a-plant-joinerA-hab-plural
‘it is planted over there’
cf. gayę́twa̱hsǫˀ
ga-yę́tw-a̱-hs-ǫˀ
3s.a-plant-joinerA-hab-plural
‘it is planted (here)’

Motion verbs with ⌊d-⌋ cis and ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl

For verbs of motion, the ⌊d-⌋ cis prefix means ‘towards’ a point of reference, often
the speaker. In contrast, the ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl prefix means ‘away’ from a point of
reference such as the speaker (74).

(74) a. dahsá:dih
dah-s-á:di-h
cis-2s.p-throw-euph.h/no_aspect
‘throw it to me’
cf. heˀsá:dih
heˀ-s-á:di-h
transl-2s.p-throw-euph.h/no_aspect
‘throw it away from me’
b. dasa:dó:wih
da-s-a:d-ó:wi-h
cis-2s.a-srf-drive-euph.h/no_aspect
‘drive over here’
cf. haˀsa:dó:wih
haˀ-s-a:d-ó:wi-h
transl-2s.a-srf-drive-euph.h/no_aspect
‘drive it over there’
c. dasádawę:
da-s-ád-awę:
cis-2s.a-srf-swim.no_aspect
‘swim this way’
cf. haˀsádawę:
haˀ-s-ád-awę:
transl-2s.a-srf-swim.no_aspect
‘swim over there’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

d. desáˀdre:
de-sá-ˀdre:
cis-2s.p-drive.no_aspect
‘drive over here’
cf. heˀsáˀdre:
heˀ-sá-ˀdre:
transl-2s.p-drive.no_aspect
‘drive over there’
e. dasrá:tęh, dadrá:tęh
da-s/d-rá:tę-h
cis-2s.a-climb-euph.h/no_aspect
‘climb (over here)!’
cf. haˀsrá:tęh, haˀdrá:tęh
haˀ-s/d-rá:tę-h
transl-2s.a-climb-euph.h/no_aspect
‘climb over there!’

The same is true of the verbs of motion in (75–78) and of the verb in (79), which
also conveys a type of motion.

(75) ⌊yǫ⌋ ‘arrive’

a. dajǫh
da-j-ǫ-h
cis-2s.a-arrive-euph.h/no_aspect
‘come in’ (destination is near the speaker)
cf. haˀjǫh
haˀ-j-ǫ-h
transl-2s.a-arrive-euph.h/no_aspect
‘go in, enter’ (destination is away from speaker)
b. daha:dí:yǫˀ
da-ha:dí:-yǫ-ˀ
cis-3ns.m.a-arrive-punc
‘they came in’ (destination is near the speaker)
cf. haˀha:dí:yǫˀ
haˀ-ha:dí:-yǫ-ˀ
transl-3ns.m.a-arrive-punc
‘they went in there, they arrived’ (destination is away from the speaker)

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

(76) ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

dagę́:neˀ
da-gę́:n-e-ˀ
cis-3p.a-go-stat
‘they are coming’ (destination is near the speaker)
cf. haˀgę́:neˀ
haˀ-gę́:n-e-ˀ
transl-3p.a-go-stat
‘they are going’ (destination is away from the speaker)

(77) ⌊ahdędi, -ahdęgy⌋ ‘leave, go away’

disáhdęgyǫ:
di-s-áhdęgyǫ-:
cis-2s.p-leave-stat
‘you come from there’ (destination is near the speaker)
cf. hesáhdęgyǫ:
he-s-áhdęgyǫ-:
transl-2s.p-leave-stat
‘you went over there’ (destination is away from the speaker)

(78) ⌊ahshawi, ahsha:⌋ ‘carry, bring’

dahsha:
da-hs-ha:
cis-2s.a-carry.no_aspect
‘bring it’ (destination is near the speaker)
cf. haˀsha:
haˀ-s-ha:
transl-2s.a-carry.no_aspect
‘take it over there’ (destination is away from the speaker)

(79) ⌊yęhętw⌋ ‘pull’

gyagogyę̱ hę́:twęh
g-yago-g-yę̱ hę́:tw-ęh
cis-3s.fi.p-srf-pull-stat
‘she is pulling it apart’ (happens near the speaker)
cf. heyagogyę́hętwęh
he-yago-g-yę́hętw-ęh
transl-3s.fi.p-srf-pull-stat
‘she is pulling from there’ (pulling starts away from the speaker)

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Positional verbs with ⌊d-⌋ cis and ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl

For positional verbs (a type of stative-only verb – see §14.4.2), the ⌊d-⌋ prefix
means ‘there’ (closer to the speaker and the ⌊heˀ-⌋ prefix means ‘over there’ (far-
ther away from the speaker, 80a-i, 80a-ii). In contrast, positional verbs without
either prefix have the implied meaning of ‘here’ (80a, 80b).

(80) a. ga̱he:ˀ
ga̱-he:ˀ
3s.a-sitting.on.top.of.stat
‘it is sitting (here)’
i. tga̱he:ˀ
t-ga̱-he:ˀ
cis-3s.a-sitting.on.top.of.stat
‘it is setting there’
ii. heˀgáhe:ˀ
heˀ-gá-he:ˀ
transl-3s.a-sitting.on.top.of.stat
‘it is sitting way over there’
b. gá:yęˀ
gá:-yęˀ
3s.a-lie.stat
‘it is lying’
i. tgá:yęˀ
t-gá:-yęˀ
cis-3s.a-lie.stat
‘it is lying there’
ii. hegá:yęˀ
he-gá:-yęˀ
transl-3s.a-lie.stat
‘it is lying over there’
c. ganí:yǫ:t
ga-ní:yǫ:t
3s.a-hang.stat
‘it is hanging’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

i. tga:ní:yǫ:t
t-ga:-ní:yǫ:t
cis-3s.a-hang.stat
‘it is hanging there’
ii. hega:ní:yǫ:t
he-ga:-ní:yǫ:t
transl-3s.a-hang.stat
‘it is hanging way over there’
d. gá:deˀ
gá:-deˀ
3s.a-stick.out.stat
‘it is sticking out’
i. tgá:deˀ
t-gá:-deˀ
cis-3s.a-stick.out.stat
‘it is sticking out’
ii. hegá:deˀ
he-gá:-deˀ
transl-3s.a-stick.out.stat
‘it is sticking out over there’
e. eˀdrǫˀ
e-ˀdrǫˀ
3s.fi.a-dwell.stat
‘she is home’
i. gye̱ˀdrǫˀ
g-ye̱-ˀdrǫˀ
cis-3s.fi.a-dwell.stat
‘she is at home’
ii. heyéˀdrǫˀ
he-yé-ˀdrǫˀ
transl-3s.fi.a-dwell.stat
‘she is at home, way over there’

⌊d-verb⌋ or ⌊heˀ-verb⌋ (fixed expressions)

The verbs listed in (81) require the ⌊d-⌋ cis to express their fixed meaning.

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

(81) a. tgayéi, tgayí:

t-ga-yéi/yí
cis-3s.a-right.stat
‘it is right, correct’
b. dwagado̱ˀkdá:nih
d-wag-ad-o̱ˀkd-á:ni-h
cis-1s.p-srf-finish-ben-hab
‘I am dissatisfied’
c. ę: tsǫ: itseˀs
ę: tsǫ: i-t-s-e-ˀs
again just proth-cis-2s.a-go-hab
‘you wander (all the time)’, ‘you are over there’
d. tgá:gwitgęˀs
t-gá-ragw-itgę-ˀs
cis-3s.a-sun-rise-hab
‘east’, ‘the sun rises there’
e. ętsáˀsęht
ę-t-s-áˀsęht
fut-cis-2s.a-bring.down.ø.punc
‘you will bring it down’
f. tgaęgwá:dih
t-gaę-gw-á:di-h
cis-3ns.fi.a-direction-throw-hab
‘they are going in a direction’
g. gyodóˀkda̱ˀǫh
g-yo-d-óˀkda̱ˀ-ǫh
cis-3s.p-srf-cause.to.run.out-stat
‘it is lacking’
h. gyagoya̱ˀdá:gwęh
g-yago-ya̱ˀd-á:-gw-ęh
cis-3s.fi.p-body-joinerA-gather-stat
‘she has lost weight’
i. gyogyę́hdǫh
g-yo-g-yę́hd-ǫh
cis-3s.p-srf-hit-stat
‘the first one, the beginning’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

j. dawá:tgri:k
d-a-wá:-t-gri-:k
cis-fac-3s.a-srf-fold.ø.punc-modz
‘it pulled back, flinched, shrank’
k. dawáˀsęˀ
d-a-w-áˀsę-ˀ
cis-fac-3s.a-reduce-punc
‘it dropped, reduced’
l. tgehdáhkwaˀ
t-g-ehdáhkw-haˀ
cis-1s.a-believe-hab
‘I believe’
m. ętsadadáhshagwęˀ
ę-t-s-adad-áhshagw-ę-ˀ
fut-cis-2s.a-refl-remember-ben-punc
‘you will remind yourself, make yourself remember’
n. dawáda̱ˀsęht
d-a-w-ád-a̱ˀsęht
cis-fac-3s.a-srf-cause.to.drop.ø.punc
‘it swooped down’
o. dǫgádo̱ˀktahs
d-ǫg-ád-o̱ˀkd-a-hs
cis-fac.1s.a-srf-lack-joinerA-hab
‘I was not satisfied (with…)’, ‘I did not get enough’
p. dawatehtgęht
d-a-w-at-hehtgęht
cis-fac-3s.a-srf-cause.to.go.bad.ø.punc
‘it went bad’
q. ętsa:tró:wiˀ
ę-t-s-a:t-hró:wi-ˀ
fut-cis-2s.a-srf-tell-punc
‘you will recount, retell’
r. ętsatsadǫ́:goˀ
ę-t-s-at-hsadǫ́:-go-ˀ
fut-cis-2s.a-bury-rev-punc
‘you will unearth it’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

s. ętsa:dó:gęhs
ę-t-s-a:dó:gęhs
fut-cis-2s.a-make.right.ø.punc
‘you will adjust’
t. da:gonhę́hęhih
d-a-ago-nhę́hęhih
cis-fac-3s.fi.p-dribble.ø.punc
‘she dribbled, peed’
u. dagayagę́hdahk
da-ga-yagę́hd-a-hk
cis-3s.a-issue.from-joinerA-ø.punc.former
‘it came out suddenly’
v. daję́:na:
da-j-ę́:na:
cis-2s.a-grab.no_aspect
‘grab it!’

The verbs in (82) require the ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl to express their fixed meaning.

(82) a. hę́:goh
h-ę́:-g-oh
transl-fut-1s.a-dip.in.liquid.ø.punc
‘I will dip it in, submerge it’
b. hegáhgwęˀs
he-gá-hgwę-ˀs
transl-3s.a-set-hab
‘to the setting sun, the direction of the sunset, west’
c. hęhsye:ˀ
h-ę-hs-ye:-ˀ
transl-fut-2s.a-touch-punc
‘you will touch’
d. hęhsyáhnǫ:ˀ
h-ę-hs-yá-hnǫ:-ˀ
transl-fut-2s.a-touch-distr-punc
‘you will grope, touch, pick at’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

e. hęgǫ́:nęht
h-ę-g-ǫ́:nęht-ø
transl-fut-1s.a-swallow-punc
‘I will swallow’
f. heyótsˀahdǫh
he-yó-tsˀahd-ǫh
transl-3s.p-dwindle-stat
‘it is all gone’
g. hęhsó:goht
h-ę-hs-ó:goht
transl-fut-2s.a-surpass.ø.punc
‘you will exaggerate, go above and beyond’
h. hęwáˀsęˀ
h-ę-w-áˀsę-ˀ
transl-fut-3s.a-fall.in-punc
‘it will fall in’
i. hęgǫyadę́:nyeht
h-ę-gǫy-adę́:-nyeht-ø
transl-fut-1s>2s-send-punc
‘I will refer you (to someone else)’
j. to: hé:yoht
to: hé:-yo-ht
that transl-3s.p-resemble.stat
‘suddenly’
k. hęhsadagwáihsaht
h-ę-hs-ad-agwáihsaht
transl-fut-2s.a-srf-straighten.ø.punc
‘you will go straight’
l. heyó:gęˀt
he-yó:-gęˀt
transl-3s.p-transparent.stat
‘it is transparent’
m. haˀhoˀnigǫ́haˀehs
h-aˀ-ho-ˀnigǫ́h-a-ˀehs
transl-fac-3s.m.p-mind-joinerA-cause.to.hit.ø.punc
‘his mind settled on’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

n. hęsadwęnǫ́:diˀ
h-ę-s-ad-węn-ǫ́:di-ˀ
transl-fut-2s.p-srf-voice-throw-punc
‘you will throw your voice’ (as a ventriloquist)
o. hęsagya̱ˀdǫ́:diˀ
h-ę-s-ag-ya̱ˀd-ǫ́:di-ˀ
transl-fut-2s.p-srf-body-throw-punc
‘you will pounce on it’
p. hęhaihwę́hę:ˀ
h-ę-ha-ihw-ę́hę:-ˀ
transl-fut-3s.m.a-matter-convey-punc
‘he will take the message’
q. hękre:k
h-ę-k-hre:k
transl-fut-1s.a-push.ø.punc
‘I will push it’
r. hęgóˀkdęˀ
h-ę-g-óˀkd-ęˀ
transl-fut-1s.a-finish-punc
‘I will finish something’

The verbs in (83) require either the ⌊d-⌋ cis or the ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl to express
their fixed meaning.

(83) a. tagihnǫ:s
t-hag-ihnǫ:k-s
cis-3s.m>1s-call-hab
‘he is calling me’
cf. hęgihnǫ:k
h-ę-g-ihnǫ:k
transl-1s.a-call.ø.punc
‘I will call’
b. tgya̱hsǫ́haˀ
t-g-ya̱hsǫ́-haˀ
cis-1s.a-name-hab
‘I call them’, ‘I am a bingo caller’

202
 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

cf. hęhshéyahsǫ:ˀ
h-ę-hshé-yahsǫ:-ˀ
transl-fut-2s>3s.fi-name-punc
‘you will call someone’s name (over there)’
c. Waˀjih, ętsyáˀdęˀ
waˀjih ę-t-s-yáˀd-ę-ˀ
wait fut-cis-2s.a-body-fall-punc
‘Wait, you’ll fall into it’
cf. hewagya̱ˀdę́ˀǫh
he-wag-ya̱ˀd-ę́-ˀǫh
transl-1s.p-body-fall-stat
‘I have fallen into it’

⌊d-…verb-stat⌋ ‘-est’
The fixed combination of ⌊d-…verb-stat⌋ turns a stative-only verb like ⌊gowan-
ęh⌋ ‘big-stat’ into a superlative, meaning ‘the most’ or ‘-est’ (84).

(84) Í:ˀ tgegówanęh.

í:ˀ t-g-e-gówan-ęh
I cis-1s.a-joinerE-big-stat
‘I am the oldest (biggest)’
cf. gegówanęh
g-e-gówan-ęh
1s.a-joinerE-big-stat
‘I am big’

Other comparisons requiring the ⌊d-⌋ cis are described in Comparisons, §31.1.

⌊shęh d-…incorporated noun-o:t⌋ ‘at the incorporated noun’

The fixed combination of ⌊shęh d-…incorporated noun-o:t⌋ means ‘at the in-
corporated noun’ (85).

(85) ⌊shęh d-…incorporated noun-o:t⌋ ‘at the incorporated noun’

shęh tganǫ́hso:t
shęh t-ga-nǫ́hs-o:t
that cis-3s.a-house-stand.stat
‘at the house’
cf. shęh tganǫhsó:t ita:t ‘he is standing at the house’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

⌊haˀde-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘every, many, a variety of

incorporated nouns’
The fixed combination of ⌊haˀde-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ means ‘every, many,
a variety of incorporated nouns’ (86).

(86) ⌊haˀde-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘every, many, a variety of

incorporated nouns’
a. haˀdewę̱ hníhsrage:
haˀde-w-ę̱ hníhsr-age:
transl.du-3s.a-day-two.or.more.stat
‘every day’, ‘many days’
b. haˀdewa̱hsǫ́dage:
haˀde-w-a̱hsǫ́d-age:
transl.du-3s.a-night-two.or.more.stat
‘every night’
c. haˀdega̱ˀdréhdage:
haˀde-ga̱-ˀdréhd-age:
transl.du-3s.a-car-two.or.more.stat
‘all kinds of cars’

Particles with ⌊d-⌋ cis or ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl

The following particles, described in the Particle dictionary, §C, require the fol-
lowing verb to begin with either ⌊d-⌋ cis or ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl.

Related

⇒ Gaę hǫ:weh ‘which place’, ’where’

⇒ Heyohe:ˀ ‘more’
⇒ Neˀ aǫhę:ˀęh d- ‘the most, -est, -er (of)’
⇒ Neˀ gyaǫhę:ˀęh d- ‘the most’, ’the greatest’
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs d- ‘the most’
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs heyohe:ˀ ‘the most, -est’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

12.2.6 ⌊de-⌋ dualic (du)

The ⌊de-⌋ du adds the meaning that there are two parts to an action, or two states,
as described in the following sections.

⌊de-⌋ du and two-part motions

The ⌊de-⌋ du is often required with verbs that describe a two-part motion, a
change in position, or a back-and-forth motion (87).

(87) a. dekdaˀs
de-k-d-a-ˀs
du-1s.a-stand-join-hab
‘I am standing’
b. degá:dęh
de-gá:-dę-h
du-3s.a-fly-hab
‘airplane’
c. dęhadagyáˀda̱hgwaˀt
d-ę-ha-dag-yáˀd-a̱-hgwaˀt
du-fut-3s.m.a-refl-body-joinerA-cause.to.raise.ø.punc
‘he will do push ups’
d. degaǫnáˀsgwa̱hkwaˀ
de-gaǫ-náˀsgw-a̱-hgw-haˀ
du-3ns.fi.a-lift.up-hab
‘they are jumping’
e. de̱hęnáǫhaˀ
de̱-hęn-áǫ-haˀ
du-3ns.m.a-run-hab
‘they are racers’
f. de̱hęnadátgǫ̱he:s
de̱-hęn-adát-gǫ̱he:g-s
du-3ns.m.a-refl-punch-hab
‘boxers’
g. dewá:tgwęh
de-w-á:t-gw-ęh
du-3s.a-srf-dance-stat
‘it is dancing’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

h. da:há:dahs
d-a:-há:-dahs
du-indef-3s.m.a-stop.no_aspect
‘he should stop’
i. dehsdaˀ
de-hs-daˀ
du-2s.a-stop.no_aspect
‘stop!’
j. dęgakeyáˀdahk
d-ę-gake-yáˀd-a-hk
du-fut-1s>3ns-body-joinerA-pick.up.ø.punc
‘I will pick them up’
k. dęwátahahk
d-ę-w-át-hah-a-hk
du-fut-3s.a-srf-road-joinerA-pick.up.ø.punc
‘it will walk’
l. deyagodáwęnyeˀ
de-yago-d-áwęnye-ˀ
du-3s.fi.p-srf-stir-stat
‘she is walking about’
m. dęhahgwadáhnǫ:ˀ
d-ę-ha-hgwad-á-hnǫ-:ˀ
du-fut-3s.m.a-raise.up-joinerA-distr-punc
‘he will raise or lift things up’
n. detodinę́hędreˀ
de-t-hodi-nę́hę-dr-e-ˀ
du-cis-3ns.m.p-stand.in.a.line-disl-go-stat
‘they are standing (or guarding)’
o. degóno̱hsgwihs
de-g-ó-no̱hsgwi-hs
du-1s.a-srf-sweep-hab
‘I am sweeping’
p. deyoˀnhęhtsę́dǫ̱hǫh
de-yo-ˀnhęhts-ę́dǫ̱h-ǫh
du-3s.p-tail-shake-stat
‘it is wagging its tail’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

q. dewahji ̱ˀdóha:s
de-w-ahji ̱ˀd-óha:g-s
du-3s.a-hand-squeeze-hab
‘pliers’
r. degaǫdóhda:s
de-gaǫ-d-óhda:g-s
du-3ns.fi.a-srf-clean-hab
‘janitors’

⌊de-⌋ du for a change in state, coming apart

The ⌊de-⌋ du is often required with verbs that denote a change in state, specifi-
cally, the action of coming apart (88).
(88) a. de̱há:yaˀs
de̱-há:-yaˀg-s
du-3s.m.a-break-hab
‘he breaks it’
b. degaihó:węhs
de-ga-ih-ó:wę-hs
du-3s.a-words-split-hab
‘computer’
c. degáhihtaˀ
de-gá-hriht-haˀ
du-3s.a-chop.up-hab
‘grinder or cutter’
d. degawidrágędrǫhs
de-ga-widr-á-gędrǫ-hs
du-3s.a-ice-joinerA-skim.off-hab
‘cream separator’

⌊de-⌋ du for something bent, crossed

The ⌊de-⌋ du is often required with verbs that describe something bent or crossed
(89).
(89) a. deyohahíya̱ˀgǫh
de-yo-hah-íya̱ˀg-ǫh
du-3s.p-road-cross-stat
‘crossroad’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

b. deyótsaˀkdǫh
de-yó-tsaˀkd-ǫh
du-3s.p-bend-stat
‘it is bent’
c. degáhǫˀ
de-gá-hǫˀ
du-3s.a-lie.across.stat
‘it is lying across’

⌊de-verb⌋ (fixed expressions)

Over 300 verbs require the ⌊de-⌋ du prefix to express their fixed meaning. Only
a few examples are listed in (90). (For a longer list, see §B.)
(90) a. dęjidwadatnǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ
d-ę-ji-dwa-dat-nǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫ-:ˀ
du-fut-1p.in.a-refl-greet-punc
‘we will greet each other again’
b. degaˀęnáęhęˀ
de-g-aˀęn-á-ę-hęˀ
du-1s.a-pole-joinerA-hit-hab
‘I am a snowsnake player’
c. degáhshętwahs
de-g-áhshętw-a-hs
du-1s.a-cry-joinerA-hab
‘I am crying’
d. deyóhsdateh
de-yó-hsd-ateh
du-3s.p-shiny.object-clear.stat
‘it is smooth’
e. dewátęho:t
de-wá-t-hęh-o:t
du-3s.a-srf-wood-stand.stat
‘pile of wood’
f. dehsgwę́ˀnya:ˀ
de-hsgw-ę́-ˀny-a:ˀ
du-2>1(p)-srf-hand-hold.stat
‘you who watch over us’

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

g. desaˀdráihęh
de-sa-ˀdráihęh
du-2s.p-hurry.no_aspect
‘hurry!’

The ⌊de-⌋ du prefix often appears in verbs composed of loanwords (§5.9), per-
haps because it is such a common prefix (91).

(91) a. dehsadesmack
de-hs-ad-e-smack
du-2s.a-srf-JoinerE-smack.ø.punc
‘smack your lips!’
b. ato:stro:k
a-t-ho:-stro:k
fac-du-3s.m.p-stroke.ø.punc
‘he had a stroke’
c. deyagodehighlightǫh
de-yago-d-e-highlight-ǫh
du-3s.fi.p-srf-JoinerE-highlight-stat
‘where she has it highlighted’
d. Gwe: gwe: a:yęˀ desatmonkeydǫh e:?
well well it.seems you’re.acting.like.a.monkey again
‘Are you acting like a monkey again?’ (Amos Key, p.c.)
cf. de-sa-t-monkey-d-ǫh
du-2s.p-srf-monkey-euph.d-stat

⌊de-a-yahshe-sǫˀ⌋ ‘two each, at a time’

The combination of ⌊de-a-yahshe-sǫˀ⌋, with an a-series pronominal prefix, means
‘two each’, or ‘two at a time’ (92). (Also see ⌊de-…incorporated noun-age-
hagyeˀ⌋ ‘two incorporated nouns at a time’, §12.2.6.)

(92) ⌊de-a-yahshe-sǫˀ⌋ ‘two each’, ‘two at a time’

a. degadiyáhshesǫˀ
de-gadi-yáhshe-shǫˀ
du-3p.a-two.living.things.stat-plrz
‘two things each, at a time’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

cf. degadiyáhshe:
de-gadi-yáhshe:
du-3p.a-two.living.things.stat
‘two things’
b. Degadiyahshesǫ́ˀ shę́h daga:dí:yoˀ.
two.at.a.time that they(things).came.in
‘they (things, i.e. cars) came in two at a time’

⌊de-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘two incorporated nouns’

The fixed combination of ⌊de-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ is used for counting
two objects (93, see §31.2.2).

(93) ⌊de-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘two incorporated nouns’

a. degajihsdá:ge:
de-ga-jihsd-á:ge:
du-3s.a-lamp-be.two.or.more.stat
‘two lamps’
b. deyohsi ̱ˀdá:ge:
de-yo-hsi ̱ˀd-áge:
du-3s.p-foot-be.two.or.more.stat
‘two feet’
c. deyoˀnhǫ̱hsá:ge:
de-yo-ˀnhǫ̱hs-á:ge:
du-3s.p-egg-be.two.or.more.stat
‘two eggs’
d. dewahda̱hgwá:ge:
de-w-ahda̱hgw-á:ge:
du-3s.a-shoe-be.two.or.more.stat
‘two shoes’

⌊de-…incorporated noun-age-hagyeˀ⌋ ‘two incorporated nouns at a

time’
The fixed combination of ⌊de-…incorporated noun-age-hagyeˀ⌋ means ‘two at
a time’ (94, see §12.2.6).

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 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes

(94) ⌊de-…incorporated noun-age-hagyeˀ⌋ ‘two incorporated nouns at a

time’
degaˀdre̱hdage̱há:gyeˀ
de-ga-ˀdre̱hd-age̱-h-á:-gy-e-ˀ
du-3s.a-car-two.or.more.stat-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘two cars at at time’

⌊de-…ogę:⌋ ‘between, in the middle’

The fixed combination of ⌊de-…ogę:⌋ means ‘between, in the middle’ (95).

(95) ⌊de-…ogę:⌋ ‘between, in the middle’

a. deyó:gę:
de-y-ó:gę:
du-3s.p-between.stat
‘it is between’, ‘in the middle’
b. Detniyada:do:gę́: i:gá:t só:wa:s.
between.us it.stands dog
‘The dog is standing between us.’
cf. de-tniy-ada:d-o:gę́:
du-1d.in.a-refl-between. stat

Other fixed expressions with ⌊de-⌋ du

Several fixed expressions require a combination of the ⌊de-⌋ du prefix in combina-
tion with an additional prepronominal prefix. These were previously described
in the “Related” sections listed below.

Related
⇒ ⌊tsaˀde-verb⌋, §12.2.1
⇒ ⌊tsaˀde-incorporated noun-verb⌋ (fixed expressions), §12.2.1
⇒ ⌊tsaˀdet/tsaˀdeg-verb⌋, §12.2.1
⇒ ⌊naˀde-a-adreˀ⌋ ‘to be a certain distance apart’, §12.2.3
⇒ ⌊haˀde-…incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘every, many, a variety of incor-
porated nouns’, §12.2.5

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Prepronominal prefix pronunciation is described next. The forms with example
Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ words are based on the fieldwork undertaken for the Fro-
man et al. (2002) dictionary. The remaining forms are from Foster (1993) and
Sasse & Keye (1998).

12.3.1 Legend for prepronominal prefix pronunciation charts

Most prepronominals change in pronunciation either because of the following
sound (such as a ‘C’ or consonant, Table 12.3, page 213), or because of the meaning
of the following pronominal prefix – including the pronominals listed as 1s.p or
2 in Table 12.3 and the a-person and e-person pronominals in Table 12.4, page
214. The following tables summarize the relevant factors.
The terms a-persons and e-persons in Table 12.4, page 214 both refer to pre-
fixes meaning ‘we’ or ‘you’. a-persons take the ⌊aˀ-⌋ or ⌊a-⌋ fac, and e-persons
take the ⌊e-⌋ fac. (Most of the verbs in Table 12.4, page 214 mean ‘to see’, with
the exception of esáhdǫ:ˀ ‘you lost it’ and esáˀdra̱ hehs ‘you are exaggerating’.)

12.3.2 Pronunciation changes at the end of the prepronominal prefixes

Only a few pronunciation changes affect the end of prepronominals or prepronom-
inal combinations. Such changes are described below.
The single prepronominal prefixes in Table 12.5, page 214 have just one pro-
nunciation.
In contrast, the cis, fac, or indef prefixes have the pronunciations listed in
the “last prefix” column in Table 12.6, page 215. Moreover, any prepronominal
combinations ending with these prefixes have the same pronunciation. For ex-
ample, both the cis and any combination ending with the cis are pronounced as
[t] before a following consonant (‘C’).
The fac-cis, fac-du, or fac-rep combinations have the pronunciations listed
in Table 12.7. Any combinations ending with these prefixes have the same pro-
nunciation. For example, combinations ending with the fac-rep include ⌊ǫsa-⌋
fac-rep, ⌊dǫsa-⌋ du-fac-rep, and ⌊hǫsa-⌋ transl-fac-rep.
Examples of all prepronominal prefix combinations are provided in alphabeti-
cal order in the following sections.

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 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

12.3.3 Prepronominals in alphabetical order

The following tables provide example words illustrating prepronominal prefix
combinations (where such were available). The tables are organized both alpha-

Table 12.3: Legend, prepronominal prefix pronunciation

Abbreviation Legend
C the next sound is a consonant
V the next sound is a vowel
w the next sound is a W
y the next sound is a Y
(w) the next sound is a W, but the W deletes. (It is only found in
other forms of the verb.)
(y) the next sound is a Y, but the Y deletes. (It is only found in
other forms of the verb.)
(sy) the ⌊s-⌋ rep merges with the following sound, Y. The two
sounds become J
(ts) the ⌊s-⌋ rep becomes T when the following sound is S: [s-s]
becomes [t-s]
(sa) the ⌊s-⌋ rep becomes ⌊sa-⌋ when the following sound is S:
[s-s] becomes [sa-s]
1s.p the ⌊a-⌋ fac or ⌊a:-⌋ indef merge with ⌊-wag⌋ 1s.p. The result
is ⌊ǫg-⌋ fac.1s.p or ⌊aǫg-⌋ indef.1s.p
2 the prefix used before 2s.a or inclusive pronominal prefixes
imp the prefix used with imperatives (command)
a-person the prefix used before 2s.a (a-person) pronominal prefixes
e-person the prefix used before 2s.a, (e-person) pronominal prefixes
let’s the prefix used with let’s commands (as in ‘let’s do it’)

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.4: A- and E-persons

a-person aˀa:kní:gęˀ, a:kní:gęˀ 1d.ex.a

aˀágwagęˀ, ágwagęˀ 1p.ex.a
akní:gęˀ 1>2(d)
agwá:gęˀ 1>2(p)
asgé:gę 2s>1s
e-person etní:gęˀ, ekní:gęˀ 1d.in.a
edwá:gęˀ 1p.in.a
ahsé:gęˀ, esáhdǫ:ˀ 2s.a
ehsní:gęˀ 2d.a
esaˀdra̱hehs 2s.p
ehswá:gęˀ 2p.a
ehyá:gęˀ, ahyá:gęˀ 3s.m>2s
eskní:gęˀ 2>1(d)
esgwá:gęˀ 2>1(p)

Table 12.5: Invariant prefixes

prefix prefix name

⌊tsi-⌋ coin
⌊ti-⌋ contr
⌊de-⌋ du
⌊ę-⌋ fut
⌊ni-⌋ part
⌊i-⌋ proth
⌊he-⌋ transl

214
 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Table 12.6: Final prefix of combination

last prefix becomes before

cis [t] C
[d] w, V
[g] or [d] y
[di] or [de] 2

fac [a] C
[e] e-person
[ǫ] 1s.p
[aˀ] (w), (y), V

indef [a:] C
[aǫ] 1s.p
[ae] 2
neg [de] C
[deˀ] (w), (y), V

rep [s] C
[t] (ts)
[j] (sy)
[ji] 2

betically and according to the conditions that determine the final segments of the
prepronominal prefix combination. These conditions are listed as abbreviations
in the table headers, and the abbreviations, in turn, are listed in Table 12.3, page
213.

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.7: Final two prefixes of combination

prefix combination ends with before

fac-cis [ǫda] C
[ǫdǫ] 1s.p
[ǫdi] 2

fac-du [adi] a-person

[at] C
[edi] e-person
[ad] w, V
[ag] or [ad] y

fac-rep [ǫsa] C
[ǫsǫ] 1s.p
[ǫse] 2

indef-cis [aǫda], [ǫ:da] C

[aǫdǫ], [ǫ:dǫ] 1s.p
[aǫde], [ǫ:de] 2

indef-rep [aǫsa], [ǫ:sa] C

[aǫsǫ], [ǫ:sǫ] 1s.p
[aǫse], [ǫ:se] 2

rep-fac [ǫsa] C
[ǫsǫ] 1s.p
[ǫsaˀ] (w), (y), V
[ǫse] 2

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 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Table 12.8: Words beginning with ⌊a-/aˀ-/ǫ-/e-⌋ fac

C (w), (y), V 1s.p 2

⌊a-⌋, agaedá:graˀ ⌊aˀ-⌋, aˀé:yǫˀ ⌊ǫ-⌋, ǫgáhdrǫˀk ⌊e-⌋
‘they fell down’ ‘she arrived’ ‘it frightened e-person
me’, esáhdǫ:ˀ
‘I got frightened’ ‘you lost it’
⌊aˀ-∅⌋*
a-person
aˀa:kní:gęˀ,
a:kní:gęˀ
‘s/he and I saw
it’a

a
The fac optionally deletes before 2 (a-persons), but the word is stressed as if the prefix were
still there.

Table 12.9: Words beginning with ⌊a:-/aǫ-/ae-/e:-⌋ indef

C 1s.p 2
⌊a:-⌋, a:ga̱hyá:goˀ ⌊aǫ-⌋, aǫgé:gęˀ ⌊ae-⌋
‘I would pick fruit’ ‘she would see me’ a-person
aeswá:gęˀ
⌊e:-⌋
e-person
e:swá:gęˀ
‘you all should see it’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.10: Words beginning with [aǫ/ǫ: … da-/dǫ-/de-/sa-/sǫ-/se-]

C 1s.p 2
⌊aǫda-⌋, ⌊ǫ:da-⌋, ⌊aǫdǫ-⌋, ⌊ǫ:dǫ-⌋ ⌊aǫde-⌋, ⌊ǫ:de-⌋ indef-cis
⌊aǫda:-⌋, ⌊ǫ:da:-⌋,
aǫdasagyǫ̱ˀséhaˀ
‘you would come
and visit’

⌊aǫsa-⌋, ⌊ǫ:sa-⌋ ⌊aǫsǫ-⌋, ⌊ǫ:sǫ-⌋ ⌊aǫse-⌋, ⌊ǫ:se-⌋ indef-rep

Table 12.11: Words beginning with ⌊at-/ad-/ag-/adi-/edi-⌋ fac-du

C w, V y 2
⌊at-⌋, ⌊ad-⌋, ⌊ag-⌋, ⌊adi-⌋
atgaeyé:naˀ ‘they adwaga̱hsíha:s agyagwat- a-person
did it together’ ‘I choked’ nę:tsí:yaˀk adigyatnę:tsí:yaˀk
‘we all broke our ‘we two broke
arm’ our arm’
⌊edi-⌋
e-person
edidwatnę:tsí:yaˀk
‘we all broke our
arm’

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 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Table 12.12: Words beginning with ⌊d-/t-/g-/de-/di-⌋ cis

C w, V y 2
⌊t-⌋, ⌊d-⌋, ⌊g-⌋, ⌊de-⌋
thadínagreˀ né:ˀ gwáhs gye̱ˀdrǫˀ imp (e-person)
‘that’s where dwakyęda̱h- ‘she’s at home’ desáˀdre:,
they live over gówanęh ‘drive over here’
there’ ‘the biggest ⌊di-⌋
chair’ disáhdęgyǫ:
‘you come from
there’

Table 12.13: Words beginning with ⌊de-/dę-⌋

C
⌊de-⌋, dedwadagyénawahs du
‘let us all help one another’
⌊dę-⌋, dęhsnáˀnetˀa:ˀ du-fut
‘you will double it, reinforce
something’

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12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.14: Words beginning with [de/dę … t-/d-/g-/di-/de-]

C w, V y 2
⌊dęt-⌋, ⌊dęd-⌋ ⌊dęg-⌋, ⌊dędi-⌋ du-fut-cis
dętga:dǫ:goht dęgyá:kne:ˀ dędíhsa̱ˀdre:ˀ
‘I will pass ‘we two ‘you will
that way’ (incl.) drive over
will come there’
back’
⌊det-⌋, ⌊ded-⌋ ⌊deg-⌋, ⌊dede-⌋ du-cis
detgeˀ Degyotnǫ̱- imp
‘I am coming hsá:kdǫ: (e-person)
back’ ‘St. ⌊dedi-⌋
Catharine’s, ⌊dǫda-⌋,
Ontario’ imp
(a-person)
⌊deˀt-⌋ ⌊deˀd-⌋ ⌊deˀg-⌋ ⌊dedi-⌋ neg-cis
detgá:yęˀ dedíhsawihs
‘it is not ‘you’re
laying there’ not wanted’

Table 12.15: Words beginning with ⌊da(ˀ)-/dǫ-/de-⌋ cis-fac

C (w), (y), V 1s.p 2

⌊da-⌋, daga:dí:yǫˀ ⌊daˀ-⌋ ⌊dǫ-⌋, ⌊de-⌋ (e-person)
‘they (animals) dǫgáhdǫ:ˀ
came in’ ‘(where) I lost it’

Table 12.16: Words beginning with ⌊de(ˀ)-⌋ neg

C (w), (y), V
⌊de-⌋, deyohnegi:yo: ⌊deˀ-⌋ deˀagadǫtgadeˀ
‘it is not good water’ ‘I’m not happy’

220
 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Table 12.17: Words beginning with ⌊da:-/daǫ-/dae-⌋ dualic-indefinite

C 1s.p 2
⌊da:-⌋, da:gatnę:tsí:yaˀk ⌊daǫ-⌋ ⌊dae-⌋ e-person
‘I might break my arm’

Table 12.18: Words beginning with [daǫ/dǫ … da-/dǫ-/de-/sa-/sǫ-/se-]

C 1s.p 2
⌊dǫsa-⌋, du-fac-rep
dǫ:sáedaˀ
‘she stood up
again’
⌊daǫda-⌋, ⌊daǫdǫ-⌋, ⌊daǫde-⌋, du-indef-cis
⌊dǫ:da-⌋, ⌊dǫ:dǫ-⌋ ⌊dǫ:de-⌋
dǫ:dá:ge:ˀ
‘I would come
back’
⌊daǫsa-⌋, ⌊daǫsǫ-⌋, ⌊daǫse-⌋, du-indef-rep
⌊dǫ:sa-⌋ ⌊dǫ:sǫ⌋ ⌊dǫ:se-⌋

221
12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.19: Words beginning with ⌊dę/de(ˀ) … s-/j-/t-/ji-⌋

C (sy) s 2
⌊dęs-⌋ ⌊dęj-⌋, ⌊dęt-⌋ ⌊dęji-⌋ du-fut-rep
dęshaih- dęjǫtnǫ- dęjidwa-
wáętwaht hsǫ́:goht ‘she nǫ́hǫnyǫ:ˀ
‘he will bring will go in one ‘we all will
forth a door and out thank again’
message’ the other
door’
⌊des-⌋, ⌊deˀj-⌋, ⌊det-⌋ ⌊deˀji-⌋ neg-rep
desga:ní:yǫ:t deja:gó:yǫ:
‘it is not ‘she didn’t
hanging’ return’
⌊des-⌋, ⌊dej-⌋ ⌊det-⌋ ⌊deji-⌋ du-rep
Tęˀ gęh imp
deshó:yǫ:? (e-person)
‘Did he not ⌊deji-⌋
come home?’ dejidwa-
yę:dí:
‘we all do not
know any
longer’
⌊dǫsa-⌋
imp
(a-person)

Table 12.20: Words beg. with ⌊ę-⌋ fut

C
a
⌊ę-⌋, ęgátnǫ̱hga:ˀ ‘I’m going to cut my hair’

a
For E prepronominals, see Table 12.8 and Table 12.9.

222
 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Table 12.21: Words beginning with ⌊ę … (h)s-/j-/t-/ji-⌋ fut-rep

C (sy) s 2
⌊ęhs-⌋, ⌊ęj-⌋, ⌊ęt-⌋, ⌊ęji-⌋
ęshahé:waht ęjé:kse:k ętsęˀnigǫhoˀne:k ęjidwanaˀdáiksǫ:ˀ
‘he will punish ‘she can eat it ‘you will remove ‘we all will
again’ again’ yourself’ snack’

Table 12.22: Words beginning with ⌊ę … t-/d-/g-/di-⌋ fut-cis

C w, V y 2
⌊ęt-⌋ ętgaę:ˀ ⌊ęd-⌋ ⌊ęg-⌋ ⌊ędi-⌋
‘they will come’ ęgyoˀgá:hah ędisa̱ˀnigǫ̱hí:yoh
‘early evening’ ‘your mind will
become
adjusted’

Table 12.23: Words beginning with [haˀdę-/hę-]

C
⌊haˀdę-⌋, transl-du-fut
haˀdę:syehs
‘you will put them all together’
⌊hę-⌋, transl-fut
hęsyę:ˀ
‘you will put it there’

223
12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.24: Words beginning with [haˀde-/haˀdi-/he(ˀ)-]

C 2
⌊haˀde-⌋, ⌊haˀde-⌋, ⌊haˀdi-⌋ transl-du
haˀdega̱ˀdréhdage: imp (e-person)
‘all kinds of cars’ ⌊haˀt-⌋ imp (a-person)
⌊he-⌋ ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl
imp (e person),
heˀsá:dih
‘throw it away from me!’

Table 12.25: Words beginning with ⌊haˀ-/hǫ-/heˀ-⌋ transl-fac

C 1s.p 2
⌊haˀ-⌋, haˀgeˀ ‘I am ⌊hǫ-⌋ ⌊heˀ-⌋
going there’

Table 12.26: Words beginning with ⌊haˀ … t-/d-/g-⌋ transl-fac-du

C w, V y
⌊haˀt-⌋, ⌊haˀd-⌋ ⌊haˀg-⌋
haˀtgęnętsáǫnyǫ:ˀ
‘I waved my arms’

Table 12.27: Words beginning with [h/haˀd … a:-/aǫ-/ae-/e:-]

C 1s.p 2
⌊ha:-⌋, to hǫ: ⌊haǫ-⌋ ⌊hae-⌋ ⌊haˀ-⌋ transl-indef
ha:gi ̱ˀdrǫ:daˀk imp (a-person)
‘where I would
dwell’
⌊haˀda:-⌋ ⌊haˀdaǫ-⌋ ⌊haˀdae-⌋, transl-du-
⌊haˀde:-⌋ indef

224
 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Table 12.28: Words beginning with [haǫ/hǫ: … sa(ˀ)-/sǫ-/se-]

C (w), (y), V 1s.p 2

⌊haǫsa-⌋, ⌊hǫ:saˀ-⌋ ⌊haǫsǫ-⌋, ⌊haǫse-⌋, transl-
⌊hǫ:sa-⌋, ⌊hǫ:sǫ-⌋ ⌊hǫ:se-⌋ indef-rep
to e: hǫsá:ge:ˀ
‘I would go
again’
⌊hǫsa-⌋, ⌊hǫsaˀ-⌋ ⌊hǫsǫ-⌋ ⌊hǫse-⌋ transl-rep-
hǫ:sahá:yǫˀ fac
‘he went back
inside’

Table 12.29: Words beginning with [hę/he … s-/j-/t-/ji-]

C (sy) s 2
⌊hęhs-⌋, ⌊hęj-⌋, ⌊hęt-⌋, ⌊hęji-⌋ transl-fut-
hęsgeˀ hęja:gǫ:nęht hętsyę:ˀ hęjísasha:ˀ rep
‘I am going ‘they will ‘you will put ‘you will
back there’ swallow it back in its remember
again’ place’ back in time’
⌊hehs-⌋, ⌊hej-⌋, ⌊het-⌋ ⌊heji-⌋, transl-rep
I:wa:kˀáh hejónǫ̱hsǫ:t ⌊heji-⌋
heshohdri ̱hs- ‘the next imp
dǫhǫgyeˀ room’ (e-person),
‘He’s getting Gaę hwaˀ
nearer and nhǫ:
nearer.’ hejisáihoˀdeˀ?
‘Where do
you work
again?’
⌊hǫsa-⌋
imp
(a-person)

225
12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.30: Words beginning with [i-/is-/ij-/it-]

C (sy) s
⌊i-⌋ proth
í:geˀs
‘I am here’
⌊is-⌋, ⌊ij-⌋ ⌊it-⌋ proth.rep
isgeˀs
‘I’ve returned
home’

Table 12.31: Words beginning with ⌊it-/id-/ig-⌋ proth-cis

C w, V y
⌊it-⌋ ⌊id-⌋ ⌊ig-⌋
í:gye:t
‘she is standing over
there’

226
 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Table 12.32: Words beginning with [naˀ/nę/ni … t-/d-/g-/di-]

dC w, V y 2
⌊naˀdęt-⌋, ⌊naˀdęd-⌋ ⌊naˀdęg-⌋ part-du-fut-cis
naˀdę:tge:ˀ
‘I’ll come
back over
here, return’
⌊naˀdet-⌋ ⌊naˀded-⌋ ⌊naˀdeg-⌋ part-du-cis
naˀdé:tgeˀ shęh
‘I am coming nadegyadǫdai
back over ‘during the
here, week’
returning’
⌊nęt-⌋ ⌊nęd-⌋ ⌊nęg-⌋ ⌊nędi-⌋ part-fut-cis
⌊nit-⌋ ⌊nid-⌋ ⌊nig-⌋ ⌊nidi-⌋ part-cis
nitha:wé:nǫh nigyagawé:nǫh nidihsé:nǫh
‘male ‘she comes ‘you come
stranger’ from’ from’

Table 12.33: Words beginning with [n/nh … aˀ-/ǫ-/eˀ-] or [niwag-]

C 1s.p 2
⌊naˀ-⌋ ⌊nǫ-⌋, ⌊niwag-⌋ ⌊neˀ-⌋ part-fac
shęh naˀá:węh nǫ:ge̱ˀsyáoˀdęh,
‘how it happened’ niwage̱ˀsyáoˀdęh
‘I’m… clan’
⌊nhaˀ-⌋ ⌊nhǫ-⌋ ⌊nheˀ-⌋ part-transl-fac

227
12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.34: Words beginning with [naˀ/nǫ(:)/naǫ … da-/dǫ-/di-/de-/sa-

/sǫ-/se-]

C 1s.p 2
⌊naˀdǫda-⌋, ⌊naˀdǫdǫ-⌋ ⌊naˀdǫdi-⌋ part-fac-du-cis
shęh
naˀdǫ:dá:ge:ˀ
‘where I’m
coming from’
⌊nǫda-⌋ ⌊nǫdǫ-⌋ ⌊nǫdi-⌋ part-fac-cis
nǫdá:ge:ˀ Gaę nhǫ
‘I come from’ nǫdi:sé:nǫh?
‘Where are you
from?’
⌊naǫda-⌋, ⌊naǫdǫ-⌋, ⌊naǫda-⌋, part-indef-cis
⌊nǫ:da-⌋ ⌊nǫ:dǫ-⌋ ⌊naǫde-⌋,
⌊nǫ:de-⌋
⌊naˀdaǫda-⌋, ⌊naˀdaǫdǫ-⌋, part-du-indef-cis
⌊naˀdǫ:da-⌋, ⌊naˀdǫ:dǫ-⌋
naˀdǫ:dá:geˀ
‘I should come
this way’
⌊naǫsa-⌋, ⌊naǫsǫ-⌋, ⌊naǫse-⌋ part-indef-rep
⌊nǫ:sa-⌋, ⌊nǫ:sǫ-⌋
naǫsaǫgwayęhę:k
‘what we all
should be doing’
⌊nǫsaˀ-⌋ ⌊nǫsǫ-⌋ ⌊nǫse-⌋ part-fac-rep

Table 12.35: Words beginning with [naˀ … t-/d-/g-/de-/di-]

C w, V y 2
⌊naˀt-⌋ ⌊naˀd-⌋ ⌊naˀg-⌋ ⌊naˀde-⌋, ⌊naˀdi-⌋ part-fac-du

228
 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Table 12.36: Words beginning with [naˀd/n/nh … e-/ę-]

C
⌊naˀde-⌋ part-du
naˀdegáǫdreˀ
‘how far apart they are’
⌊naˀdę-⌋ part-du-fut
⌊nę-⌋ part-fut
nęwú:kˀuh
‘it will be small’
⌊nhę-⌋ part-transl-fut
⌊nhe-⌋ part-transl
nhé:yoht
‘suddenly it occurred’

Table 12.37: Words beginning with [n/naˀd/nh … a:-/aǫ-/ae-]

C 1s.p 2
⌊na:-⌋ ⌊naǫ-⌋ ⌊nae-⌋ part-indef
na:yá:węh
‘it should happen’
⌊naˀda:-⌋ ⌊naˀdaǫ-⌋ ⌊naˀdae-⌋ part-du-indef
⌊nha:-⌋ ⌊nhaǫ-⌋ ⌊nhae-⌋ part-transl-indef

Table 12.38: Words beginning with ⌊ni-/naˀ-⌋ part

C 2
⌊ni-⌋ ⌊naˀ-⌋
nigahnę:yaˀ imp, let’s
‘it is short’

229
12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.39: Words beginning with [nę/ni … (h)s-/j-/t-/ji-]

C (sy) s 2
⌊nęhs-⌋ ⌊nęj-⌋ ⌊nęt-⌋ ⌊nęji-⌋ part-fut-rep
⌊nis-⌋ ⌊nij-⌋ ⌊nit-⌋ ⌊niji-⌋ part-rep
Nishayé:no:s nijagowé:nǫh
‘Hold Unto’ ‘female stranger’

Table 12.40: Words beginning with ⌊s-/j-/sa-/ji-⌋ rep

C (sy) s 2
⌊s=⌋ ⌊j-⌋ ⌊sa-⌋ ⌊ji-⌋
sgayáˀda:t jodrę:no:t imp imp
‘one (living ‘it is singing sasęhni ̱hs- jidwahshé:t e:ˀ
thing)’ again’ gahsrǫ:nih ‘let’s count
‘fix the wheel’ again!’
sasahdę:dih
‘go home!’

Table 12.41: Words beginning with ⌊sa-/sǫ-/se-⌋ rep-fac

C 1s.p 2
⌊sa-⌋ ⌊sǫ-⌋ ⌊se-⌋
sagęˀnhoˀtrá:twaht sǫgi:daˀ
‘I missed the ball’ ‘I went back to sleep’

230
 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Table 12.42: Words beginning with ⌊t-/d-/g-/de-/di-⌋ cis

C w, V y 2
⌊t-⌋, ⌊d-⌋, ⌊g-⌋, ⌊de-⌋
thadínagreˀ né:ˀ gwáhs gye̱ˀdrǫˀ imp
‘that’s where dwakyęda̱h- ‘she’s at home’ (e-person)
they live over gówanęh desáˀdre:,
there’ ‘the biggest ‘drive over here’
chair’ ⌊di-⌋
disáhdęgyǫ:
‘you come from
there’

Table 12.43: Words beginning with [ts … t-/d-/g-/di-]

C w, V y 2
⌊tsaˀdet-⌋ ⌊tsaˀded-⌋ ⌊tsaˀdeg-⌋, coin-du-cis
tsadegya̱ˀdǫdadrehk
‘the week before last’
⌊tsęt-⌋ ⌊tsęd-⌋ ⌊tsęg-⌋ ⌊tsędi-⌋ coin-fut-cis
⌊tsit-⌋ ⌊tsid-⌋ ⌊tsig-⌋ ⌊tsidi-⌋ coin-cis

Table 12.44: Words beginning with [t/ts … i-/aˀ-]

C 2
⌊tsi-⌋ ⌊tsaˀ-⌋ coin
tsiyeksa̱ˀda:sé:ˀah imp, let’s
‘when she was a teenager’
⌊ti-⌋, ⌊taˀ-⌋ contr
tigaˀdre̱hdá:deˀ imp, let’s
‘a different car’

231
12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.45: Words beginning with [t(s) … ę-/e(ˀ)-]

C
⌊taˀde-⌋ contr-du
⌊tsaˀde-⌋ coin-du
tsaˀdé:waˀs
‘they are the same size’
⌊taˀdę-⌋ contr-du-fut
taˀdęjatáhahk
‘you two will walk side by side’
⌊tę-⌋ contr-fut
tęhayętó:ˀah
‘he’ll just plant it any old way or
helter-skelter’
⌊tsaˀdę-⌋ coin-du-fut
tsaˀdęhsyę:ˀ
‘you will lay them side by side’
⌊tsę-⌋ coin-fut
⌊taˀde-⌋ contr-neg
taˀdegawá:yǫ:t
‘it has no wings’
⌊teˀ-⌋ contr-transl
tęˀ toh teˀgáhe:ˀ
‘it’s not sitting way over there’

Table 12.46: Words beginning with [t(s) … aˀ-/ǫ-/eˀ-]

C 1s.p 2
⌊taˀ-⌋ ⌊tǫ-⌋ ⌊teˀ-⌋ contr-fac
⌊tsaˀ-⌋ ⌊tsǫ-⌋ ⌊tseˀ-⌋ coin-fac
tsaˀga:yę:daˀ
‘when it became’

232
 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations

Table 12.47: Words beginning with [t(s) … de-/di-/d-/g-/t-]

C w, V y 2
⌊tǫde-⌋, ⌊tǫdi-⌋ du-fac-cis
tęˀ
tǫdesa̱ˀdré:
‘you won’t
drive over
here’
⌊tsaˀt-⌋ ⌊tsaˀd-⌋ ⌊tsaˀg-⌋ ⌊tseˀd-⌋ V coin-fac-cis
⌊tseˀg-⌋ y
⌊tseˀt-⌋ C
⌊tsa:t-⌋ ⌊tsa:d-⌋ ⌊tsa:g-⌋, ⌊tsaed-⌋ y, coin-indef-cis
⌊tsaeg-⌋ y V
⌊tsaet-⌋ C
⌊teˀt-⌋ ⌊teˀd-⌋ ⌊teˀg-⌋ contr-transl-du
⌊taˀt-⌋ ⌊taˀde-⌋, ⌊taˀg-⌋, ⌊teˀdi-⌋ contr-fac-du
⌊teˀd-⌋ y, V ⌊teˀg-⌋ y

233
12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order)

Table 12.48: Words beginning with [t(s) … a(:)-/(a)ǫ-/ae-/e:]

C 1s.p 2
⌊ta:-⌋ ⌊taǫ-⌋ ⌊tae-⌋, 2 contr-transl-
indef
⌊ta:-⌋, tęˀ ⌊taǫ-⌋ ⌊tae-⌋, ⌊te:-⌋ contr-indef
ta:hayę:toh tęˀ taeswá:gęh,
‘no, he won’t te:swá:gęh
plant’ ‘you all shouldn’t
see it’
te:sagáę
‘you are not
willing’
⌊taˀda:-⌋ ⌊taˀdaǫ-⌋ ⌊taˀdae-⌋ contr-du-indef
⌊tsa:-⌋ ⌊tsaǫ-⌋ ⌊tsae-⌋, ⌊tse:-⌋ coin-indef
⌊tsaˀda:-⌋ ⌊tsaˀdaǫ-⌋ ⌊tsaˀdae-⌋ coin-du-indef
⌊taǫda-⌋, ⌊tǫ:da-⌋ ⌊taǫdǫ-⌋, ⌊tǫ:dǫ-⌋ ⌊taǫde-⌋ contr-indef-cis
⌊taǫsa-⌋ ⌊taǫsǫ-⌋ ⌊taǫse-⌋ contr-indef-
rep

Table 12.49: Words beginning with [t(s) … s-/j-/t-/ji-]

C (sy) s 2
⌊tsa:s-⌋, ⌊tsaǫs-⌋ ⌊tsa:j-⌋ ⌊tsa:t-⌋ ⌊tsaes-⌋ coin-indef-rep
⌊tsaˀs-⌋ ⌊tsaˀj-⌋ ⌊tsaˀt-⌋ ⌊tseji-⌋ coin-fac-rep
⌊taˀdes-⌋ ⌊taˀdej-⌋ contr-du-rep
⌊tęs-⌋ contr-fut-rep
⌊tis-⌋ contr-rep
⌊tsęhs-⌋ ⌊tsęj-⌋ ⌊tsęt-⌋ ⌊tsęji-⌋ coin-fut-rep
⌊tsihs-⌋ ⌊tsij-⌋ ⌊tsit-⌋ ⌊tsiji-⌋ coin-rep

234
13 Verb post-pronominal prefixes
The post-pronominal prefixes appear after the pronominal prefixes and before
the verb stem, Table 13.1.
Table 13.1: Post-pronominal prefix order

pre-pron pron post-pron verb stem

⌊de-⌋ ⌊adad-⌋ rec (with ⌊de-⌋ du)
⌊adad-⌋ refl (without ⌊de-⌋ du)
⌊ad-⌋ srf

The two post-pronominal prefixes are the ⌊adad-⌋ reflexive or reciprocal

(1a) and ⌊ad-⌋ semireflexive (1b). (The same verb without either prefix is shown
in the “cf.” example in 1.)

(1) a. dędwadatró:wiˀ
d-ę-dw-adat-hró:wi-ˀ
du-fut-1p.in.a-refl-tell-punc
‘we all will tell one another’
b. ędwa:tró:wiˀ
ę-dwa:-t-hró:wi-ˀ
fut-1p.in.a-semireflexive-tell-punc
‘we all will tell’
cf. ękehó:wiˀ
ę-ke-hó:wi-ˀ
fut-1s>3s.fi-tell-punc
‘I will tell someone’

For some verbs, the form of the semireflexive is ⌊adę-⌋ or ⌊dę-⌋ (2).

(2) a. ęhsadęgahnyeˀ ‘you will comfort, rock a child’,

ę-hs-adę-gahnye-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-play-stat
‘you are babysitting’
13 Verb post-pronominal prefixes

b. sadęˀnigǫhahni:ya:t
sa-dę-ˀnigǫha-hní:ya:t
2s.p-srf-mind-harden.no_aspect
‘keep your mind strong’
cf. ęhsaˀnigǫhahni:ya:t
ę-hsa-ˀnigǫha-hní:ya:t
fut-2s.p-mind-harden.ø.punc
‘you will endure’
cf. ęhsheˀnigǫhahni:ya:t
ę-hshe-ˀnigǫha-hní:ya:t
fut-2s:3fis-mind-harden.ø.punc
‘you strengthen her mind’

For some verbs, the form of the semireflexive is ⌊ęn-⌋ or ⌊ę-⌋ (3).

(3) a. ęsęnidá:gręˀ
ę-s-ęn-idá:grę-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-lay.down-punc
‘you will lie down’
b. ęgęnidá:ge:ˀ
ę-g-ęn-iˀd-age:-ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-feces-wipe-punc
‘I will wipe myself clean of fecal matter’
c. agęnagrá:dǫh
ag-ę-nagrá:d-ǫh
1s.p-srf-cause.to.live-stat
‘I was born’

13.1 ⌊adad-⌋ reflexive (refl) or reciprocal (rec)

The ⌊adad-⌋ prefix either has a reflexive or a reciprocal meaning. As a reflexive,
the ⌊adad-⌋ prefix means that the action reflects back on the “doer” of the action
(for example, ‘seeing oneself ’, 4. As a reciprocal, the action equally affects all
parties (for ‘example, helping one another’ or ‘helping each other’, 5). For the
reciprocal sense, the verb also requires the ⌊de-⌋ dualic prefix (5, Michelson 2011:
127).

236
 13.1 ⌊adad-⌋ reflexive (refl) or reciprocal (rec)

(4) with ⌊adad-⌋ refl

a. agadadé:gęˀ
a-g-adad-é:-gę-ˀ
fac-1s.a-refl-joinerE-see-punc
‘I saw myself’
cf. agé:gęˀ
a-g-é-gę-ˀ
fac-1s.a-joinerE-see-punc
‘I saw (it)’
cf. ahé:gęˀ
a-hé:-gę-ˀ
fac-1s>3s.m-see-punc
‘I saw him’

(5) with ⌊de-⌋ du and ⌊adad-⌋ rec

a. dedwadagyénawaˀs
de-dw-adag-yénawaˀs
du-1p.in.a-refl-help.no_aspect
‘let us all help one another’
cf. dwayénawaˀs
dwa-yénawaˀs
1p.in.a-help.no_aspect
‘let all of us help (it)’
b. dędwadatró:wiˀ
d-ę-dw-adat-hró:wi-ˀ
du-fut-1p.in.a-refl-tell-punc
‘we all will tell one another’
cf. ędwa:tró:wiˀ
ę-dw-a:t-hró:wi-ˀ
fut-1p.in.a-srf-tell-punc
‘we all will tell’
c. dęgaǫdagyená:waˀs
d-ę-gaǫ-dag-yená:waˀs
du-fut-3ns.fi.a-refl-help.ø.punc
‘they will help each other’
cf. ęgǫyená:waˀs
ę-gǫ-yená:waˀs
fut-1s>2s-help.ø.punc
‘I will help you’

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13 Verb post-pronominal prefixes

d. degaǫdatgǫ̱hsóhae
de-gaǫ-dat-gǫ̱hs-óhae
du-3ns.fi.a-refl-face-wash.stat
‘they are washing each other’s faces’
cf. shagogǫ̱hsóhae
shago-gǫ̱hs-óhae
3ms:3fi/3p.p-face-wash.stat
‘he is washing her face’

The ⌊adad-⌋ prefix also has a special (non-reflexive) meaning with the pronom-
inal prefixes meaning ‘her’ or ‘they (females or mixed group)’. In this case, it
refers to two separate groups of females. For example, agaǫda:gyé:na:ˀ means
‘they caught her’, not ‘they caught themselves’ (6).

(6) a. agaǫda:gyé:na:ˀ
a-gaǫ-da:g-yé:na:-ˀ
fac-3ns.fi.a-refl-catch-punc
‘they caught her’
cf. agaeyé:na:ˀ
a-gae-yé:na:-ˀ
fac-3ns.fi.a-catch-punc
‘they caught, received, accepted it’
b. aˀǫdadé:gęˀ
aˀ-ǫ-dad-é:-gę-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-refl-joinerE-see-punc
‘she saw her (some other person)’
cf. aˀé:gęˀ
aˀ-é:-gę-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-see-punc
‘she saw (it)’

13.1.1 Verbs that require ⌊adad-⌋ refl or rec

Fixed expressions (verbs) requiring the ⌊adad-⌋ prefix are listed in (7). (Because
their meaning is fixed, §9.2, the reflexive or reciprocal meaning is not immedi-
ately obvious in the translations.)

(7) a. wadatgowá:nęh
w-adat-gowá:n-ęh
3s.a-refl-big-stat
‘it is rash, unwise, self-important, egotistical’

238
 13.1 ⌊adad-⌋ reflexive (refl) or reciprocal (rec)

b. hadágya̱ˀda:s
ha-dág-ya̱ˀda:-s
3s.m.a-refl-rely.on-hab
‘he has a high opinion of himself, he is self-centred, he is bold’
c. wadatnigǫ́ha:ˀ
w-adat-ˀnigǫ́ha:ˀ
3s.a-refl-watch.hab
‘it is wary, cautious’
d. tęwadadǫ́:niˀ
t-h-ę-w-adad-ǫ́:ni-ˀ
contr-transl-fut-3s.a-refl-make-punc
‘it will emerge or appear unintentionally’, ‘it will do it by itself’
e. dęsádadǫˀ
d-ę-s-ádad-ǫ-ˀ
du-fut-2s.a-refl-give-punc
‘you will trade, exchange’
f. desadadéhsnyeh
de-s-adad-é-hsnye-h
du-2s.a-refl-joinerE-care.for-euph.h/no_aspect
‘tidy up!’, ‘groom yourself!’
g. ęhsadagyé:na:ˀ
ę-hs-adag-yé:na:-ˀ
future-2s.a-refl-catch-punc
‘you will wrestle’
h. dęhsádatsˀa:ˀ
d-ę-hs-ádat-sˀa:-ˀ
du-fut-2s.a-refl-use.up-punc
‘you will quarrel’
i. dędwadadrihwanǫ́hkwa:k
d-ę-dwa-dad-rihw-a-nǫ́hkw-a-:k
du-fut-1p.in.a-refl-matter-joinerA-respect-joinerA-ø.punc.modz
‘we all will show respect for one another’
j. de̱hęnadátgǫ̱he:s’
de̱-hęn-adát-gǫ̱he:g-s
du-3ns.m.a-refl-punch-hab
‘boxer, ‘they are boxing’

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13 Verb post-pronominal prefixes

k. sa̱hęnada:thré:waht
sa̱-hęn-ada:t-hré:waht
rep-3ns.m.a-refl-punish.ø.punc
‘they repented’
l. awadadrí:yoˀ
a-w-adad-rí:yo-ˀ
fac-3s.a-refl-kill-punc
‘it killed itself’, ‘suicide’
m. ęhsadadrohé:gęˀ
ę-hs-adad-rohé:g-ę-ˀ
fut-2s.a-refl-gather-ben-punc
‘you will accumulate (things, ideas, etc.) for yourself’
n. ǫdadri ̱hǫ́nyanih
ǫ-dad-ri ̱h-ǫ́ny-a-nih
3s.fi.a-refl-word-make-joinerA-ben.hab
‘she is reading’
o. awadadríhwa̱hdǫˀt
a-w-adad-ríhw-a̱hdǫˀt
fac-3s.a-refl-matter-cause.to.disappear.ø.punc
‘suicide’
p. agadadwíya̱hdǫˀt
a-g-adad-wíy-a̱hdǫˀt
fac-1s.a-refl-offspring-cause.to.disappear.ø.punc
‘I had an abortion’
q. dęgaǫdagya̱ˀdáhgwaˀt
d-ę-gaǫ-dag-ya̱ˀd-áhgwaˀt
du-fut-3ns.fi.a-refl-body-lift.up.ø.punc
‘they will do push ups’
r. wadatgǫnyǫ́hstaˀ
w-adat-gǫnyǫ́hst-haˀ
3s.a-refl-discriminating-hab
‘she is stuck up’

13.2 ⌊ad-⌋ semireflexive (srf)

The ⌊ad-⌋ srf means that an action affects or benefits the “doer” in some way (8).
Verbs without it describe an action that affects someone other than the “doer”
(see the “cf.” examples in 8).
240
 13.2 ⌊ad-⌋ semireflexive (srf)

(8) a. hatgǫhso̱háe
ha-t-gǫhs-o̱háe
3s.m.a-srf-face-wash.hab
‘he is washing his face’
cf. shagogǫ̱hsóhae
shago-gǫ̱hs-óhae
3ms:3fi/3p.p-face-wash.hab
‘he is washing her face’
b. ęgáda̱hseht
ę-g-ád-a̱hseht
fut-1s.a-srf-hide.ø.punc
‘I will hide’ (implied: ‘myself’)
cf. ęgáhseht
ę-g-áhseht
fut-1s.a-hide.ø.punc
‘I will hide something’

The ⌊ad-⌋ srf can also serve to downplay or de-emphasize the recipient of
the action. The verbs with ⌊ad-⌋ in (9) emphasize giving thanks or telling, but do
not focus on who is being thanked, or who is being told. In contrast, the verbs
without ⌊-ad⌋ in (10) emphasize what or who is being thanked. More examples
are provided in (11).

(9) verbs with with ⌊ad-⌋ srf, recipient downplayed

a. dędwadęnǫ́hǫnyǫ:ˀ
d-ę-dw-adę-nǫ́hǫnyǫ-:ˀ
du-fut-1p.in.a-srf-thank-punc
‘we will give thanks’
b. ędwa:tró:wiˀ
ę-dw-a:t-hró:wi-ˀ
fut-1p.in.a-srf-tell-punc
‘we will tell, narrate’

(10) verbs without ⌊ad-⌋ srf, more emphasis on recipient

a. dędwanǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ
d-ę-dwa-nǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫ-:ˀ
du-fut-1p.in.a-thank-punc
‘we will thank it’

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13 Verb post-pronominal prefixes

b. dęhshenǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ
d-ę-hshe-nǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫ-:ˀ
du-fut-2s:3fis-thank-punc
‘you will welcome, greet or thank someone’
(11) a. hadęyenáwa̱ˀseh
h-adę-yenáwa̱ˀs-eh
3s.m.a-srf-help-hab
‘he is a helper, assistant’
b. gaǫdęyenawáˀseh
gaǫ-dę-yenawáˀs-eh
3ns.fi.a-srf-help-hab
‘they are helpers, assistants of hers’
cf. ęgǫyena:waˀs
ę-gǫ-yena:waˀs
fut-1s>2s-help.ø.punc
‘I will help you’

The ⌊ad-⌋ srf can also serve to emphasize the result of an activity or happening,
instead of the activity itself. For example, agaǫtgwé:niˀ ‘they won’ (12) describes
the result of agaegwé:niˀ ‘they are able to do it’. (For comparison, the same verb
with the ⌊adad-⌋ refl prefix is shown in 12b.)
(12) with ⌊ad-⌋, emphasizing the result of an action
a. agaǫtgwé:niˀ
a-gaǫ-t-gwé:ni-ˀ
fac-3ns.fi.a-srf-succeed-punc
‘they won’
cf. agaegwé:niˀ
a-gae-gwé:ni-ˀ
fac-3ns.fi.a-succeed-punc
‘they are or were able to do it’
b. agaǫdatgwé:niˀ
a-gaǫ-dat-gwé:ni-ˀ
fac-3ns.fi.a-refl-succeed-punc
‘they beat her’
In many fixed expressions (verbs), the meaning of the ⌊ad-⌋ srf is not imme-
diately obvious (13). For example, hadęhní:nǫh means ‘he is a seller’, not ‘he is
buying (for himself)’. That being said, the words with the ⌊ad-⌋ srf still imply a
benefit to the ‘doer’ that is absent from the same words without the ⌊ad-⌋ srf.

242
 13.3 Pronunciation of the post-pronominal prefixes

(13) a. hadęhní:nǫh
h-adę-hní:nǫ-h
3s.m.a-srf-buy-hab
‘he is a seller or storekeeper’
cf. hahní:nǫh
ha-hní:nǫ-h
3s.m.a-buy-hab
‘he is a buyer’
b. agadekǫ́:ni:
ag-ad-e-k-ǫ́:ni-:
1s.p-srf-joinerE-food-make-stat
‘I am eating’
cf. age:kǫ́:ni:
ag-e:-k-ǫ́:ni-:
1s.p-joinerE-food-make-stat
‘I am cooking’

13.2.1 Verbs requiring ⌊ad-⌋ srf

Over 400 verbs require the ⌊ad-⌋ srf prefix to express their fixed meaning. Exam-
ples are provided in §B.

13.3 Pronunciation of the post-pronominal prefixes

The semireflexive and reflexive prefixes undergo the following sound changes.
First, Joiner E is absent when the prefixes are followed by W, Y, or a vowel, as
shown in (14), (17), and (18). Joiner E is often present when the prefixes are fol-
lowed by a consonant, as shown in (15), (16), (20b). However, some counterexam-
ples are shown in (19), (20a).

(14) ⌊-ad⌋ srf, ⌊adad-⌋ refl

a. ęsadwahátaˀt
ę-s-ad-ˀwah-á-taˀt
fut-2s.a-srf-meat-dry.out.ø.punc
‘you will dry out the meat’
b. awadadwę́:deht
a-w-adad-wę́:deht
fac-3s.a-refl-forfeit.ø.punc
‘it (e.g. a pet) forfeited (its life)’

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13 Verb post-pronominal prefixes

(15) ⌊ad-e-⌋ srf-joinerE, ⌊adad-e-⌋ refl-joinerE

a. ęhsade̱ˀsgǫ́:dęˀ
ę-hs-ade̱-ˀsg-ǫ́:dę-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-joinerE-roast-put.in-punc
‘you will roast something’
b. ahadadéˀo:k
a-h-adad-é-ˀo:k
fac-he.a-refl-joinerE-axe.ø.punc
‘he axed himself’

The first A of each prefix is deleted when the semireflexive or reflexive appears
after a vowel (16–17). (This is also the case for the ⌊(a)dę-⌋ form of the semireflex-
ive, described in §13.)

(16) ⌊d-e-⌋ srf-joinerE, ⌊dad-e-⌋ refl-joinerE

a. ǫdéteˀtra:s
ǫ-d-é-teˀt-ra:s
3s.fi.a-srf-joinerE-powder-spread.ø.punc
‘she is powdering herself’
b. ǫdade̱ˀgę́:ˀęh
ǫ-dad-e̱-ˀgę́:ˀęh
3s.fi.a-refl-joinerE-younger.sister
‘her younger sister’

(17) ⌊d-⌋ srf, ⌊dad-⌋ refl

a. ǫdǫ́:nyeˀs
ǫ-d-ǫ́:nye-ˀs
3s.fi.a-srf-breathe-hab
‘she is breathing’
b. aˀǫdadahǫ́:dǫ:ˀ
aˀ-ǫ-dad-ahǫ́:dǫ:-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-refl-ask-punc
‘she asked her’

The final D in the ⌊ad-⌋ srf and ⌊adad-⌋ refl becomes G before Y in Dagęhy-
atgehó:nǫˀ (Lower Cayuga, 18) but remains D in Ganedagehó:nǫˀ (Upper Cayuga,
not shown).

244
 13.3 Pronunciation of the post-pronominal prefixes

(18) ⌊ag-⌋ srf, ⌊adag-⌋ refl

a. sagyaˀdo̱hái
s-ag-yaˀd-o̱hái
2s.a-refl-body-wash.no_aspect
‘take a bath’
b. ęhsadagyé:na:ˀ
ę-hs-adag-yé:na:-ˀ
fut-2s.a-refl-catch-punc
‘you will wrestle’

The final D also becomes T before certain consonants, including G (19), (20a).
(However, note the alternative ⌊adad-e-⌋ refl-joinerE pronunciation in 20b.)

(19) ⌊at-⌋ srf

satgǫhso̱hái
s-at-gǫhs-o̱hái
2s.a-srf-face-wash.no_aspect
‘wash your face’

(20) ⌊adat-⌋ refl or ⌊adad-e-⌋ refl-joinerE

a. agádatgęˀ
a-g-ádat-gę-ˀ
fac-1s.a-refl-see-punc
‘I saw myself’
b. agadadé:gęˀ
a-g-adad-é:-gę-ˀ
fac-1s.a-refl-joinerE-see-punc
‘I saw myself’

245
14 Noun incorporation
Incorporated nouns appear after the post-pronominal prefixes and before the
verb stem, Table 14.1.
Table 14.1: Noun incorporation position

pre-pronominal pronominal post-pronominal incorporated verb stem

noun stem

The resulting words contain both a noun stem and a verb stem (1). In contrast,
most other words include just one stem (noun or verb).1

(1) a. ga̱hǫwadíhǫh
ga̱-hǫw-adíh-ǫh
3s.a-boat-lean-stat
‘a leaning boat’
cf. ga̱hǫ́:waˀ
ga̱-hǫ́:w-aˀ
3s.a-boat-nsf
‘boat’
cf. wadíhǫh
w-adíh-ǫh
3s.a-lean-stat
‘it is leaning’
b. niyohahú:ˀuh
ni-yo-hah-ú:ˀuh
part-3s.p-road-small.stat
‘a small road’
cf. oháhaˀ
o-háh-aˀ
3s.p-road-nsf
‘road’

1
For examples of words with two verb stems, see E-verbs (§16) and the (reanalysed) ⌊(h)sˀ⌋ ev
(§36.6.2).
14 Noun incorporation

cf. niwú:ˀuh
ni-w-ú:ˀuh
part-3s.a-small.stat
‘it is small’

The meaning of words with noun incorporation is either transparent (2a) or

fixed (2b). (For transparent versus literal, see §9.2.)

(2) a. agatgǫ̱hsóhaeˀ
a-g-at-gǫ̱hs-óhae-ˀ
fac-1s.a-srf-face-wash-punc
‘I washed my face’ (transparent meaning)
b. go̱ˀnigǫ̱háhetgęˀs
go̱-ˀnigǫ̱h-á-hetgę-ˀs
3s.fi.p-mind-joinerA-ugly-hab
‘she is sobbing uncontrollably’ (literally, ‘she has a bad-turning mind’
or a ‘she is having a mind breakdown’)

14.1 Nouns that can be incorporated

Nouns that can be incorporated include basic nouns (3), nouns with a ⌊-tra⌋, ⌊-
(h)sra⌋ nmlz suffix (4), and body part nouns (5). The part that is incorporated is
the stem (the noun minus any prefixes or suffixes) or a stem-nmlz combination
(4). (For the nominalizer, see §11.1.3.)

(3) incorporated basic nouns

ahawiyánę̱ hsgoˀ
a-ha-wiy-á-nę̱ hsgo-ˀ
fac-he.a-offspring-joinerA-steal-punc
‘he kidnapped a child’
cf. owí:yaˀ
o-wí:y-aˀ
3s.p-offspring-nsf
‘offspring’
cf. ęhánę̱ hsgoˀ
ę-há-nę̱ hsgo-ˀ
fut-he.a-steal-punc
‘he will steal’

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 14.1 Nouns that can be incorporated

(4) incorporated nouns with ⌊-tra, -(h)sra⌋ nmlz

a. dehsehenaˀtraˀéhstaˀ
de-hs-e-henaˀtra-ˀéhst-haˀ
du-2s.a-joinerE-knife-stab-hab
‘you stab it repeatedly’
cf. ohéna̱ˀtraˀ ‘blade’,
o-hénaˀ-tr-aˀ
3s.p-cut.up-nmlz-nsf
‘knife’
b. ga̱hyadǫ̱hsra:yé:nahs
ga̱-hyadǫ̱hsra:-yé:na-hs
3s.a-paper-hold.together-hab
‘paper clip’
cf. ga̱hyádǫ̱hsraˀ
ga̱-hyádǫ̱-hsr-aˀ
3s.a-write-nmlz-nsf

(5) incorporated body part nouns

hohsíˀdatgiˀ
ho-hsíˀd-a-tgiˀ
3s.m.p-foot-joinerA-dirty.stat
‘his feet are dirty’
cf. hahsíˀdaˀgeh
ha-hsíˀd-a̱ˀgeh
3s.m.a-foot-on
‘on his foot’
cf. otgiˀ
o-tgiˀ
3s.p-dirty.stat
‘it is dirty or ugly’

Some loanwords can also be incorporated after the addition of the ⌊-tr⌋ nmlz
(6). In contrast, some do not need the suffix (7).

(6) incorporated loanwords

a. gajobtrowá:nęh
ga-job-tr-owá:n-ęh
3s.a-job-nmlz-big-stat
‘big job’

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14 Noun incorporation

b. gajobtrí:yo:
ga-job-tr-í:yo:
3s.a-job-nmlz-good.stat
‘nice job’
c. hojobtrí:yo:
ho-job-tr-í:yo:
3s.m.p-job-nmlz-good.stat
‘he has a good job’

(7) ęgadehórsnęht
ę-g-ad-e-hórs-nęht
fut-1s.a-srf-horse-dismount.ø.punc
‘I will get off a horse’ (humorous)

14.1.1 Placeholder incorporated nouns

Several obligatorily incorporating verbs require a placeholder incorporated
noun when no other noun is incorporated. (In context, the placeholder noun
stem means ‘it’, ‘thing’, or ‘something’.) For example, the verb ⌊+ohae⌋ ‘to wash’
takes placeholder ⌊n⌋ (8).

(8) ⌊n+ohae⌋, ⌊+ohae⌋ ‘to wash’

ęknóhaeˀ
ę-k-n-óhae-ˀ
fut-1s.a-noun-wash-punc
‘I will wash it’
cf. ęgahjo̱háeˀ
ę-g-ahj-o̱háe-ˀ
fut-1s.a-hand-wash-punc
‘I will wash my hands’

Examples of other placeholders are shown in (9–13). The type of placeholder

noun is specific to each verb. For example, ⌊naˀ⌋ is unique to ⌊+nawę:⌋ (9).

(9) ⌊naˀ+nawę:⌋, ⌊+nawę:⌋ ‘to be wet, etc.’

onáˀnawę:
o-náˀ-nawę:
3s.p-noun-moist.stat
‘it is wet, melted, moist’

250
 14.1 Nouns that can be incorporated

cf. ohehdaná:wę:
o-hehd-a-ná:wę:
3s.p-earth-joinerA-moist.stat
‘wet, moist dirt, earth’

(10) ⌊aˀs+ęˀ⌋, ⌊+ęˀ⌋ ‘to fall off, drop, reduce’

gyo̱ˀsę́ˀǫh
g-yo̱-ˀs-ę́ˀ-ǫh
cis-3s.p-noun-fall-stat
‘it has fallen off something’
cf. heyohnegę́ˀǫh
he-yo-hneg-ę́ˀ-ǫh
transl-3s.p-water-fall-stat
‘falling water’

(11) ⌊d+ohag⌋, ⌊+ohag⌋ ‘squeeze something’

dewakdo̱há:gǫh
de-wak-d-o̱há:g-ǫh
du-1s.p-noun-squeeze-stat
‘I am squeezing it’
cf. degahstǫdróha:s
de-ga-hstǫdr-óha:g-s
du-3s.a-straw-squeeze-hab
‘bailer’ (for hay, straw)

(12) ⌊hsr+ǫni⌋, ⌊+ǫni⌋ ‘create, make’

ęhsehsrǫ́:niˀ
ę-hs-e-hsr-ǫ́:ni-ˀ
fut-2s.a-joinerE-noun-make-punc
‘you will create, make something’
cf. sa̱ˀahdrǫ́:nih
sa̱-ˀahdr-ǫ́:ni-h
2s.p-basket-make-stat
‘you make baskets’

(13) ⌊hny+od⌋, ⌊+od⌋ ‘to be standing’

gahnyo:t
ga-hn-yo:t
3s.a-noun-stand.stat
‘it is standing’
cf. gajísdo:t
ga-jísd-o:t
3s.a-light-stand.stat
‘a light’

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14 Noun incorporation

14.2 Nouns that cannot be incorporated

Some nouns are not incorporable. As well, nouns are often not incorporated even
when it is possible to do so (a situation known as excorporation). Both cases
are described in the following sections.

14.2.1 Nouns that are not incorporable

Nouns that cannot be incorporated include compound nouns (§5.3), instrumen-
tal nouns (§5.4.1), and atypical nouns (§5.7). Compound nouns (14a) cannot be
incorporated because they contain more than one noun stem. (Verbs typically
only incorporate one noun stem at a time.) “Instrumental nouns” (14b) cannot be
incorporated because they are verbs. Similarly, atypical nouns (such as animal
names, 14c) generally cannot be incorporated.2

(14) a. gwihsgwíhs oˀwáhǫh ‘pig meat’, ‘pork’, ‘bacon’ (compound noun)

b. ehyádǫ̱hkwaˀ ‘pencil’ (instrumental noun)
c. gwíhsgwihs ‘pig’ (animal name or atypical noun)

Finally, verbs functioning as “nouns” cannot be incorporated. A two-word

expression or compound noun is used instead (15a, b). (Examples 15c–e illustrate
the incorporation of various nouns into the verb gayę́:twęh.)

(15) a. ohnyǫhsgwaéˀ gayę́:twęh ‘cucumber field’

cf. ohnyǫhsgwáeˀ ‘cucumber’ (verb functioning as a “noun”)
b. ohyaga̱hǫ́ˀ gayę́:twęh ‘tomato field’
cf. ohyaga̱hǫˀ ‘tomato’ (verb functioning as a “noun”)
c. ga̱hstǫdrayę́:twęh ‘hay field’
cf. ohstǫ́:draˀ ‘hay’(basic noun)
d. ga̱hǫnadáyętwęh ‘potato field’
cf. ohǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ ‘potato’ (basic noun)
e. gayęˀgwayę́:twęh ‘tobacco field’
cf. oyę́ˀgwaˀ ‘tobacco’ (basic noun)
2
That being said, some atypical nouns can be incorporated once the ⌊tr-⌋ nmlz is added (i).

(i) ohsowastradáihę:ˀ
o-hsowas-tr-a-dáihę:ˀ
3s.p-dog-nmlz-joinerA-hot.stat
‘hot dog’ (humorous calque)

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 14.2 Nouns that cannot be incorporated

14.2.2 Excorporation
Nouns can remain unincorporated (a situation known as excorporation) for
stylistic reasons (see §33). For example, while it is possible to incorporate the
stem for gatgwę̱́ˀdaˀ ‛wallet’, as in (16a), the excorporated or independent noun
instead appears at the end of the sentence for special effect (such as emphasis in
16b).

(16) a. ǫgetgwę̱ ˀdáhdǫ:ˀ

ǫg-e-tgwę̱ ˀd-áhdǫ:-ˀ
fac.1s.p-joinerE-wallet-lose-punc
‘I lost my wallet’
cf. gatgwę́ˀdaˀ
ga-tgwę̱ ˀd-aˀ
3s.a-joinerE-wallet-nsf
‘wallet’
b. Ni: gyę:h tó-ne:ˀ ǫgahdǫ́:ˀ neˀ agétgwę̱ ˀdaˀ.
I mind.you that-it.is I.lost.it the my.wallet
‘Mind you, I lost my wallet.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 184, Gatgwęˀdaˀ
dialogue)

Excorporation and obligatorily-incorporating verbs

Excorporation creates a potential problem in the case of obligatorily-incorporating
verbs like ⌊+iyo:⌋ ‘good, nice’ (see §14.4.3). To meet the requirement for an in-
corporated noun, a kind of generic noun stem can be incorporated instead. For
example, the noun stem ⌊nahsgw⌋ ‘domesticated animal’ substitutes for unincor-
porable só:wa:s ‘dog’ in the verb ganahswí:yo: ‘good pet’ in (17a).
In such cases, both the incorporated generic noun stem within the verb and
the unincorporable noun outside the verb are required (17b, c).

(17) a. Ganahsgwi:yó: neˀ só:wa:s.

it’s.a.good.pet the dog
‘The dog is a good pet.’
cf. ga-nahsgw-i:yó:
3s.a-domestic.animal-good.stat
b. So:wá:s aknáhsgwaęˀ.
dog I.have.a.pet
‘I have a dog’

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14 Noun incorporation

cf. ak-náhsgw-a-ęˀ
1s.p-domestic.animal-joinerA-have.stat
c. degraheˀda:gé: ohó:draˀ
de-graheˀd-a:gé: ohó:draˀ
du-ø.prefix.tree-two.or.more.stat basswood
‘two basswood trees’
cf. sgra̱héˀda:t
s-gra̱héˀd-a:-t
rep-ø.prefix.tree-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one tree’
cf. gra̱he:t
gra̱he:t
no.prefix.tree
‘tree’

14.3 Verbs that cannot incorporate nouns

Action or activity verbs can only incorporate when they express or require pa-
tient or object roles. (For role, see §20.6.) Examples of verbs that cannot in-
corporate are provided in (18). Such verbs express an agent or “doer”, but not a
patient.
Since incorporated nouns typically express a patient role, they are absent from
verbs that fail to express such a role.
(18) a. ga̱hnih
ga̱-hni-h
3s.a-bark-hab
‘it is barking’
b. gadá:węh
g-ad-á:wę-h
1s.a-srf-swim-hab
‘I am swimming’
c. saˀé:yǫˀ
s-aˀ-é:-yǫ-ˀ
rep-fac-3s.fi.a-arrive-punc
‘she returned’
d. nǫdáhse:ˀ
nǫdá-hs-e-:-ˀ
part.cis.fac-2s.a-go-purp-punc
’you came from there’

254
 14.4 Verbs that can incorporate nouns

e. haˀgáhge:t
haˀ-g-áhge:t
transl-1s.a-stop.in.ø.punc
‘I stopped by there’
f. agiˀ
a-g-i-ˀ
fac-1s.a-say-punc
‘I said’

14.4 Verbs that can incorporate nouns

Verbs that can incorporate nouns include two-role verbs, and stative-only (adjec-
tival) verbs, described next.

14.4.1 Two-role verbs that can incorporate nouns

Two-role verbs that express a patient role can incorporate nouns. For example,
the verb ęknóhaeˀ ‘I will wash it’ is a two-role verb, requiring both an agent
(someone doing the washing) and a patient (someone or thing being washed). It
can incorporate nouns that describe what is being washed (19).

(19) a. agatgǫ̱hsóhaeˀ
a-g-at-gǫ̱hs-óhae-ˀ
fac-1s.a-srf-face-wash-punc
‘I washed my face’
cf. gegǫ́hsa̱ˀgeh
g-e-gǫ́hs-a̱ˀgeh
1s.a-joinerE-face-on
‘on my face’
b. agatnu̱ ˀtsóhaeˀ
a-g-at-nu̱ ˀts-óhae-ˀ
fac-1s.a-srf-tooth-wash-punc
‘I brushed my teeth’
cf. knuˀtsáˀgeh
k-nuˀts-áˀgeh
1s.a-tooth-on
‘on my teeth’

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14 Noun incorporation

c. agęhsi ̱ˀdóhaeˀ
a-g-ęhsi ̱ˀd-óhae-ˀ
fac-1s.a-foot-wash-punc
‘I washed my feet’
cf. gę̱ hsíˀda̱ˀgeh
g-ę̱ hsíˀd-a̱ˀgeh
1s.a-foot-on
‘on my foot’

However, not all two-role verbs can incorporate a noun: for example, while the
verb ⌊ahsha:⌋ ‘to remember’ (20) expresses two roles (1s>2s in 20a, and 2s.a-srf
in 20b), there is no evidence that this verb ever incorporates a noun. The same
goes for the verb in (21). (For such verbs, the “second” role is a person or several
people, not an object.)
(20) a. í:hs agǫ́ya̱hsha:ˀ
í:hs a-gǫ́y-a̱hsha:-ˀ
you fac-1s>2s-remember-punc
‘I thought of you’
b. ętsadadáhshagwęˀ
ę-t-s-adad-áhshagw-ę-ˀ
fut-cis-2s.a-refl-remember-ben-punc
‘you will remind yourself, make yourself remember’
(21) ęhéhsnǫdręˀ
ę-héhs-hnǫdrę-ˀ
fut-2s:3ms-follow-punc
‘you will follow him’

14.4.2 Stative-only verbs that can incorporate nouns

Several types of stative-only verb, described next, can incorporate nouns.

Incorporating stative-only “adjectival” verbs

Stative-only “adjectival” verbs are a thematic (meaning-based) subclass of verbs
describing typical states, qualities, or characteristics of people or objects. (For
stative-only verbs, see §9.3.) Such verbs often incorporate the nouns they de-
scribe. Example (22) lists various stative-only “adjectival” verbs with the incor-
porated noun ⌊(a)hy⌋ ‘fruit, berries’. (Pronominal prefix choice for such verbs is
described in §24.2.)

256
 14.4 Verbs that can incorporate nouns

(22) a. ohyajiwá:gę:
o-hy-a-jiwá:gę:
3s.p-fruit-joinerA-sour.stat
‘tart, sour fruit’
cf. ojíwagę:
o-jíwagę:
3s.p-sour.stat
‘it is sour, salty, bitter’
b. ohyága̱ˀǫh
o-hy-á-ga̱ˀ-ǫh
3s.p-fruit-joinerA-good.tasting-stat
‘good-tasting fruit’
cf. ogáˀǫh
o-gáˀ-ǫh
3s.p-good.tasting-stat
‘it tastes good’
c. ohyówanęh
o-hy-ówan-ęh
3s.p-fruit-big-stat
‘big fruit’
cf. gagówanęh
ga-gówan-ęh
3s.a-big-stat
‘it is big’
d. niyohyú:ˀuh
ni-yo-hy-ú:ˀuh
part-3s.p-fruit-small.stat
‘small fruit’
cf. niwú:ˀuh
ni-w-ú:ˀuh
part-3s.a-small.stat
‘how small it is’
e. wahyaniyǫ́:taˀ
w-ahy-a-niyǫ́:t-haˀ
3s.a-fruit-joinerA-hang-hab
‘hanging fruit’
cf. ganí:yǫ:t
ga-ní:yǫ:t
3s.a-hang.stat
‘it is hanging’

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14 Noun incorporation

f. ohyá:jih
o-hy-á:-jih
3s.p-fruit-joinerA-dark.stat
‘dark fruit’
cf. ga̱hǫ́ˀjih
ga̱-hǫ́ˀ-jih
3s.a-noun-dark.stat
‘it is dark’
g. ohyá:tgę:
o-hy-á:-tgę:
3s.p-fruit-joinerA-rotten.stat
‘spoiled, rotten fruit’
cf. otgę:
o-tgę:
3s.p-rotten.stat
‘it is spoiled, rotten’
h. ohyáih
o-hy-á-ih
3s.p-fruit-joinerA-ripe.stat
‘ripe fruit’
cf. ęwáhyaiˀ
ę-w-áhy-a-i-ˀ
fut-3s.a-fruit-joinerA-ripen-punc
‘it will ripen’

Incorporating stative-only “positional” verbs

Stative-only “positional” verbs are a thematic (meaning-based) subclass of verb
describing the typical position or location of an object. Many positional verbs can
incorporate nouns (23). (Pronominal prefix choice for such verbs is described in
§24.2.)

(23) a. oˀgráęˀ
o-ˀgr-á-ęˀ
3s.p-snow-lie.stat
‘snow lying there’, ‘fallen snow’
cf. oˀgraˀ
o-ˀgr-aˀ
3s.p-snow-nsf
‘snow’

258
 14.4 Verbs that can incorporate nouns

cf. nigá:yęˀ
ni-gá:-yęˀ
part-3s.a-lie.stat
‘where it is lying’
b. gayęhsradę́hda:ˀ
ga-yęhsr-a-dę́hda:ˀ
3s.a-blanket-joinerA-lie.spread.out.on.ground.stat
‘blanket lying spread out’
cf. gayę́hsraˀ
ga-yę́hsr-aˀ
3s.a-blanket-nsf
‘blanket’
cf. gadę́hda:ˀ
ga-dę́hda:ˀ
3s.a-lie.spread.out.on.ground.stat
‘it is lying spread out’
c. ohǫna̱ˀdáhsi ̱ha:ˀ
o-hǫna̱ˀd-á-hsi ̱ha:ˀ
3s.p-potato-joinerA-stand.in.group.stat
‘potatoes standing in a group’
cf. ohǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ
o-hǫ́na̱ˀd-aˀ
3s.p-potato-nsf
‘potato’
cf. gáehsi ̱ha:ˀ
gáe-hsi ̱ha:ˀ
3ns.fi.a-stand.in.a.group.stat
‘they are standing in a group or clump’

14.4.3 Obligatorily-incorporating verbs

Some stative-only “adjectival” verbs (24), some stative-only “positional” verbs
(25), and some two-role verbs (26) require an incorporated noun. A plus ‘+’ sign
denotes an obligatorily-incorporating verb. (Some obligatorily-incorporating verbs
require a placeholder noun, if no other noun is incorporated, see §14.1.1.)

(24) ⌊+iyo:⌋ ‘to be good, nice’

a. agǫgwe̱ˀdí:yo:
ag-ǫgwe̱ˀd-í:yo:
3s.fi.p-person-nice.stat
‘nice person’

259
14 Noun incorporation

b. gaihoˀdęhsrí:yo:
ga-ihoˀdęhsr-í:yo:
3s.a-work-nice.stat
‘nice work’

(25) ⌊+od⌋ ‘to stand’

a. ga̱há:do:t
ga̱-há:d-o:t
3s.a-forest-stand.stat
‘a forest’
b. odrǫ́hyo:t
o-drǫ́hy-o:t
3s.p-ray.of.light-stand.stat
‘sunbeam, ray of light, sunshine’
c. ga̱hnyo:t
ga̱-hny-o:t
3s.a-stick/placeholder.noun-stand.stat
‘it is standing’

(26) [+ohae) ‘to wash’

a. agatgǫ̱hsóhaeˀ
a-g-at-gǫ̱hs-óhae-ˀ
fac-1s.a-srf-face-wash-punc
‘I washed my face’
b. agęhsi ̱ˀdóhaeˀ
a-g-ęhsi ̱ˀd-óhae-ˀ
fac-1s.a-foot-wash-punc
‘I washed my feet’
c. agenoháeˀ
a-g-e-n-ohae-ˀ
fac-1s.a-joinerE-placeholder.noun-wash-punc
‘I washed (it)’

260
15 Verb suffixes
Verb suffixes perform a number of functions (described in the following sections).
The order of verb suffixes is summarized in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1: Verb suffix order

1 distr 2 role-adding, 3 aspect 4 post-aspect

change of state
⌊-ˀse⌋ distr ⌊-hd⌋, ⌊-ˀd⌋, ⌊-d⌋ caus 3a Tense
⌊-ǫ⌋ distr ⌊-hsd⌋ caus-instr ⌊stat.verb-gy⌋ prog ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past
⌊-nyǫ⌋ distr ⌊-ę, -ni⌋ ben ⌊-hs⌋ disl ⌊-hne:ˀ⌋ rem
⌊-hnǫ⌋ distr ⌊-hs⌋ ben ⌊-hn⌋ disl ⌊-hk⌋ former
⌊-sǫ⌋ distr ⌊-(ę)ˀ⌋, ⌊-(n)heˀ⌋ inch ⌊-ˀn⌋ disl ⌊-(e:)k⌋ modz
⌊-(d)rǫ⌋ distr ⌊-gw, -go⌋ rev ⌊-h⌋ disl
⌊-srǫ⌋ distr ⌊-hsi⌋ rev ⌊-ˀh⌋ disl
⌊(i)nyǫ-ˀse⌋ distr- ⌊-dr⌋ disl
distr
⌊-ǫ-nyǫ⌋ distr-distr
3b
⌊e⌋‛go’
⌊e-:⌋ ‛go-purp’
3c
⌊-haˀ, -ˀs, -hs, -h⌋ hab Non-tense
⌊-ǫh, -ęh, -ˀ⌋ stat ⌊-ge:⌋ aug
⌊-ˀ⌋ punc ⌊-ˀs⌋ pl
⌊-sgǫ:⌋ facil
⌊-jihwęh⌋ completely

Distributive suffixes appear immediately after the verb stem in slot 1. Role-
adding and change-of-state suffixes appear in slot 2. The suffixes relevant for
aspect all appear in slot 3. Meanwhile, the post-aspect suffixes in slot 4 convey
past tense and other meanings.
Slot 3 summarizes additional order constraints on the suffixes relevant for as-
pect. Regular verbs simply take a 3c hab, stat, or punc suffix. Progressive e-
verbs take the 3a ⌊stat.verb-gy⌋ prog combination, followed by the 3b verb
⌊e-ˀ⌋ ‛go-punc’ or by a 3b verb ⌊e-:⌋ ‛go-purp’ combination. Dislocative verbs
take a 3a disl suffix. Dislocative e-verbs take a 3a disl suffix and then either
15 Verb suffixes

the 3b verb ⌊e⌋ ‛go’ or 3b verb ⌊e-:⌋ ‛go-purp’ combination. All progressive and
dislocative verbs then take a 3c aspect suffix. (Some details have been omitted.
See E-verbs, §16.)
Slot 4 suffixes occur after Slot 3c suffixes. The past, remote, former, and
modalizer suffixes, grouped together as tense suffixes, constitute further re-
finements of the aspect distinctions. The remaining suffixes (the augmentative,
plural, facilitative, and completely suffixes) are grouped together as non-
tense suffixes.

15.1 Verb distributive suffixes

The family of verb distributives ⌊-ˀse⌋, ⌊-ǫ⌋, ⌊-nyǫ⌋, ⌊-hnǫ⌋, ⌊-sǫ⌋, ⌊-drǫ⌋, ⌊-srǫ⌋,
and the double distributives ⌊-ǫ-nyǫ⌋ and ⌊(i)nyǫ-ˀse⌋ convey the repetition of
an action or state over several objects, times, or places (Mithun & Henry 1984:
505). The distributive suffixes appear in slot 1 (see Table 15.1, page 261). All of
these affixes are described in the following sections.

15.1.1 ⌊-ˀse⌋ distributive (distr)

The ⌊-ˀse⌋ distr suffix immediately follows the verb stem (slot 1 in Table 15.1).
For example, ⌊-ˀse⌋ occurs before a slot 2 ⌊-hd⌋ caus in (1).

(1) otgę́ˀseht
o-t-gę-ˀse-ht
3s.p-srf-see-distr-caus.stat
‘it is nice to see, interesting’

The ⌊-ˀse⌋ ending also appears before a slot 3 dislocative suffix (2, see §15.4.1).

(2) Dislocative verb ⌊verb-ˀse-h-⌋ verb-distr-disl and dislocative e-verb

⌊verb-ˀse-h-e-⌋ verb-distr-disl-go
a. ęgagyǫ̱ˀséhaˀ
ę-g-ag-yǫ̱-ˀsé-h-a-ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-arrive-distr-disl-joinerA-punc
‘I am going to go and visit’

262
 15.1 Verb distributive suffixes

cf. ęgágyǫ̱ˀse-:ˀ
ę-g-ag-yǫ̱-ˀse-:ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-arrive-distr–punc
‘I will visit’
b. agagyǫ̱ˀséhe-ˀ
ę-g-ag-yǫ̱-ˀsé-h-e-ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-arrive-distr-disl-go-punc
‘I am going to go visit’
cf. hogyǫˀsé: tsǫ:
ho-g-yǫ-ˀsé-: tsǫ:
3s.m.p-srf-arrive-distr-stat just
‘he is a live-in’

For habitual aspect verbs, the ⌊-ˀse⌋ suffix extends the time frame of a state of
affairs (which seems to also intensify the meaning of the verb, 3). For three-aspect
(activity or happening) verbs, the ⌊-a-ˀse⌋ joinerA-distr combination possibly
also denotes an extended timeframe or a series of actions (4–5).

(3) habitual ⌊verb-ˀse-h⌋ verb-distr-hab

a. hoˀdaiháˀseh
ho-ˀdaih-á-ˀse-h
3s.m.p-hot-joinerA-distr-hab
‘he is too hot’
cf. oˀdáihę:
o-ˀdáih-ę:
3s.p-hot-stat
‘it is hot’
b. dewagadawęnyáˀseh
de-wag-ad-awęny-á-ˀse-h
du-1s.p-srf-stir-joinerA-distr-hab
‘I am confused and doubtful’
cf. deyagodawęnyeˀ
de-yago-d-awęny-eˀ
du-3s.fi.a-stir-stat
‘she is walking about’
c. gaǫdagyenawáˀseh
gaǫ-dag-yenaw-á-ˀse-h
3ns.fi.a-refl-catch-joinerA-distr-hab
‘they help her’

263
15 Verb suffixes

cf. agaǫda:gyé:na:ˀ
a-gaǫ-da:g-yé:na:-ˀ
fac-3ns.fi.a-refl-catch-punc
‘they caught her’

(4) three-aspect ⌊verb-ˀse-:ˀ⌋ verb-distr-punc

a. a:gakeyatgę́ˀse:ˀ
a:-gakey-at-gę́-ˀse-:ˀ
indef-1s:3ns-srf-see-distr-punc
‘I should watch them’
cf. haˀǫ́tgę̱ ˀse:ˀ
haˀ-ǫ́-t-gę̱ -ˀse-:ˀ
transl-3s.fi.a-see-distr-punc
‘she is watching over there’
b. jǫkihędǫ́ˀse:ˀ
j-ǫki-hędǫ́-ˀse-:ˀ
rep-3fis/3ns:1ns-lead-distr-punc
‘she has gone on before us’
cf. hahę́:dǫ:
ha-hę́:dǫ-:
3s.m.a-lead-stat
‘he is the front, the leader’

(5) three-aspect ⌊ę-verb-ˀse-:k⌋ fut-verb-distr-modz

ęhsáhsha̱ˀse:k
ę-hs-áhsha-ˀse-:k
fut-2s.p-remember-distr-modz
‘you will remember’
cf. ęwága̱hsha:ˀ
ę-wag-ahsha:-ˀ
fut-1s.p-remember-punc
‘I will remember’

Verbs ending with the ⌊-ˀse⌋ distr suffix (and followed immediately by an
aspect suffix) belong to the mb1 conjugation class (§36.7), taking an ⌊-h⌋ hab (3),
⌊-:⌋ stat, and ⌊-:ˀ⌋ punc suffix (4).

15.1.2 ⌊-ǫ⌋, ⌊-nyǫ⌋, ⌊-ǫ-nyǫ⌋, ⌊-hnǫ⌋, ⌊-hsǫ⌋, ⌊-drǫ⌋, ⌊-srǫ⌋

distributives (distr)
The rest of the family of distr suffixes appears immediately after the verb stem in
slot 1 (Table 15.1, page 261). For stative verbs and kinship terms, the distributive

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 15.1 Verb distributive suffixes

conveys the idea that the quality or relationship described by the verb holds
of several objects or people. For three-aspect (activity or happening) verbs, the
distributive contributes the idea that the action is repeated several times. The
choice of distributive suffix is unique to each verb.
(6) ⌊-ǫ-ˀ⌋ distr-stat with stat verbs
a. ageˀdre̱hdáędǫˀ
ag-e-ˀdre̱hd-á-ęd-ǫ-ˀ
1s.p-joinerE-car-joinerA-lie.stative-distr-stat
‘I have several cars’
cf. ageˀdre̱hdáęˀ
ag-e-ˀdre̱hd-á-ęˀ
1s.p-joinerE-car-joinerA-lie.stat
‘I have a car’
b. aknǫhsó:dǫˀ
ak-nǫhs-ó:d-ǫ-ˀ
1s.p-house-stand.stat-distr-stat
‘I have several houses’
cf. aknǫ́hso:t
ak-nǫ́hs-o:t
1s.p-house-stand.stat
‘I have a house’
c. Gani:yǫ́:dǫˀ
ga-ni:yǫ́:d-ǫ-ˀ
3s.a-hang.stat-distr-stat
‘name of the white dog who went to heaven’
cf. ganí:yǫ:t
ga-ní:yǫ:t
3s.a-hang.stat
‘it is hanging’

(7) ⌊-nyǫ-ˀ⌋ distr-stat, ⌊-ǫ-nyǫ-ˀ⌋ distr-distr-stat and ⌊-nyǫ-:⌋

distr-length.no_aspect with three-aspect verbs
a. Dęˀ ni:s hoˀdęˀ swayasǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫˀ
dęˀ ni:s hoˀdęˀ swa-yas-ǫ̱h-ǫ́:-nyǫ-ˀ
what you kind 2p.p-named-stat-distr-distr-stat
‘What are your names?’ (each individual’s name is requested)
cf. Dęˀ ni:s hoˀdęˀ swayá:sǫh?
Dęˀ ni:s hoˀdęˀ swa-yá:s-ǫh
what you kind 2p.p-named-stat
‘What is your name?’ (asking people for their team or group name)

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b. dwakdǫ́:nyǫ:
dwa-kdǫ́:-nyǫ:
1p.in.a-look.at-distr.no_aspect
‘let’s examine’
cf. dwakdǫ:
dwa-kdǫ:
1p.in.a-look.at.no_aspect
‘let us look’

(8) ⌊-hnǫ-ˀ⌋ distr-stat with stative verbs

a. ga̱háˀdǫ̱hnǫˀ
ga̱-háˀd-ǫ̱-hnǫ-ˀ
3s.a-dry-stat-distr-stat
‘a clothesline (several objects drying)’
cf. oháˀdǫh
o-háˀd-ǫh
3s.p-dry-stat
‘it is dry’ (a field, the weather, etc.)
b. ohnawáodǫnyǫˀ
o-hnaw-á-od-ǫ-nyǫ-ˀ
3s.p-rapids-joinerA-stand.stat-distr-distr-stat
‘springs’
cf. ohnáwaot
o-hnáw-a-ot
3s.p-rapids-joinerA-stand.stat
‘well, spring’

(9) ⌊-hsǫ-ˀ⌋ distr-stat and ⌊-hsǫ-:ˀ⌋ distr-punc with three-aspect verbs

a. hoyę́twa̱hsǫˀ
ho-yę́tw-a̱-hsǫ-ˀ
3s.m.p-plant-joinerA-distr-stat
‘he planted several things, a variety of things’
cf. hoyę́:twęh
ho-yę́:tw-ęh
3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he has planted’
b. shǫgwaęnáwi ̱hsǫˀ
shǫgwa-ęn-áwi ̱-hsǫ-ˀ
3ms:1p-song-give-distr-stat
‘he has given us songs’

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 15.1 Verb distributive suffixes

cf. agwe:gǫ́h shǫgwaęná:wih

agwe:gǫ́h shǫgwa-ęn-á:wi-h
all 3ms:1p-song-give-stat
‘he has given all of us songs’
c. ędwana̱ˀdá:ksǫ:ˀ
ę-dwa-na̱ˀdá:-k-sǫ-:ˀ
fut-1p.in.a-bread-eat-distr-punc
‘we will have a snack’

(10) ⌊-(d)rǫ-ˀ⌋ distr-stat with stative verbs and kinship terms

a. deswatnętsáˀdrǫˀ
de-sw-at-nęts-á-ˀ-drǫ-ˀ
du-2p.p-srf-arm-joinerA-nsf-distr-stat
‘you all have your arms crossed’
b. degaǫdę́hnǫdrǫˀ
de-gaǫ-dę́-hnǫd-rǫ-ˀ
du-3ns.fi.a-srf-follow-distr-stat
‘they are sisters’
cf. degadęhnǫ́:de:ˀ
de-g-adę-hnǫ́:d-e-:-ˀ
du-1s.a-srf-follow-go-purp-stat
‘my brother or sister’
c. de̱hęnadę́hnǫdrǫˀ
de̱-hęn-adę́-hnǫd-rǫ-ˀ
du-3ns.m.a-srf-follow-distr-stat
‘they are brothers’

(11) ⌊-srǫ-:-ˀ⌋ distr-punc and ⌊-srǫ:⌋ distr.no_aspect with three aspect

verbs
a. ęhsrihwanéˀaksrǫ:ˀ
ę-hs-rihw-a-néˀak-srǫ-:ˀ
fut-2s.a-matter-joinerA-sin-distr-punc
‘you will swear, use profane language’
cf. ęgrihwané:ˀa:k
ę-g-rihw-a-né:ˀa:k
fut-1s.a-matter-joinerA-sin.ø.punc
‘I will sin’

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15 Verb suffixes

b. desahjiyóhsrǫ:
de-s-ahj-iyó-hsrǫ:
du-2s.a-hand-good-distr.no_aspect
‘you really scratch!’
cf. desahjí:yo:
de-s-ahj-í:yo:
du-2s.a-hand-good.no_aspect
‘you scratch!’

The ⌊-(i)nyǫ-ˀse⌋ and ⌊-ǫ-nyǫ⌋ double distributive suffixes appear to extend the
time frame of a state of affairs.
(12) ⌊verb-inyǫ-ˀse-:⌋ verb-distr-distr-stat
agatowínyǫ̱ˀse:
ag-atow-inyǫ-ˀse-:
1s.p-cold-distr-distr-stat
‘I have a cold’
(13) ⌊verb-ǫ-nyǫ-ˀs⌋ distr-distr-pl
adwagagyáǫnyǫˀs
ad-wag-ag-ya-ǫ-nyǫ-ˀs
fac.du-1s.p-srf-otherness-distr-distr-pl
‘I had a vision’, ‘I got spooked’
Tentatively speaking, the distributives belong to the h3 conjugation class (14,
§36.7): as seen in the above examples, the word-final distributive suffixes end
with ⌊…ˀ⌋ for stative verbs1 , with ⌊…:ˀ⌋ punc for punctual verbs, and with ⌊-:⌋
no_aspect for imperative or no-aspect verbs.
(14) aspect suffixes and distributives
a. stative ⌊-distr-ˀ⌋ distr-stat, e.g. ⌊…ǫ-ˀ⌋
b. punctual ⌊-distr-:ˀ⌋ distr-punc, e.g. ⌊…ǫ-:ˀ⌋
c. no-aspect ⌊-distr.:⌋ distr.no_aspect, e.g. ⌊…ǫ:⌋

15.2 Role-adding suffixes

The suffixes described next share the function of adding a role (§20.6) to the
verb they modify: causative suffixes add a “causer”, and benefactive suffixes
add a beneficiary.
1
Recall that the ⌊-ˀse⌋ distr suffix in example (12) takes a ⌊-:⌋ stat suffix.

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 15.2 Role-adding suffixes

15.2.1 Causative (caus) suffixes (⌊-hd⌋, ⌊-ˀd⌋, and ⌊-d⌋)

The three causative suffixes are ⌊-hd⌋, ⌊-ˀd⌋, and ⌊-d⌋. They mean ‘to cause some-
one to do something’ or ‘to make someone do something’ and add the new role
of “causer” to the verb. To illustrate, in (15a), ⌊o-tgiˀ⌋ has just one role (‘it’, refer-
ring to the item that is dirty). In contrast, the same verb with a causative suffix
(15b) adds a role for the “causer” (the person dirtying things up, in this example).
Examples of each of the causative suffixes are provided in the following sections.

(15) a. otgiˀ
o-tgi-ˀ
3s.p-dirty-stat
‘it is dirty’
b. ęhsé:tgiht
ę-hs-e-tgi-ht
fut-2s.a-joinerE-dirty-cause.ø.punc
‘you will dirty it up’, ‘you will cause it to be dirty’

15.2.1.1 ⌊-hd⌋ causative

The verbs in (16) take the ⌊-hd⌋ caus. To illustrate the added “causer” role, the ex-
amples below include pairs of related verbs, ones with and without the causative.

(16) ⌊verb-caus-aspect⌋
a. gadenya̱ˀgwáhtaˀ
g-ad-e-nya̱ˀgw-á-ht-haˀ
1s.a-srf-joinerE-vomit-joinerA-caus-hab
‘I make or cause myself to vomit’, ‘I am bulemic’
cf. agénya̱ˀgwahs
ag-é-nya̱ˀgw-a-hs
1s.p-joinerE-vomit-joinerA-hab
‘I am a vomiter’, ‘I vomit all the time’
b. ohdaht
o-hd-a-ht
3s.p-fill.up-caus.stat
‘it is filling’ (or, ‘it makes someone get full’)
cf. aˀóhdaˀ
aˀ-ó-hd-aˀ
fac-3s.p-fill.up-punc
‘it got full’

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15 Verb suffixes

c. onéhagwaht
o-néhagw-a-ht
3s.p-amazed-joinerA-caus.stat
‘it is amazing’ (or ‘it causes people to be amazed’)
cf. ǫknéhagoˀ
ǫk-néhago-ˀ
fac.1s.p-amazed-punc
‘I was amazed’
d. ohsgá:naht, ohsgá:neht
‘it is enticing, alluring, attractive’ (or, ‘it causes longings’)
o-hsgá:n-a/hsgáne-ht
3s.p-long.for-(joinerA)-caus.stat
cf. hahsgá:ne:s
ha-hsgá:ne:-s
3s.m.a-long.for-hab
‘he has longings for’
e. hodrihwatgíhdǫh
ho-d-rihw-a-tgí-hd-ǫh
3s.m.p-srf-matter-joinerA-ugly-caus-stat
‘he is talking dirty’, ‘he is making dirty words’
cf. oíhwatgiˀ
o-íhw-a-tgi-ˀ
3s.p-matter-joinerA-ugly-stat
‘dirty language’
f. haˀwá:tsˀaht
h-aˀ-w-á:tsˀ-a-ht
transl-fac-3s.a-use.up-joinerA-caus.ø.punc
‘it is all gone’ (or, ‘something made it go down to nothing’)
cf. haˀwá:tsˀa:ˀ
h-aˀ-w-á:tsˀ-a-:ˀ
transl-fac-3s.a-use.up-joinerA-punc
‘it went down to nothing’

Verbs with the ⌊-hd, -ht⌋ endings belong to the ma2 conjugation class (§36.7),
and take the following aspect suffixes (17).
(17) a. habitual [-htaˀ], consisting of ⌊-hd-haˀ⌋ caus-hab
b. punctual [-ht], consisting of ⌊hd.ø⌋ caus.ø.punc
c. stative [hd-ǫh] caus-stat
d. stative [ht], consisting of ⌊hd.ø⌋ caus.stat
e. no-aspect [ht], consisting of ⌊hd.ø⌋ caus.no_aspect

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 15.2 Role-adding suffixes

15.2.1.2 ⌊-ˀd⌋ causative

The verbs in (18) take the ⌊-ˀt, -ˀd⌋ caus suffix. To illustrate the added “causer”
role, the examples below include pairs of related verbs, ones with and without
the ⌊-ˀt, -ˀd⌋ caus suffix.

(18) ⌊verb-caus-aspect⌋
a. ęhshenǫgéhaˀt
ę-hshe-nǫg-éh-a-ˀt
fut-2s:3fi-milk-drink-joinerA-caus.ø.punc
‘you will breast-feed someone’ (or ‘cause someone to drink milk’)
cf. ęknǫ́ˀge̱haˀ
ę-k-nǫ́ˀg-e̱h-aˀ
fut-1s.a-milk-drink-punc
‘I will drink milk’
b. ogę́hęˀt
o-gę́hę-ˀt
3s.p-mean-caus.stat
‘it is disgusting’ (or, ‘it causes disgust in people’)
cf. shegę́hęnih
she-gę́hę-ni-h
2s:3fi-mean-ben-hab
‘you abuse people’, ‘you are mean to someone’
c. ęhsheya̱hdó:gaˀt
ę-hshey-a̱hdó:g-a-ˀt
fut-2s:3fi-mature-joinerA-caus.ø.punc
‘you will raise someone’ (or ‘you will cause someone to grow’)
cf. ęhsáhdo:k
ę-hs-áhdo:k
fut-2s.a-mature.ø.punc
‘you will grow’
d. ęhsgáeyǫˀt
ę-hs-gáe-yǫ-ˀt
fut-rep-3ns.fi.a-arrive-caus.ø.punc
‘they will bring it back’ (or, ‘they will cause it to return’)
cf. sagáeyǫˀ
s-a-gáe-yǫ-ˀ
rep-fac-3ns.fi.a-arrive-punc
‘they returned’

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15 Verb suffixes

Some verbs appear to have the same meaning either with or without a
⌊-ˀt, -ˀd⌋ caus (19). However, there may be a subtle difference in meaning: pos-
sibly, the ones with the ⌊-ˀt, -ˀd⌋ caus are caused or done on purpose, while the
verbs without the ending denote an unintentional action.
(19) a. ęhsáhdǫˀt
ę-hs-áhdǫ-ˀt
fut-2s.a-lose-caus.ø.punc
‘you will lose it’ (on purpose)
b. ęhsáhdǫ:ˀ
ę-hs-áhdǫ-:ˀ
fut-2s.a-lose-punc
‘you will lose it’ (accidentally)
For some verbs, the ⌊-ˀt, -ˀd⌋ caus suffix changes an “adjectival” (stative-only)
verb into an action verb (20).
(20) a. ęhsnę́hętaˀt
ę-hs-nę́hę-t-a-ˀt
fut-2s.a-corn-dry-joinerA-caus.ø.punc
‘you will dry corn’ (or, ‘you will cause corn to dry’)
cf. ohéhdatę:
o-héhd-a-t-ę:
3s.p-earth-joinerA-dry-stat
‘dry dirt’
b. otsę́nǫnyaˀt
o-tsę́nǫny-a-ˀt
3s.p-happy-joinerA-caus.stat
‘gratefulness, thankfulness, joy’ (or ‘it causes happiness’)
cf. agatsęnǫ́:ni:
ag-atsęnǫ́:ni-:
1s.p-happy-stat
‘I am happy’
c. deyeihwagenháˀtaˀ
de-ye-ihw-a-genh-á-ˀt-haˀ
du-3s.fi.a-matter-joinerA-argue-joinerA-caus-hab
‘that’s debatable’ (or, ‘someone causes arguments’)
cf. degaihwágenhęh
de-ga-ihw-á-genh-ęh
du-3s.a-matter-joinerA-argue-stat
‘there is an argument’

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 15.2 Role-adding suffixes

Three-aspect verbs with the ⌊-ˀd, -ˀt⌋ caus belong to the ma2 conjugation class
(§36.7), and take the following aspect suffixes (21).

(21) a. habitual ⌊-ˀtaˀ⌋, consisting of [-ˀd-haˀ] caus-hab

b. punctual ⌊-ˀt⌋, consisting of [ˀd.ø] caus.ø.punc
c. stative ⌊ˀd-ǫh⌋ caus-stat
d. stative ⌊ˀt⌋, consisting of [ˀd.ø] caus.stat
e. no-aspect ⌊ˀt⌋, consisting of [ˀd.ø] caus-no_aspect

15.2.1.3 ⌊-d⌋ causative

The following verb takes the ⌊-d⌋ caus suffix (22).

(22) haǫhwęjádadǫh
ha-ǫhwęˀ-a-d-a-d-ǫh
3s.m.a-earth-joinerA-stand-joinerA-caus-stat
‘he created the earth’ (he caused the earth to exist) (Foster 1993)
cf. ohwę́jadeˀ
o-hwęj-a-deˀ
3s.p-earth-joinerA-exist. stat
‘existing earth’

15.2.2 Benefactive (ben) suffixes (⌊-hs⌋ and ⌊-ę, -nih⌋)

The family of benefactive (also called dative) suffixes add the meaning of ‘do-
ing something for someone’s benefit’. (In other words, they add a new role for
the beneficiary of the verb’s action.) For example, in (23a), age:kǫ́:niˀ expresses
just two roles – the “doer” (the speaker, in this case), and the object of the action
(‘a meal, food’). In contrast, the same verb with a benefactive suffix (23b) conveys
three roles, the “doer”, the object, and the beneficiary.

(23) a. age:kǫ́:niˀ
a-g-e:-k-ǫ́:ni-ˀ
fac-1s.a-joinerE-food-make-punc
‘I cooked a meal’
b. ahékǫnyęˀ
a-hé-k-ǫny-ę-ˀ
fac-1s>3s.m-food-make-ben-punc
‘I cooked a meal for him’

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15 Verb suffixes

Verbs with a benefactive suffix take an interactive pronominal prefix, such as

⌊he-⌋ 1s>3s.m in (23b), to express both the “doer” and the beneficiary. However,
when the “doer” and beneficiary are the same person, the verb instead takes the
⌊-adad⌋ srf prefix to denote that the “doer” and beneficiary are the same (24).

(24) ęhsadadrohé:gęˀ
ę-hs-adad-rohé:g-ę-ˀ
fut-2s.a-refl-gather-ben-punc
‘you will accumulate (things, ideas, etc.) for yourself’
cf. ęhsróhe:k
ę-hs-róhe:k
fut-2s.a-gather.ø.punc
‘you will gather’

The benefactive suffixes include ⌊-hs⌋, and the ⌊-ę, -nih⌋ family of suffixes. Ex-
amples are provided in the following sections.

15.2.2.1 ⌊-hs⌋ benefactive

The following verbs take the ⌊-hs⌋ ben suffix (25).

(25) a. gǫ̱hyádǫ̱hahs
gǫ̱-hyádǫ̱-h-a-hs
1s>2s-write-euph.h-joinerA-ben.no_aspect
‘let me write for you’ (Mithun & Henry 1984)
cf. kyá:dǫ:
k-hyá:dǫ:
1s.a-write.no_aspect
‘let me write’
b. hǫwayętwáhse:h
hǫwa-yętw-á-hs-e:h
3ms/3fis:3ms-plant-joinerA-ben-stat
‘he has planted for him’ (Foster 1993)
cf. hoyę́:twęh
ho-yę́:tw-ęh
3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he has planted’
c. haˀhohahóˀktahs
h-aˀ-ho-hah-óˀkd-a-hs
transl-fac-3s.m.p-road-end-joinerA-ben.ø.punc
‘the road ran out for him’

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 15.2 Role-adding suffixes

cf. haˀgahahóˀkdęˀ
h-aˀ-g-ahah-óˀkd-ęˀ
transl-fac-1s.a-road-end-punc
‘I finished a row’
d. ęhsadadrá:gwahs
ę-hs-adad-rá:gw-a-hs
fut-2s.a-refl-choose-joinerA-ben.ø.punc
‘you will choose for yourself’
cf. ęhsrá:goˀ
ę-hs-rá:go-ˀ
fut-2s.a-choose-punc
‘you will choose or take out’
e. deshagodihwagé:nhahs
de-shagodi-ihw-a-gé:nh-a-hs
du-3ns(nfi):3fi-matter-joinerA-argue.for-joinerA-ben.hab
‘they argue for someone, people’
cf. a:hyayaˀdagénhaˀ
a:-hya-yaˀd-a-génh-aˀ
indef-3ms:1s-body-joinerA-argue.for-punc
‘he would help you’

15.2.2.2 ⌊-ę, -ni⌋ benefactive

The following verbs take the ⌊-ę, -ni⌋ family of benefactive suffixes (26).

(26) a. hǫwayętwę́:nih
hǫwa-yętw-ę́:-ni-h
3ms/3fis:3ms-plant-joiner-ben-hab (Foster, 1993)
‘he plants for him’
cf. hoyę́:twęh
ho-yę́:tw-ęh
3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he planted’
b. agegę̱ hę́ˀdanih
ag-e-gę̱ hę́ˀd-a-ni-h
1s.p-joinerE-sick.of-joinerA-ben-hab
‘I am annoyed, sick of it’
cf. ahsgegę̱ hę́ˀdęˀ
a-hsg-e-gę̱ hę́ˀd-ę-ˀ
fac-2s:1s-sick.of-ben-punc
‘you got sick of me’, ‘you are bored with me’

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15 Verb suffixes

c. ahékǫnyęˀ
a-hé-k-ǫny-ę-ˀ
fac-1s:3ms-food-make-ben-punc
‘I cooked a meal for him’
cf. age:kǫ́:niˀ
a-g-e:-k-ǫ́:ni-ˀ
fac-1s.a-joinerE-food-make-punc (Foster, 1993)
‘I cooked a meal’
d. ashagonǫhsǫnyęˀ
a-shago-nǫhs-ǫny-ę-ˀ
fac-3ms:3fi/3p.p-house-make-ben-punc
‘he built her a house’
cf. ashagonǫhsǫ́:niˀ
a-shago-nǫhs-ǫ́:ni-ˀ
fac-3ms:3fi/3p.p-house-make-punc
‘he built a house for her’ (Foster 1993)
e. ahehswa̱ˀné:dęˀ
a-he-hswa̱ˀn-é:d-ę-ˀ
fac-1s:3ms-upper.back-stand-ben-punc
‘I supported him’
cf. hehswáˀne:t
he-hswáˀn-e:t
1s:3ms-upper.back-stand.stat
‘I support or back him’
f. ahadadrihwagwé:nyęˀ
a-ha-dad-rihw-a-gwé:ny-ę-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-refl-matter-joinerA-succeed-ben-punc
‘he had earned it for himself’
cf. ahsadadrihwagwé:nyaˀs
a-hs-adad-rihw-a-gwé:ny-a-ˀs
fac-2s.a-refl-matter-joinerA-succeed-joinerA-pl.ø.punc
‘you are a success’
g. ęhshewayę́:sdęˀ
ę-hshe-wayę́:sd-ę-ˀ
fut-2s:3fi-learn-ben-punc
‘you will train, educate, teach someone’
cf. ęhsadewá:yę:s
ę-hs-ad-e-wá:yę:s
fut-2s.a-srf-joinerE-learn.ø.punc
‘you will learn’

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 15.3 Change-of-state suffixes

h. ęhsgǫganyáˀgęˀ
ę-hs-gǫ-ganyáˀg-ę-ˀ
fut-rep-1s:2s-pay-ben-punc
‘I will repay you for your actions’
cf. ęhséganyaˀk
ę-hs-é-ganyaˀk
fut-2s.a-joinerE-pay.ø.punc
‘you will pay’

For the ⌊-ę, -ni⌋ family of suffixes, ⌊-ni⌋ is used in habitual- and stative-aspect
verbs, and ⌊-ę⌋, in punctual-aspect verbs. The aspect endings shown in (27) and
(28) belong to the s1 conjugation class (§36.7).
(27) a. habitual ⌊-ni-h⌋ ben-hab
b. punctual ⌊-ę-ˀ⌋ ben-punc
c. stative ⌊-ni-:⌋ ben-stat
d. no-aspect ⌊-ę-h⌋ ben-euph.h/no_aspect
(28) a. ǫdadri ̱hǫ́nyanih
ǫ-dad-ri ̱h-ǫ́ny-a-ni-h
3s.fi.a-refl-matter-make-joinerA-ben-hab
‘she is reading’
b. ęhsadadríhǫnyęˀ
ę-hs-adad-ríh-ǫny-ę-ˀ
fut-2s.a-refl-matter-make-ben-punc
‘you will read’
c. wadadri ̱hǫ́nyani:
w-adad-ri ̱h-ǫ́ny-a-ni-:
3s.a-refl-matter-make-joinerA-ben-stat
‘reading material’
d. sadadri ̱hǫ́:nyęh
s-adad-ri ̱h-ǫ́:ny-ę-h
2s.a-refl-matter-make-ben-euph.h/no_aspect
‘read!’

15.3 Change-of-state suffixes

The change-of-state suffixes are added to “adjectival” (stative-only) verbs, which
describe states or qualities, and to “positional” (stative-only) verbs, which de-

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15 Verb suffixes

scribe an object’s position. The result is a three-aspect verb denoting a change

in state or change in position. (Also see §36.6.)

15.3.1 ⌊-hsd⌋ causative-instrumental (caus-instr)

The ⌊-hsd⌋ caus-instr suffix can be added to stative-only verbs, which become
three-aspect verbs as a result. The ⌊-hsd⌋ suffix means ‘become’ or ‘get’ (29).2

(29) a. owáno̱hsdǫh
o-wá-no̱-hsd-ǫh
3s.p-air-cold-cause-stat
‘it (weather) got cold’
cf. owá:no:ˀ
o-wá:-no-:ˀ
3s.p-air-cold-stat
‘it (weather) is cold’
b. sagána̱ˀnohs
s-a-gá-na̱ˀ-no-hs
rep-fac-3s.a-object-cold-caus.ø.punc
‘it (an object) became cold’
cf. onáˀno:ˀ
o-náˀ-no-:ˀ
3s.p-object-cold-stat
‘it (an object) is cold, cool’
c. sawęhni ̱srí:yohs
s-a-w-ęhni ̱sr-í:yo-hs
rep-fac-3s.a-day-good-caus.ø.punc
‘it became a nice day again’
cf. wę̱ hnihsrí:yo:
w-ę̱ hnihsr-í:yo:
3s.a-day-good.stat
‘it is a nice day’
d. gakwáˀ ganáˀno̱hstaˀ
gakwáˀ ga-náˀ-no̱-hst-haˀ
food 3s.a-object-cold-cause-hab
‘refrigerator’

Verbs with the ⌊-hsd⌋ ending belong to the ma1 conjugation class (30, §36.7).
2
The name of this suffix, specifically the “instrumental” part, is possibly because of homophony
with noun stem ⌊hsd⌋ ‘tool, instrument’ and the verb ⌊hsd⌋ ‘to use’.

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 15.3 Change-of-state suffixes

(30) a. habitual [-hstaˀ], consisting of ⌊hsd-haˀ⌋ caus-hab

b. punctual [-hs], consisting of ⌊hsd-ø⌋ caus-ø.punc
c. stative [hsd-ǫh] caus-stat
d. no-aspect [hs] consisting of ⌊hsd-ø⌋ caus-no_aspect

15.3.2 ⌊-(ę)ˀ⌋ inchoative (inch)

The ⌊-(ę)ˀ⌋ inch is added to stative-only verbs (specifically, the thematic sub-class
of positional, stative-only verbs), to create three-aspect, punctual forms. Exam-
ples (31–35), illustrate pairs of stative-only verbs and their inchoative/punctual
counterparts.3

(31) ⌊-d⌋ ‘stand’, ⌊daˀ⌋ ‘stand up’

atá:daˀ
at-há:-d-a-ˀ
fac-du-3s.m.a-stand-joinerA-inch.ø.punc
‘he stood up’
cf. ita:t
i-t-ha:-t
proth-du-3s.m.a-stand.stat
‘he is standing there’

(32) ⌊od⌋ ‘stand’, ⌊odęˀ⌋ ‘attach/put on for someone’

snętsó:dęˀ
s-nęts-ó:d-ęˀ
2s.a-arm-stand-ben-inch
‘put on the arm!’ (i.e. attach a doll’s arm)
cf. snę́:tso:t
s-nę́:ts-o:t
2s.a-arm-stand.stat
‘your attached arm’

3
Apart from example (32), the inchoative suffix in the remaining examples appears to be ho-
mophonous with the ⌊-(ę)ˀ⌋ punc (and so has been glossed as inch.ø.punc in the examples).
Possibly, the ⌊-(ę)ˀ⌋ inch could simply be reanalysed as a ⌊-(ę)ˀ⌋ punc suffix, in which case, it
would have to be the case that the punctual suffix could occasionally appear without a mood
(fut, fac or indef) prepronominal prefix, to impart an inchoative meaning.

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15 Verb suffixes

(33) ⌊od⌋ ‘stand’, ⌊odaˀ⌋ ‘come to stand’

ęyagonǫhsó:daˀ
ę-yago-nǫhs-ó:d-a-ˀ
fut-3s.fi.p-house-stand-joinerA-inch.ø.punc
‘she will come to have a (standing) house’
cf. ganǫ́hsotge:
ga-nǫ́hs-ot-ge:
3s.a-house-stand.stat-aug
‘a standing big house’

(34) ⌊+ǫd⌋ ‘attached’, ⌊+ǫdęˀ⌋ ‘get attached’

agagwiyǫ́:dęˀ
a-ga-gwiy-ǫ́:d-ęˀ
fac-3s.a-bud-attached-inch.ø.punc
‘it got buds’
cf. ogwí:yǫ:t
o-gwí:y-ǫ:t
3s.p-bud-attached.stat
‘(attached) buds’

(35) ⌊+ęˀ⌋ ‘have, own’, ⌊+ędaˀ⌋ ‘come to have, own’

ęyagowiyáędaˀ
ę-yago-wiy-á-ę-d-a-ˀ
fut-3s.fi.p-child-have-euph.d-joinerA-inch.ø.punc
‘she will have a baby’
cf. dewagwiyáęˀ
de-wag-wiy-á-ęˀ
neg-1s.p-child-joinerA-have.stat
‘I don’t have a child’

15.3.3 ⌊-(n)heˀ⌋ inchoative (inch)

The ⌊-(n)heˀ⌋ inch suffix, illustrated in examples (36–37), changes stative-only
verbs into three-aspect verbs.
(36) a. agówanheˀ
a-gówan-heˀ
fac-ø.prefix.big-inch.ø.punc
‘it became big’
cf. gowá:nęh
gowá:n-ęh
ø.prefix.big-stat
‘it is big’

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 15.4 Movement suffixes

b. ahsehsęnowanheˀ
a-hs-e-hsęn-owan-heˀ
fac-2s.a-joinerE-name-big-inch.ø.punc
‘you became famous’ (literally, ‘your name got big’)

(37) a. awagyesę́ˀnheˀ
a-wa-g-yes-ę́-nheˀ
fac-3s.a-srf-easy-stat-inch
‘it became easy’
cf. wagyé:sęh
wa-g-yé:s-ęh
3s.a-srf-easy-stat
‘it is easy’

15.4 Movement suffixes

Suffixes denoting various kinds of movement appear in slot 2 of the verb (see
Table 15.1, page 261). The dislocative suffixes mean ‘go and do something’ and
the progressive means ‘go along doing something’. These suffixes interact with
the purposive aspect (see The purposive, §16.1).
The reversive suffix does not behave the same way, but is included in this sec-
tion because it expresses a type of movement, turning an activity or happening
into its opposite.

15.4.1 ⌊-hs, -hn, -ˀn, -h-, -ˀh, -ˀdr⌋ dislocative (disl)

The dislocative family of suffixes includes ⌊-hs, -hn, -ˀn, -h-, -ˀh, -ˀdr⌋. Disloca-
tives add the meaning of ‘going and doing something’. The choice of suffix likely
has to be learned along with each verb. Examples of all of the dislocatives except
for ⌊-ˀh⌋ are shown in (38–42).

(38) ⌊-ˀdr⌋ disl

sędáˀdrah
s-ęd-á-ˀdr-a-h
2s.p-sleep-joinerA-disl-joinerA-euph.h/no_aspect
‘you go to bed, you go to sleep!’
cf. sę́:daˀ
s-ę́:daˀ
2s.p-sleep.no_aspect
‘you sleep!’

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15 Verb suffixes

(39) ⌊-ˀn⌋ disl

ęyǫdawę́ˀnaˀ
ę-yǫ-d-awę́-ˀn-a-ˀ
fut-3s.fi.a-srf-swim-disl-joinerA-punc
‘she will go swimming’
cf. ęyǫ́dawę:ˀ
ę-yǫ́-d-awę-:ˀ
fut-3s.fi.a-srf-swim-punc
‘she will swim’

(40) ⌊-hn⌋ disl

a. ahęnadáhnyo̱hnaˀ
a-hęn-ad-áhny-o̱-hn-a-ˀ
fac-3ns.m.a-srf-hook-submerge-disl-joinerA-punc
‘they went fishing’
cf. ahęnadáhnyo:ˀ
a-hęn-ad-áhny-o-:ˀ
fac-3ns.m.a-srf-hook-submerge-punc
‘they (males) fished’
b. ęgékdǫ̱hnaˀ
ę-g-é-kdǫ̱-hn-a-ˀ
fut-1s.a-joinerE-examine-disl-joinerA-punc
‘I will go see’
cf. ęgé:kdǫ:ˀ
ę-g-é:-kdǫ-:ˀ
fut-1s.a-joinerE-examine-punc
‘I will see, look’
c. dwakdǫ́hnah
dwa-kdǫ́-hn-a-h
1p.in.a-examine-disl-joinerA-euph.h/no_aspect
‘let us go look’
cf. dwakdǫ:
dwa-kdǫ:
1p.in.a-examine.no_aspect
‘let us look’
d. a:gatrǫ́nya̱hnaˀ
a:-g-at-hrǫ́ny-a̱-hn-a-ˀ
indef-1s.a-srf-tell-joinerA-disl-joinerA-punc
‘I should go and tell’

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 15.4 Movement suffixes

cf. a:gatrǫ́:niˀ
a:-g-at-hrǫ́:ni-ˀ
indef-1s.a-srf-tell-punc
‘I should tell’
e. agatrǫnyáhnǫh
ag-at-hrǫny-á-hn-ǫh
1s.p-srf-tell-joinerA-disl-stat
‘I am telling now’

(41) ⌊-h ⌋ disl

a. ęhsahǫgáhaˀ
ę-hs-ahǫg-á-h-a-ˀ
fut-2s.a-understand-joinerA-disl-joinerA-punc
‘you’ll be invited or asked to go’
cf. ęhsáhǫ:k
ę-hs-áhǫ:k
fut-2s.a-understand.ø.punc
‘you will understand a language’
b. si ̱hsá:kah
s-i ̱hsá:k-h-a-h
2s.a-seek-disl-joinerA-euph.h/no_aspect
‘go and look for it!’
cf. si ̱hsa:k
s-i ̱hsa:k
2s.a-seek.no_aspect
‘look for it!’

(42) ⌊-hs⌋ disl

a. ęhayętwáhsaˀ
ę-ha-yętw-á-hs-a-ˀ
fut-3s.m.a-plant-joinerA-disl-joinerA-punc (Foster 1993)
‘he will go planting’
cf. ęháyętoˀ
ę-há-yęto-ˀ
fut-3s.m.a-plant-punc
‘he will plant’
b. ęsyęˀgǫtwáhsaˀ
ę-s-yęˀg-ǫtw-á-hs-a-ˀ
fut-2s.a-tobacco-burn.up-joinerA-disl-joinerA-punc
‘you will go burn tobacco’

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15 Verb suffixes

cf. wadǫ́:twahs
w-ad-ǫ́:tw-a-hs
3s.a-srf-burn.up-joinerA-hab
‘(what) it burns’ (in the way of fuel)
c. agáhyaksǫ:
ag-áhy-a-k-hs-ǫ:
1s.p-fruit-joinerA-eat-disl-stat
‘I am going and eating fruit’

Example (43) illustrates the aspect endings for dislocative suffixes.

(43) a. habitual (no examples of habitual forms)

b. punctual ⌊-disl-a-ˀ⌋ disl-joinerA-punc
c. stative ⌊-disl-ǫh⌋ disl-stat
d. stative ⌊-disl-ǫ:⌋ disl-stat
e. no-aspect ⌊-disl-a-h⌋ disl-joinerA-euph.h/no_aspect

15.4.2 Dislocative stative-aspect verbs with ⌊-hk⌋ former or ⌊-:k⌋

modz suffixes
Dislocative, stative-aspect verbs can also take a ⌊-hk⌋ former suffix (44, see
§15.6.2.1). The resulting verbs take p-series pronominal prefixes, as with the orig-
inal stative verbs.

(44) ⌊p-verb-disl-ǫh-hk⌋ disl-stat with former

agatrǫnyáhnǫhk
ag-at-hrǫny-á-hn-ǫ-hk
1s.p-srf-tell-joinerA-disl-stat-former
‘I went there and told’ (but I am back)

Dislocative, stative-aspect verbs can also take a ⌊-:k⌋ modz suffix, along with
either an ⌊ę-⌋ fut or ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefix (45–46) (see §15.6.2.2). The resulting verbs
take p-series pronominal prefixes, as with the original stative verbs.

(45) ⌊ę-p-verb-disl-ǫ-:k⌋ disl-stat with modz

ęwagatrǫ́nya̱hnǫ:k
ę-wag-at-hrǫ́ny-a̱-hn-ǫ-:k
fut-1s.p-srf-tell-joinerA-disl-stat-modz

284
 15.4 Movement suffixes

(46) ⌊a:-p-verb-disl-ǫ-:k⌋ disl-stat with modz

a:wagatrǫnyáhnǫ:k
a:-wag-at-hrǫny-á-hn-ǫ-:k
indef-1s.p-srf-tell-joinerA-disl-stat-modz

15.4.2.1 ⌊+ędaˀdr-⌋, ⌊+odaˀn-⌋, ⌊+ǫdaˀn-⌋ (positional verbs with disl suffixes)

Three positional (stative-only) verbs often take dislocative suffixes, and then com-
bine with incorporated nouns to create new words. Their structure is shown in
the following examples.4
The verbs in (47–49) are part of fixed expressions (see §9.2), and so the meaning
varies with the incorporated noun.

(47) ⌊+ę-d-a-dr⌋ lie-euph.d-joinerA-disl (dislocative form of ⌊+ęˀ⌋ ‘be lying

on the ground, have’)
a. gowiyaę́da̱ˀdreˀ
go-wiy-a-ę́d-a̱-ˀdr-e-ˀ
3s.fi.p-offspring-joinerA-lie-euph.d-joinerA-disl-go-punc
‘she is with child’
cf. agwíyaęˀ
ag-wíy-a-ęˀ
1s.p-offspring-joinerA-lie.stat
‘I have a child’
b. dęgaihwaędáˀdreˀ
d-ę-ga-ihw-a-ęd-á-ˀdr-e-ˀ
du-fut-3s.a-matter-joinerA-lie-euph.d-joinerA-disl-go-punc
‘harmony’, ‘every idea will always come together’
cf. dęgaihwáędaˀ
d-ę-ga-ihw-á-ęd-a-ˀ
du-fut-3s.a-matter-joinerA-lie-euph.d-joinerA-punc
‘it will come to an agreement, a consensus’

(48) ⌊+od-a-ˀn⌋ stand-joinerA-disl (dislocative form of ⌊+od⌋ ‘be standing’)

ęgadręnóda̱ˀnaˀ
ę-g-ad-ręn-ód-a̱-ˀn-a-ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-song-stand-joinerA-disl-joinerA-punc
‘I will go sing’

4
Example (47) illustrates an e-verb with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ (see §16.4). The remaining examples are of
dislocative verbs without this element.

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15 Verb suffixes

cf. ęgadręnó:dęˀ
ę-g-ad-ręn-ó:d-ęˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-song-stand-punc
‘I will sing’

(49) ⌊+ǫd-a-ˀn-⌋ attached-joinerA-disl (dislocative form of ⌊+ǫd⌋ ‘be

attached’, ‘have’)
ęgade̱ˀsgǫ́daˀnaˀ
ę-g-ad-e̱-ˀsg-ǫ́d-a-ˀn-a-ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-joinerE-roast-attached-joinerA-disl-joinerA-punc
‘I will go fry it’
cf. ęgade̱ˀsgǫ́:dęˀ
ę-g-ad-e̱-ˀsg-ǫ́:d-ęˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-joinerE-roast-attached-punc
‘I will fry, roast it’

15.4.3 ⌊-gy⌋ progressive (prog)

The ⌊-gy⌋ prog suffix adds the meaning of ‘going along doing something’ or
‘progressing in doing something’. It is always followed by ⌊e-ˀ⌋ ‘go’-stat or ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋
‘go’-purp-stat with the commonest combinations being ⌊-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋, ⌊-ę-gy-e-ˀ⌋
and ⌊-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ⌋.
There are two types of progressive verbs: the first (possibly less common) type,
illustrated in (50), consists of a verb followed directly by the ⌊-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ joinerA-
prog-go-stat combination.

(50) ⌊verb-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ joinerA-prog-go-stat

a. gayę́twagyeˀ
ga-yę́tw-a-gy-e-ˀ
3s.a-plant-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘it is planted along’
cf. gayę́:twęh
ga-yę́:tw-ęh
3s.a-plant-stat
‘it is planted’
b. hǫwahnǫdrá:gyeˀ
hǫwa-hnǫdr-á:-gy-e-ˀ
3ms/3fis:3ms-follow-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘someone is following him along’

286
 15.4 Movement suffixes

cf. hǫwáhnǫdreˀ
hǫwá-hnǫdr-e-ˀ
3ms/3fis:3ms-follow-go-stat
‘someone is following him’
c. haˀdehodinęhę́dagyeˀ
haˀ-de-hodi-nęhę́d-a-gy-e-ˀ
transl-du-3ns.m.p-guard-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘they (m) are guarding as they are on their way over, in transit’
cf. todinę̱ hę́:deˀ
t-hodi-nę̱ hę́:d-e-ˀ
cis-3ns.m.p-guard-go-stat
‘they are standing there’ (in a line formation)’, ‘they are guarding’
d. ohsáwagyeˀ
o-hsáw-a-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-begin-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘it is beginning’
cf. ętsáhsawęˀ
ę-t-s-áhsaw-ęˀ
fut-cis-2s.a-begin-punc
‘you will begin’

The second (possibly more common) type consists of a verb with an ⌊-ǫ, -
ę⌋ stat suffix followed by the ⌊-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ⌋ combination (51) (or ⌊-ę-gy-e-ˀ⌋, not
shown). This type of verb is described in §16.5.
(51) ⌊verb-ǫh-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ⌋ stat-joinerA-prog-go-stat
otsihsˀǫ̱hǫ́:gyeˀ
o-t-hs-ihsˀ-ǫ̱h-ǫ́:-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-srf-noun-finish-stat-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘it is getting mature’
cf. otsíhsˀǫh
o-t-hs-íhsˀ-ǫh
3s.p-srf-noun-finish-stat
‘it is done for the season’, ‘it has gone full cycle’, ‘it is mature’, ‘they (plants) have
finished out’

15.4.4 ⌊-gw, -go⌋, ⌊-hsi⌋ reversive (rev)

The ⌊-gw, -go⌋ rev (52) and ⌊-hsi⌋ (53) rev suffixes turn the meaning of the verb
into its opposite. Unlike the dislocative or purposive suffixes, the reversive suf-
fixes cannot be followed by ⌊e⌋ ‘to go’.
The ⌊-gw, -go⌋ suffix is possibly more common than the ⌊-hsi⌋ suffix.

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15 Verb suffixes

(52) ⌊-gw, -go⌋ (Foster 1993)

a. hayę́twagwahs
ha-yę́tw-a-gw-a-hs
3s.m.a-plant-joinerA-rev-joinerA-hab
‘he is harvesting’
cf. hayę́:twahs
ha-yę́:tw-a-hs
3s.m.a-plant-joinerA-hab
‘he is planting’
b. ahayętwá:goˀ
a-ha-yętw-á:-go-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-plant-joinerA-rev-punc
‘he did harvest’
cf. aháyętoˀ
a-há-yęto-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-plant-punc
‘he did plant’
c. hoyę́twagwęh
ho-yę́tw-a-gw-ęh
3s.m.p-plant-joinerA-rev-stat
‘he harvested it’
cf. hoyę́:twęh
ho-yę́:tw-ęh
3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he planted it’

(53) ⌊-hsi⌋ (Mithun & Henry 1984)

sasatrǫnyáhsih
sa-s-at-hrǫny-á-hsi-h
rep-2s.a-srf-dress-joinerA-rev-euph.h/no_aspect
‘get undressed again’
cf. sasa:trǫ́:nih
sa-s-a:t-hrǫ́:ni-h
rep-2s.a-srf-dress-euph.h/no_aspect
‘get dressed again’

The ⌊-gw⌋ rev endings belong to the s10 conjugation class (§36.7), as shown
in (52) and (54).

(54) a. habitual ⌊gw-a-hs⌋ rev-joinerA-hab

b. punctual ⌊go-ˀ⌋ rev-punc

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 15.5 Aspect suffixes

c. stative ⌊gw-ęh⌋ rev-stat

d. no-aspect ⌊go-h⌋ rev-euph.h/no_aspect

15.5 Aspect suffixes

The aspect suffixes appear in slot 3, after the movement suffixes and before any
post-aspect suffixes, Table 15.2, next page (also see Table 15.1, page 261). The three
main types of aspect suffix are the habitual (55), stative (56), and punctual
(57). Punctual verbs also require a mood prefix (either the factual, indefinite,
or future (57).
Table 15.2: Aspect affix order

mood pron slot 1,2 slot 3a,3b slot 3c aspect

⌊-hs⌋, ⌊-haˀ⌋ (etc.) hab
⌊aˀ-⌋ fac ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc
⌊ę-⌋ fut ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc
⌊a:-⌋ indef ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc
⌊-ęh⌋, ⌊-ǫh⌋, ⌊-ˀ⌋, ⌊-:⌋ (etc.) stat

(55) habitual aspect ⌊-h⌋ etc.

gé:gęh, gé:gęhs
g-é:-gę-h/hs
1s.a-joinerE-see-hab
‘I see’

(56) stative aspect ⌊-:⌋, etc.

agé:gę:
ag-é:-gę-:
1s.p-joinerE-see-stat
‘I have seen it’, ‘my having seen it’

(57) punctual aspect ⌊-ˀ⌋

a. agé:gęˀ
a-g-é:-gę-ˀ
fac-1s.a-joinerE-see-punc
‘I saw it’, ‘I did (indeed) see it’

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15 Verb suffixes

b. ęgé:gęˀ
ę-g-é:-gę-ˀ
fut-1s.a-joinerE-see-punc
‘I will see it’
c. a:gé:gęˀ
a:-g-é:-gę-ˀ
indef-1s.a-joinerE-see-punc
‘I should, could, would, might see it’

15.5.1 Aspect meaning

Aspect conveys information about the duration of an event, activity, or charac-
teristic. The punctual aspect denotes an event that has no inherent duration.
In contrast, the habitual and stative aspects denote events with duration, and
possibly even internal structure (for example, stages or repetitions). The distinc-
tion between the non-durative (punctual) and durative (habitual and stative)
aspects runs through the Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ grammar: for example, some post-
aspect suffixes only attach to durative (habitual or stative) verbs because their
meaning only makes sense for actions or happenings that extend over time.
The three main aspects are described next. A fourth type of aspect, the purpo-
sive, is described separately because it operates differently from the three main
aspects (see E-verbs, §16).
Finally, for several relevant (but technical) background concepts (lexical and
sentential aspect), see §36.8.

15.5.2 The habitual, punctual, and stative aspects

All verbs take an aspect suffix (except for no-aspect verbs, see §15.5.6). Three-
aspect verbs take a habitual, punctual, or stative aspect suffix. In contrast, stative-
only verbs just take a stative suffix, and habitual-only verbs just take a habitual
suffix.
There is only one ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc ending. In contrast, the habitual family of suffixes
includes ⌊-h, -hs, -ˀs, -haˀ⌋, and the stative family includes ⌊-ǫh, -ęh, -ˀ, -:⌋.
Any given verb stem normally only takes one habitual, punctual, or stative
suffix, as shown in (56) and (57). However, as seen in (55) (page 289), some verbs
can take more than one habitual suffix (§15.5.3 ).
The aspect suffixes for a given verb make up its conjugation class. For ex-
ample, the verb stem ⌊gę-⌋ ‘to see’ in (55) can take an ⌊-hs⌋ hab ending, and so
belongs to one of the s conjugation classes. In contrast, the verb ⌊yaˀdowehd⌋

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 15.5 Aspect suffixes

‘to think about, consider’ takes a ⌊-haˀ⌋ hab ending (as in deyeyaˀdówe̱htaˀ ‘she
is a thinker or seer’) and so belongs to one of the h conjugation classes. Verb
conjugation classes are described in §36.7.
The meaning of the habitual, punctual, and stative aspect suffixes is described
in the following sections.

15.5.3 Meaning of the habitual aspect

The habitual aspect forms of certain verbs can denote an event happening in the
present moment (58). (Meanwhile, for other verbs, the stative aspect forms have
this meaning, see below and §15.5.4).

(58) a. agáhdrǫhs
ag-áhdrǫ-hs
1s.p-frighten-hab
‘I am frightened of it’
b. kehswáhęhs
ke-hswáhę-hs
1s:3fis-hate-hab
‘I hate her’
c. gadejiˀóhgyaˀs
g-ade-jiˀóh-gyak-ˀs
1s.a-srf-nail-cut-hab
‘I am cutting my nails’
d. ehé:yǫhs
e-hé:yǫ-hs
3s.fi.a-die-hab
‘she is dying, on her deathbed’
e. segé:tsgwahs
s-e-gé:tsgw-a-hs
2s.a-joinerE-raise.to.vertical-joinerA-hab
‘you are lifting it to a vertical position’, ‘you give parties’
f. gragé:wahs
g-ragé:w-a-hs
1s.a-wipe-joinerA-hab
‘I am erasing or wiping it’

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15 Verb suffixes

g. satgáhǫhaˀ
s-at-gáhǫ-haˀ
2s.a-srf-watch-hab
‘you are paying attention’, ‘you are watching right now’
h. tgyahsǫ́haˀ
t-g-yahsǫ́-haˀ
cis-1s.a-call-hab
‘I call them’, ‘I am a bingo caller’

The “present tense” interpretation of habitual verbs appears to depend on the

lexical aspect of the verb, specifically on the consequential versus non-
consequential distinction (see §36.8.) For verbs with an end-point (consequen-
tial verbs), the habitual aspect form tends to describe an event taking place in
the present (59), while the three-aspect stative form tends to describe a resulting
state (see the “cf.” examples in 59).

(59) a. agé:nya:s
ag-é:-nya:-s
1s.p-joinerE-married-hab
‘I am getting married right now’
cf. age:nyá:gǫh
ag-e:-nyá:g-ǫh
1s.p-joinerE-married-stat
‘I am married’
b. wahsdéhstaˀ
w-ahsdéhsd-haˀ
3s.a-dry.up-hab
‘it is evaporating’, ‘it evaporates’
cf. ohsdéhsdǫh
o-hsdéhsd-ǫh
3s.p-dry.up-stat
‘it has evaporated’, ‘it is all dried up’
c. gatgę́hęhs
g-at-gę́h-ę-hs
1s.a-srf-get.up-joinerA-hab
‘I get up all the time’
cf. agá:tgęh
ag-á:t-gęh
1s.p-srf-get.up.stat
‘I got up’

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 15.5 Aspect suffixes

d. edá:graˀs
e-dá:graˀ-s
3s.fi.a-fall-hab
‘she is forever falling’ (for example, an old woman)
cf. agidagráˀǫh
ag-idagráˀ-ǫh
1s.p-fall-stat
‘I have fallen down’
e. é:yǫhs
é:-yǫ-hs
3s.fi.a-arrive-hab
‘she arrives’ (at the same time as)
cf. gó:yǫ:
gó:-yǫ-:
3s.fi.p-arrive-stat
‘she has arrived’
f. degáhiˀs
de-gá-hiˀ-s
du-3s.a-break.up-hab
‘it breaks’, ‘it is breakable’
cf. deyóhiˀǫh
de-yó-hiˀ-ǫh
du-3s.p-break.up-stat
‘it is broken’

In contrast, for verbs without a natural end-point (non-consequential verbs),

the habitual form tends to describe a habitual activity, a profession, or a repetitive
event (60). (Meanwhile, the stative form of such verbs tend to describe an event
taking place in the present - see the “cf.” examples in 60.)

(60) a. hadędǫnyáˀtaˀ
h-adę-dǫnyáˀt-haˀ
3s.m.a-srf-joke-hab
‘he is a joker’
cf. sadędǫnyáˀdǫh
s-adę-dǫnyáˀd-ǫh
2s.p-srf-joke-stat
‘you are joking’

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15 Verb suffixes

b. agénya̱ˀgwahs
agé-nya̱ˀgwah-s
1s.p-vomit-hab
‘I am vomiting’, ‘I am a vomiter’, ‘I vomit all the time’
cf. agenya̱ˀgwáhǫh
age-nya̱ˀgwáh-ǫh
1s.p-vomit-stat
‘I am vomiting’ (right now)
c. tgagyę́hętwahs
t-g-ag-yę́hętw-a-hs
cis-1s.p-srf-pull-joinerA-hab
‘I am a puller’
cf. gyagogyęhę́:twęh
g-yago-g-yęhę́:tw-ęh
cis-3s.fi.p-srf-pull-stat
‘she is pulling it’
d. ogyá:nǫˀs
o-g-yá:nǫ-ˀs
3s.p-srf-dream-hab
‘it dreams’
cf. hogyánǫ̱ˀdrǫh
ho-g-yánǫ̱-ˀdr-ǫh
3s.m.p-srf-dream-disl-stat
‘he is dreaming’
e. gaǫdewáyęhstaˀ
gaǫ-de-wáyęhst-haˀ
3ns.fi.a-srf-learn-hab
‘they are apprentices’, ‘they are learning together’
cf. sadewayę́hsdǫh
s-ade-wayę́hsd-ǫh
2s.p-srf-learn-stat
‘you are learning’ (now)

Finally, some verbs are ambiguous – they can denote an event either with or
without an end-point or resulting change of state. The habitual aspect form of
such verbs can have either of the readings described above (60b, e).
More examples of habitual-aspect verbs are provided next. As mentioned pre-
viously, the non-consequential habituals can denote an activity or event that
extends over time, occurring regularly, at frequent intervals, intermittently, or
constantly (61).

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 15.5 Aspect suffixes

(61) a. agǫ́:nihs
ag-ǫ́:ni-hs
3s.fi.p-make-hab
‘she makes it into something’, ‘she earns it’
b. okahs
o-ka-hs
3s.p-leak-hab
‘it leaks’
c. swatgę́nihsˀahs
sw-at-gę́nihsˀ-a-hs
2pl.a-srf-meet-joinerA-hab
‘you have meetings all the time’
d. hehahé:haˀ
he-ha-hré:-haˀ
transl-3s.m.a-place-hab
‘he places it there all the time’
e. deknége̱haˀ
de-k-hnége̱-haˀ
du-1s.a-drink-hab
‘I don’t drink any more’
f. edá:graˀs
e-dá:graˀ-s
3s.fi.a-fall-hab
‘she is forever falling’ (i.e. an old person)
g. dekdaˀs
de-k-d-a-ˀs
du-1s.a-stand-joinerA-hab
‘I stop here’ (whenever...)
h. gadáhnyoˀs
g-ad-áhny-o-ˀs
1s.a-srf-hook-submerge-hab
‘I fish continually’
i. aga:tǫ́:dęhs
ag-a:t-hǫ́:dę-hs
1s.p-srf-hear-hab
‘I hear it all the time’ (continually or off-and-on, like the sound of a
regular train whistle)

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15 Verb suffixes

Non-consequential habituals can also denote a profession (an activity done on

a regular basis, 62).

(62) a. ehyádǫ̱haˀ
e-hyádǫ̱-haˀ
3s.fi.a-write-hab
‘she is a writer or secretary’
b. shagóhse̱htaˀ
shagó-hse̱ht-haˀ
3ms:3fi/3p.p-hide-hab
‘he is a robber, stealer’
c. hatgéhǫhaˀ
h-at-géhǫ-haˀ
3s.m.a-srf-sell-hab
‘he is an auctioneer, a seller’

Finally, for a handful of verbs, the habitual aspect describes a quality or char-
acteristic (63) - a function more commonly performed by stative-only verbs (see
§15.5.4).

(63) gagrahs
ga-gra-hs
3s.a-stink-hab
‘it stinks’, ‘it is strong-smelling’

15.5.3.1 Meaning of various habitual aspect suffixes

Several verbs can take more than one type of habitual aspect suffix (64–66).

(64) a. ga̱ˀníkǫ̱haˀ
ga̱-ˀníkǫ̱-haˀ
3s.a-sew-hab
‘sewing machine’
b. eˀní:kǫhs
e-ˀní:kǫ-hs
3s.fi.a-sew-hab
‘seamstress’

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 15.5 Aspect suffixes

(65) a. Ǫdada̱hnyóhaˀ
ǫ-dad-e̱-hnyó-haˀ
3fis-refl-fish-hab
‘Fishing Dance’
b. gadáhnyoˀs
g-ad-áhnyo-ˀs
1s.a-srf-fish-hab
‘I fish continually’
c. hadáhnyoˀ
ha-d-áhnyo-ˀ
3s.m.a-srf-fish-hab
‘he is a fisherman’
d. hęnáda̱hnyoh
hęn-ád-a̱hnyo-h
3ns.m.a-srf-fish-hab
‘they are fishing’

In such cases, the various habitual suffixes probably convey different mean-
ings, as hinted by the translations in (65) and (66). Such subtle distinctions would
be easier to determine in the context of a conversation – a topic for further re-
search.

(66) a. gé:gęh ‘I see’ (regularly, but perhaps at irregular intervals)’

b. gé:gęhs ‘I see’ (i.e. I see apple trees, orange trees, ... and sometimes, I
also see cherry trees)’5

15.5.4 Meaning of the stative aspect

The meaning of the stative aspect depends on whether the verb in question is a
stative-only or three-aspect verb. Stative-only verbs just take a stative aspect suf-
fix, and never take habitual or punctual suffixes. In contrast, three-aspect verbs
can take habitual, punctual, and stative aspect suffixes.
Stative-only verbs tend to describe states, characteristics, or attributes. In con-
trast, three-aspect statives either denote an event occurring at the present time,
or a state resulting from an event having taken place. Examples are provided
next.
5
Based on (66), the ⌊-hs⌋ hab could be reanalysed as ⌊-h-s⌋ hab-pl, because the habituals ending
with ⌊-s⌋ seem to imply plural objects. Perhaps this reanalysis also extends to ⌊-ˀs⌋ hab endings.

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15 Verb suffixes

15.5.4.1 Meaning of stative-only verbs

Stative-only verbs tend to describe states, characteristics, or attributes (67). As
well, some might describe temporary states (67a, b), and some, more permanent
states (67l, m). Stative-only verbs do not describe events or happenings.
(67) a. gotowinyǫ́ˀse:
go-t-howinyǫ́ˀse:
3s.fi.p-srf-have.a.cold.stat
‘she has a cold’
b. de̱howę:sǫ:
de̱-ho-wę́:sǫ:
du-3s.m.p-be.shod.stat
‘he has shoes on’
c. ó:gę:t
ó:-gę:t
3s.p-visible.stat
‘it is visible’
d. niyohá:kˀah
ni-yo-há:kˀah
part-3s.p-short.stat
‘it is short’
e. ohóˀdę:ˀ
o-hóˀdę:ˀ
3s.p-soft.stat
‘it is soft’
f. ohní:yǫh
o-hní:y-ǫh
3s.p-hard-stat
‘it is hard’
g. agatganǫ́:ni:
ag-at-ganǫ́:ni-:
1s.p-srf-wealthy-stat
‘I am wealthy’
h. agatsenǫ́:ni:
ag-at-hsenǫ́:ni-:
1s.p-srf-happy-stat
‘I am happy’

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 15.5 Aspect suffixes

i. gadręnagáˀǫh
ga-dręn-a-gáˀ-ǫh
3s.a-smell-joinerA-sweet-stat
‘it is sweet-smelling (food odours)’
j. gadręnahshá:sdeˀ
ga-dręn-a-hshá:sdeˀ
3s.a-smell-joinerA-strong.stat
‘it is strong-smelling’
k. ga̱hǫ́ˀji:
ga̱-hǫ́ˀji:
3s.a-dark.stat
‘it is dark’
l. knę́:ye:s
k-hnę́:y-e:s
1s.a-stature-long.stat
‘I am tall’
m. niknę́:yaˀ
ni-k-hnę́:y-aˀ
part-1s.a-stature-short.stat
‘I am short’
n. syadǫ̱hsráędiˀ
s-yadǫ̱hsrá-ędiˀ
2s.a-paper-know.stat
‘you are smart (educated)’

While stative-only verbs do not describe events (68a), they can be turned into
three-aspect verbs describing events with the addition of the causative suffix or
other change-of-state suffixes (68b, see §15.3).

(68) a. otgiˀ
o-tgi-ˀ
3s.p-dirty-stat
‘it is dirty’
b. ęhsé:tgiht
ę-hs-é:-tgi-ht
fut-2s.a-joinerE-dirty-caus.ø.punc
‘you will dirty it up’

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15.5.4.2 Meaning of three-aspect statives

The stative forms of three-aspect verbs (three-aspect statives) either denote an
event occurring at the present time, or a state resulting from an event that pre-
viously took place. The meaning partly depends on the lexical aspect of the
verb, specifically, the consequential versus non-consequential distinction
(see §36.8).
If the event described by the verb implies an end-point, or results in a new
state of affairs (consequential verbs) then the three-aspect stative tends to denote
the end-result of an action and is often translated as a past-tense form (69). The
three-aspect statives of consequential verbs sometimes even function as “nouns”
(naming abstract concepts, 70).

(69) three-aspect stative, meaning the result of an action or happening

a. ohstéhsdǫh
o-hstéhsd-ǫh
3s.p-dry.up-stat
‘it has evaporated’
b. owa:nóhsdǫh
o-wa:-nóhsd-ǫh
3s.p-air-get.cold-stat
‘it got cold (weather)’
c. hehó:gyǫ:
he-hó:-gy-ǫ:
transl-3s.m.p-srf-throw-stat
‘he has thrown it’
d. tęˀ de̱hóyętwęh
tęˀ de̱-hó-yętw-ęh
not neg-3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he did not plant’
e. de̱ˀagadrihoˀdá:dǫh
de̱ˀ-ag-ad-rihoˀdá:d-ǫh
neg-1s.p-srf-work-stat
‘I did not work’
f. agekwędáˀǫh
ag-e-kw-ędáˀ-ǫh
1s.p-joinerE-food-finish-stat
‘I have finished eating’

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 15.5 Aspect suffixes

g. hewagadę́nye̱hdǫh
he-wag-adę́-nye̱hd-ǫh
transl-1s.p-srf-send-stat
‘I sent it’
h. agatǫdę́ˀǫh
ag-at-hǫdę́ˀ-ǫh
1s.p-srf-hear-stat
‘I’ve heard it before’
(70) stative-aspect verbs functioning as “nouns”
a. wadeˀnyędę́hsdǫh
wa-d-e-ˀnyędę́hsd-ǫh
3s.a-srf-joinerE-cause.to.measure-stat
‘the act of measuring’
b. watwihsdǫnyáˀdǫh
wa-t-hwihsd-ǫnyáˀd-ǫh
3s.a-srf-money-cause.to.make-stat
‘profit’, ‘investment’
c. wa̱hyá:gwęh
wa̱-hy-á:-gw-ęh
3s.a-fruit-joinerA-pick-stat
‘picked fruit’
However, if the event does not denote an end-point or does not result in a
new state of affairs (non-consequential verbs), then the three-aspect stative verb
conveys the idea that an event is happening in the present (71).
(71) a. swagahshaˀdrǫ́:nyǫh
s-wag-ahshaˀdr-ǫ́:-ny-ǫh
rep-1s.p-remember-joinerA-distr-distr-stat
‘I am recalling, remembering’
b. odáˀgra̱hdǫh
o-d-áˀgra̱hd-ǫh
3s.p-srf-float-stat
‘it is floating’
c. dęya:wę́:dǫh
d-ę-ya:w-ę́:d-ǫh
du-fut-3s.p-sway-stat
‘it sways’

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15 Verb suffixes

d. sadędonyáˀdǫh
s-adę-donyáˀd-ǫh
2s.p-srf-make.fun.of-stat
‘you are joking, making fun of something’
e. deyagotgrę́grę̱ hdǫh
de-yago-t-grę́grę̱ hd-ǫh
du-3s.fi.p-srf-wrinkle.up-stat
‘she is frowning’
f. agenya̱ˀgwáhǫh
ag-e-nya̱ˀgw-á-h-ǫh
1s.p-joinerE-vomit-joinerA-disl-stat
‘I am vomiting (right now)’
g. sęnǫ́hdǫnyǫh
s-ęnǫ́hdǫny-ǫh
2s.p-wonder-stat
‘you are wondering, thinking’
h. gyagogyęhę́:twęh
g-yago-g-yęhę́:tw-ęh
cis-3s.fi.p-srf-pull-stat
‘she is pulling it’
i. desaˀnigǫhaˀdó:gęh
de-sa-ˀnigǫh-a-dó:g-ęh
neg-2s.p-mind-joinerA-true-stat
‘you cannot decide which way to go, you are flighty’
j. age:nyá:gǫh
ag-e:-nyá:g-ǫh
1s.p-joinerE-marry-stat
‘I am married’ (does not mean ‘I am marrying someone right now’)
Some verbs are ambiguous – they can describe an event that either has or
lacks an end-point. Such verbs can have either of the meanings described above.
For example, agídaˀǫh either applies to the result of an activity or to an ongoing
activity (72a).
(72) a. agídaˀǫh
ag-ídaˀ-ǫh
1s.p-sleep-stat
‘I was asleep’, ‘I am sleeping’

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 15.5 Aspect suffixes

b. saihwa̱ˀné:gęh
sa-rihw-a̱-ˀné:g-ęh
2s.p-matter-joinerA-pray-stat
‘you are praying’, ‘you have prayed’
c. desęna̱ˀsgwáhgwęh
de-s-ę-na̱ˀsgw-á-hgw-ęh
du-2s.p-srf-bouncy.surface-joinerA-lift-stat
‘you have jumped’, ‘you are jumping’

The ambiguous three-aspect stative forms can possibly be rendered unambigu-

ous in context – for example, if a modifying word is added. Some hypothetical
examples are provided in (73).

(73) disambiguating stative-aspect meanings (hypothetical examples)

a. Te:dę́:ˀ hodáˀǫh
te:dę́:ˀ ho-dáˀ-ǫh
yesterday 3s.m.p-sleep-stat
‘yesterday he did sleep’ (“adverb” te:dę:ˀ favours a resultant-state
reading.)
b. O:nę́h hodáˀǫh
o:nę́h ho-dáˀ-ǫh
now 3s.m.p-sleep-stat
‘he is sleeping right now’ (particle o:nęh favours a
presently-occurring-activity reading)

15.5.4.3 Meaning of stative nouns and agentive stative nouns

Stative nouns begin with ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a or ⌊a-⌋ 3s.a (alternatively, ø.prefix), and
end with an ⌊-ǫ-:-ˀ⌋ stat-length-nsf combination. These nouns also express
abstract concepts (74).

(74) a. gáohǫ:ˀ
gá-oh-ǫ-:-ˀ
3s.a-gather-stat-length-nsf
‘the act of gathering’
b. gayaˀdowéhdǫ:ˀ
ga-yaˀdowéhd-ǫ-:-ˀ
3s.a-think.about-stat-length-nsf
‘the idea of thinking’

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15 Verb suffixes

c. atǫ:dę́ˀǫ:ˀ
at-hǫ:dę́-ǫ-:-ˀ
ø.prefix.srf-hear-stat-length-nsf
‘the act of hearing’
d. adówadǫ:ˀ
ad-ówad-ǫ-:-ˀ
ø.prefix.srf-hunt-stat-length-nsf
‘the hunt’

Less commonly, stative nouns take other prefixes with the ⌊-ǫ-:-ˀ⌋ stat-length-
nsf combination (75).

(75) a. onǫhsodáiyǫ:ˀ
o-nǫhsod-á-iy-ǫ-:-ˀ
3s.p-sickness-verb-stat-length-nsf
‘sickness, illness’
b. ǫgyaˀditgę́hsǫ:ˀ
ǫ-g-yaˀd-itgę́-hs-ǫ-:-ˀ
3s.fi.a-srf-body-rise-distr-stat-length-nsf
‘nightmares’

Agentive stative nouns are stative aspect verbs functioning as a kind of

abstract “noun”, describing an item that results from the activity in question (76).
They take a 3s.a prefix (either ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊wa-⌋), instead of the ⌊(y)o-⌋ 3s.p series
pronominal prefix typically required of three-aspect statives.

(76) a. wa̱hyá:gwęh
w-a̱hy-á:-gw-ęh
3s.a-fruit-joinerE-pick-stat
‘picked fruit’
b. wadę́nhaˀǫh
w-adę́-nhaˀ-ǫh
3s.a-srf-hire-stat
‘it is chartered, hired’
c. wagyǫ:
w-agyǫ-:
3s.a-throw-stat
‘something thrown away’, ‘discards’

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 15.5 Aspect suffixes

d. degágwatwęh
de-gá-gwatw-ęh
du-3s.a-hem-stat
‘a hem’

15.5.5 Meaning of the punctual aspect

The ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix denotes the occurrence of an event, but does not imply that
the event has any duration, or that the event has any stages, repetitions, or other
internal structure. The meaning of the punctual can be paraphrased as ‘this is an
event’.
Verbs with a punctual suffix also require a mood prefix (either the factual,
indefinite, or future (77).

(77) a. akní:nǫˀ
a-k-hní:nǫ-ˀ
fac-1s.a-buy-punc
‘I bought it’ (a fact)
b. a:kní:nǫˀ
a:-k-hní:nǫ-ˀ
indef-1s.a-buy-punc
‘I might, should, could, or would buy it’ (a possible or desirable future)
c. ękní:nǫˀ
ę-k-hní:nǫ-ˀ
fut-1s.a-buy-punc
‘I will buy it’ (a certain or near-certain future)

The meaning of the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc is made clearer by comparing punctual aspect
verbs with no-aspect verbs, which are described next.

15.5.6 No-aspect and punctual-aspect verbs

No-aspect verbs resemble punctual-aspect verbs in every respect, except that
they lack a punctual suffix (78). They are used in negation contexts (78a) and in
imperatives or commands (78b).

305
15 Verb suffixes

(78) No-aspect and punctual-aspect verbs, compared

a. tęˀ ta:gaesayę́:de:
tęˀ t-a:-gaesa-yę́:de:
not contr-indef-3ns:2s-recognize.no_aspect
‘they will not recognize you’
cf. ęgyę́:de:ˀ
ę-g-yę́:de:-ˀ
fut-1s.a-recognize-punc
‘I will recognize it’
b. sadahǫ́:dǫ:
s-ad-ahǫ́:dǫ:
2s.a-srf-ask.no_aspect
‘ask!’
cf. ęsada̱hǫ́:dǫ:ˀ
ę-s-ad-a̱hǫ́:dǫ:-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-ask-punc
‘you will ask’

No-aspect verbs lack a punctual suffix for grammatical reasons (for example,
being used in negative or imperative contexts). In contrast, ø.punctual verbs
lack a ⌊-ˀ⌋ punctual suffix for reasons of pronunciation.
For ø.punctual verbs, the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc is simply not pronounced – because Gayo-
go̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ words do not end with consonant clusters. For example, the punc-
tual verb form in (79) hypothetically ends with [g-ˀ], (resulting from ⌊ganyaˀg-ˀ⌋
pay-punc), but [g-ˀ] is simplified to [k] word-finally – the [ˀ] punc is deleted
or not pronounced. Similarly, in (80), the punctual verb form ends with an [h-ˀ]
cluster (resulting from ⌊hrih-ˀ⌋ pour-punc), which is simplified to [h].

(79) stem ⌊ganyaˀg⌋ ‘to pay’, missing ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix

aˀéganyaˀk
aˀ-e-ganyaˀk
fac-3s.fi.a-pay.ø.punc
‘she paid’
cf. gagánya̱ˀgǫh
ga-ga-nya̱ˀg-ǫh
3s.a-price-pay-stat
‘payment’

306
 15.5 Aspect suffixes

(80) stem ⌊hrih⌋ ‘to pour, spill’, missing ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix
hękrih
h-ę-k-hrih
transl-fut-1s.a-pour.ø.punc
‘I will pour’
cf. gahíhǫh
ga-hríh-ǫh
3s.a-spill-stat
‘it is spilled’

15.5.6.1 Meaning of no-aspect verbs

In contrast to ø-punctuals, no-aspect verbs lack an aspect suffix for grammatical
reasons: in general no-aspect verbs denote non-events, or events that are not
actualized, and these meanings are not compatible with a punctual suffix, which
denotes an event.6 For example, no-aspect verbs are used with negative future
events (81): since these are non-events by definition (they will not happen), they
do not take a ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix. In contrast, positive future events (the ‘cf.’ form in
81) are likely to occur as events, and so take a ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix.

(81) tęˀ tǫ:dá:ge:

tęˀ tǫdá:-g-e-:
not cis.du.indef-1s.a-go-purp.no_aspect
‘I am not going’
cf. nǫdá:ge:ˀ
nǫdá:-ge-:-ˀ
part.du.indef-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘(where) I come from’, ‘I came from (there)’

As mentioned previously, no-aspect verbs appear in negation contexts (§17)

and in commands (81, §27.1.) They also occur in certain hypothetical sentences,
which are described next, as a way of further illustrating the meaning of no-
aspect forms.

15.5.6.2 no-aspect hypothetical verbs

Some no-aspect verbs describe hypothetical events, rather than actual ones (82).
The no-aspect verbs in (82) describe hypothetical events in conditional clauses

6
No-aspect verbs function like subjunctive mood verbs in other languages, describing the
speaker’s attitude that the event is not real or realized.

307
15 Verb suffixes

(shown in square brackets, see §29.2), which, in turn, are about events that are
possible but not realized.

(82) a. Toh giˀ [shęh há:ge:]

there just that I.should.go
‘Just maybe I should go there.’
cf. h-á:-g-e-:
cis-indef-1s.a-go-purp.no_aspect
b. Daskro:wíh [ędwé: gęh].
you.tell.me we.will.go if/whether
‘Tell me if/whether you are coming with us.’
cf. ę-dw-e:
fut-1p.in.a-go-purp.no_aspect
‘(that) we go together’
cf. ę́:dwe:ˀ
ę́:-dw-e:-ˀ
fut-1p.in.a-go-punc
‘we will go together’
c. Tęˀ dejǫhsdí:s o:nę́h [gyę:gwáˀ a:yáihe:]
not she.didn’t.pay.attention now if she.would.die
‘She did not care that she was going to her death.’
cf. a:-ya-ihe:
indef-3s.fi.a-die.no_aspect
‘(that) she die’

15.6 Post-aspect (tense) suffixes

The post-aspect (tense) suffixes (slot 4, Table 15.1, page 261) can attach to habit-
ual or stative verbs, but not punctual ones. (Examples are provided in the follow-
ing sections.)
The ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past and ⌊-hk⌋ former endings add past tense meanings to ha-
bitual and stative verbs. The ⌊-hne:ˀ⌋ rem does so as well, but only attaches to
stative verbs.
The ⌊-:k⌋ modz makes it possible to add ⌊ę-⌋ fut or ⌊a:-⌋ indef mood prefixes
to habitual and stative verbs. (Verbs with the ⌊-:k⌋ modz cannot take an ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
prefix.)

308
 15.6 Post-aspect (tense) suffixes

15.6.1 Variations on the habitual aspect

Habitual aspect verbs can take the ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past, ⌊-hk⌋ former or ⌊-:k⌋ modz
suffixes. Table 15.3 shows the original habitual aspect verb, while Table 15.4 sum-
marizes the variations that such verbs can take. The pronominal prefix of the
resulting verb is the same type as the original habitual verb. Examples are pro-
vided in the next section.
Table 15.3: Habitual base

pronominal stem aspect suffix

verb hab

Table 15.4: Habitual variations

mood habitual base post-aspect

(pron-verb-hab)
habitual past pron-verb-⌊(h)s⌋ ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past
pron-verb-⌊ha(ˀ)⌋ ⌊-hk⌋ former
future habitual and ⌊ę-⌋ fut pron-verb-⌊(h)s⌋ ⌊-:k⌋ modz
indefinite habitual ⌊a:-⌋ indef pron-verb-⌊ha(ˀ)⌋ ⌊-:k⌋ modz

15.6.1.1 Habituals with ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past or ⌊-hk⌋ former

Habitual verbs can take the ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past (83) or ⌊-hk⌋ former endings (84). Ac-
cording to Sasse & Keye (1998), the ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past ending is used with s-conjugation
verbs (which take ⌊-s⌋ or ⌊-hs⌋ hab endings, 83), while ⌊-hk⌋ former is used with
h-conjugation verbs (which take the ⌊-haˀ⌋ hab ending, 84). (See Aspect conjuga-
tion classes, §36.7.)

(83) s-conjugation verbs

a. hadowahsgę́hę:ˀ
ha-d-owad-hs-gę́hę:ˀ
3s.m.a-srf-hunt-hab-past
‘he used to be a hunter’
cf. hadó:wa:s
ha-d-ó:wa:d-s
3s.m.a-srf-hunt-hab
‘he is a hunter’

309
15 Verb suffixes

b. hahdóhsgę̱ hę:ˀ
ha-hdó-hs-gę̱ hę:ˀ
3s.m.a-dive-hab-past
‘he used to dive’
cf. hahdo:s
ha-hdo:-s
3s.m.a-dive-hab
‘he dives’, ‘he is a diver’
c. sahtgaˀwa̱hsgę́hę:ˀ
s-ahtgaˀw-a̱-hs-gę́hę:ˀ
2s.a-release-joinerA-hab-past
‘you used to let go, you used to give up’
cf. sahtgaˀs
s-ahtgaˀw-s
2s.a-release-hab
‘you forfeit, you let go of things all the time’

(84) h-conjugation verbs

a. sadǫhwidáˀtahk
s-ad-ǫhwidáˀt-ha-hk
2s.a-srf-swing-hab-former
‘you used to swing (long ago)’
cf. sadǫhwidáˀtaˀ
s-ad-ǫhwidáˀt-haˀ
2s.a-srf-swing-hab
‘you swing (all the time)’, ‘you are a swinger’
b. gohsóˀkahk
go-hsóˀk-ha-hk
3s.fi.p-limp-hab-former
‘she used to limp’
cf. go̱hsóˀkaˀ
go̱-hsóˀk-haˀ
3s.fi.p-limp-hab
‘she is limping’
c. hahsgyáǫhahk
ha-hsgyáǫ-ha-hk
3s.m.a-walk.quickly-hab-former
‘he used to walk quickly’

310
 15.6 Post-aspect (tense) suffixes

cf. hahsgyáǫhaˀ
ha-hsgyáǫ-haˀ
3s.m.a-walk.quickly-hab
‘he walks quickly’, ‘he gives someone encouragement’
d. desahsǫhdré:hahk
de-s-ahsǫhdré:-ha-hk
du-2s.a-join-hab-former
‘you used to join things together, put it together’
cf. desahsǫdré:haˀ
de-s-ahsǫdré:-haˀ
du-2s.a-join-hab
‘you join things together all the time’, ‘you do puzzles’
e. ǫdrę́notahk
ǫ-d-rę́n-ot-ha-hk
3s.fi.a-srf-song-stand-hab-former
‘she used to sing’
cf. gaǫdręnó:taˀ
gaǫ-d-ręn-ó:t-haˀ
3ns.fi.a-srf-song-stand-hab
‘they (f/m) are singers’

15.6.1.2 Habituals with ⌊-:k⌋ modalizer (modz)

Habitual verbs can take the ⌊-:k⌋ modz suffix, which, as the name implies, enables
the verb to take an ⌊ę-⌋ fut prefix (85–87) or ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefix (86), (87a), (87d).
(Verbs with the ⌊-:k⌋ modz do not take the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac prefix.)
According to Sasse & Keye (1998), h-conjugation habituals take the ⌊-ha-:k⌋
hab-modz combination (85), (86), and s-conjugation ones take the ⌊-(h)s-e:k⌋
hab-modz combination (87).

(85) ⌊ę-verb-ha-:k⌋ fut-verb-hab-modz

a. dędwadadrihwanǫ́hkwa:k
d-ę-dw-adad-rihw-a-nǫ́hkw-ha-:k
du-fut-1p.in.a-refl-matter-joinerA-love-hab-modz
‘we all will show respect for one another’
cf. shedwánǫ̱hkwaˀ
shedwá-nǫ̱hkw-haˀ
1inp:3ms-love-hab
‘we love him’

311
15 Verb suffixes

b. ęwadę̱ hníˀdoˀkta:k
ę-w-ad-ę̱ hníˀd-oˀkt-ha-:k
fut-3s.a-srf-month-end-hab-modz
‘every month will end’
cf. hewádoˀktaˀ
he-w-ád-oˀkt-haˀ
transl-3s.a-srf-end-hab
‘it ends over there’
c. ęhsáhsoˀka:k
ę-hs-áhsoˀk-ha-:k
fut-2s.p-limp-hab-modz
‘you will limp’
cf. go̱hsóˀkaˀ
go̱-hsóˀk-haˀ
3s.fi.p-limp-hab
‘she is limping’

(86) ⌊a:-verb-ha-:k⌋ indef-verb-hab-modz

a:gǫihwanǫ́hkwa:k
a:-gǫ-ihw-a-nǫ́hkw-ha-:k
indef-1s:2s-matter-joinerA-love-hab-modz
‘I should care, respect your ideas’
cf. gǫnǫ́hkwaˀ
gǫ-nǫ́hkw-haˀ
1s:2s-love-hab
‘I love you’

(87) ⌊ę/a:-verb-hs-e:k⌋ fut/indef-verb-hab-modz

a. ęhswagáęse:k
ę-hswa-gáę-s-e:k
fut-2p.p-willing-hab-modz
‘you all will be willing’
cf. sagáęs
sa-gáę-s
2s.p-willing-hab
‘you are willing’
b. a:hayętwa̱hsé:k tsǫ:
a:-ha-yętw-a̱-hs-é:k tsǫ:
indef-3s.m.a-plant-joinerA-hab-modz just
‘just let him keep planting’

312
 15.6 Post-aspect (tense) suffixes

cf. hayę́:twahs
ha-yę́:tw-a-hs
3s.m.a-plant-joinerA-hab
‘he is a planter’
c. dęhatganyáhse:k
d-ę-ha-t-gany-á-hs-e:k
du-fut-3s.m.a-srf-want.desperately-joinerA-hab-modz
‘he will be desperate’
cf. de̱hátganyahs
de̱-há-t-gany-a-hs
du-3s.m.a-srf-want.desperately-joinerA-hab
‘he is desperate, desperately wanting something’, ‘he is in dire need’, ‘he will
settle for just anyone’
d. a:ga̱hyágwa̱hse:k
a:-g-a̱hy-á-gw-a̱-hs-e:k
indef-1s.a-fruit-joinerA-pick-joinerA-hab-modz
‘I might be a fruit picker’
cf. ga̱hyá:gwahs
g-a̱hy-á:-gw-a-hs
1s.a-fruit-joinerA-pick-joinerA-hab
‘I am picking fruit’

15.6.1.3 Habituals with ‘easy to’ / ‘hard to’ constructions

The verbs described in the previous section are used in ‘easy to’ (88) and ‘hard
to’ (89) constructions.

(88) Wagyesa̱ˀgéh da:ga̱hyadǫ̱hsríyaˀksǫ:k.

it.is.easy the.paper.would.cut
cf. d-a:-ga̱-hyadǫ̱hsr-íyaˀk-s-ǫ-:k
du-indef-3s.a-paper-cut-hab-distr-modz
‘it is easy to cut the paper’, ‘the paper is easy to cut’

(89) Wę:dó:ˀ da:ga̱hyadǫ̱hsríyaˀksǫ:k.

it.is.hard the.paper.would.cut
‘it is hard to cut paper’, ‘the paper is hard to cut’
cf. d-a:-ga̱-hyadǫ̱hsr-íyaˀk-s-ǫ-:k
du-indef-3s.a-paper-cut-hab-distr-modz

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15 Verb suffixes

15.6.2 Variations on the stative aspect

Stative verbs take the ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past, ⌊-hne:ˀ⌋ rem, ⌊-hk⌋ former, or ⌊-:k⌋ modz
suffixes. Table 15.5 illustrates the structure of the original stative verb, while Ta-
ble 15.6 summarizes the variations of such verbs. The pronominal prefix of the
resulting verb is the same type as the original stative verb. Examples are provided
in the following sections.
Table 15.5: Stative base

pronominal stem aspect

p verb stat

Table 15.6: Stative variations

mood stative base post-aspect

(p-verb-stat)
stative past ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past
⌊-hne:ˀ⌋ rem
⌊-hk⌋ former
future stative ⌊ę-⌋ fut ⌊-:k⌋ modz
indefinite stative ⌊a:-⌋ indef ⌊-:k⌋ modz

15.6.2.1 Statives with ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past, ⌊-hne:ˀ⌋ rem, or ⌊-hk⌋ former

Statives can take the ⌊-hne:ˀ⌋ rem (90–91) or ⌊-hk⌋ former (92–94) suffixes to
denote an activity or the result of an activity that occurred in the past. According
to Sasse & Keye (1998), statives of s-conjugation verbs take the ⌊-hne:ˀ⌋ rem suffix
(90–91), while statives of h-conjugation verbs take the ⌊-hk⌋ former suffix (92–
94).

(90) ⌊verb-stat-remote⌋ (three-aspect statives, s-conjugation)

a. agahyagwę́hne:ˀ
ag-ahy-a-gw-ę́-hne:ˀ
1s.p-fruit-joinerA-pick-stat-rem
‘I’ve done picking fruit’
cf. agáhyagwęh
ag-áhy-a-gw-ęh
1s.p-fruit-joinerA-pick-stat
‘I have picked fruit (farther in the past)’

314
 15.6 Post-aspect (tense) suffixes

b. agekǫníhne:ˀ
ag-e-k-ǫní-hne:ˀ
1s.p-joinerE-food-make.stat-rem
‘I have cooked’
cf. age:kǫ́:ni:
ag-e:-k-ǫ́:ni-:
1s.p-joinerE-food-make-stat
‘I cooked’
c. sajagǫ̱ˀǫ́hne:ˀ
sa-jagǫ̱-ˀǫ́-hne:ˀ
2s.p-persevere-stat-rem
‘you singular have persevered’
cf. agejagǫ́ˀǫh
ag-e-jagǫ́-ˀǫh
1s.p-joinerE-persevere-stat
‘I do persevere all the time’
d. sagahdrǫníhne:ˀ
sa-gahdr-ǫní-hne:ˀ
2s.p-eye-make.stat-rem
‘you used to stare all the time’
cf. sagahdrǫ́:ni:
sa-gahdr-ǫ́:ni-:
2s.p-eye-make-stat
‘you are ”nosy” with your eyes’, ‘you are always looking’
e. dewagadǫhwęjóni ̱hne:ˀ
de-wag-ad-ǫhwęjóni ̱-hne:ˀ
du-1s.p-srf-want.stat-rem
‘I wanted something in the past’
cf. dewagadǫhwęjǫ́:nih
de-wag-ad-ǫhwęjǫ́:ni-h
du-1s.p-srf-want-stat
‘I want something’

(91) ⌊verb-stat-remote⌋ (stative-only verbs, s-conjugation)

a. eksaˀgowáhne:ˀ
e-ksaˀ-gowá-hne:ˀ
3s.fi.a-child-great.stat-rem
‘she used to be pretty’

315
15 Verb suffixes

cf. eksaˀgó:wah
e-ksaˀ-gó:wah
3s.fi.a-child-great.stat
‘she is pretty’
b. saníˀǫhne:ˀ
sa-ní-ˀǫ-hne:ˀ
2s.p-greedy-stat-rem
‘you used to be stingy of it’
cf. saníˀǫh
sa-ní-ˀǫh
2s.p-greedy-stat
‘you are stingy, greedy, cheap’

(92) ⌊verb-stat-former⌋ (three-aspect statives, h-conjugation)

a. gonadręnó:daˀk
gon-ad-ręn-ó:d-a-ˀ-k
3ns.fi.p-srf-song-stand-joinerA-caus-former
‘they did sing’
cf. hodrę́:no:t
ho-d-rę́:n-o:t
3s.m.p-srf-song-stand.stat
‘he is singing’
b. gani:yǫ́:daˀk ‘it hung there’,
ga-ni:yǫ́:d-a-ˀ-k
3s.a-hang.stat-joinerA-caus-former
‘it used to hang there’
cf. ganí:yǫ:t
ga-ní:yǫ:t
3s.a-hang.stat
‘it is hanging’

(93) ⌊verb-stat-former⌋ (stative-only verbs, h-conjugation)

tgáenagrehk
t-gáe-nagre-hk
cis-3ns.fi.a-live.stat-former
‘they did live there, used to live there’
cf. tgáenagreˀ
t-gáe-nagre-ˀ
cis-3ns.fi.a-live-stat
‘where they live over there’

316
 15.6 Post-aspect (tense) suffixes

(94) ⌊verb-stat-euph.d-caus-former⌋ (stative-only verbs, h-conjugation)

a. tgiˀdrǫ́:daˀk
t-g-iˀdrǫ́:-d-a-ˀ-k
cis-1s.a-live.stat-euph.d-joinerA-caus-former
‘where I lived’
cf. shęh tgiˀdrǫˀ
shęh t-g-iˀdrǫ-ˀ
that cis-1s.a-live-stat
‘where I live, reside’
b. agadowihshę́:daˀk
ag-ad-owihshę́:-d-a-ˀ-k
1s.p-srf-rest.stat-euph.d-caus-former
‘I did have a rest’
cf. agadowíshęˀ
ag-ad-owíshę-ˀ
1s.p-srf-rest-stat
‘I have rested’

Statives can also take the ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past to denote an activity or the result of
an activity that occurred in the past (95a, b). As examples (95b, c), show, at least
one verb can take either suffix. There may be a subtle difference in meaning that
is not captured by the translations.

(95) ⌊verb-stat-past⌋
a. ní:ˀ agawęgę́hę:ˀ
ní:ˀ ag-aw-ę-gę́hę:ˀ
I 1s.p-own-stat-past
‘it used to be mine’
cf. agá:węh
ag-á:w-ęh
1s.p-own-stat
‘mine’
b. howę́gę̱ hę:ˀ
ho-wę-gę̱ hę:ˀ
3s.m.p-own-stat-past
‘it used to be his’
cf. hó:węh
hó:-w-ęh
3s.m.p-own-stat
‘his’

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15 Verb suffixes

c. howę́hne:ˀ
ho-w-ę́-hne:ˀ
3s.m.p-own-stat-rem
‘it used to be his’
cf. hó:węh
hó:-w-ęh
3s.m.p-own-stat
‘it is his’

15.6.2.2 Statives with ⌊-:k⌋ modalizer

Verbs in the stative aspect can take the ⌊-:k⌋ modz suffix, along with the ⌊ę-⌋
fut or ⌊a:-⌋ indef mood prefix. (Verbs with the ⌊-:k⌋ modz cannot take the ⌊aˀ-⌋
fac prefix.) The resulting verbs take the same kind of pronominal prefix as the
original stative verb.
Based on post-aspect suffixes, there are two types of such verbs, as summarized
in Table 15.7. (‘V’ denotes a verb stem ending with a vowel.)
Table 15.7: More stative variations

mood stative base post-aspect

(p-verb-stat)
future stative ⌊ę-⌋ fut ⌊p-verb(.V)-ę/-ǫ⌋ ⌊-:k⌋ modz
indefinite stative ⌊a:-⌋ indef ⌊-h-a/-ę/-ǫ-:k⌋ euph.h-
joiner-modz

One type just takes the ⌊-:k⌋ modz after the stative ending, both for three-
aspect statives (96a–c) and for originally stative-only verbs (96d).

(96) ⌊mood-…verb-stat-:k⌋
a. ęwaga̱hyá:gwę:k
ę-wag-a̱hy-á:-gw-ę-:k
fut-1s.p-fruit-joinerA-pick-stat-modz
‘I will have picked fruit’
cf. agáhyagwęh
ag-áhy-a-gw-ęh
1s.p-fruit-joinerA-pick-stat
‘I have picked fruit’

318
 15.6 Post-aspect (tense) suffixes

b. ęgáˀnikǫ:k
ę-gá-ˀnikǫ-:k
fut-3s.a-sew.stat-modz
‘it will be sewn’
cf. ga̱ˀní:kǫˀ
ga̱-ˀní:kǫ-ˀ
3s.a-sew-stat
‘a seam’
c. ęwagatǫ́:de:k
ę-wag-atǫ́:de-:k
fut-1s.p-hear.stat-modz
‘I will be hearing it’
cf. aga:tǫ́:deˀ
ag-a:tǫ́:de-ˀ
1s.p-hear-stat
‘I hear it’ (right now)
d. ǫ:dagaená:gre:k, aǫdagaená:gre:k
ǫ:da/aǫda-gae-ná:gr-e-:k
indef.cis-3ns.fi.a-live-go-modz
‘they would live there’
cf. tgáenagrehk
t-gáe-nagre-hk
cis-3ns.fi.a-live-go-former
‘they did or used to live there’

The second type7 takes a ⌊-h-V-k⌋ euph.h-joiner-modz combination after

the stative suffix. (The joiner ‘V’ is either [-a] joinerA or the same suffix pro-
nounced as a copy of the preceding stative aspect suffix vowel ([-ę, -ǫ], see
§19.5.1.)

(97) ⌊mood-…-verb-stat-euph.h-V-:k⌋
a. ęyagodeˀnyędę́hsdǫ̱hǫ:k
ę-yago-d-e-ˀnyędę́hsd-ǫ̱-h-ǫ-:k
fut-3s.fi.p-srf-joinerE-measure-stat-euph.h-joiner-modz
‘she will be measuring things’
cf. wadeˀnyędę́hsdǫh
w-ad-e-ˀnyędę́hsd-ǫh
3s.a-srf-joinerE-measure-stat
‘the act of measuring’
7
The second type is also attested in Oneida (Lounsbury 1953: 88–89).

319
15 Verb suffixes

b. dęgagwatwę́hę:k
d-ę-ga-gwatw-ę́-h-ę-:k
du-fut-3s.a-hem-stat-euph.h-joiner-modz
‘it will be hemmed’
cf. degágwatwęh
de-gá-gwatw-ęh
du-3s.a-hem-stat
‘a hem’
c. ęsade̱hsrǫni ̱hsˀǫ́hǫ:k
ę-s-ad-e̱-hsrǫni ̱hsˀ-ǫ́-h-ǫ-:k
fut-2s.p-srf-joinerE-ready-stat-euph.h-joiner-modz
‘you will be ready’
cf. sadehsrǫníhsˀǫh
s-ad-e-hsrǫníhsˀ-ǫh
2s.p-srf-joinerE-ready-stat
‘you are ready’
d. ęyagǫnhehgǫ̱hǫ:k
ę-yag-ǫnhehg-ǫ̱-h-ǫ-:k
fut-3s.fi.p-be.sustained-stat-euph.h-joiner-modz
‘they (literally, she) will live on’, ‘what will sustain them’
cf. agǫ́nhehgǫh
ag-ǫ́nhehg-ǫh
3s.fi.p-be.sustained-stat
‘someone lives on it’, ‘she is sustained by it’

Finally, example (98) shows that some verbs can take either of the post-aspect
suffix combinations in Table 15.7 (page 318).

(98) a. a:waga:tró:wi:k
a:-wag-a:t-hró:wi-:-k
indef-1s.p-srf-tell-stat-modz
‘I should be talking about it’
b. ęwagatrówi ̱ha:k
ę-wag-at-hrówi ̱-h-a-:k
fut-1s.p-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-modz
‘I will be talking about it’
cf. aga:tró:wi:
ag-a:t-hró:wi-:
1s.p-srf-tell-stat
‘I have told’

320
 15.7 Post-aspect suffixes (non-tense)

15.6.2.3 Stative verbs with ‘easy to’ / ‘hard to’ constructions

The verbs described in the previous section are used in ‘easy to’ (99) and ‘hard
to’ (100) sentences.

(99) Wę:dó:ˀ da:ga̱hyadǫ̱hsriya̱ˀgǫ́ha:k

it.is.hard the.paper.would.be.cut
‘the paper is hard to cut’, ‘it is hard to cut the paper’
cf. d-a:-ga-hyadǫhsr-iya̱ˀg-ǫ́-h-a-:k
du-indef-3s.a-paper-cut-stat-euph.h-joinerA-modz

(100) Wagyehsa̱ˀgéh da:ga̱hyadǫ̱hsriya̱ˀgǫ́ha:k

it.is.easy the.paper.would.be.cut
‘the paper is easy to cut’, ‘it is easy to cut the paper’
cf. d-a:-ga-hyadǫhsr-iya̱ˀg-ǫ́-h-a-:k
du-indef-3s.a-paper-cut-stat-euph.h-joinerA-modz

15.7 Post-aspect suffixes (non-tense)

The post-aspect suffixes (slot 4, Table 15.1, page 261) described in this section add
nuances to the basic meanings of the three main aspects (the habitual, punctual,
and stative). These suffixes have no effect on the choice of pronominal prefix.

15.7.1 ⌊-ˀs⌋ plural (pl)

The ⌊-ˀs⌋ pl appears at the end of stative verbs (slot 4, Table 15.1, page 261), where
it denotes a quality or characteristic that holds of several objects (101–105).8

(101) ⌊+i:yo-ˀs⌋ nice.stat-pl ‘several nice or beautiful things’

ohona̱ˀdí:yoˀs
o-hona̱ˀd-í:yo-ˀs
3s.p-potato-good.stat-pl
‘nice potatoes’
cf. ohona̱ˀdí:yo:
o-hona̱ˀd-í:yo:
3s.p-potato-good.stat
‘nice potato’

8
Note that the plural suffix is distinct from the pluralizer suffixes described in §10.15.

321
15 Verb suffixes

(102) ⌊+owa:n-ę-ˀs⌋ big-stat-pl ‘several big things’

a. ohǫna̱ˀdówanęˀs
o-hǫna̱ˀd-ówan-ę-ˀs
3s.p-potato-big-stat-pl
‘big potatoes’
cf. ohǫna̱ˀdówanęh
o-hǫna̱ˀd-ówan-ęh
3s.p-potato-big-stat
‘big potato’
b. ga̱ˀdrehdowá:nęˀs
ga̱-ˀdrehd-owá:n-ę-ˀs
3s.a-car-big-stat-pl
‘big cars’
cf. ga̱ˀdrehdowá:nęh
ga̱-ˀdrehd-owá:n-ęh
3s.a-car-big-stat
‘big car’
c. ęgahnegowanę́ˀse:k
ę-ga-hneg-owan-ę́-ˀs-e:k
fut-3s.a-water-big-stat-pl-ø.punc.modz
‘there will be big bodies of water’
(103) ⌊-a-ˀs⌋ certain.size.stative-pl ‘several objects of a certain size, age’
shęh ní:waˀs
shęh ní:-w-aˀs
that part-3s.a-size.stat-pl
‘sizes’, ‘how big they are’
cf. ní:waˀ
ní:-w-aˀ
part-3s.a-size.stat
‘it is of a certain size, age’

(104) ⌊oˀdę-ˀs⌋ type.of.stat-pl

oˀnigǫ̱hsadǫ̱hkgéha:ˀ nigaęnóˀdęˀs
oˀnigǫ̱hsadǫ̱hkgéha:ˀ ni-ga-ęn-óˀdę-ˀs
sad.kind part-3s.a-song-type.of.stat-pl
‘blues music’
cf. nigaęnóˀdę:
ni-ga-ęn-óˀdę:
part-3s.a-song-type.of.stat
‘a type of song’

322
 15.7 Post-aspect suffixes (non-tense)

(105) ⌊ahd-ǫ-ˀs⌋ resemble-stat-pl

shęh niyóhdǫˀs
shęh ni-yó-hdǫ-ˀs
that part-3s.p-resemble.stat-pl
‘descriptions’
cf. shęh ní:yoht
shęh ní:-yo-ht
that part-3s.p-resemble.stat
‘how, in what manner’

As shown in (106), the ⌊-ˀs⌋ pl suffix occurs before the dim suffix. (⌊-ˀuh⌋ is a
variant of the ⌊-ˀah⌋ dim).9

(106) ⌊-u:-s-ˀuh⌋ small.stat-pl-dim ‘several small things’

nigehsinú:sˀuh
ni-g-e-hsin-ú:-s-ˀuh
part-1s.a-joinerE-leg-small-pl-dim
‘I have two small legs’
cf. nigehsinú:ˀuh
ni-g-e-hsin-u:-ˀuh
part-1s.a-joinerE-leg-small-dim
‘I have a small leg’

15.7.2 ⌊-sgǫ:⌋ facilitative (facil)

The ⌊-sgǫ:⌋ facil adds the meaning of ‘being prone to,’ ‘easily’ or ‘tending to’
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 505). It occurs at the end of habitual or stative verbs
(107).

(107) ⌊verb-hab/stat-facil⌋
a. osdagwáęsgǫ:
o-sdagw-á-ę-sgǫ:
3s.p-dirt-joinerA-lie.stat-facil
‘it gets dirty easily’

9
The diminutive form ⌊-ˀuh⌋ is interesting because the vowel is U instead of A (as in ⌊-ˀah⌋)
due to a process of trans-laryngeal harmony (tlh). However, tlh should be blocked by the
intervening ⌊-s⌋ pl in ⌊-u:-s-ˀuh⌋, as tlh typically only occurs between vowels separated by
just one laryngeal sound – glottal stop <ˀ> or H. For more examples of tlh, see Joiner A
pronounced as Ǫ or Ę §19.5.1.

323
15 Verb suffixes

cf. ohsdágwaęˀ
o-hsdágw-a-ęˀ
fac-3s.p-dirtyjoinerA-lie.stat
‘it is soiled, dirty, stained’
b. hodędǫnyáˀdǫ̱hsgǫ:
ho-dę-dǫnyáˀd-ǫ̱h-sgǫ:
3s.m.p-srf-make.fun-stat-facil
‘he is a joker, or happy-go-lucky’
cf. hodędǫnyáˀdǫh
ho-dę-dǫnyáˀd-ǫh
3s.m.p-srf-make.fun-stat
‘he is making fun of something’
c. gęˀgę́trosgǫ:
ga-iˀgę́tr-o-sgǫ:
3s.a-white-submerged.stat-facil
‘it is all white’

In contrast to the above examples, the ⌊-sgǫ:⌋ facil just attaches to a bare verb
stem in (108), where it possibly does double duty as a habitual ending.

(108) ⌊verb-facil⌋
sadahǫdǫ́sgǫ:
s-ad-ahǫdǫ́-sgǫ:
2s.a-srf-ask-hab.facil
‘you are inquisitive’
cf. sadahǫ́:dǫ:
s-ad-ahǫ́:dǫ:
2s.a-srf-ask.no_aspect
‘you ask’

15.7.3 ⌊-ge:⌋ augmentative (aug)

The ⌊-ge:⌋ aug means ‘big’ or ‘really’. Alternatively, it intensifies the meaning of
the verb in some way. It appears after habitual (109a), punctual (109b), or stative
(109c) suffixes.

(109) ⌊verb-aspect-aug⌋
a. ohsdáhaˀge:
o-hsdá-haˀ-ge:
3s.p-cry-hab-aug
‘it is really crying’

324
 15.7 Post-aspect suffixes (non-tense)

cf. ga̱hsdá:haˀ
g-a̱hsdá:-haˀ
1s.a-cry-hab
‘I am crying’
b. ahęnatgwéni ̱ˀge:
a-hęn-at-gwéni ̱-ˀ-ge:
fac-3ns.m.a-srf-compete-punc-aug
‘the big win, victory’ (literally, ‘they (males) won big’)
cf. ęhsa:tgwé:niˀ
ę-hs-a:t-gwé:ni-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-compete-punc
‘you will win’
c. ganǫ́hsotge:
ga-nǫ́hs-ot-ge:
3s.a-house-stand.stat-aug
‘it is a standing big house’
cf. ganǫ́hso:t
ga-nǫ́hs-o:t
3s.a-house-stand.stat
‘it is a standing house’

15.7.4 ⌊-jihwęh⌋ ‘completely, fully’

The ⌊-jihwęh⌋ completely suffix is added to stative verbs, where it means ‘com-
pletely, fully’.
(110) a. ohę́hji ̱hwęh
o-hę́h-jihwęh
3s.p-dry.stat-completely
‘it is really dried out’
cf. ohę:
o-hę-:
3s.p-dry-stat
‘it is dry’
b. ǫgyahdogaˀji ̱hwęh
ǫgy-ahdogaˀ-ji ̱hwęh
1d.p-grown.up-completely
‘we two are fully grown’
cf. ęgahdo:k
ę-g-ahdo:k
fut-1s.a-grow.ø.punc
‘I will grow’

325
16 e-verbs
e-verbs are verbs which all have the verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in common. (For a list, see
§B.3.) The classification system proposed here is new, but is based on Michelson
(2011) and Sasse & Keye (1998).
Four main types of e-verb will be described: the simple motion verb just
consists of the verb [e] ‘to go, move’ (1). In contrast, complex motion verbs are
words with two stems, the second of which is ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ (2). The remaining two
types of e-verb also consist of two stems: dislocative e-verbs include a verb
stem, a dislocative suffix and ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ (3). Progressive verbs consist of a verb
stem, the ⌊-gy⌋ progressive, and ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ (4). E-verbs also have a unique aspect
form, the ⌊-:⌋ purposive, which is described in the following section. (Also see
Vowel length suffixes §36.6.1.)

(1) simple motion verb ⌊e⌋

í:geˀ
í:-g-e-ˀ
proth-1s.a-go-aspect
‘I am walking, moving’

(2) complex motion verb ⌊verb/stem-e⌋

hǫwáhnǫdreˀ
hǫwá-hnǫdr-e-ˀ
3ms/3fis:3ms-follow-go-aspect
‘someone is following him’

(3) dislocative e-verb ⌊verb-disl-e⌋

agékdǫ̱hneˀ
agé-kdǫ̱-hn-e-ˀ
1s.p-examine-disl-go-aspect
‘I am going to see it’
16 e-verbs

(4) progressive verb ⌊verb-prog-e⌋

hǫwahnǫdrá:gyeˀ
hǫwa-hnǫdr-á:-gy-e-ˀ
3ms/3fis:3ms-follow-joinerA-prog-go-aspect
‘someone is following him along’

16.1 The purposive

E-verbs are unique in allowing an additional type of aspect form, the ⌊-:⌋ purpo-
sive (purp) or long-e form. In this work, e-verbs without the ⌊-:⌋ purp suffix will
be called short-e forms, while e-verbs with the ⌊-:⌋ purp will be called long-e
forms. Long-e forms are unique to e-verbs.
As shown in Table 16.1 (page 329), short-e verbs take ⌊e-ˀs⌋ go-hab, ⌊e-ˀ⌋ go-
punc, or ⌊e-ˀ⌋ go-stat combinations. (The punctual forms also require a mood
prefix.)
Long-e forms take ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ go-purp-punc or ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ go-purp-stat combinations.
(The punctual forms also require a mood prefix). No long-e habitual forms are
attested.
E-verbs are described in the following sections. Pronominal prefix choice for
e-verbs is described in §26.

16.2 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

The simple motion verb ⌊-e⌋ ‘go’ denotes movement towards or away from a place
of origin. More specific meanings are determined by the verb’s prepronominal
prefixes. For example, ⌊-e⌋ with the ⌊haˀ-⌋ transl means ‘go away’ (5a), while
⌊-e⌋ with the ⌊d-⌋ cis means ‘come towards’ (5b). The meanings contributed by
the prepronominal prefixes are described next in §16.2.1, and the aspect forms for
simple motion verbs are described in §16.2.2 - §16.2.3.

(5) a. haˀgeˀ
haˀ-g-e-ˀ
transl-1s.a-go-aspect
‘I am going there’
b. dá:geˀ, dageˀ
d-á:-g-e-ˀ
cis-fac-1s.a-go-aspect
‘I am coming’

328
 16.2 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

Table 16.1: Short-e and long-e verbs

mood pronominal ⌊e⌋ purp aspect post-

or long-e aspect
hab a ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋ hab
hab a ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋ hab ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋
past past
fut hab ⌊ę-⌋ fut a ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋ hab ⌊-:k, -hk⌋
modz
short-e ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac a ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc
fac
punc
short-e ⌊ę-⌋ fut a ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc
fut
punc
short-e ⌊a:-⌋ indef a ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc
indef
punc
short-e ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat
stat
long-e ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac a ⌊e⌋ ⌊-:⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc
fac
punc
long-e ⌊ę-⌋ fut a ⌊e⌋ ⌊-:⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc
fut
punc
long-e ⌊a:-⌋ indef a ⌊e⌋ ⌊-:⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc
indef
punc
long-e ⌊e⌋ ⌊-:⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat
stat

329
16 e-verbs

16.2.1 Prepronominal prefixes with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

The combinations of prepronominal prefixes and ⌊-e⌋ ‘go’ are illustrated in ex-
amples (6–14). (The special meanings of the habitual forms are explained in the
§16.2.2.)
(6) ⌊e⌋ ‘go, move, be someplace’
a. iheˀs
i-h-e-ˀs
proth-3s.m.a-go-hab
‘he is here’
b. ęhsne:ˀ
ę-hsn-e-:-ˀ
fut-2d.a-go-purp-punc
‘you two will go together’
c. í:geˀ
í:-g-e-ˀ
proth-1s.a-go-stat
‘I am walking, moving’
(7) ⌊cis-…e⌋ ‘come here or this way’, ‘be here’
dagę́:neˀ
da-gę́:n-e-ˀ
cis-3p.a-go-stat
‘they are coming’
(8) ⌊ę: tsǫ: cis-…e⌋ ‘wander’, ‘be on a certain side’
a. ę tsǫ: itseˀs
ę tsǫ: i-t-s-e-ˀs
side just proth-cis-2s.a-go-hab
‘you wander (all the time)’, ‘you are over there’
b. ę tsǫ: ętseˀ
ę-t-s-e-ˀ
fut-cis-2s.a-go-punc
‘you will wander’
c. ę tsǫ: itseˀ
i-t-s-e-ˀ
proth-cis-2s.a-go-stat
‘you are wandering’ (right now)

330
 16.2 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

(9) ⌊gaǫ part-cis-…e⌋ ‘come this way’, ‘be (from) here’

gaoˀ nǫdáhse:ˀ come this way!
gaoˀ nǫdá-hs-e-:-ˀ
somewhere part.cis-2s.a-go-purp-punc
‘Come this way!’

(10) ⌊part-cis-e⌋ ‘come from there’, ‘be from there’

nǫdá:ge:ˀ
nǫdá:-g-e-:-ˀ
part.cis-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I come from, ‘I came from’

(11) ⌊part-du-cis-…e⌋ ‘come back’, ‘return to here from some place’

naˀdę́:tge:ˀ
naˀdę́:t-g-e-:-ˀ
part.du.fut.cis-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I will come back over here, return’

(12) ⌊rep-…e⌋ ‘go back’, ‘return home’, ‘be back’

a. ihsgeˀs
i-hs-g-e-ˀs
proth-rep-1s.a-go-hab
‘I have returned home’
b. ihsgeˀ
i-hs-g-e-ˀ
proth-rep-1s.a-go-stat
‘I am going back’, ‘I am on my way back’, ‘I am back (from where I
came)’

(13) ⌊transl-…e⌋ ‘go over there’, ‘be over there’

a. haˀge:ˀ
haˀ-g-e-:-ˀ
transl.fac-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I went there’
b. haˀgeˀ
haˀ-g-e-:-ˀ
transl.fac-1s.a-go-punc
‘I am going (there)’

331
16 e-verbs

(14) ⌊transl-rep-…e⌋ ‘go back there’, ‘return there’

hęhsge:ˀ
hęhs-g-e-:-ˀ
transl.fut.rep-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I am going back there’

16.2.2 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the habitual

The ⌊e-ˀs⌋ go-hab form of ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ means ‘to exist’ or ‘to be somewhere’ (15). (The
meanings contributed by the prepronominal prefixes were described in §16.2.1.)

(15) ⌊e-ˀs⌋ ‘to exist’

a. iheˀs
i-h-e-ˀs
proth-3s.m.a-go-hab
‘he is here’
b. ę: tsǫ: itseˀs
ę: tsǫ i-t-s-e-ˀs
side just proth-cis-2s.a-go-hab
‘you wander’ (all the time), ‘you are over there’
c. gę́:neˀs,
gę́:n-e-ˀs
3p.a-go-hab
‘they are around’, ‘they are here’, ‘they are together’
d. tgę́:neˀs
t-gę́:n-e-ˀs
cis-3p.a-go-hab
‘they are over there’
e. itgeˀs
i-t-g-e-ˀs
proth-cis-1s.a-go-hab
‘I am here’
f. heheˀs
he-h-e-ˀs
transl-3s.m.a-go-hab
‘he is there’

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 16.2 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

g. isgeˀs
i-s-g-e-ˀs
proth-rep-1s.a-go-hab
‘I have returned home’
h. tigáęˀs
ti-gáę-ˀs
contr-3s.fi.a.go-hab
‘they are roaming about’
i. tí:weˀs
tí:-w-e-ˀs
contr-3s.a-go-hab
‘a stray (animal)’
Variations of ⌊e-ˀs⌋ go-hab include an habitual past form (16), and a future
habitual (17, see Table 16.1, page 329). An indefinite habitual is theoretically
possible but not attested (18). (For background information, see Variations on the
habitual aspect §15.6.1. Also, for pronominal prefix choice, see §26.1)
(16) ⌊…e-ˀs-gęhę:ˀ⌋ go-hab-past ‘to have existed somewhere’
heˀsgę́hę:ˀ
h-e-ˀs-gę́hę:ˀ
3s.m.a-go-hab-past
‘he was away’, ‘he has been there’
(17) ⌊ę-…e-ˀs-e:k⌋ fut-…go-hab-modz ‘will exist somewhere’
hęhéˀse:k
h-ę-h-é-ˀs-e:k
transl-fut-3s.m.a-go-hab-modz
‘he will be there’
cf. iheˀs
i-h-e-ˀs
proth-3s.m.a-go-hab
‘he is here’

(18) hypothesized ⌊a:-…e-ˀs-e:k⌋ indef-…go-hab-modz ‘might exist

somewhere’

16.2.3 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the punctual

The short ⌊e-ˀ⌋ go-punc and long ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ go-purp-punc forms of ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ require
one of the three mood prefixes (the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac, ⌊ę-⌋ fut, or ⌊a:-⌋ indef, see Ta-

333
16 e-verbs

ble 16.1, page 329). The resulting punctual forms and no-aspect verbs are de-
scribed next. (For background information, see No-aspect and punctual aspect
verbs, §15.5.6.)

Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ with ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac

The punctual short-e ⌊e-ˀ⌋ and long-e ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ forms can occur with the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
prefix. Such verbs have either present ⌊e-ˀ⌋ or past ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ meanings or readings
(19–22).
(19) a. haˀgeˀ
haˀ-g-e-ˀ
transl.fac-1s.a-go-punc
‘I am going there’ (present reading)
b. haˀge:ˀ
haˀ-g-e-:-ˀ
transl.fac-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I went there’ (past reading)
(20) a. dá:geˀ, dageˀ
d-a-g-e-ˀ
cis-fac-1s.a-go-punc1
‘I am coming’ (present reading)
b. dá:ge:ˀ
d-a:-g-e-:-ˀ
cis-fac-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I came’ (past reading)
(21) ⌊aˀ-…eˀ⌋ (present reading)
a. dagę́:neˀ
da-gę́:n-e-ˀ
cis.fac-3ns.a-go-punc
‘they are coming’
b. dǫdáheˀ
dǫdá-h-e-ˀ
du.fac.cis-3s.m.a-go-punc
‘he is coming back’
1
The first vowel in /da:geˀ/ is long because of a rule that lengthens A if it is the first vowel in a
two-syllable word.

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 16.2 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

c. haˀseˀ
haˀ-s-e-ˀ
transl.fac-2s.a-go-punc
‘you are going’
d. haˀgę́:neˀ
haˀ-gę́:n-e-ˀ
transl.fac-3ns.a-go-punc
‘they are going’
e. haˀgeˀ
haˀ-g-e-ˀ
transl.fac-1s.a-go-punc
‘I am going’ (there)
f. haˀgáęˀ
haˀ-gáę-ˀ
transl.fac-3ns.fi.a-go-punc2
‘they are going’
g. dǫdáęˀ
dǫdá-ę-ˀ
du.fac.cis-3s.fi.a.go-punc
‘she is coming back’

(22) ⌊aˀ-…e:ˀ⌋ (past reading)

a. edwe:ˀ
e-dw-e-:-ˀ
fac-1p.in.a-go-purp-punc
‘we all went together’
b. haˀá:kne:ˀ
haˀ-á:kn-e-:-ˀ
fac-1d.in.a-go-purp-punc
‘we two went’
c. to haˀge:ˀ
to haˀ-g-e-:-ˀ
there fac-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I went’
2
In this example and the following one, the E of the pronominal prefix merges with the ⌊e⌋ ‘go’
verb, resulting in [ę].

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16 e-verbs

d. hǫsá:kne:ˀ
hǫsá:-kn-e-:-ˀ
transl.fac.rep-1d.in.a-go-purp-punc
‘we two went back’
e. to hǫsá:ge:ˀ
to hǫsá:-g-e-:-ˀ
there transl.fac.rep-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I did go again’
f. nǫdá:kne:ˀ
nǫdá:-kn-e-:-ˀ
part.cis.fac-1d.in.a-go-purp-punc
‘where we two came from’
g. nǫdá:ge:ˀ
nǫdá:-g-e-:-ˀ
part.cis.fac-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I come from’, ‘I came from’

Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ with ⌊ę-⌋ fut

The punctual short-e ⌊e-ˀ⌋ and long-e ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ forms can occur with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut
prefix (see Table 16.1, p. 329). The difference in meaning between short-e (23)
and long-e (24) forms is unclear out of context. However, the long-e forms do
not always have a past tense reading, except in context (see 25). Perhaps such
forms would describe a certain past event.
(23) ⌊ę-…e-ˀ⌋
a. ę: tsǫ: ętseˀ
ę: tsǫ: ę-t-s-e-ˀ
side just fut-cis-2s.a-go-punc
‘you will wander’
b. ęteˀ
ę-t-h-e-ˀ
fut-cis-3s.m.a-go-punc
‘he will come this way’
c. dętgeˀ
d-ę-t-g-e-ˀ
du-fut-cis-1s.a-go-punc
‘I will come this way’, ‘I will come back’, ‘I am coming back’

336
 16.2 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

d. ętgeˀ
ę-t-g-e-ˀ
fut-cis-1s.a-go-punc
‘I will come’
e. ętgaęˀ
ę-t-gaę-ˀ
fut-cis-3s.fi.a.go-punc
‘they will come’
f. dęgyá:kneˀ
d-ę-g-yá:kn-e-ˀ
du-fut-cis-1d.in.a-go-punc
‘we two will come back’
g. hę́:geˀ
hę́:-g-e-ˀ
transl-fut-1s.a-go-punc
‘I will go’

(24) /ę - e:ˀ/
a. hę́:ge:ˀ
hę́:-g-e-:-ˀ
transl.fut-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I will go there’
b. naˀdę́:tge:ˀ
naˀdę́:t-g-e-:-ˀ
part.du.fut.cis-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I will come back over here, return’
c. hęhsge:ˀ
hęhs-g-e-:-ˀ
transl.fut.rep-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I am going back there’
d. to e: hęhsge:ˀ
to e: hęhs-g-e-:-ˀ
there again transl.fut.rep-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I will go again’

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16 e-verbs

e. ędwe:ˀ
ę-dw-e-:-ˀ
fut-1p.in.a-go-purp-punc
‘we will go together’
f. ęhsne:ˀ
ę-hsn-e-:-ˀ
fut-2d.a-go-purp-punc
‘you two will go together’

(25) Gyotgǫ́:t gę:s neˀ tgá:gǫ:t hęháha:ˀ neˀ gaęgwaˀ

always usually the it.is.necessary he.will.take.it.there the whichever
hǫ́: hęhé:ˀ.
place/time he.went.there
‘He always had to take it with him whenever he went someplace.’ (Henry
2005)
cf. hęhe:ˀ
h-ę-h-e-:-ˀ
transl-fut-3s.m.a-go-purp-punc
‘he will go there’

Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ with ⌊a:-⌋ indef

The punctual short-e ⌊e-ˀ⌋ and long-e ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ forms can also occur with the ⌊a:-⌋
indef prefix (see Table 16.1, page 329). The difference in meaning between the
short-e (26) and long-e (27) forms is unclear out of context. However, the long-
e forms do not appear to have a past tense reading. Perhaps such forms would
describe a possible past event.

(26) ⌊a: - eˀ⌋

a. aǫdá:geˀ
aǫdá:-g-e-ˀ
indef.cis-1s.a-go-punc
‘I should come’
b. naˀdǫ́:da̱heˀ
naˀdǫ́:da̱-h-e-ˀ
part.du.indef.cis-3s.m.a-go-punc
‘he would come this way’

338
 16.2 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

c. dǫdá:kneˀ
dǫdá:-kn-e-ˀ
du.indef.cis-1d.in.a-go-punc
‘we two would come back’

(27) ⌊a: - e:ˀ⌋

a. há:ge:ˀ
há:-g-e-:-ˀ
transl.indef-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I should go there’
b. to e: hǫsá:ge:ˀ
to e: hǫsá:-g-e-:-ˀ
there again transl.rep.indef-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I would go again’
c. á:yakne:ˀ
á:-yakn-e-:-ˀ
indef-1d.in.a-go-purp-punc
‘we two would go together’

Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, no-aspect forms

The verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ can also take mood prefixes without a ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix (with both
short-e ⌊e-ø⌋ and long-e ⌊e-:-ø⌋ forms). Such no-aspect verbs (§15.5.6.1) function
as suggestions (28a), commands (28b), hypotheticals (28c), or negatives (28d, see
§27.1 and §17.)

(28) a. hé:ge:
hé:-g-e-:
transl-1s.a-go-purp.no_aspect
‘let me go there’
b. dǫdáhseh
dǫdá-hs-e-h
du.cis-2s.a-go-euph.h/no_aspect3
‘come back!’

3
Tom Deer, p.c.

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16 e-verbs

c. to há:ge:
to há:-g-e-:
there transl.indef-1s.a-go-purp.no_aspect
‘where I might go’
d. tęˀ to de̱ˀá:ge:
tęˀ to de̱ˀ-á:-g-e-:
not there neg-indef-1s.a-go-purp.no_aspect
‘I am not going’

16.2.4 Simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the stative, with short-e
The stative short-e ⌊e-ˀ⌋ form does not take mood prefixes (see §16.2.3). Examples
are shown in (29). They have a present-tense reading.

(29) ⌊e-ˀ⌋ stat (no mood prefixes)

a. isgeˀ
i-s-g-e-ˀ
proth-rep-1s.a-go-stat
‘I am going back’, ‘I am on my way back’, ‘I am back’ (from where I
came)
b. í:geˀ
í:-g-e-ˀ
proth-1s.a-go-stat
‘I am walking, moving’
c. ę: tsǫ: itseˀ
ę: tsǫ: i-t-s-e-ˀ
side just proth-cis-you-go-stat
‘you are wandering’ (right now)
d. ohnaˀgę́:ˀ ihseˀ
ohnaˀgę́:ˀ i-hs-e-ˀ
late proth-2s.a-go-stat
‘you are late again’ (said at the moment)

Long-e ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ stat forms with the simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ are unattested. How-
ever, both short-e ⌊e-ˀ⌋ and long-e ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ stative forms of complex motion verbs
do exist, as shown in (30, also see §16.3.3). The long-e stative forms have past-
tense readings.

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 16.3 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

(30) short-e ⌊e-ˀ⌋ and long-e ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ stative forms of complex motion verbs
a. agéhseˀ
agé-hs-e-ˀ
1s.p-lower.back-go-stat
‘I am riding’
b. agéhse:ˀ
agé-hs-e-:-ˀ
1s.p-lower.back-go-purp-stat
‘I rode’, ‘I came riding’

16.3 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

Complex motion verbs are words with two (sometimes three) stems, the last of
which is always ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ (31). The element preceding ⌊e⌋ is often a verb stem (31).
(However, it is sometimes an incorporated noun, see example 32. For pronominal
prefix choice, see §26.1.)
Complex motion verbs describe more specific means of moving (or existing)
than the simple motion verb described in §16.2.

(31) ⌊…verb.stem-e…⌋
a. krę́:deˀ
k-hrę́:d-e-ˀ
1s.a-lead-go-stat
‘I lead, go in front’
b. kdákseˀ
k-dáks-e-ˀ
1s.a-run-go-stat
‘I am running’
c. gehsreˀ
ge-hsr-e-ˀ
1s.a-follow-go-stat
‘I am chasing it’
d. agéˀdreˀ
agé-ˀdr-e-ˀ
1s.a-ride-go-stat
‘I am riding along’

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16 e-verbs

e. gyená:greˀ
g-ye-ná:gr-e-ˀ
cis-3s.fi.a-dwell-go-stat
‘she lives, stays, dwells over there’, ‘people live over there’
f. grá:deˀ
g-rá:d-e-ˀ
1s.a-climb-go-stat
‘I climb’
g. hǫwáhnǫdreˀ
hǫwá-hnǫdr-e-ˀ
3ms/3fis:3ms-follow-go-stat
‘someone is following him’
h. deyagodáwęnyeˀ
de-yago-d-áwęny-e-ˀ
du-3s.fi.p-srf-stir-go-stat
‘she is walking’
i. hadíhsreˀ
had-íhsr-e-ˀ
3ns.m.a-follow-go-stat
‘they follow, chase’

(32) ⌊…incorporated.noun-e…⌋
a. gatahí:neˀ
g-at-hah-í:n-e-ˀ
1s.a-srf-road-lead-go-stat
‘I am walking’
b. degagyohsgwí:neˀ
de-g-ag-yohsgw-í:n-e-ˀ
du-1s.a-srf-elbow-lead-go-stat
‘I am crawling’
c. gǫnę:tsí:neˀ
gǫ-nę:ts-í:n-e-ˀ
1s:2s-arm-lead-go-stat
‘I am leading you by the hand’

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 16.3 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

d. hohseˀ
ho-hs-e-ˀ
3s.m.p-lower.back-go-stat
‘he is riding a horse’
e. niyó:weˀ, nyo:weˀ
ni-yó:-w-e-ˀ
part-3s.p-distance/amount-go-stat
‘how far (distance)’, ‘to be a certain distance’
The verb ⌊hawi⌋ ‘to carry’ resembles the other complex motion verbs in struc-
ture and meaning, except that its final vowel is [i] instead of [e] (33, Sasse & Keye
1998).
(33) ⌊haw-i⌋ ‘to carry’
ká:wiˀ
k-há:w-i-ˀ
1s.a-hold-go-stat
‘I am carrying it’
The aspect forms for complex motion verbs are described in the following
sections.

16.3.1 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the habitual

Complex motion verbs take an ⌊-ˀs⌋ hab suffix, which carries the typical range
of habitual meanings (34). (For comparison, stative forms, which have a present-
tense reading, are also shown in example 34. See §26.1 for information about
pronominal prefix choice.)
(34) a. agéhseˀs
agé-hs-e-ˀs
1s.p-lower.back-go-hab
‘I habitually ride’
cf. agéhseˀ
agé-hs-e-ˀ
1s.p-lower.back-go-stat
‘I am riding’
b. gegyeˀs
ge-gy-e-ˀs
1s.a-fly-go-hab
‘I habitually fly’

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16 e-verbs

cf. gegyeˀ
ge-gy-e-ˀ
1s.a-fly-go-stat
‘I am flying’
c. kdakseˀs
k-daks-e-ˀs
1s.a-run-go-hab
‘I run’ (several times)
cf. kdakseˀ
k-daks-e-ˀ
1s.a-run-go-stat
‘I am running’
d. ge̱hsreˀs
ge-hsr-e-ˀs
1s.a-follow-go-hab
‘I habitually chase it’
cf. ge̱hsreˀ
ge-hsr-e-ˀ
1s.a-follow-go-hab
‘I am chasing it’
e. gǫnę:tsí:neˀs, gǫnę:tsí:nehs
gǫ-nę:ts-í:n-e-ˀs/hs
1s:2s-arm-lead-go-hab
‘I always take you by the hand’
cf. gǫnę:tsí:neˀ
gǫ-nę:ts-í:n-eˀ
1s:2s-arm-lead-go-stat
‘I am leading you by the hand’
f. ká:wiˀs
k-há:wi-ˀs
1s.a-carry-go-hab
‘I carry it’ (habitually, frequently)
cf. ká:wiˀ
k-há:wi-ˀ
1s.a-carry-hab
‘I am carrying it’

16.3.2 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the punctual

Complex motion verbs take a punctual short ⌊e-ˀ⌋ form, along with a mood prefix
(such as the fut, shown in 35).

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 16.3 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

(35) a. ęgǫnętsí:neˀ
ę-gǫ-nęts-í:n-e-ˀ
fut-1s:2s-arm-lead-go-punc
‘I will lead you by the hand’
b. ęká:wiˀ
ę-k-há:wi-ˀ
fut-1s.a-carry-punc4
‘I will be carrying it’

The unusual punctual complex motion verbs in (36) take an ⌊ę-⌋ fut prefix,
and also an ⌊-hk⌋ former suffix. Meanwhile, the former suffix typically only
appears with habitual or stative verbs. Its presence in the following examples
possibly serves the same function as the ⌊-:k⌋ modz, namely, enabling the verb
to take a mood prefix such as the ⌊ę-⌋ fut.

(36) ⌊ę-…e-hk⌋ fut-…go-former

a. ękrę́:dehk
ę-k-hrę́:d-e-hk
fut-1s.a-lead-go-former
‘I will lead, go in front’
cf. krę́:dehk
k-hrę́:d-e-hk
1s.a-lead-go-former
‘I led, went in front’
b. ęgrá:dehk
ę-g-rá:d-e-hk
fut-1s.a-climb-go-former
‘I will climb’
cf. grá:dehk
g-rá:d-e-hk
1s.a-climb-go-former
‘I climbed’

16.3.3 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ in the stative

Complex motion verbs in the stative aspect end with a short-e ⌊e-ˀ⌋ go-stat or
long-e ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ go-purp-stat combination. The short-e ones have a present tense
reading, while long-e ones have a past tense reading (37).
4
Recall that ⌊hawi⌋ ‘carry’ is like other complex motion verbs, but ends with [i] instead of [e].

345
16 e-verbs

(37) short-e ⌊e-ˀ⌋ go-stat and long-e ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ go-purp-stat

a. i. agéhseˀ
agé-hs-e-ˀ
1s.p-lower.back-go-stat
‘I am riding’
ii. agéhse:ˀ
agé-hs-e-:-ˀ
1s.p-lower.back-go-purp-stat
‘I rode’, ‘I came riding’
b. i. gegyeˀ
ge-gy-e-ˀ
1s.a-fly-go-stat
‘I am flying’
ii. gegye:ˀ
ge-gy-e-:-ˀ
1s.a-fly-go-purp-stat
‘I came flying’
c. i. kdakseˀ
k-daks-e-ˀ
1s.a-run-go-stat
‘I am running’
ii. kdakse:ˀ
k-daks-e-:-
1s.a-run-go-purp-stat
‘I was running’
d. i. ge̱hsreˀ
ge̱-hsr-e-ˀ
1s.a-follow-go-stat
‘I am chasing it’
ii. ge̱hsre:ˀ
ge-hsr-e-:-ˀ
1s.a-follow-go-purp-stat
‘I was chasing it’

346
 16.3 Complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

e. i. gatahí:neˀ
g-at-hah-í:n-e-ˀ
1s.a-srf-road-lead-go-stat
‘I am walking’
ii. gatahí:ne:ˀ
g-at-hah-í:n-e-:-ˀ
1s.a-srf-road-lead-go-purp-stat
‘I was walking’
f. i. degagyo̱hsgwí:neˀ
de-g-ag-yo̱hsgw-í:n-e-ˀ
du-1s.a-srf-elbow-follow-go-stat
‘I am crawling’
ii. degagyo̱hsgwí:ne:ˀ
de-g-ag-yo̱hsgw-í:n-e-:-ˀ
du-1s.a-srf-elbow-follow-go-purp-stat
‘I was crawling’
g. i. krę́:deˀ
k-hrę́:d-e-ˀ
1s.a-lead-go-stat
‘I lead, go in front’
ii. krę́:de:ˀ
k-hrę́:d-e-:-ˀ
1s.a-lead-go-purp-stat
‘I lead, went in front’
h. i. grá:deˀ
g-rá:d-e-ˀ
1s.a-climb-go-stat
‘I climb’
ii. grá:de:ˀ
g-rá:d-e-:-ˀ
1s.a-climb-go-purp-stat
‘I climbed’
i. i. ká:wiˀ
k-há:w-i-ˀ
1s.a-carry-go-stat
‘I am carrying it’

347
16 e-verbs

ii. ká:wi:ˀ
k-há:w-i-:-ˀ
1s.a-carry-go-purp-stat
‘I was carrying it’

Several stative forms also take the ⌊e-hk⌋ go-former combination (38). The
difference in meaning between verbs with the ⌊e-hk⌋ go-former and ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ go-
purp-stat combinations is unclear.

(38) a. krę́:dehk
k-hrę́:d-e-hk
1s.a-lead-go-former
‘I led, went in front’
b. krę́:de:ˀ
k-hrę́:d-e-:-ˀ
1s.a-lead-go-purp-stat
‘I led, went in front’
(39) a. grá:dehk
g-rá:d-e-hk
1s.a-climb-go-former
‘I climbed’
b. grá:de:ˀ
g-rá:d-e-:-ˀ
1s.a-climb-go-purp-stat
‘I climbed’

Several complex motion verbs in the stative can either take ⌊e-hk⌋ go-former
(40a) or ⌊e-ˀ-gęhę:ˀ⌋ go-stat-past (40b). Again, the difference in meaning is un-
clear. (See §26.1 for information about pronominal prefix choice.)

(40) a. tgáenagrehk
t-gáe-nagre-hk
cis-3s.fi.a-live-former
‘they did or used to live there’
b. tgaenagréˀgę̱ hę:ˀ
t-gae-nagré-ˀ-gę̱ hę:ˀ
cis-3s.fi.a-live-stat-past
‘they used to live there’

348
 16.4 Dislocative e-verbs

cf. tgáenagreˀ
t-gáe-nagre-ˀ
cis-3s.fi.a-live-stat
‘they live there’

16.4 Dislocative e-verbs

Dislocative e-verbs consist of a ⌊verb.stem-disl⌋ combination, followed by ⌊e⌋
‘go’. Dislocative e-verbs are different from plain dislocative verbs, which have a
dislocative suffix but lack the ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ element (see §15.4.1).
The dislocative suffix denotes movement from one location to another, and
also “reinforces” the meaning of ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, to convey purpose or intention. Example
(41) illustrates a dislocative e-verb, and for comparison, a plain dislocative verb
and a regular verb.

(41) agékdǫ̱hneˀ
a-gé-kdǫ̱-hn-e-ˀ
fac-1s.a-examine-disl-go-stat
‘I am going to see it’
cf. ęgékdǫ̱hnaˀ
ę-gé-kdǫ̱-hn-aˀ
fut-1s.a-examine-disl-punc
‘I will go see’
cf. ęgékdǫ:ˀ
ę-gé-kdǫ-:ˀ
fut-1s.a-examine-punc
‘I will see, look’

The aspect forms for dislocative e-verbs are summarized in Table 16.2, p. 350.
Dislocative e-verbs take the same types of pronominal prefix as the regular verbs
they are based on (see §26.2).

16.4.1 Dislocative e-verbs in the habitual

Dislocative e-verbs can take a short-e ⌊e-ˀs⌋ go-hab combination, with the usual
range of habitual meanings (42, see Table 16.3, p. 351). As with other habitual
forms, such verbs can also take the ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past suffix (example 43, Table 16.3).
(For pronominal prefix choice, see §26.2.)

349
16 e-verbs

Table 16.2: Dislocative e-verbs

name mood pron verb- ⌊e⌋ aspect post-

disl aspect
disl verb- ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋
e-verb, disl hab
hab
disl verb- ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋ ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋
e-verb, disl hab past
hab
past
fac- ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac verb- ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋
punc disl punc
disl
e-verb
fut- ⌊ę-⌋ fut verb- ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ø⌋ ⌊-:k⌋
punc disl punc modz
disl
e-verb
indef- ⌊a:-⌋ verb- ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ø⌋ ⌊-:k⌋
punc indef disl punc modz
disl
e-verb
disl verb- ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat
short-e disl
stat
disl verb- ⌊e-:⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat
long-e disl go-purp
stat

350
 16.4 Dislocative e-verbs

(42) gadáhnyo̱hneˀs
g-ad-áhny-o̱-hn-e-ˀs
1s.a-srf-hook-put.in.water-disl-go-hab
‘to fish continuously’

(43) hatrǫnya̱hnéˀsgę̱ hę:ˀ

h-at-hrǫny-a̱hn-é-ˀs-gę̱ hę:ˀ
3s.m.a-srf-tell-disl-go-hab-past
‘he used to tell’

Table 16.3: Dislocative e-verb, habitual forms

pron verb-disl ⌊e⌋ aspect post-aspect

disl e-verb, hab verb-disl ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋ hab
disl e-verb, hab past verb-disl ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋ hab ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past

16.4.2 Dislocative e-verbs in the punctual

Dislocative e-verbs verbs can take a short-e ⌊e-ˀ⌋ go-punc combination and a
mood prefix (either the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac, ⌊ę-⌋ fut, or ⌊a:-⌋ indef, see Table 16.4, p. 352).
A verb with the fac prefix is shown in (44), page 351. (For pronominal prefix
choice, see §26.2.)

(44) ahęnadáhnyo̱hneˀ
a-hęn-ad-áhny-o̱-hn-e-ˀ
fac-3ns.m.a-srf-hook-put.in.water-disl-go-punc
‘they are going fishing’, ‘are they going fishing?’
cf. ahęnadáhnyohnaˀ
a-hęn-ad-áhny-o̱-hn-aˀ
fac-3ns.m.a-srf-hook-put.in.water-go-punc
‘they went fishing’
cf. ahęnadáhnyo:ˀ
a-hęn-ad-áhny-o-:ˀ
fac-3ns.m.a-srf-hook-put.in.water-punc
‘they fished’

As summarized in Table 16.4, the ⌊ę-⌋ fut and ⌊a:-⌋ indef forms require a ⌊-:k⌋
modz suffix. (Factual forms cannot co-occur with the modalizer).

351
16 e-verbs

Table 16.4: Dislocative e-verb, punctual forms

mood pron verb-disl ⌊e⌋ aspect

fac-punc disl e-verb ⌊aˀ-⌋ verb-disl ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋
fac punc
fut-punc disl e-verb ⌊ę-⌋ verb-disl ⌊e⌋ ⌊-:k⌋
fut punc.modz
indef-punc disl e-verb ⌊a:-⌋ verb-disl ⌊e⌋ ⌊-:k⌋
indef punc.modz

⌊aˀ-…verb-disl-e-ˀ⌋
Three-aspect punctual forms of dislocative e-verbs can take the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac. Such
verbs have an intentional future reading (45).

(45) a. agatrǫnyáhneˀ
a-g-at-hrǫny-á-hn-e-ˀ
fac-1s.a-srf-tell-disl-go-punc
‘I am going to go there and tell’
b. agékdǫ̱hneˀ
a-gé-kdǫ̱-hn-e-ˀ
fac-1s.a-examine-disl-go-punc
‘I am going to see it’
c. agaesá:keˀ
a-gae-ihsák-h-e-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-seek-disl-go-punc
‘they are going to look for it’, ‘are they going to look for it?’
d. ahayętwáhseˀ ‘he is going to plant’,
a-ha-yętwá-hs-e-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-plant-disl-go-punc
‘is he going to plant?’
e. agagyǫ̱ˀséheˀ
a-g-ag-yǫˀsé-h-e-ˀ
fac-1s.a-srf-visit-disl-go-punc
‘I am going to go visit’

352
 16.4 Dislocative e-verbs

These verbs can be used either for asking about someone’s actions and current
intentions or to state the same (46a). They can be explicitly turned into questions
by adding the question word gęh (46b).

(46) a. ahęnadáhnyo̱hneˀ
a-hęn-ad-áhny-o̱-hn-e-ˀ
fac-3ns.m.a-srf-hook-put.in.water-disl-go-punc
‘they are going fishing’, ‘are they going fishing?’
cf. ahęnadáhnyohnaˀ
a-hęn-ad-áhny-o̱-hn-aˀ
fac-3ns.m.a-srf-hook-put.in.water-go-punc
‘they went fishing’
cf. ahęnadáhnyo:ˀ
a-hęn-ad-áhny-o-:ˀ
actual-3ns.m.a-srf-hook-put.in.water-punc
‘they (males) fished’
b. ahęnadahnyo̱hnéˀ gęh?
a-hęn-ad-áhny-o̱-hn-e-ˀ gęh
fac-3ns.m.a-srf-hook-put.in.water-disl-go-punc Q
‘are they going fishing?’

Example (47) contrasts dislocative e-verbs (with a dislocative suffix and ⌊e⌋
‘go’), plain dislocative verbs (with just a disl suffix), and regular verbs (without
either suffix).

(47) a. ehsę́da̱ˀdreˀ
e-hs.ę́da̱ˀ-dr-e-ˀ
fac-2s.p.sleep-disl-go-punc
‘you are going to bed’, ‘are you going to bed?’
cf. ęsę́da̱ˀdraˀ
e-hs-ę́da̱ˀ-dr-aˀ
fac-2s.p.sleep-disl-punc
‘you will go to bed’, ‘you will go to sleep’
cf. ęsę́:daˀ
e-hs.ę́:d-aˀ
fac-2s.p.sleep-punc
‘you will sleep’

353
16 e-verbs

b. aˀǫdawę́ˀneˀ
aˀ-ǫ-d-awę́-ˀn-e-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-srf-swim-disl-go-punc
‘she is going swimming’, ‘is she going swimming?’
cf. ęyǫdawę́ˀnaˀ
ę-yǫ-d-awę́-ˀn-aˀ
fut-3s.fi.a-srf-swim-disl-punc
‘she will go swimming’
cf. ęyǫ́dawę:ˀ
ę-yǫ́-d-awę-:ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-srf-swim-punc
‘she will swim’
c. agaesá:keˀ
a-gae-sá:k-h-e-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-seek-disl-go-punc
‘they are going to look for it’, ‘are they going to look for it?’
cf. agaehsá:kaˀ
a-gae-sá:k-h-aˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-seek-disl-punc
‘they went looking for it’
d. ahayętwáhseˀ
a-ha-yętw-áhs-e-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-plant-disl-go-punc
‘he is going to plant’, ‘is he going to plant?’
cf. ęhayętwáhsaˀ
ę-ha-yętw-áhs-aˀ
fut-3s.m.a-plant-disl-punc
‘he will go planting’
cf. ęháyętoˀ
ę-há-yęto-ˀ
fut-3s.m.a-plant-punc
‘he will plant’

354
 16.4 Dislocative e-verbs

⌊ę-/a:-…verb-disl-e-:k⌋
Three-aspect punctual forms of dislocative e-verbs can also take ⌊ę-⌋ fut (48) or
⌊a:-⌋ indef (49) prefixes, in which case they also require the ⌊-:k⌋ modz suffix (see
Table 16.4, p. 352).5
(48) ⌊ę-…verb-disl-e-:k⌋
a. ęgahyagwáhse:k
ę-g-ahya-gw-áhs-e-:k
fut-1s.a-fruit-pick-disl-go-modz
‘I will be a fruit picker’
b. ętayętwáhse:k
ę-t-ha-yętw-áhs-e-:k
fut-cis-3s.m.a-plant-disl-go-modz
‘he will be planting over there’
(49) ⌊a:-…verb-disl-e-:k⌋
a. a:ga̱hyágwa̱hse:k
a:-g-a̱hyá-gw-a̱hs-e-:k
indef-1s.a-fruit-pick-disl-go-modz
‘I might be a fruit picker’
b. ǫ:tayę́twa̱hse:k
ǫ:-t-ha-yętw-a̱hs-e-:k
indef-cis-3s.m.a-plant-disl-go-modz
‘he would be planting over there’
5
There exist some dislocative e-verbs in the punctual which appear to be based on stative-only
verbs. Such verbs do not appear to require the modalizer (i).
(i) a. ⌊ę-…stat.verb-e-ˀ⌋
ękǫ́ˀji ̱hneˀ
ę-k-hǫ́ˀji ̱-hn-e-ˀ
fut-1s.a-dark-disl-go-punc
‘I am going to get dark’
b. ⌊a-…stat.verb-e-ˀ⌋
akǫ́ˀji ̱hneˀ
a-k-hǫ́ji ̱-hn-e-ˀ
fac-1s.a-dark-disl-go-punc
‘I got dark, black (really tanned)’
cf. ga̱hǫ́ˀji:
ga̱-hǫ́ˀji-:
3s.a-dark-stat
‘it is dark-coloured’

355
16 e-verbs

c. a:hayętwa̱hsé:k tsǫ:
a:-ha-yętw-a̱hs-é-:k tsǫ:
indef-3s.m.a-plant-disl-go-modz just
‘just let him keep planting’

16.4.3 Dislocative e-verbs in the stative

Three-aspect stative forms of dislocative e-verbs can take either short-e ⌊e-ˀ⌋ go-
stat or long-e ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋ go-purp-stat combinations, Table 16.5. The short-e ver-
sions have present readings (50), and the long-e versions have past readings (51).
For pronominal prefix choice, see §26.2.
Table 16.5: Dislocative e-verb, stative forms

pron verb-disl ⌊e⌋ purp aspect

disl short-e stat verb-disl ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat
disl long-e stat verb-disl ⌊e⌋ ⌊-:⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat

(50) three-aspect stative, with short ⌊e-ˀ⌋

a. gatrǫ́nya̱hneˀ
g-at-hrǫ́ny-a̱hn-e-ˀ
1s.a-srf-tell-disl-go-stat
‘I have come here to tell’
b. ǫdéˀdǫ̱hneˀ
ǫ-dé-ˀdǫ̱-hn-e-ˀ
3s.fi.a-srf-be.due-disl-go-stat
‘she is about to give birth’
cf. ęyǫ́de̱ˀdǫ:ˀ
ę-yǫ́-de-ˀdǫ-:ˀ
fut-3s.fi.a-srf-be.due-punc
‘when she will be due’
c. de̱hęnatgwáhneˀ
de̱-hęn-at-gw-áhn-e-ˀ
du-3ns.m.a-srf-dance-disl-go-stat
‘they are going to dance’
cf. de̱hę́natkwaˀ
de̱-hę́n-at-gw-haˀ
du-3ns.m.a-srf-dance-hab
‘they dance’ (all the time)

356
 16.5 Progressive verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

d. de̱hohedáhneˀ
de̱-ho-hed-áhn-e-ˀ
du-3s.m.p-yell-disl-go-stat
‘he is going along hollering’
cf. de̱hóhetaˀ
de̱-hó-het-haˀ
du-3s.m.p-yell-hab
‘he is hollering’

(51) three-aspect stative, with long-e ⌊e-:-ˀ⌋

a. gatrǫ́nya̱hne:ˀ
g-at-hrǫ́ny-a̱hn-e-:-ˀ
1s.a-srf-tell-disl-go-purp-stat
‘I came and told’
b. osdéhsda̱hne:ˀ
o-sdéhsd-a̱hn-e-:-ˀ
3s.p-evaporate-disl-go-purp-stat
‘it has gone down’ (i.e. the water level)
cf. ohsdéhsdǫh
o-hsdéhsd-ǫh
3s.p-evaporate-stat
‘it has evaporated, all dried up’

16.5 Progressive verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

Progressive verbs consist of a stative verb base, Table 16.6, followed by the ⌊-h-
ę/ǫ/a-gy-e⌋ euph.h-joiner-prog-go combination, yet more aspect suffixes, and
potentially, mood prefixes. (For the ⌊-ę/ǫ/a⌋ joiner pronunciations, see §19.5.1.)
The stative verb base consists of a ⌊verb-stat⌋ combination (either ⌊verb-ę⌋ or
⌊verb-ǫ⌋), or ⌊verb.V⌋ - a verb stem ending with a vowel other than [ę,ǫ], Ta-
ble 16.6. Since progressive verbs have a stative base, they require p-series pronom-
inal prefixes (also see §26.3). The aspect forms are summarized in Figure 16.1,
page 358, and are described next.6
6
Haǫhyagehdeˀ Deer (p.c.) finds examples of progressive verbs ending with both short-e ⌊ę-
gy-e-ˀ, ǫ-gy-e-ˀ⌋ and long-e ⌊ę-gy-e-:-ˀ⌋, ⌊ǫ-gy-e-:-ˀ⌋ combinations, which resemble the short-e
and long-e endings described earlier. This is the basis for assuming that progressive verbs
are indeed e-verbs. (Steckley 2007: 14 also makes a similar claim for Huron.) That being said,
combinations of progressive verbs ending with long ⌊ę-gy-e-:-ˀ⌋ or ⌊ǫ-gy-e-:-ˀ⌋ are not attested
in the database used in this book.

357
16 e-verbs

Table 16.6: Progressives - stative verb base

pronominal stem aspect

p verb stem ⌊-ǫ⌋ stat
p verb stem ⌊-ę⌋ stat
p verb stem.V stat

mood stat base joiner prog ⌊e⌋ aspect

(p-verb-(stat)) suffix
stat prog stat base joiner ⌊-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋
stat
punc prog ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac stat base joiner ⌊-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋
or punc
⌊ę-⌋ fut
or
⌊a:-⌋ indef
hab prog stat base joiner ⌊-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋
hab
Figure 16.1: Progressives (overview)

16.5.1 Stative progressive

stative progressives consist of a stative verb base (Table 16.6) followed by the ⌊-
h-ę/ǫ/a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat combination (Table 16.6, Table 16.7,
and examples 52-53, beginning on page 359). Bases ending with Ǫ take the ⌊-h-
ǫ-gy-e-ˀ⌋ euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat combination (52) and ones ending with
Ę take the ⌊-h-ę-gy-e-ˀ⌋ euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat combination (53). In con-
trast, verb bases ending with V take the [-h-a-gy-e-ˀ] euph.h-joinerA-prog-
go-stat combination (54). Like other stative-aspect verbs, these verbs require
p-series pronominal prefixes (see §26.3).
Stative-progressive verbs have a “present progressive” or ‘…is -ing’ meaning.
For comparison, these and other statives are shown in the following examples.

358
 16.5 Progressive verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

Table 16.7: stative progressive

stat base prog ⌊e⌋ aspect

p-verb⌊-ǫ⌋ ⌊-h-ǫ-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat
euphonic.h-joiner-prog
p-verb⌊-ę⌋ ⌊-h-ę-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat
euphonic.h-joiner-prog
p-verb.V ⌊h-a-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat
euphonic.h-joiner-prog

(52) ⌊-ǫ-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ⌋
a. sa̱hohdęgyǫ́hǫgyeˀ
sa̱-ho-hdęgy-ǫ́-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ
rep-3s.m.p-leave-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘he is on his way home’
cf. hesáhdęgyǫ:
he-s-áhdęgy-ǫ:
transl-2s.p-leave-stat
‘you went over there’
b. otsihsˀǫ̱hǫ́:gyeˀ
o-tsihsˀ-ǫ̱-h-ǫ́:-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-mature-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘it is getting mature’
cf. otsíhsˀǫh
o-tsíhsˀ-ǫh
3s.p-mature-stat
‘it is done for the season’, ‘it has gone full cycle’, ‘it is mature’, ‘they (plants)
have finished out’
c. hodǫgo̱hdǫ́hǫgyeˀ
ho-d-ǫgo̱hd-ǫ́-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ
3s.m.p-srf-surpass-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘he is going along passing’
cf. hodǫ́go̱hdǫh
ho-d-ǫ́go̱hd-ǫh
3s.m.p-srf-surpass-stat
‘he has gone past’
d. go̱hdogadǫ́hǫgyeˀ
go̱-hdogad-ǫ́-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ
3s.fi.p-cause.to.grow-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘she is growing something’

359
16 e-verbs

cf. ǫgahdǫgáˀdǫh
ǫg-ahǫgáˀd-ǫh
3fis:1s-raise-stat
‘she (e.g. a guardian) raised me’
e. niyagotgęihsdǫ́hǫgyeˀ
ni-yago-t-gęihsd-ǫ́-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ
part-3s.fi.p-srf-move.ahead-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘she is travelling as she is moving’
cf. gagę́ihsdǫh
ga-gę́ihsd-ǫh
3s.a-move.ahead-stat
‘postponement’
f. odaˀgra̱hdǫ́hǫgyeˀ
o-d-aˀgra̱hd-ǫ́-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-srf-float-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘it is surfacing’
cf. odáˀgra̱hdǫh
o-d-áˀgra̱hd-ǫh
3s.p-srf-float-stat
‘it is floating’

(53) ⌊-ę-h-ę-gy-e-ˀ⌋
a. agade̱ˀgwę́hęgyeˀ
ag-ade̱-ˀgw-ę́-h-ę-gy-e-ˀ
1s.p-srf-run.away-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘I am running away again’
cf. agáde̱ˀgwęh
ag-áde̱-ˀgw-ęh
1s.p-srf-run.away-stat
‘I am running away’
b. da̱hodawę́hęgyeˀ
da̱-ho-d-aw-ę́-h-ę-gy-e-ˀ
cis-3s.m.p-srf-swim-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘he is swimming towards us’
cf. hodá:węh
ho-d-á:w-ęh
3s.m.p-srf-swim-stat
‘he did swim’

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 16.5 Progressive verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

(54) ⌊V-h-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋
a. go̱hsganye̱há:gyeˀ
go̱-hsganye̱-h-á:-gy-e-ˀ
3s.fi.p-shuffle-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘she is shuffling along’
cf. gohsga:nye:ˀ
go-hsgá:nye-:ˀ
3s.fi.p-shuffle-stative
‘she has shuffled’
b. sagawe̱há:gyeˀ
sa-gawe̱-h-á:-gy-e-ˀ
2s.p-paddle-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘you are paddling along’
cf. agégaweˀ
agé-gawe-ˀ
1s.p-paddle-stat
‘I have paddled, are paddling’
c. agyǫdi ̱há:gyeˀ
ag-yǫdi ̱-h-á:-gy-e-ˀ
1s.p-smile-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘I am going along smiling’
cf. hoyǫ́gyǫ̱hne:ˀ
ho-yǫgy-ǫ̱-hne:ˀ
3s.m.p-smile-stat-rem
‘he has already smiled, ‘he did smile’
d. ęjisadekǫníhagyeˀ
ę-ji-s-ade-k-ǫní-h-a-gy-e-ˀ
fut-rep-2s.p-srf-food-make-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘you can (literally, ‘will’) eat while you are going along’
cf. hode:kǫ́:ni:
ho-de:-k-ǫ́:ni-:
3s.m.p-srf-food-make-stat
‘he is eating’

⌊-dagyeˀ⌋, ⌊-ędagyeˀ⌋, ⌊-odagyeˀ⌋, ⌊-ǫdagyeˀ⌋, ⌊-oˀkd-agyeˀ⌋

Several positional verbs (a thematic category of stative-only verb) often take sta-
tive progressive forms. Examples illustrating the range of meanings are provided
below.

361
16 e-verbs

(55) ⌊d-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ stand-joinerA-prog-go-stat ‘continue on, be ongoing’

gaǫhyadá:gyeˀ
ga-ǫhya-d-á:-gy-e-ˀ
3s.a-sky-stand.stat-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘on-going skies, heavens, skyline, horizon’

(56) ⌊ę-d-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ lie-euph.d-joinerA-prog-go-stat (the meaning depends

on which noun is incorporated)
a. onǫnyáędagyeˀ
o-nǫnyá-ę-d-a-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-ice-lie.stat-euph.d-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘it is freezing’
cf. onǫ́nyaęˀ
o-nǫ́ny-a-ęˀ
3s.p-ice-joinerA-lie.stat
‘it is frozen’
b. awęnowaędá:gyeˀ
aw-ęnowa-ę-d-á:-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-sink-lie.stat-euph.d-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘it is sinking’
cf. ęwęnǫwáęˀ
ę-w-ęnǫw-á-ę-ˀ
fut-3s.a-sink-joinerA-lie.stat-punc
‘it will sink’

(57) ⌊od-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ stand-joinerA-prog-go-stat (the meaning depends on

which noun is incorporated)
a. degahsdę̱ hódagyeˀ
de-ga-hsdę̱ h-ód-a-gy-e-ˀ
du-3s.a-stone-standing.stat-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘mountain range, the Rockies’
b. gajiˀdodá:gyeˀ
ga-jiˀd-od-á:-gy-e-ˀ
3s.a-cry-standing.stat-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘someone is going along crying’
cf. gajíˀdo:t
ga-jíˀd-o:t
3s.a-cry-stand.stat
‘it is crying’

362
 16.5 Progressive verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

c. desatnǫ̱hweˀtsodá:gyeˀ
de-s-at-nǫ̱hweˀts-od-á:-gy-e-ˀ
du-2s.a-srf-noun-stand.stat-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘you are going along doing handstands’
cf. dęsatnǫ̱hwe:tsó:dǫˀ
d-ę-s-at-nǫ̱hwe:ts-ó:d-ǫˀ
du-fut-2s.a-srf-noun-stand.stat-distr
‘you will do a hand stand, turn yourself upside down’

(58) ⌊ǫd-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ attached-joinerA-prog-go-stat ‘a series of embedded

objects’
a. dewaˀdęhǫ́dagyeˀ
de-w-aˀdęh-ǫ́d-a-gy-e-ˀ
du-3s.a-fence-rooted.stat-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘wood fence, rail and stump fence’
b. honhǫ́dagyeˀ
ho-nhǫ́d-a-gy-e-ˀ
3s.m.p-opening-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘he has it in his mouth as he moves’
cf. ohsgyę́ˀdanhǫ:t
o-hsgyę́:ˀd-a-nhǫ:t
3s.p-bones-joinerA-opening.stat
‘false teeth’ (literally, ‘a mouth full of bones’)

(59) ⌊oˀkd-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ end-joinerA-prog-go-stat ‘a running edge’

odóˀkdagyeˀ
o-d-óˀkd-a-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-srf-end.stat-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘rim’, ‘outer and inner rim splint’, ‘along the edge’

16.5.2 Punctual progressive

punctual progressives consist of a stative verb base (Table 16.6) followed by the
⌊-h-ę/-ǫ-/a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ euph.h-joiner-prog-go-punc combination, Table 16.8. Bases
ending with Ę take the ⌊-h-ę-gy-e-ˀ⌋ combination (61c), and ones ending with Ǫ
take the ⌊-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ⌋ combination (60), (61a–61b). In contrast, verbs ending with
V take the ⌊-h-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ combination (63).
Punctual progressives require an ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac, ⌊ę-⌋ fut, or ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefix (60–
61). The factual punctual progressives have a “factual-present” or performative

363
16 e-verbs

Table 16.8: Punctual progressive

mood stat base prog ⌊e⌋ aspect

(p-verb(-stat))
⌊ę-⌋ fut p-verb-ǫ ⌊-h-ǫ-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc or
⌊aˀ-⌋ fac euph.h-joiner- ⌊-:k⌋
⌊a:-⌋ indef prog punc.modz

⌊ę-⌋ fut p-verb-ę ⌊-h-ę-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc or

⌊aˀ-⌋ fac euph.h-joiner- ⌊-:k⌋
⌊a:-⌋ indef prog punc.modz

⌊ę-⌋ fut p-verb.V ⌊-h-a-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc or

⌊aˀ-⌋ fac euph.h- ⌊-:k⌋
⌊a:-⌋ indef joinerA-prog punc.modz

meaning (60, see §12.1.1). Like other stative-aspect verbs, these verbs require p-
series pronominal prefixes (see §26.3).
In at least one instance, the ⌊a:-⌋ indef form also requires a ⌊-:k⌋ modz suffix
(compare 62 and 63).

(60) ⌊aˀ-…stat.base-prog-e-ˀ⌋
ǫgyaˀda̱hshęˀǫhǫ́:gyeˀ
ǫg-yaˀd-a̱hshęˀ-ǫ-h-ǫ́:-gy-e-ˀ
fac.1s.p-body-slow-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-punc
‘I am arriving late’
cf. ǫgyáˀda̱hshęˀ
ǫg-yáˀd-a̱hshę-ˀ
factual.1s.p-body-slow-punc
‘I was late’

(61) ⌊ę-…stat.base-prog-e-ˀ⌋
a. ęyago̱hdogadǫ́hǫgyeˀ
ę-yago̱-hdogad-ǫ́-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ
fut-3s.fi.p-cause.to.grow-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-punc
‘she will be continually growing it or them’

364
 16.5 Progressive verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

b. ęwaga̱hyagǫ̱hǫ́:gyeˀ
ę-wag-a̱hya-g-ǫ̱-h-ǫ́:-gy-e-ˀ
fut-1s.p-fruit-eat-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘I will be eating fruit as I am going along’
c. dęyago̱ˀnya:gwę́hęgyeˀ
d-ę-yago̱-ˀnya:-gw-ę́-h-ę-gy-e-ˀ
du-fut-3s.fi.p-hand-pick-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-punc
‘she will have a hand in it’

(62) ⌊a:-…stat.base-prog-e-ˀ⌋
a:wagahyagwę́hęgyeˀ
a:-wag-ahya-gw-ę́-h-ę-gy-e-ˀ
indef-1s.p-fruit-pick-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-punc
‘I should be picking fruit along’

(63) ⌊a:-…stat.base-prog-e-:k⌋
a:wagatrowíhagye:k
a:-wag-at-hrowí-h-a-gy-e-:k
indef-1s.p-srf-tell.stat-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-modz

16.5.3 Habitual progressive

Habitual progressives consist of a consist of a stative verb base (Table 16.6) fol-
lowed by the ⌊-h-ę/-ǫ-/a-gy-e-ˀs⌋ euph.h-joiner-prog-go-hab combination, Ta-
ble 16.9. Bases ending with Ǫ take the ⌊-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀs⌋ combination (64), and ones
ending with Ę take the ⌊-h-ę-gy-e-ˀs⌋ combination (65). In contrast, bases ending
with V take the ⌊-h-a-gy-e-ˀs⌋ euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-hab combination (66).
Like other stative verbs, these verbs require p-series pronominal prefixes (see
§26.3).

Table 16.9: Habitual progressive

stat base (p-verb-(stat)) prog ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ aspect

p-verb-ǫ ⌊-h-ǫ-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋ hab
euph.h-joiner-prog
p-verb-ę ⌊-h-ę-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋ hab
euph.h-joiner-prog
p-verb.V ⌊-h-a-gy⌋ ⌊e⌋ ⌊-ˀs⌋ hab
euph.h-joinerA-prog

365
16 e-verbs

Habitual progressives describe an ongoing, continuous activity.

(64) ⌊-ǫ-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀs⌋
a. deyǫkiyęˀnyadǫ́hǫgyeˀs
de-yǫkiy-ę-ˀnya-d-ǫ́-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀs
du-3fis/3ns:1ns-srf-hand-stand-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-hab
‘they protect us’
cf. deyǫkiyę́ˀnyadǫˀ
de-yǫkiy-ę́-ˀnya-d-ǫˀ
dualic-they:us-srf-hand-stand.stat-pl
‘they protect us with their hands’, ‘angels’
b. honadahsehdǫ̱hǫ́:gyeˀs
hon-ad-ahsehd-ǫ̱-h-ǫ́:-gy-e-ˀs
3ns.m.p-srf-hide-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-hab
‘they are sneaking around’
cf. agada̱hséhdǫh
ag-ad-a̱hséhd-ǫh
1s.p-srf-hide-stat
‘I am hiding now’

(65) ⌊…ę-h-ę-gy-e-ˀs⌋
a. agahyagwę́hęgyeˀs
ag-ahya-gw-ę́-h-ę-gy-e-ˀs
1s.p-fruit-pick-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-hab
‘I am going along picking fruit all over the place’
cf. agahyagwę́hęgyeˀ
ag-ahya-gw-ę́-h-ę-gy-e-ˀ
1s.p-fruit-pick-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘I am going along picking fruit’
b. sadeˀgwę̱ hę́:gyeˀs
sa-de-ˀgw-ę̱ -h-ę́:-gy-e-ˀs
2s.p-srf-flee-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-hab
‘you are avoiding’
cf. ęhsáde̱ˀgoˀ
ę-hs-áde̱-ˀgo-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-flee-punc
‘you will flee, run away’
c. deyǫgwa̱hgwę́hęgyeˀs
de-yǫgw-a̱hgw-ę́-h-ę-gy-e-ˀs
1p.p-pick.up-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-hab
‘we all are continually picking it up’

366
 16.5 Progressive verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’

cf. de̱hoya̱ˀdáhgwęh
de̱-ho-ya̱ˀd-áhgw-ęh
du-3s.m.p-body-pick.up-stat
‘it picked him up’

(66) ⌊…V-h-a-gy-e-ˀs⌋
honǫni ̱há:gyeˀs
hon-ǫni ̱-h-á:-gy-e-ˀs
3ns.m.p-make-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-hab
‘they are making, earning it’ (continually)
cf. tiwa:gǫ́:ni:
ti-wa:g-ǫ:ni-:
contr-1s.p-make-stat
‘I have made it in place of something else, replaced it’

Past habitual progressive

Past habitual progressives take the [-gęhę:ˀ] past ending (§15.6), Table 16.10,
page 367. Unlike other progressive verbs, these ones can take either a p-series
(67) or a-series (68) pronominal prefixes. Possibly, the ones with a p-series prefix
describe a past habitual activity, while the ones with an a-series prefix describe
a past profession.
Table 16.10: Past habitual progressive

hab prog base post-aspect

⌊p-verb-ǫ-h-ǫ-gyeˀs⌋ ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past
⌊p-verb-ę-h-ę-gyeˀs⌋
⌊p-verb.V-h-a-gyeˀs⌋
⌊a-verb-ǫ-h-ǫ-gyeˀs⌋ ⌊-gęhę:ˀ⌋ past
⌊a-verb-ę-h-ę-gyeˀs⌋
⌊a-verb.V-h-a-gyeˀs⌋

(67) ⌊p-…hab.prog.base-gęhę:ˀ⌋
agahyagwęhęgyéˀsgę̱ hę:ˀ
ag-ahya-gw-ę-h-ę-gy-é-ˀs-gę̱ hę:ˀ
1s.p-fruit-pick-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-hab-past
‘I used to go along picking fruit’ (but I no longer do)

367
16 e-verbs

(68) ⌊a-…hab.prog.base-gęhę:ˀ⌋
ga̱hyagwę̱ hęgye̱ˀsgę́hę:ˀ
g-a̱hya-gw-ę̱ -h-ę-gy-e̱-ˀs-gę́hę:ˀ
1s.a-fruit-pick-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-hab-past
‘I used to be a fruit picker’

Indefinite and (possible) future habitual progressive

Indefinite habitual progressive verbs consist of an ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefix, a habitual
progressive base, and a ⌊-:k⌋ modz suffix (Table 16.11 and example 69). (Forms
with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut prefix – as in hypothetical ęwaga̱ hyagwę̱hę́gye̱ˀse:k – may be
possible, because words with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut prefix are typically possible when the
same word with the ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefix is attested.)
Table 16.11: Indefinite and (possible) future habitual progressive

mood hab prog base post-aspect

⌊ę-⌋ fut or ⌊p-verb-ǫ-h-ǫ-gyeˀs⌋ ⌊-e:k⌋ modz
⌊a:-⌋ indef ⌊p-verb-ę-h-ę-gyeˀs⌋
⌊p-verb-V-h-a-gyeˀs⌋

(69) ⌊a:-p-hab.prog.base-e:k⌋
a:wagahyagwęhęgyéˀse:k
a:-wag-ahya-gw-ę-h-ę-gy-é-ˀs-e:k
indef-1s.p-fruit-pick-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-hab-modz
‘I would (still) have been picking fruit…’

368
17 Negation
Negation turns affirmative statements (or verbs) into negative ones. Affirmative
statements are “true” in some sense, while negative statements (also verbs) ex-
press the opposite of affirmative ones. Negation is summarized in Table 17.1. (The
verb categories in Table 17.1 are described in §9.3.)
Table 17.1: Negation

positive negative
habitual ⌊verb-hab⌋ ⌊neg-verb-hab⌋
stative and ⌊verb-stat⌋ ⌊neg-verb-stat⌋
factual punctual ⌊fac-verb-punc⌋
future punctual and ⌊future-verb-punc⌋ ⌊contr-indef-verb-no_aspect⌋
indefinite punctual ⌊indef-verb-punc⌋

As shown in Table 17.1, there are two distinct ways to negate verbs: habitual-
and stative-aspect verbs just take the ⌊deˀ-⌋ neg prefix, without any further
modification (1–3). (The particle tęˀ ‘not’ is always optional.)

(1) ⌊(tęˀ) neg-verb-hab⌋ (three-aspect habitual)

a. tęˀ de̱ˀagyade:kǫ́:nih
tęˀ de̱ˀ-agy-ade:-kǫ́:ni-h
not neg-1d.ex.a-srf-eat-hab
‘we two do not eat’
cf. gaǫdekǫ́:nih
gaǫ-de-kǫ́:ni-h
3ns.fi.a-srf-eat-hab
‘they (f/m) eat’ (regularly)
b. tęˀ de̱ˀaknigǫháędaˀs
tęˀ de̱ˀ-ak-nigǫháęd-a-ˀs
not neg-1s.p-understand-joinerA-hab
‘I do not understand’
17 Negation

cf. aknigǫ̱háędaˀs
ak-nigǫ̱háęd-a-ˀs
1s.p-understand-joinerA-hab
‘I understand’
c. tęˀ degé:gęhs
tęˀ de-gé:-gę-hs
not neg-1s.a-see-hab
‘I do not see things’
cf. gé:gęhs
gé:-gę-hs
1s.a-see-hab
‘I see things’

(2) ⌊(tęˀ) neg-verb-stat⌋ (three-aspect stative)

tęˀ dewa:kní:nǫh, tęˀ de̱ˀa:kní:nǫh
tęˀ de-wa:k/ˀa:k-hní:nǫ-h
not neg-1s.p-buy-stat
‘I did not buy it’
cf. akní:nǫh
ak-hní:nǫ-h
1s.p-buy-stat
‘I did buy it’

(3) ⌊(tęˀ) neg-verb.stat⌋ (stative-only verb)

tęˀ degá:nǫ:ˀ
tęˀ de-gá:-nǫ:ˀ
not neg-3sg.a-costly.stat
‘it is not costly’
cf. ganǫ:ˀ
ga-nǫ:ˀ
3s.a-costly.stative
‘it is expensive, dear, precious’

Punctual verbs (§9.3) are negated differently than habitual or stative ones: for
factual-punctual verbs (§15.5), the negative counterpart is the negative three-
aspect stative form of the same verb (4). In other words, affirmative factual-
punctual forms (4) and affirmative stative-aspect forms (5) share the same nega-
tive form.

370
 (4) ⌊(tęˀ) neg-verb-stat⌋ (negative of the factual-punctual)
tęˀ de̱hóyętwęh
tęˀ de̱-hó-yętw-ęh
not neg-3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he did not plant’
cf. aháyętoˀ
a-há-yęto-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-plant-punc
‘he did plant’

(5) ⌊(tęˀ) neg-verb-stat⌋ (negative of the affirmative stative)

tęˀ de̱hóyętwęh
tęˀ de̱-hó-yętw-ęh
not neg-3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he did not plant’
cf. hoyę́:twęh
ho-yę́:tw-ęh
3s.m.p-plant-stat
‘he is planting’

For future-punctuals and indefinite-punctuals (§15.5), the negative counterpart

begins with the ⌊ta:-⌋ contr-indef combination and lacks an aspect suffix (6-7.
These are no-aspect forms (§9.3.3).
(6) ⌊(tęˀ) contr-indefinite-verb-no_aspect⌋ (negative of the
future-punctual)
a. tęˀ ta:gaesayę́:de:
tęˀ t-a:-gaesa-yę́:de:-ø
not contr-indef-3ns>2s-recognize-no_aspect
‘they will not recognize you’
cf. ęgyę́:de:ˀ
ę-g-yę́:de:-ˀ
fut-1s.a-recognize-punc
‘I will recognize it’
b. tęˀ ta:gé:gęh
tęˀ t-a:-gé:-gę-h
not contr-indef-1s.a-see-euph.h/no_aspect
‘I will not or should not see it’
cf. ęgé:gęˀ
ę-gé:-gę-ˀ
fut-1s.a-see-punc
‘I will see it’

371
17 Negation

(7) ⌊(tęˀ) contr-indefinite-verb-no_aspect⌋ (negative of the

indefinite-punctual)
a. tęˀ ta:gatgáhtoh
tęˀ t-a:-g-at-gáhto-h
not contr-indef-1s.a-srf-see-euph.h/no_aspect
‘I should not (or will not) look at it’
b. tęˀ ta:kní:nǫh
tęˀ t-a:-k-hní:nǫ-h
not contr-indef-1s.a-buy-euph.h/no_aspect
‘I should not or will not buy it’
cf. e:hsní:nǫˀ
e:-hs-hní:nǫ-ˀ
indef-2s.a-buy-punc
‘you would buy, purchase it’
c. tęˀ ta:gé:gęh
tęˀ t-a:-gé:-gę-h
not contr-indef-1s.a-see-euph.h/no_aspect
‘I will not or should not see it’
cf. a:gé:gęˀ
a:-gé:-gę-ˀ
indef-1s.a-see-punc
‘I should (etc.) see it’

17.1 Negation of verb forms based on the three major

aspects
Verbs variations based on the three major aspects (§15.6) also have negative ver-
sions. In general, the system is the same as for three-aspect verbs. For example,
the negative of any affirmative habitual or affirmative stative variation begins
with ⌊deˀ-⌋ neg (8).

(8) negation of variations on habitual and stative forms

a. tęˀ degatrowíhsgę̱ hę:
tęˀ de-g-at-hrowí-hs-gę̱ hę:ˀ
not neg-1s.a-srf-tell-hab-past
‘I didn’t used to tell’

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 17.1 Negation of verb forms based on the three major aspects

cf. gatrowihsgę́hę:ˀ
g-at-hrowi-hs-gę́hę:ˀ
1s.a-srf-tell-hab-past
‘I used to tell’
b. tęˀ dewagatrowi ̱há:gyeˀs
tęˀ de-wag-at-hrowi ̱-h-á:-gy-e-ˀs
not neg-1s.p-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-hab
‘I am not going along telling here and there’
cf. agatrowíhagyeˀs
ag-at-hrowí-h-a-gy-e-ˀs
1s.p-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-hab
‘I am going along telling here and there’
c. tęˀ deˀagatrówi ̱hne:ˀ
tęˀ deˀ-ag-at-hrówi ̱-hne:ˀ
not neg-1s.p-srf-tell.stat-past
‘I haven’t/hadn’t told’
cf. agatrowíhne:ˀ
ag-at-hrowí-hne:ˀ
1s.p-srf-tell.stat-past
‘I have/had told’

Similarly, any affirmative verb beginning with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut or ⌊a:-⌋ indef, and
ending with a ⌊-:k⌋ modz takes the ⌊ta:-⌋ contr-indef combination (9).

(9) negation of [ę/a:-…:k] fut/indef…modz verbs

a. tęˀ ta:gatrówi ̱ha:k
tęˀ t-a:-g-at-hrówi ̱-h-a-:k
not contr-indef-1s.a-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-modz
‘I won’t/wouldn’t be a teller’, I won’t/wouldn’t tell all the time’
cf. ęgatrowíha:k
ę-g-at-hrowí-h-a:-k
fut-1s.a-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-modz
‘I will be a teller’, ‘I’ll tell all the time’
cf. a:gatrówi ̱ha:k
a:-g-at-hrówi ̱-h-a-:k
indef-1s.a-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-modz
‘I would be a teller’, ‘I would tell all the time’
b. tęˀ ta:wagatrowíha:k
tęˀ t-a:-wag-at-hrowí-h-a-:k
not neg-indef-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-modz
‘I wouldn’t have told’

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17 Negation

cf. ęwagatrówi ̱ha:k

ę-wag-at-hrówi ̱-h-a-:k
fut-1s.p-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-modz
‘I will have told’
c. tęˀ ta:waga:tró:wi:k
tęˀ t-a:-wag-a:t-hró:wi-:k
not contr-indef-1s.p-srf-tell.stat-modz
‘I shouldn’t have told’
cf. a:waga:tró:wi:k
a:-wag-a:t-hró:wi-:k
indef-1s.p-srf-tell.stat-modz
‘I should have told’
d. tęˀ ta:gatrowi ̱hágye̱ˀse:k
tęˀ t-a:-g-at-hrowi ̱-h-á-gy-e̱-ˀs-e:k
not neg-indef-1s.a-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-hab-modz
‘I still wouldn’t have been going along telling’
cf. ęwagatrowi ̱hágye̱ˀse:k
ę-wag-at-hrowi ̱-h-á-gy-e̱-ˀs-e:k
fut-1s.p-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-hab-modz
‘I will still have been going along telling’
cf. a:wagatrowihagyéˀse:k
a:-wag-at-hrowi-h-a-gy-é-ˀs-e:k
indef-1s.p-srf-tell-euph.h-prog-hab-modz
‘I should still have been going along telling’

Finally, the negative of any affirmative verb beginning with the ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac and
ending with the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc, is a stative form beginning with ⌊deˀ-⌋ neg (10).

(10) negation of ⌊aˀ-…-ˀ⌋ fac-…-punc forms

tęˀ dewagatrowi ̱há:gyeˀ
tęˀ de-wag-at-hrowi ̱-h-á:-gy-e-ˀ
not neg-1s.p-srf-tell.stat-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘I haven’t gone along telling’
cf. ǫgatrowíhagyeˀ
ǫg-at-hrowí-h-a-gy-e-ˀ
fac.1s.p-srf-tell-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-punc
‘I went along telling’

374
18 Miscellaneous word formation topics
The following sections summarize where to find out about the various construc-
tions that denote possession, plurality, and location.

18.1 Possession
The concept of possession or ownership is described in the sections listed below.

Related

⇒ “Possessive pronouns”, §6.2

⇒ Possessed nouns, §22.2
⇒ Possessed basic nouns (p-series), §22.2.1
⇒ Possessed body part nouns (a-series), §22.2.2
⇒ Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes, §23.3
⇒ Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs, §24
⇒ Neuter stative-only verbs, incorporating, conveying possession, §24.2.7

18.2 Pluralizing
There are many ways to pluralize or convey the idea that more than one object
is involved. They are described in the sections listed below.

Related
⇒ Pluralizers, §10.15
⇒ ⌊-sǫ:ˀǫh⌋ (pluralizer), §10.15.1
⇒ ⌊-sǫˀ⌋ (pluralizer), §10.15.2
18 Miscellaneous word formation topics

⇒ Meaning of ⌊-sǫˀ⌋ versus ⌊-sǫ:ˀǫh⌋, §10.15.3

⇒ Pluralizing nouns, §10.15.4
⇒ The ⌊s-, j-, ji-⌋ (repetitive) prefix, §12.2.4
⇒ ⌊haˀde-pronominal prefix-incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘every, many, a
variety of incorporated nouns’, §12.2.5
⇒ ⌊-ǫ⌋, ⌊-nyǫ⌋, ⌊-ǫ-nyǫ⌋, ⌊-hnǫ⌋, ⌊-hsǫ⌋, ⌊-drǫ⌋, ⌊-srǫ⌋ (distributives),
§15.1.2
⇒ ⌊-ˀs⌋ (stative verb pluralizer), §15.7.1
⇒ Comparisons, counting, measuring, §31
⇒ Numbers and money, §D.15

18.3 Location
The concept of location is mainly conveyed through the suffixes described in the
sections listed below.

Related

⇒ ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ (external locative), §10.1

⇒ ⌊-hneh⌋ (external locative), §10.2
⇒ ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ versus ⌊-hneh⌋, §10.3
⇒ ⌊-gǫ:⌋ (internal locative), §11.2.1
⇒ ⌊-:kˀah⌋ (‘beside’ locative), §11.2.2
⇒ ⌊-kdagyeˀ⌋ (‘alongside’ locative), §11.2.3

The prefixes listed below also refer to types of locations, for example ⌊ni-⌋
part ‘somewhere’, ⌊d-⌋ cis ‘here’ and ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl ‘there’.

Related

⇒ The ⌊ni-⌋ (partitive) prefix, §12.2.3

⇒ ⌊d-⌋ (cislocative) and ⌊heˀ-⌋ (translocative) prefixes, §12.2.5

376
 18.3 Location

Several verbs also inherently imply a direction (‘down’, ‘up’, ‘from’). Some
examples are provided in (1).

(1) a. sa̱hsnęht
s-a̱hsnęht
2s.a-descend.no_aspect
‘get down from there’
b. satgęh
s-at-gęh
2s.a-srf-awaken.no_aspect
‘get up’
c. dwagáhdęgyǫ:
d-wag-áhdęgy-ǫ:
cis-1s.p-leave-stat
‘(where) I come from’
d. dwada:dǫ́:nih
d-w-ada:d-ǫ́:ni-h
cis-3s.a-refl-make-hab
‘where it starts from’
e. dęyehgwa̱ˀdáhnǫ:ˀ
d-ę-ye-hgw-a̱-ˀd-á-hnǫ-:ˀ
du-fut-3s.fi.a-lift.up-joinerA-caus-joinerA-distr-punc
‘she will raise or lift things up’

And finally, the following sections also convey concepts related to location.

Related

⇒ “Demonstrative pronouns”, §6.3

⇒ “Adverbs” of place, §8.3
⇒ Neuter stative-only positional verbs, with incorporated noun, §24.2.4

377
19 Sound changes in word formation
Sound changes in word formation involve adjusting prefixes, suffixes, and stems
for ease of pronunciation (or euphony, adj. euphonic). The types of sound change
are described in the following sections.

19.1 Simplifying two consonants to one

For ease of pronunciation, two consonants are simplified to one at the end of
verbs. For example, the ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc deletes after consonant-final verb stems (⌊ganyaˀg⌋
in 1a, or ⌊hrih⌋ in 2a), but is pronounced after verb stems ending with a vowel
(⌊hní:nǫ⌋ in 3).

(1) ⌊…ganyaˀg-ˀ⌋ simplified to ⌊…ganyaˀk-ø⌋

a. aˀéganyaˀk
aˀ-e-ganyaˀg-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-pay-punc
‘she paid’
b. gagánya̱ˀgǫh
ga-ga-nya̱ˀg-ǫh
3s.a-price-pay-stat
‘payment’

(2) ⌊hrih-ˀ⌋ simplified to ⌊hrih-ø⌋

a. hękrih
h-ę-k-hrih-ˀ
transl-fut-1s.a-pour-punc
‘I will pour’
b. gahíhǫh
ga-hríh-ǫh
3s.a-spill-stat
‘it is spilled’
19 Sound changes in word formation

(3) no simplification for ⌊…ǫ-ˀ⌋ (etc.)

a. akní:nǫˀ
a-k-hní:nǫ-ˀ
fac-1s.a-buy-punc
‘I did buy it’
b. ękní:nǫˀ
ę-k-hní:nǫ-ˀ
fut-1s.a-buy-punc
‘I will buy it’

To avoid [ks] and [ts] at the end of a word, [k] or [t] deletes before the ⌊-s⌋
hab suffix (4), (5).1

(4) [ts] simplified to [s]

hadó:wa:s
h-adó:wa:t-s
3s.m.a-hunt-hab ([t] deleted)
‘he is a hunter’
cf. ęha:dó:wa:t
ę-h-a:dó:wa:t-ˀ
fut-3s.m.a-hunt-punc ([t] is not deleted, but the [-ˀ] punc is deleted)
‘he will hunt’

(5) [ks] simplified to [s]

gi ̱hsa:s
g-i ̱hsa:k-s
1s.a-look.for-hab ([k] deleted)
‘I am looking for it’
cf. ęgíhsa:k
ę-g-íhsa:k-ˀ
fut-1s.a-look-punc ([k] is not deleted, but the [-ˀ] punc is deleted)
‘I will look for it’

1
In contrast, speakers of other Ǫgwehǫ́:weh languages keep word-final [ts] or [ks], as shown by
the following Kanien’kéha (Mohawk) examples.

(i) a. rató:rats
‘he is a hunter’
b. í:keks
‘I am eating something’

380
 19.2 Preserving, merging, and deleting vowels

19.2 Preserving, merging, and deleting vowels

Two vowels in a row are avoided, particularly between a pronominal prefix and
stem. Vowels are either merged or deleted to achieve this result. For example,
prefix-final [i] and stem [i] simplify to just one [i] sound (6a). In contrast, prefix-
final [i] remains when the following stem begins with a consonant (6b), and stem-
initial [i] is preserved after prefixes ending with a consonant (6c).
(6) [i-i] becomes [i]
a. gadíˀdrǫˀ
gadi-iˀdrǫ-ˀ
3ns.a-live-stat
‘they live (designates a shed, dog house, etc.)’
b. gadinǫ̱hweˀs
gadi-nǫ̱hwe-ˀs
3ns.a-like-hab
‘they like it’
c. hęgiˀdrǫ́:daˀk
h-ę-g-iˀdrǫ́:-d-aˀk
transl-fut-1s.a-live-caus-modz
‘where I will live’
[e-i] are simplified to [i] to avoid two vowels in a row (7a). In contrast, stem [i]
remains after prefixes ending with a consonant (7b). For comparison, (7c) shows
prefix [e] before stems beginning with a consonant.
(7) [e-i] becomes [e]
a. ehé:yǫhs
e-ihey-ǫhs
3s.fi.a-die-hab
‘she is dying, on her death bed’
b. gi ̱hé:yǫhs
g-ihey-ǫhs
1s.a-die-hab
‘I am dying’
c. egeˀahsrǫni:ˀ
e-geˀa-hsrǫ́:ni-h
3s.fi.a-hair-fix-hab
‘she is a hairdresser’

381
19 Sound changes in word formation

Instead of deletion, two vowels merge into a new vowel in several contexts.
First, prefix [a] and stem [i] merge to [ę] (8a). In contrast, stem [i] remains af-
ter prefixes ending with a consonant (8b) and prefix [a] remains before stems
beginning with a consonant (8c).

(8) [a-i] become [ę]

a. hęhé:yǫhs
ha-ihé:y-ǫhs
3s.m.a-die-hab
‘he is dying’
b. gi ̱hé:yǫhs
g-ihé:y-ǫhs
1s.a-die-hab
‘I am dying’
c. hanǫhsǫ:nih
ha-nǫhs-ǫ́:ni-h
3s.m.a-house-build-hab
‘he is a carpenter’

Prefix [e] and stem [e] also merge into a single [ę] (9).

(9) [e-e] become [ę]

a. dǫdáęˀ
dǫdá-e-e-ˀ
du.fac.cis-3s.fi.a-go-punc
‘she is coming back’
cf. dǫdá:geˀ
dǫdá:-g-e-ˀ
du.fac.cis-1s.a-go-punc
‘I am coming back’
b. ętgáęˀ
ę-t-gáe-e-ˀ
fut-cis-3ns.fi.a-go-punc
‘they will come’
cf. ęteˀ
ę-t-h-e-ˀ
fut-cis-3s.m.a-go-punc
‘he will come this way’

382
 19.2 Preserving, merging, and deleting vowels

c. í:yę:
í:-ye-e-:
proth-3s.fi.a-want-stat
‘she wants’
cf. ihse:
i-hs-e-:
proth-2s.a-want-stat
‘you want’

Another strategy for avoiding two vowels in a row is to add a euphonic [y]
between certain pronominal prefixes and stem vowels (10). (euphonic elements
are sounds inserted for ease of pronunciation, see §19.5.)

(10) [ǫ-ǫ] tends to become [ǫyǫ]

gǫ́:yǫˀ
gǫ́:-y-ǫ-ˀ
1s:2s-euph.y-give-punc
‘I will give you’

[y]-insertion sometimes occurs between prefixes like [swa-] 3p.a, and a fol-
lowing stem-initial [ę] or [ǫ] (11a). Again, this strategy prevents the presence of
two vowels in a row. The strategy in (11a) is possibly a recent development: the
more conservative strategy is to instead use a different pronunciation like [j-]
3p.a before stem-initial [ę] or [ǫ] (11b).

(11) treatment of [a-ǫ]

a. ęhswá:yǫˀ
ę-hswá:-y-ǫ-ˀ
fut-2p.a-euph.y-give-punc (innovative extra [y])
‘you will give it’
b. ęjǫˀ
ę-j-ǫ-ˀ
fut-2p.a/2pl.o-give-punc
‘it will give you all’, ‘you all will give it’ (conservative, no extra [y])

Prefixes like [hęn-] (12a) and [hon-] (12c) are used when the verb stem begins
with a vowel, but [hadi-] (12b) or [hodi-] (12d) are used before stems beginning
with a consonant. The use of [hęn-] and [hon-] before vowel-initial verb stems
again prevents having two vowels in a row.

383
19 Sound changes in word formation

(12) a. ahęnéhehk
hęn-é-he-hk
3ns.m.a-think-hab-former
‘they (males) were thinking’
b. hadíˀnhahgyaˀs
hadí-ˀnhahg-yaˀk-s
3ns.m.a-log-cut-hab
‘loggers’
c. honé:ˀǫ:
hon-é:ˀ-ǫ:
3ns.m.p-will-stat
‘they have willed, decided it’
d. hodí:yęˀ
hodí:-yę-ˀ
3ns.m.p-lie-stat
‘they have’, ‘they have lain’

19.3 [r] and [hr]

When noun or verb stems begin with [r], the [r] is missing after a vowel (13), but
retained after a consonant (14).

(13) [r] deleted between vowels

a. gáęnaˀ
gá-ręn-aˀ
3s.a-song-nsf
‘song’
b. shǫgwaęnáwi ̱hshǫˀ
shǫgwa-ręn-áwi ̱h-shǫˀ
3ms:1p-song-give-plrz
‘he has given us songs’

(14) [r] retained after a consonant

a. wadrę́:no:t
w-ad-rę́:n-o:t
3s.a-srf-song-stand.stat
‘it is singing’ (or purring, in the case of a cat)

384
 19.4 [dy/gy] and [ty/ky]

b. ęhsadręnatǫdá:taˀ
ę-hs-ad-ręn-atǫdá:t-h-a-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-song-listen-disl-joinerA-punc
‘you’ll go listen to the songs’ (said as an invitation)
Similarly, for noun or verb stems beginning with [hr], the [hr] is missing after
a vowel (15a), but present after a consonant (15b).
(15) a. shehó:wih
she-hró:wi-h
2s:3fis-tell-euph.h
‘tell her’
b. ęga:tró:wiˀ
ę-g-a:t-hró:wi-ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-tell-punc
‘I will tell’

19.4 [dy/gy] and [ty/ky]

Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ (Lower Cayuga) speakers pronounce certain prefixes dif-
ferently than Dagęhyatgehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ (Upper Cayuga) speakers do, before stems
beginning with [y] or [hy]. Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ speakers use [ag-] srf (16a)
and [adag-] refl (not shown) before [y], and also [ak-] (16b) and [adak-] (not
shown) before [hy]. Both Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ and Dagęhyatgehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ speak-
ers use [ad-] (or [adad-]) before other sounds (16c), except that Dagęhyatge-
honǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ speakers say [at-] or [adat-] before stems beginning with [hy] (16d).
(16) a. sagyaˀdo̱hái
s-ag-yaˀd-ohái
2s.a-srf-body-wash.no_aspect
‘take a bath’
b. ęgákyadǫ:ˀ
ę-g-ák-hyadǫ-:ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-write-punc
‘I will have a reading’
c. sadahǫhdóhai
s-ad-ahǫhd-óhai
2s.a-srf-ears-wash.no_aspect
‘wash your ears’

385
19 Sound changes in word formation

d. ęgátyadǫ:ˀ
ę-g-át-hyadǫ-:ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-write-punc
‘I will have a reading’
Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ speakers use [g-] cis before [y] (17a), while Dagęhyatge-
honǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ speakers use [d-] in the same instance. Both Ganedagehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ
and Dagęhyatgehonǫ́ˀne̱ha:ˀ speakers use the [d-] cisform in the remaining cases
(17b).
(17) a. gyodóˀkda̱ˀǫh
g-yo-d-óˀkd-a̱-ˀǫh
cis-3s.p-srf-end-joinerA-stat
‘it is lacking’
b. dawádo̱ˀkdęˀ ‘it lacked’
d-a-w-ád-o̱ˀkd-ęˀ
cis-fac-3s.a-srfend-punc
‘it was not enough’

19.5 Euphonic sounds

Euphonic sounds exist for ease of pronunciation and convey no meaning – a fact
which distinguishes them from, for example, single-sound prefixes like [d-] cis,
meaning ‘here’, or [g-] 1s.a, meaning ‘I’. The various types of euphonic sound
are describe next.

19.5.1 Joiner A [a]

Joiner A ([a]) prevents (breaks up) too-large groups of consonants. (In a different
context, Joiner E [e] is used instead. It is described in §19.5.2.)
Joiner A appears between an incorporated noun ending with a consonant and
a verb beginning with a consonant (18a). No Joiner A appears if the incorporated
noun already ends with a vowel (19) or if the following verb begins with a vowel
(20).
(18) Joiner A
a. ga̱ˀdrehdagwé:gǫh
ga̱-ˀdrehd-a-gwé:gǫh
3s.a-car-joinerA-all.stat
‘all the cars’

386
 19.5 Euphonic sounds

b. oˀdréhdatgiˀ
o-ˀdréhd-a-tgiˀ
3s.p-car-joinerA-ugly.stat
‘ugly car’

(19) no Joiner A, incorporated noun ends with a vowel

a. onę́hętgiˀ
o-nę́hę-tgiˀ
3s.p-corn-dirty.stat
‘dirty corn’

(20) no Joiner A, verb begins with a vowel

a. ga̱ˀdréhde:s
ga̱-ˀdréhd-e:s
3s.a-car-long.stat
‘it is a long car’
b. ga̱ˀdrehdí:yo:
ga̱-ˀdrehd-í:yo:
3s.a-car-nice.stat
‘it is a nice car’
c. nigaˀdre̱hdú:ˀuh
ni-ga-ˀdre̱hd-ú:ˀuh
part-3s.a-car-small.stat
‘it is a small car’

Joiner A also appears between verb stems ending with a consonant and suffixes
beginning with a consonant (21a), but not otherwise (21b).

(21) a. akyę́da̱hkwaˀ
akyę́d-a-hkwaˀ
ø.prefix.sit-joinerA-instr
‘chair’
b. ehyádǫ̱hkwaˀ
e-hyádǫ̱-hkwaˀ
3s.fi.a-write-instr
‘writing implement (pen, pencil, etc.)’

Unexpectedly, Joiner A appears between an incorporated noun and a small set

of vowel-initial, obligatorily-incorporating verbs, including ⌊+ę⌋ ‘lying on the

387
19 Sound changes in word formation

ground’ (22). (The non-incorporating form of the same verb, ⌊yę⌋, begins with a
consonant, 22b.)

(22) a. ga̱ˀdréhdaęˀ
ga̱-ˀdréhd-a-ęˀ
3s.a-car-joinerA-lie.stat
‘one parked car’
b. gá:yęˀ
gá:-yęˀ
3s.a-lie.stat
‘it is lying on the ground’

The examples in (23) look similar to (22a, c). However, the noun-final long [a:]
shown in (23) shortens to [a] before vowel-initial verbs (23b, d). This prevents a
series of a long vowel followed by a short vowel, but results in a sequence of two
short vowels in a row (which is otherwise avoided).

(23) a. sga:t wę̱ ˀníhsgaǫt

sga:t w-ę̱ ˀníhsga-ǫt
one 3s.a-wheel-attached
‘it has one wheel’ ([a] is shortened /a:/, not Joiner A)
cf. ęˀníhsga:ˀ, węˀníhsga:ˀ
(w)-ęˀníhsga:-ˀ
(3s.a)-wheel-nsf
‘a wheel’ (illustrating long /a:/)
b. ogaot
o-gá-ot
3s.p-price-stand.stat
‘a debt’ ([a] is shortened /a:/, not Joiner A)
cf. ó:ga:ˀ
ó:-ga:-ˀ
3s.p-price-nsf
‘a price’ (illustrating long /a:/)

Joiner A pronounced as [ǫ] or [ę]

Joiner A is instead pronounced as [ǫ] after [ǫh] and [ę] after [ęh] (24), but not
otherwise (25).

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 19.5 Euphonic sounds

(24) a. sa̱hohdęgyǫ́hǫgyeˀ
sa̱-ho-hdęgy-ǫ́-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ
rep-3s.m.p-leave-stat-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘he is on his way home’
b. agade̱ˀgwę́hęgyeˀ
ag-ade̱-ˀgw-ę́-h-ę-gy-e-ˀ
1s.a-srf-run.away-stat-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘I am running away again’

(25) a. go̱hsganye̱há:gyeˀ
go̱-hsganye̱-h-á:-gy-e-ˀ
3s.fi.p-shuffle-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘she is shuffling along’
b. agyǫdi ̱há:gyeˀ
ag-yǫdi ̱-h-ágy-e-ˀ
1s.a-smile-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘I am going along smiling’

Other instances of [a] being changed to [ǫ]

The second vowel of the ⌊-shǫ:ˀǫh⌋ plrz suffix can either be pronounced as [a]
or [ǫ] (26).

(26) a. ganyoˀsǫ́:ˀah, ganyoˀsǫ́:ˀǫh

ga-nyoˀ-shǫ́:ˀah/-shǫ́:ˀǫh
3s.a-wild.game-plrz
‘wild game’, ‘wild animals’
b. gaęnasǫ́:ˀah, gaęnasǫ́:ˀǫh
ga-ęn-a-shǫ́:ˀah/-shǫ́:ˀǫh
3s.a-song-plrz
‘songs’, ‘songs for Our Sustenance’

19.5.2 Joiner E [e]

As with Joiner A, Joiner E [e] is added in order to avoid too-long or unacceptable
consonant clusters. While Joiner A and Joiner E serve a similar purpose, they ap-
pear in different places in the word. Joiner A occurs anywhere after the reflexive

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19 Sound changes in word formation

prefix. In contrast, Joiner E appears between pronominal, semireflexive, or reflex-

ive prefixes ending with a consonant, and a consonant-initial verb or noun stem
(27).

(27) Joiner E
gaǫdadé:gęhs
gaǫ-dad-é:-gę-hs
3ns.fi.a-refl-joinerE-see-hab
‘they see her’
cf. gaǫdadahǫdǫ́haˀ
gaǫ-dad-ahǫdǫ́-haˀ
3ns.fi.a-refl-ask-hab
‘they are asking her’ (etc.)

The [(h)s-] 2s.a prefix tends to be followed by Joiner E (28), except before [n],
[y], or a vowel (29). Joiner E is unexpected in this context because clusters like
[sh], [sd,st], [sg], and [sw] are acceptable elsewhere in the word (30).

(28) Joiner E after [(h)s-] 2s.a

a. dęsehehdáwęnye:ˀ
d-ę-se-hehd-á-węnye-:ˀ
du-fut-2s.a-joinerE-earth-joinerA-stir-punc
‘you will tend or till your garden’
b. sedá:kseˀ
s-e-dá:kse-ˀ
2s.a-joinerE-run-stat
‘you are running’
c. í:se:k
í:-s-e:-k
proth-2s.a-joinerE-eat.ø.punc
‘eat it!’
d. segǫ́hsa̱ˀgeh
s-e-gǫ́hs-a̱ˀgeh
2s.a-joinerE-face-on
‘on your face’
e. ęsé:gęˀ
ę-s-é:-gę-ˀ
fut-2s.a-joinerE-see-punc
‘you will see’

390
 19.5 Euphonic sounds

f. ęhsewayę:nę́:daˀ
ę-hs-e-wayę:nę́:d-aˀ
fut-2s.a-joinerE-complete-punc
‘you will complete’
(29) no Joiner E before [n], [y], or a vowel
a. syę́:sehs
s-yę́:se-hs
2s.a-skin-hab
‘you skin animals all the time’
b. snętsáˀgeh
s-nęts-áˀgeh
2s.a-arm-on
‘on your arm’
c. sǫtsáˀgeh
s-ǫts-áˀgeh
2s.a-knee-on
‘on your knee’
(30) [sh], [sd/st], [sg], and [sw] are otherwise allowed
a. shehó:wih
she-hró:wi-h
2s:3fis-tell-euph.h
‘tell her’
b. stǫ́:hah ‘a little bit’
c. sga̱ˀáhdra:t
s-ga̱-ˀáhdr-a:-t
rep-3s.a-basket-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one basket’
d. swa̱hdegá:ˀgeh
swa̱-hdegá:-ˀgeh
2pl.a-ribs-on
‘on your ribs’

19.5.3 Euphonic D, Y, and W

Euphonic D [d], Y [y], and W [w] appear in several contexts for ease of pronun-
ciation. Euphonic D appears between a few vowel-final verbs, and a following

391
19 Sound changes in word formation

Joiner A (31–32), and even in some loanwords (see 33, where the incorporated
noun and loanword ‘monkey’ ends with a vowel sound).
(31) a. onǫnyáędagyeˀ
o-nǫny-á-ę-d-a-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-ice-joinerA-lie.stat-euph.d-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘it is freezing’
cf. onǫ́nyaęˀ
o-nǫ́ny-a-ęˀ
3s.a-ice-joinerA-lie.stat
‘it is frozen’
b. awęnowaędá:gyeˀ
aw-ęnowaę-d-á:-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-sink-euph.d-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘it is sinking’
cf. ęwęnǫwáęˀ
ę-w-ęnǫwáę-ˀ
fut-3s.a-sink-punc
‘it will sink’

(32) a. tgiˀdrǫ́:daˀk
t-g-iˀdrǫ́:-d-a-ˀk
cis-1s.a-live.stat-euph.d-joinerA-past
‘where I lived’
cf. shęh tgiˀdrǫˀ
shęh t-g-iˀdrǫ-ˀ
that cis-1s.a-live-stat
‘where I live, reside’
b. agadowihshę́:daˀk
ag-ad-owihshę́:-d-a-ˀk
1s.p-srf-rest.stat-euph.d-joinerA-past
‘I did have a rest’
cf. agadowíshęˀ
ag-ad-owíshę-ˀ
1s.p-srf-rest-stat
‘I have rested’

(33) Gwe: gwé: a:yę́ˀ desatmónkeydǫh e:?

de-sa-t-mónkey-d-ǫh
du-2s.p-srf-monkey-euph.d-stative2
‘Are you acting like a monkey again?’
2
Humorous example provided by Amos Key, Jr.

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 19.5 Euphonic sounds

Euphonic Y appears between certain vowel-final pronominal prefixes and vowel-

initial stems (34, see §19.2.)

(34) a. gǫ́:yǫˀ
gǫ́:-y-ǫ-ˀ
1s:2s-euph.y-give-punc
‘I will give you’
b. sheyahǫ́:dǫ:
she-y-ahǫ́:dǫ:
2s:3fis-euph.y-ask.no_aspect
‘ask her!’

In only a few words, Euphonic W appears after a pronominal prefix and before
the verb stem (35).

(35) a. degaǫwę́hda:s
de-gaǫ-w-ę́hda:-s
du-3s.fi.a-euph.w-run-hab
‘they run’
b. da:gáǫwę̱ hda:t
d-a:-gáǫ-w-ę̱ hda:t
du-indef-3s.fi.a-euph.w-run.ø.punc
‘they might run’
cf. dewagę̱ hdá:dǫh
de-wag-ę̱ hdá:d-ǫh
du-1s.p-run-stat
‘I have run’

Related
⇒ Preserving, merging, and deleting vowels §19.2

19.5.4 The prothetic vowel (euphonic [i])

The prothetic vowel (euphonic [i]) appears at the beginning of some verbs. (It
is lengthened and accented to [í:] under conditions described in §3.6.) While it
resembles a prefix, the prothetic vowel has no meaning. To illustrate, in (36),

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19 Sound changes in word formation

all three verbs end with [se:k], meaning ‘you eat it’. The verb beginning with
prothetic [í:] has no added meaning (36a). In contrast, the verb beginning with
the ⌊a:-⌋ indef additionally means ‘should’ (36b) and the verb with the ⌊ę:-⌋ fut
additionally means ‘will’ (36c).

(36) a. í:se:k
í:-s-e:-k
proth-2s.a-joinerE-eat.ø.punc
‘you eat it!’
b. á:se:k
á:-s-e:-k
indef-2s.a-joinerE-eat.ø.punc
‘you should eat it’
c. ę́:se:k
ę́:-s-e:-k
fut-2s.a-joinerE-eat.ø.punc
‘you will eat it’

The purpose of the prothetic vowel is to ensure that verbs have at least two
vowels3 . The verbs with the prothetic vowel in (37a, c, e) have only one vowel
before [i, í:] is added. In contrast, the verbs in (37b, d, f) do not need the prothetic
vowel because the pronominal prefixes already contribute a second vowel.

(37) a. ikne:
i-kn-e:
proth-1d.in.a-think.stat
‘you and I want, think’
b. akne:
akn-e:
1d.ex.a-think.stat
‘we two want, think’
c. idwe:
i-dw-e:
proth-1p.in.a-think.stat
‘we all want, think’

3
This is a common requirement cross-linguistically.

394
 19.5 Euphonic sounds

d. agwe:
agw-e:
1p.ex.a-think.stat
‘we all want, think’
e. ihe:
i-h-e:
proth-3s.m.a-think.stat
‘he wants, thinks’
f. hę́:ne:
hę́:n-e:
3ns.m.a-think.stat
‘they want, think’

Three-vowel verbs beginning with the prothetic vowel

According to the description in §19.5.4, verbs beginning with the prothetic vowel
should never have more than two vowels, since the prothetic vowel exists to
ensure that verbs become two vowels long. For the most part, this is the case
(38).

(38) a. í:geˀs
í:-g-e-ˀs
proth-1s.a-go-hab
‘I am here’
b. ihsgeˀs
i-hs-g-e-ˀs
proth-rep-1s.a-go-hab
‘I am back home’
c. í:drah
í:-d-rah
proth-2s.a-spread.no_aspect
‘spread it on’
d. í:ga:ˀ
í:-ga:ˀ
proth-3s.a-contain.stat
‘it contains’

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19 Sound changes in word formation

e. í:ga:t
í:-ga:-t
proth-3s.a-stand.stat
‘it is standing’
f. í:gye:t
í:-g-ye:-t
proth-cis-3s.fi.a-stand.stat
‘she is standing over there’
g. ihe:
i-h-e:
proth-3s.m.a-want.stat
‘he wants it’
h. ihse:
i-hs-e:
proth-2s.a-want.stat
‘you want’
i. ikda:s
i-k-dahsd
proth-1s.a-string.up.hab
‘I am stringing or draping it’
j. ita:t
i-t-ha:-t
proth-cis-3s.m.a-stand.stat
‘he is standing over there’
k. í:yoˀ
í:-y-oˀ
proth-3s.p-submerged.stat
‘it is in the water’
l. í:yǫ:s
í:-y-ǫ:s
proth-3s.p-long.stat
‘it is long’
However, some exceptions are shown in (39). The exceptions all end with the
⌊-:hah⌋ dim suffix.4
4
Technically speaking, ⌊-:hah⌋ is an enclitic – a suffix, which behaves like an independent word
in that it does not affect accent placement.

396
 19.5 Euphonic sounds

(39) a. ihsé:hah
i-hs-é-:hah
proth-2s.a-think.stat-dim
‘you gloat’
b. ihé:hah
i-h-é-:hah
proth-3s.m.a-think.stat-dim
‘he thinks highly of himself’
c. igé:hah
i-g-é-:hah
proth-1s.a-think.stat-dim
‘I am gloating, boastful’

19.5.5 Euphonic H
Euphonic H [h] is added to words ending with a short vowel, but only when
such words are either stand-alone (not shown) or sentence-final (40).5 Euphonic
H is not added when the same words are mid-sentence (41). This was previously
described in §3.10.4.

(40) Sǫ: hne:ˀ nˀáht tó:gyęh?

who in.fact person that.one
‘Who is that?’

(41) Sǫ: hne:ˀ nˀáht to:gyę́ gaeksa̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh?

who in.fact person that.one children
‘Then who are those children?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah
dialogue)

Euphonic H also appears between a verb ending with a vowel and the ⌊-a-gy-⌋
joinerA-prog suffix combination (42). (For the structure of progressive verbs,
see §16.5.)

5
Technically speaking, the ⌊-ǫh⌋ and ⌊-ęh⌋ stat endings, illustrated in hodǫ́go̱hdǫh and hodá:węh
in (42), should be analysed as ⌊-ǫ-h⌋ and ⌊-ę-h⌋ stat-euph.h. The final H is an instance of the
rule for inserting word-final H, for which see §3.10.4 . However, to simplify matters, the ⌊-ǫh⌋
and ⌊-ęh⌋ endings are simply glossed as stat in this work.

397
19 Sound changes in word formation

(42) a. honǫni ̱há:gyeˀs

hon-ǫni ̱-h-á:gy-e-ˀs
3ns.m.p-make-euph.h-progressive-go-hab
‘they are making, earning it’ (continually)
cf. tiwa:gǫ́:ni:
ti-wa:g-ǫ́:ni-:
contr-1s.a-make-stat
‘I have made it in place of something else, replaced it’
b. hodǫgo̱hdǫ́hǫgyeˀ
ho-d-ǫgo̱hd-ǫ́-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ
3s.m.p-srf-surpass-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘he is going along passing’
cf. hodǫ́go̱hdǫh
ho-d-ǫ́go̱hd-ǫh
3s.m.p-srf-surpass-stat
‘he has gone past’
c. da̱hodawę́hęgyeˀ
da̱-ho-d-aw-ę́-h-ę-gy-e-ˀ
cis-3s.m.p-srf-swim-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘he is swimming towards us’
cf. hodá:węh
ho-d-á:w-ęh
3s.m.p-srf-swim-stat
‘he did swim’

Related
⇒ Accent and Euphonic H in sentences §3.10.4 ⇒ Progressive verbs §16.5

398
 Part IV

Pronominal prefixes
Pronominal prefixes refer to people, places, objects, or abstract concepts. All
Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ verbs have pronominal prefixes, and most nouns have them
as well. In contrast, particles do not. For the most part, nouns and verbs take the
same pronominal prefixes, and so these prefixes express related concepts. For
example, the verb aknǫhǫkdá:nih ‘I am sick’ takes the ⌊ak-⌋ prefix to refer to
the speaker, while the noun aknǫ́hsaˀ ‘my house’ takes the same ⌊ak-⌋ prefix to
denote the speaker’s ownership.
This chapter describes pronominal prefix meaning. The following chapter de-
scribes how the prefixes are pronounced, and the subsequent chapter describes
pronominal prefix selection – the factors influencing the type of prefix a verb or
noun takes.
20 Pronominal prefix meaning
Pronominal prefixes express the concepts of person, number, gender, clusiv-
ity, and role, which are defined in the following sections. The remaining sec-
tions of this chapter describe the three types of pronominal prefix (the non-
interactive a-, and p-series, and the interactive series). The chapter ends
with a description of the exceptional nature of the 3s ‘it’ prefixes.

20.1 Person
Person is a general term for point of view, including the 1st person or speaker(s),
the 2nd person or audience (listener or listeners), and the 3rd person (referring
to whatever or whomever the speaker and audience are discussing).
The main difference between the words in (1) is the type of person expressed
by the pronominal prefix. (A hyphen appears between the prefix and stem in the
following examples.)

(1) a. k-hnę́:ye:s ‘I am tall’

• speaker(s) → 1st person (said by whomever is speaking)
b. s-hnę́:ye:s ‘you are tall’
• audience / listener(s) → 2nd person (referring to a single-person
audience)
c. ha-hnę́:ye:s ‘he is tall’
• everyone and everything else → 3rd person (referring to
someone the speaker is talking about, not to)

20.2 Number
Number refers to the number of people or objects. For example, while the verbs
in (2) all refer to the audience (2nd person), they refer to different numbers of
audience members – singular (one person), dual (two people) or plural (more
than two people).
20 Pronominal prefix meaning

(2) number
a. s-hnę́:ye:s ‘you are tall’ singular
b. sni ̱-hnę́:ye:s ‘you two are tall’ dual
c. swa̱-hnę́:ye:s ‘you all are tall plural

For 3rd person pronominals, the relevant distinction is between singular and
non-singular – as opposed to the three-way singular/dual/plural distinction
for 1st and 2nd persons. (However, see §20.5.3 for discussion of dual 3rd person
forms.)

(3) number
a. e-hnę́:ye:s ‘she is tall’ singular
b. gae-hnę́:ye:s ‘you two are tall’ non-singular

20.3 Gender
Gayogo̱ho:nǫ̱ˀnéha:ˀ gender categories include the masculine (‘he’, ‘him’), femin-
ine-indefinite (‘she’, ‘her’, ‘someone’), and zoic-neuter (‘it’ – an object or an-
imal). For example, while both of the words in (4) are 3rd person singular, they
express different genders.

(4) gender
a. ha-hnę́:ye:s ‘he is tall’ masculine
b. e-hnę́:ye:s ‘she is tall’ feminine-indefinite

Grammatical gender does not necessarily match up with biological gender. For
example, the Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ prefix in (5) can refer either to a female or to a
person whose gender is not defined (in which case it means ‘someone’, ‘anyone’,
or ‘people’).

(5) e-hnę́:ye:s ‘she is tall, ‘someone is tall’

• 3rd singular feminine-indefinite reference

Similarly, the prefix in (6) can refer either to a group of females or to a mixed
group of males and females.

(6) gae-hnę́:ye:s ‘they are tall’

• 3rd plural feminine-indefinite reference

402
 20.4 Clusivity (inclusive and exclusive)

In fact, the feminine-indefinite prefixes may even refer to an all-male group: in

(7), ena:greˀ refers to ‘the men’, although the word literally means ‘she or some-
one lives there’.
(7) O:nę́h hniˀ ohsǫdagwe:gǫ́h de̱hodinęhę́:ˀ neˀ hęnǫ:gwéh [shęh
now and all.night they.guard the men that
e-ná:greˀ].
someone.lives.there
‘Now too all night they are guarding, the men [who live there].’ (Keye,
2012)
The zoic-neuter prefix also demonstrates the difference between grammat-
ical and biological gender. It can refer to an animal, an object, or the weather
(8a–c), and to females (in a derogatory sense, 8d).
(8) zoic-neuter reference
a. o-hsę: ‘it (animal) is fat’ (referring to an animal)
b. o-hóˀdę:ˀ ‘it (i.e. dirt) is soft, loose’ (referring to an object)
c. o-tó:weˀ ‘it (weather) is cold’ (referring to the weather)
d. wa-datgehǫ́haˀ ‘she is a prostitute’ (literally, ‘it sells its private parts’)

20.4 Clusivity (inclusive and exclusive)

Clusivity is a term relevant for ‘we’ forms. Inclusive ‘we’ forms group the
speaker(s) and listener(s) together (9a), whereas exclusive ‘we’ forms make it
clear that the speaker(s) and listener(s) are not the same group (9b).
(9) clusivity
a. kni ̱-hnę́:ye:s ‘we two are tall’ inclusive (includes an audience
member)
b. akni-hnę́:ye:s ‘we two are tall’ exclusive (excludes the audience
member)

20.5 Combining person, number, gender, and clusivity

Person, number, gender, and clusivity are combined in and expressed through
two types of pronominal prefix, interactive and non-interactive ones (de-
fined in §20.7). The meanings of the non-interactive prefixes are described next.
For the meanings conveyed by the interactive pronominal prefixes, see §20.8.

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20 Pronominal prefix meaning

20.5.1 1st person pronominal prefix concepts

The 1st person pronominal prefixes express person and number, but not gender
(10). Also, clusivity only applies to ‘we’ (1st person plural) forms. (Singular 1st
person or ‘I’ forms cannot express clusivity, since clusivity presupposes more
than one person).

(10) k-hnę́:ye:s ‘I am tall’

• person (1st ), gender, clusivity (absent), number (singular)

Example (11) illustrates a verb that takes the full set of inclusive and exclusive
‘we’ forms. Only verbs with a-series pronominal prefixes express the inclusive
versus exclusive distinction. (The a-series is a type of non-interactive pronominal
prefix, as is the p-series, see §20.8).

(11) a. kni ̱-hnę́:ye:s, tni ̱-hnę́:ye:s ‘you (one person) and I are tall’
• person (1st ), gender (absent), clusivity (inclusive), number (dual)
b. akni-hnę́:ye:s ‘we two (not you) are tall’
• person (1st ), gender (absent), clusivity (exclusive), number (dual)
c. dwa-hnę́:ye:s ‘you all and I are tall’, ‘we all (and you) are tall’
• person (1st ), gender (absent), clusivity (inclusive), number
(plural)
d. agwa-hnę́:ye:s ‘we all (not you) are tall’
• person (1st ), gender (absent), clusivity (exclusive), number
(plural)

Example (12) illustrates a different type of verb, one that does not distinguish
between inclusive and exclusive ‘we’ forms. Verbs with p-series pronominal pre-
fixes do not express the inclusive versus exclusive distinction (see §20.8).

(12) a. ǫkni-nǫ̱hǫ́kdanih ‘we two are sick’

• person (1st ), gender and clusivity (absent), number (dual)
b. ǫgwa-nǫ̱hǫ́kdanih ‘we all are sick’
• person (1st ), gender and clusivity (absent), number (plural)

20.5.2 2nd person pronominal prefix concepts

The 2nd person pronominal prefixes express person and number (singular, dual,
or plural), but not gender or clusivity (13).

404
 20.5 Combining person, number, gender, and clusivity

(13) a. s-hnę́:ye:s ‘you (one person) are tall’

• person (2nd ), gender and clusivity (absent), number (singular)
b. sni ̱-hnę́:ye:s ‘you two are tall’
• person (2nd ), gender and clusivity (absent), number (dual)
c. swa̱-hnę́:ye:s ‘you all are tall’
• person (2nd ), gender and clusivity (absent), number (plural)

20.5.3 3rd person pronominal prefix concepts

The 3rd person pronominal prefixes express person and number (singular or non-
singular). They are the only non-interactive pronominal prefixes to express gen-
der (14).

(14) a. ha-hnę́:ye:s ‘he is tall’

• person (3rd ), gender (masculine), number (singular), clusivity
(absent)
b. e-hnę́:ye:s ‘she or someone is tall’
• person (3rd ), gender (feminine-indefinite), number (singular),
clusivity (absent)
c. ga̱-hnę́:ye:s ‘it (animal) is tall’
• person (3rd ), gender (zoic-neuter), number (singular), clusivity
(absent)
d. hadi-hnę́:ye:s ‘they (males only) are tall’
• person (3rd ), gender (masculine), number (non-singular),
clusivity (absent)
e. gae-hnę́:ye:s ‘they (females or mixed group) are tall’
• person (3rd ), gender (feminine-indefinite), number
(non-singuilar), clusivity (absent)
f. gadi-hnę́:ye:s ‘they (animals) are tall’
• person (3rd ), gender (zoic-neuter), number (non-singular),
clusivity (absent)

Other Ǫgwehǫwéhne̱ha:ˀ languages also have 3rd person dual forms, but these
are rare in Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ. The renowned orator Huron Miller used ⌊hni-⌋,
a 3rd masculine dual prefix, in his recitation of Gaihwi:yo: (15).1
1
Tom Deer, p.c. Tom also notes that Huron Miller spoke Cayuga, Onondaga, Mohawk, and
Seneca.

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20 Pronominal prefix meaning

(15) a. detniyanó:we:ˀ
det-hni-yanó:we:ˀ
du.cis-3du.m.a-fast.stat
‘two fast male runners’
b. haˀtní:daˀ
haˀt-hní:-daˀ
transl.du-3du.m.a-stop.punc
‘they (two males) stopped there’
c. haˀtniyadowe̱hdáhnǫh
haˀt-hni-yadowe̱hdáhn-ǫh
transl.du-3du.m.a-think.over-stat
‘they (two males) thought it over’
d. hǫsahnihóˀkdęˀ
hǫsa-hni-hóˀkd-ęˀ
transl.repetitivefactual-3du.m.a-end-punc
‘they (two males) ended’, ‘they told everything’

20.6 Pronominal prefixes and role

In addition to person, number, gender, and clusivity, the pronominal prefixes also
interact with the concept of role. Role refers to the parts played by the people
or objects necessary to complete the meaning of a verb. To illustrate, for the verb
ahágǫ̱he:k, the male’s role (‘he’) is that of an agent or “doer”, performing the
action. In contrast, for the verb ahógǫ̱he:k, the male’s role (‘him’) is reversed, and
the person in question is (unfortunately) undergoing the action, having the role
of patient or undergoer (16).

(16) a. a-há-gǫ̱he:k ‘he punched it’

b. a-hó-gǫ̱he:k ‘it punched him’

Verbs can express several different types of role, depending on the meaning of
the verb: for example, activity verbs such as ę́:ge:k ‘I will eat it’ or segǫ́he:s ‘you
hit it (all the time)’ express both a “doer” and an undergoer. In contrast, verbs
of perception such as aˀé:gęˀ ‘she saw it’, or ęsa:tǫ́:dęh ‘you will hear it’ require
a perceiver and a percept. As well, stative-only verbs such as godinǫ̱hǫ́kdanih
‘they are sick’ require an attributee – something or someone displaying the
quality or attribute in question. These are only some of the types of role.

406
 20.6 Pronominal prefixes and role

For present purposes, we will focus on the number of roles required by a verb,
rather than the types of role. Verbs can express one role (17) or two (18). Several
verbs even require three roles (19).

(17) ha-hnę́:ye:s ‘he is tall’

(one-role verb, 3rd person)

(18) a-gǫ́:-gęˀ ‘I saw you (singular)’

(two-role verb, 1st and 2nd person roles)

(19) shǫgwa-ęnáwi ̱hǫˀ ‘he has given us a song’

(three-role verb, 3rd masculine, 1st , and 3rd zoic-neuter roles, where ‘a
song’ is the 3rd zoic-neuter undergoer or “object”)

Verbs requiring one role take non-interactive pronominal prefixes, while

verbs expressing two or three roles take interactive pronominal prefixes (as
well as non-interactive ones, see §20.7).

20.6.1 Role and the reflexive and semireflexive prefixes

The reflexive (or reciprocal) prefix (§13.1) and the semireflexive prefix (§13.2)
both influence the number of roles expressed by the verb.

The reflexive or reciprocal prefix and roles

The ⌊-adad⌋ refl or rec prefix occurs in two-role verbs (20). Used in the reflexive
sense, it means that the two roles are performed by the same person (20).

(20) ⌊-adad⌋ refl

agadadé:gęˀ
ag-adad-é:-gę-ˀ
1s.p-refl-joinerE-see-punc
‘I saw myself’

When the reflexive occurs with a feminine-indefinite pronominal prefix

(meaning ‘she’ or ‘they (females or mixed group)’), the “self” or reflexive mean-
ing is not automatic. For example, aˀǫdadé:gęˀ can mean either ‘she saw herself’
or ‘she saw her (someone else)’ (21).

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20 Pronominal prefix meaning

(21) ⌊-adad⌋ refl, feminine-indefinite

a. aˀǫdadé:gęˀ
aˀ-ǫ-dad-é:-gę-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-refl-see-punc
‘she saw herself’, ‘she saw her (someone else)’
b. agaǫda:gyé:naˀ
a-gaǫ-da:g-yé:na-ˀ
fac-3ns.fi.a-refl-catch-punc
‘they (females or mixed) caught her, someone, them’
When used in a reciprocal sense, the ⌊-adad⌋ prefix means that the participants
fulfilling both roles are equally affected by the action (22). Verbs with the recip-
rocal meaning also require the ⌊de-⌋ dualic prefix.
(22) ⌊de-…adad-⌋ du…refl = reciprocal
dedwadagyénawahs
de-dwa-dag-yénaw-a-hs
du-1p.in.a-refl-help-joinerA-hab
‘let us all help one another’

The semireflexive prefix and roles

The ⌊-ad⌋ srf appears in two-role verbs. In general, it means that the action re-
flects back on or affects the “doer” (23).
(23) hatgǫhso̱háe
h-at-gǫhs-o̱háe
3s.m.a-srf-face-wash.stat
‘he is washing his face’ (with srf)
cf. shagogǫ̱hsóhai
shago-gǫ̱hs-óhae
3s.m>3fi/3p-face-wash.stat
‘he is washing her face’ (the same verb without the srf, with doer ‘he’, undergoer
‘her face’)

The ⌊-ad⌋ srf can also suppress or downplay an undergoer role. As shown in
(24), while the word without the semireflexive clearly expresses both the “doer”
(‘you’) and the undergoer (‘her’ or ‘someone’, 24a), the same word with the ⌊-ad⌋
srf does not focus on who is being thanked, but instead emphasizes the activity,
‘giving thanks’ (24b). As a result, it expresses just one role (“doer”-‘we’ in the
example) and so only uses non-interactive pronominal prefixes.

408
 20.7 Three types of pronominal prefix

(24) a. dęhshenǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ
d-ę-hshe-nǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫ:-ˀ
du-fut-2s>3s.fi-thank-punc
‘you will welcome, greet or thank someone/her’ (two-role verb, no
srf, interactive pronominal prefix)
b. dędwadęnǫ́hǫnyǫ:ˀ
d-ę-dw-adę-nǫ́hǫnyǫ:-ˀ
du-fut-1p.in.a-srf-thank-punc
‘we all will give thanks’ (two-role verb with srf, non-interactive
pronominal prefix)

Several verbs with the ⌊ad-⌋ srf prefix do not appear to display role suppres-
sion (25a). In such cases, the ⌊ad-⌋ srf is part of a fixed expression, meaning that
the same verb without it has a fairly different meaning (25b). That being said, the
verbs requiring ⌊ad-⌋ srf in this way do still express an activity that somehow
reflects back on the main participants.

(25) a. agadekǫ́:ni:
ag-ad-e-k-ǫ́:ni-:
1s.p-srf-joinerE-food-make-stat
‘I am eating something’ (two-role verb with obligatory srf as part of
a fixed expression)
b. age:kǫ́:ni:
ag-e:-k-ǫ́:ni-:
1sg.o-joinerE-food-make-stat
‘I am cooking something’ (related two-role verb without srf)

20.7 Three types of pronominal prefix

The three types of pronominal prefix are the non-interactive a-series, the
non-interactive p-series, and the interactive series. These prefix types are
described in the following sections.

20.8 a- and p-series (non-interactive) prefixes

The a- and p-series of pronominal prefix express only one role, such as the at-
tributee (26a, b), the agent (26c), or the experiencer (26d). Because they only
convey one role, a- and p-series prefixes are non-interactive.

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20 Pronominal prefix meaning

(26) a. hahnę́:ye:s
ha-hnę́:ye:s
3s.m.a-tall.stat
‘he is tall’ (a-series, attributee)
b. hohsę:
ho-hsę:
3s.m.p-fat.stat
‘he is fat’ (p-series, attributee)
c. hadá:kseˀ
ha-dakse-ˀ
3s.m.a-run.go-stat
‘he is running’ (a-series, agent or “doer”)
d. ęhó:daˀ
ę-hó:-da-ˀ
fut-3s.m.p-sleep-punc
‘he will sleep’ (p-series, experiencer)

That being said, a- and p-series prefixes can also be used interactively, in verbs
that express two (or three) roles. In such cases, one of the roles is always an
implied ‘it’ (27). For example ahá:gęˀ overtly expresses the perceiver (‘he’), and
implies the percept (‘it’ or ‘something’) – there is no specific part of the prefix
that corresponds to the implied percept. To show that the ‘it’ role is only implied
in context and not overtly expressed in the pronominal prefix, ‘it’ appears in
brackets in the translation.

(27) a. ahá:gęˀ
a-há:-gę-ˀ
fac-3s.m.a-see-punc
‘he saw (it)’ (a-series, used interactively in verbs requiring two roles)
b. ahó:gęˀ
a-hó:-gę-ˀ
fac-3s.m.p-see-punc
‘(it) saw him’ (p-series, used interactively in verbs requiring two roles)

A complete list of the non-interactive and interactive prefixes is provided in

the following section. The meaning relationships between the non-interactive
and interactive prefixes are described in §20.9.1.

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 20.8 a- and p-series (non-interactive) prefixes

20.8.1 Terminology for a- and p-series (non-interactive) pronominal

prefixes
The linguistic terminology for the non-interactive pronominal prefixes is sum-
marized in (28–29).

(28) a-series pronominal prefixes (with verb ⌊hnęye:s⌋ ‘to be tall’, noun
⌊nęts-aˀgeh⌋ ‘(on) someone’s arm’
a. 1s.a ‘I’, ‘my (body part)’
• khnę́:ye:s ‘I am tall’
• knętsáˀgeh ‘(on) my arm’
b. 1d.ex.a ‘he and I’ or ‘she and I’, ‘our (body part)’
• aknihnę́:ye:s ‘we two are tall’
• akninętsáˀgeh ‘(on) our arm’
c. 1p.ex.a ‘he and we’, ‘she and we’, ‘they and I’, ‘they and we’, ‘our
(body part)’
• agwahnę́:ye:s ‘we all are tall’
• agwanętsáˀgeh ‘(on) our arm’
d. 1d.in.a ‘you (one person) and I’, ‘our (body part)’
• kniẖ nę́:ye:s, tniẖ nę́:ye:s ‘you and I are tall’
• kninę́tsaˀge, tninę́tsaˀgeh ‘(on) our arm’
e. 1p.in.a ‘you (two, all) and I’, or ‘you(one person) and we’, ‘our (body
part)’
• dwahnę́:ye:s ‘we all are tall’
• dwanę́tsaˀgeh ‘(on) our arm’
f. 2s.a ‘you (one person)’, ‘your (body part)’
• shnę́:ye:s ‘you are tall’
• snętsáˀgeh ‘(on) your arm’
g. 2d.a ‘you two’, ‘your (body part)’
• sniẖ nę́:ye:s ‘you two are tall’
• sninę́tsaˀgeh ‘(on) your arm’
h. 2p.a ‘you all (three or more people)’, ‘your (body part)’
• swa̱hnę́:ye:s ‘you all are tall’
• swanę́tsaˀgeh ‘(on) your arm’
i. 3s.zon.a (abbreviated as 3s.a) ‘it (animal, object)’, ‘its (body part)’
• ga̱hnę́:ye:s ‘it is tall’
• ganę́tsaˀgeh ‘(on) its arm’

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20 Pronominal prefix meaning

j. 3s.m.a ‘he’, ‘his (body part)’

• hahnę́:ye:s ‘he is tall’
• hanę́tsaˀgeh ‘(on) his arm’
k. 3s.fi.a ‘she, someone, somebody’, ‘hers, someone’s, somebody’s
(body part)’
• ehnę:ye:s ‘she or someone is tall’
• enę́tsaˀgeh ‘(on) her, someone’s arm’
l. 3ns.zon.a, (abbreviated as 3p.a) ‘they (animals, objects)’, ‘their (body
part)’
• gadihnę́:ye:s ‘they are tall’
• gadinętsáˀgeh ‘(on) their arm’
m. 3ns.m.a ‘they (males only)’, ‘their (body part)’
• hadihnę́:ye:s ‘they are tall’
• hadinętsáˀgeh ‘(on) their arm’
n. 3ns.fi.a ‘they (females only, or a mixed group of males and females)’,
‘their (body part)’
• gaehnę́:ye:s ‘they are tall’
• gaenętsaˀgeh ‘(on) their arm’

(29) p-series pronominal prefixes (with verb ⌊nǫhǫkdanih⌋ ‘to be sick’, basic
noun ⌊nǫhs-aˀ⌋ ‘house’)
a. 1s.p ‘I’, ‘my (basic noun)’
• aknǫhǫkdá:nih ‘I am sick’
• aknǫ́hsaˀ ‘my house’
b. 1d.p ‘we two’, ‘you (one person) and I’, ‘our (basic noun)’
• ǫkninǫ̱hǫ́kdanih ‘we two are sick’
• ǫknínǫ̱hsaˀ ‘our house’
c. 1p.p ‘we all’, ‘you (two or more) and I’, ‘you and we’, ‘our (basic noun)’
• ǫgwanǫ̱hǫ́kdanih ‘we all are sick’
• ǫgwánǫ̱hsaˀ ‘our house’
d. 2s.p ‘you (one person)’, ‘your (basic noun)’
• sanǫhǫkdá:nih ‘you are sick’
• sanǫ́hsaˀ ‘your house’
e. 2d.p ‘you two’, ‘your (basic noun)’
• sninǫhǫkdá:nih ‘you two are sick’
• sninǫ́hsaˀ ‘your house’

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 20.8 a- and p-series (non-interactive) prefixes

f. 2p.p ‘you all (more than two)’, ‘your (basic noun)’

• swanǫhǫkdá:nih ‘you all are sick’
• swanǫ́hsaˀ ‘your house’
g. 3s.zon.p (abbreviated as 3s.p) ‘it’, ‘its (basic noun)’
• onǫhǫkdá:nih ‘it is sick’
• onǫ́hsaˀ ‘its house’
h. 3s.m.p ‘he’, ‘his (basic noun)’
• honǫhǫkdá:nih ‘he is sick’
• honǫ́hsaˀ ‘his house’
i. 3s.fi.p ‘she’, ‘someone’, ‘anyone’, ‘her’, ‘someone’s’, ‘anyone’s (basic
noun)’
• gonǫhǫkdá:nih ‘she, someone is sick’
• gonǫ́hsaˀ ‘her, someone’s house’
j. 3ns.zon.p, (abbreviated as 3p.p) ‘they (animals, objects), ‘their (basic
noun)’
• odinǫ̱hǫ́kdanih ‘they are sick’
• odínǫ̱hsaˀ ‘their house’
k. 3ns.m.p ‘they (males only), ‘their (basic noun)’
• hodinǫ̱hǫ́kdanih ‘they are sick’
• hodínǫ̱hsaˀ ‘their house’
l. 3ns.fi.p ‘they’ (females only, or a mixed group of males and females),
‘their (basic noun)’
• godinǫ̱hǫ́kdanih ‘they are sick’
• godínǫ̱hsaˀ ‘their house’

20.8.2 The special status of the 3s ‘it’ role and prefixes

The 3s ‘it’ role and prefixes, shown in (30), are different from the other a- and
p-series prefixes in several important ways.

(30) 3s prefixes
a. a-series ⌊ga-⌋, ⌊wa-⌋, ⌊a-⌋ or ⌊ø-⌋ 3s.a
b. p-series ⌊(y)o-⌋ 3s.p

First, as mentioned in the previous section, the 3s ‘it’ role is implied but not
explicitly represented (pronounced) in the pronominal prefix of verbs that use

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20 Pronominal prefix meaning

a- or p-series prefixes in an interactive sense – as in ahá:gęˀ ‘he saw (it)’. This

property is unique to the 3s ‘it’ prefix.
Second, the 3s ‘it’ prefixes are also relevant for the distinction between per-
sonal verbs and neuter verbs. Personal verbs take a full range of pronominal
prefixes – either all of the a-series prefixes (31a) or all of the p-series prefixes
(31b). In contrast, neuter verbs only take one of the 3s ‘it’ prefixes (32).
(31) personal verbs (taking a full range of a- or p-series prefixes)
a. hahnę́:ye:s ‘he is tall’, ehnę́:ye:s ‘she is tall’, ga̱hnę́:ye:s ‘it (animal) is
tall’, khnę́:ye:s ‘I am tall’ (etc.)
b. hohsę: ‘he is fat’, gohsę: ‘she is fat’, ohsę: ‘it (animal) is fat’, agáhsę: ‘I
am fat’ (etc.)
(32) neuter verbs (only taking one of the 3s ‘it’ prefixes in 30)
a. a-series: gá:dę:s ‘it is thick, dense’, wagyé:sęh ‘it is easy’
b. p-series: otó:weˀ ‘it is cold (weather)’, áogaˀt ‘it is rough’
Finally, uniquely for neuter, stative-only verbs the choice of pronominal
prefix often depends on the pronominal prefix of the incorporated noun (see
§24).

20.9 interactive prefixes

The interactive prefixes express an interaction between groups, referring to
two roles at once – for example, the perceiver (‘I’) and the percept (‘you singu-
lar’) in (33).
(33) agǫ́:gęˀ
a-gǫ́:-gę-ˀ
fac-1s>2s-see-punc
‘I saw you (singular)’
Interactive prefixes also refer to three roles, for the handful of verbs that re-
quire such. In (34), the interactive prefix ⌊shǫgwa-⌋ refers to a “doer” (‘he’), a
recipient (‘us all’), and an item being transferred (‘it’, or ‘a song’). For verbs
requiring three roles, the item being transferred is always an object.
(34) shǫgwaęnáwi ̱hǫˀ
shǫgwa-ęn-áwi ̱-h-ǫˀ
3s.m>1p-song-give-stat-distr
‘he has given each of us a song’

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 20.9 interactive prefixes

A complete list of interactive prefixes, with an explanation of their meaning

and how they relate to the non-interactive prefixes, is provided in the following
section. Section §21.4 describes their pronunciation.

20.9.1 Summary charts, pronominal prefix pronunciation and

meaning
The figures in this section are based on a table in Foster (1993), which in turn is
based on the one in Lounsbury (1953). However, the information has been reor-
ganized in order to better reveal the structure and meaning of the pronominal
prefixes. (That being said, Table 20.1 and Table 20.2 retain the original organiza-
tion of part of the table in Foster 1993.) The pronunciation variants of each prefix
are also summarized in these tables, and are explained in later sections.
Table 20.1 and Table 20.2 (page 416) summarize the prefixes that describe 1st
and 2nd person interactions. To read Table 20.1 and Table 20.2, replace the “X” in
the first column with the item listed in the top row. For example, ⌊gǫ-, go-⌋ means
1s>2s, as in gonǫ́hkwaˀ ‘I love you (one person)’. In contrast, ⌊kni-, kn-⌋, meaning
1>2(d) has a wider range of potential meanings, (including 1d>2s and 2du>2du),
as in kninǫ́hkwaˀ ‘we two love you (one)’ or ‘we two love you two’: any combi-
nation of singular or dual 1>2 is implied – excluding plural meanings – as
long as the dual is expressed.
Table 20.1: 1>2 interactions

X>2s ‘you’ X>2d ‘you two’ X>2p ‘you all’

1s ‘I’>X gǫ-C,(i),V
go-n
1s>2s
1d ‘we two’>X kni-C
gy-a
kn-e,i,o
1>2(d)
1p ‘we all’>X gwa-C
gw-a,e
gwę-(i)
gy-o
1>2(p)

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20 Pronominal prefix meaning

Table 20.2: 2>1 interactions

X>1s ‘me’ X>1d ‘us two’ X>1p ‘us all’

2s ‘you’>X sg-V
sk-n
sge-k,g,C
2s>1s
2d ‘you two’>X skni-C
skn-e,i,o
sgy-a
2>1(d)
2p ‘you all>X sgwa-C
sgw-a,e
sgwę-(i)
sgy-o
2>1(p)

Table 20.3 (page 417) summarizes the meaning and pronunciation of the non-
interactive, 1st and 2nd person a- and p-series pronominal prefixes. It also in-
cludes the 3s.m>x, x>3s.m interactive prefixes because these prefixes uniquely
share the person, clusivity, and number distinctions expressed by the 1st person
a- and p-series prefixes. (The remaining non-masculine 3rd person a- and p-series
prefixes are listed later in Table 20.1, page 419.)
To read Table 20.3 (page 417) replace the a- or p-series “X” in the top row
with an item from the first column. For example, the ⌊g-, k-, ge-⌋ prefix means
1s>(it) – that is, ‘I’ or ‘I>(it)’. Similarly, the ⌊w ag-, w ak-, w age-, ǫg-⌋ (etc.) prefix
means (it)>1s – ‘I’ or ‘(it)>I,me’. (Recall that (it) signifies an implied role.) For
the interactive 3s.m prefixes, replace the “X” with an item in the first column.
For example the ⌊hi-, he-, hiy-, hey-, h-⌋ prefix means 1s>3s.m or ‘I>him’, and the
⌊hag-, hak-, hage-⌋ prefix means 3s.m>1s or ‘he>me’.
The prefixes in Table 20.4 (page 418) are grouped together because they all ex-
press 1st and 2nd interactions with 3s.fi and 3ns meanings in the same way. To
read Table 20.4 (page 418) replace the “X” in the top row with an item from the
first column. For example, the ⌊y ǫki-, y ǫkiy-, y ǫk-⌋ prefix means 3s.fi/3ns>1ns(opp),
which expands to 3s.fi>1ns ‘she>us (two or more)’ or 3ns>1ns ‘they>us (two or
more)’. (Clusivity, gender, and the dual/plural distinction are not relevant here.)

416
 20.9 interactive prefixes

Table 20.3: a- and p-series, with 3s.m interactions

a-series x>3s.m 3s.m>x p-series

‘him’ ‘he’
W
1s>(x) ‘I’ g hi-/he-C hag-V ag-
W
k-n,(h)n,(ˀ)n hiy-/hey-V hak-n, (h)n, (ˀ)n ak-n,(h)n,(ˀ)n
W
ge-k,g,CC hi/he-(i) hage-k,g,CC age-k,g,CC
1s.a 1s>3s.m 3s.m>1s ǫg/ǫk/
ǫge-fact.Io
(x)>1s.p
Y
1d>(x) ‘we two’ kni-, tni-C shetni-C shǫkni-C ǫkni-C
Y
inclusive kn-, tn-e,i,o shetn-e,i,o shǫkn-e,i,o ǫkn-e,i,o
Y
gy-a shegy-a shǫgy-a ǫgy-a
1d.in.a 1d.in>3s.m 3s.m>1d (x)>1d.p
Y
1d>(x) ‘we two’ akni-C shakni-C
Y
exclusive akn-e,i,o shakn-e,i,o
Y
agy-a shagy-a
1d.ex.a 1d.ex>3s.m
Y
1p>(x) ‘we all’ dwa-C shedwa-C shǫgwa-C ǫgwa-C
Y
inclusive dw-a,e shedw-a,e shǫgw-a,e ǫgw-a,e
Y
dwę-(i) shedwę-(i) shǫgwę-(i) ǫgwę-(i)
Y
gy-o shegy-o shǫgy-o ǫgy-o
1p.in.a 1p.in>3s.m 3s.m>1p (x)>1p.p
Y
1p>(x) ‘we all’ agwa-C shagwa-C
Y
exclusive agw-a,e shagw-a,e
Y
agwę-(i) shagwę-(i)
Y
agy-o shagy-o
1p.ex.a 1p.ex>3s.m
2s>(x) ‘you’ (eh)s-C,V hehs-C,V hya-C sa-C
(eh)se-k hehse-k,g hy-a,e,o s-a,e,o
d-r 2s>3s.m hyę-(i) sę-(i)
j-y 3s.m>2s (x)>2s.p
2s.a
2d>(x) ‘you two’ (eh)sni-C shesni-C sni-C
(eh)sn-e,i,o shesn-e,i,o sn-e,i,o
j-a shej-a j-a
2d.a 2d>3s.m(opp) (x)>2d.p
2p>(x) ‘you all’ (eh)swa-C sheswa-C swa-C
(eh)sw-a,e shesw-a,e sw-a,e
(eh)swę-(i) sheswę-(i) swę-(i)
j-o shej-o j-o
2p.a 2p>3s.m(opp) (x)>2p.p
417
20 Pronominal prefix meaning

Table 20.4: 1,2, 3fi, and 3ns interactions

3s.fi>x 3ns.fi>x ‘they’ x:3s.fi x:3ns.fi ‘them’

‘she’ 3ns.zon>x ‘they’ ‘her’ x:3ns.zon ‘them’
3ns.m>x ‘they’ x:3ns.m ‘them’
(3ns) (3ns)
Y
1s ‘I’ ǫg- gaǫg- ke-C,(i) gake-/kake-C,(i)
Y
ǫk-n gaǫk-n key-V gakey-/kakey-V
Y
ǫge-k,g,C gaǫge-k,g,C 1s>3s.fi 1s>3ns
3s.fi>1s 3ns>1s
Y
1ns.ex aki-C,(i)
Y
‘we exclusive’ akiy-V
Y
ǫki-C,(i) 1ns.ex>3s.fi/3ns
Y
ǫkiy-V
Y
1ns.in 3s.fi/3ns>1ns eti-C,(i)
Y
‘we inclusive’ etiy-V
1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns

Y
2s ‘you’ esa-C gaesa-C (h)she-C,(i) gashe-/kashe-C,(i)
Y
es-V gaes-V (h)shey-V gashey-/kashey-V
Y
esę-(i) gaesę-(i) 2s>3s.fi 2s>3ns
3s.fi>2s 3ns>2s
Y
2ns etshi-/Y etsi-C,(i)
Y
‘you two, all’ etshiy-/Y etsiy-V
3s.fi/3ns>2ns(opp)

Table 20.1 (page 419) lists the remaining pronominal prefixes, which all express
3>3 interactions in similar ways. (Also shown are the non-interactive 3rd person
prefixes, which can be used in an interactive sense with an implied ‘it’). To read
Table 20.1 (page 419) replace the “X” in the first column with an item from the
top row. For example, the ⌊ho-, haw-, ha-⌋ prefix means (3s)>3s.m – either 3s.m.p
or ‘(it)>him’, depending on the verb. Similarly, the ⌊ha-, h-, hę-⌋ prefix means
3s.m>(3s) – either 3s.m.a or ‘he>(it)’. The abbreviation (+ns) denotes that both
arguments must be non-singular, and the abbreviation (nfi) denotes that nei-
ther argument can be feminine indefinite. Note that the 3s>X row lists all of
the p-series pronominal prefixes and that the X>3s column lists all of the a-series
pronominal prefixes.

418
 x>3s.zon x>3s.m x>3ns.m x>3s.fi x>3ns.fi x>3ns.zon
‘it’ ‘him’ ‘them’ ‘her’ ‘them’ ‘them’
Y YA YA Y
3s.zon>x ga-C o-C,(a),(i) ho-C,(a),(i) hodi-C,(i) go-C,(a),(i) godi-C,(i) odi-C,(i)
Y YA YA Y
‘it’ gę-(i) aw-e haw-e/i hon-V gaw-e gon-V on-V
Y YA
w-a,e a-o ha-o 3ns.m.p ga-o 3ns.fi.p 3p.p
Y
-o 3s.p 3s.m.p 3s.fi.p
3s.a
3s.m>x ha-C hǫwa-C shago-C,(a),(i)
‘he’ h-V hǫw-a,e shagaw-e
hę-(i) hǫwę-(i) shaga-o
3s.m.a hǫway-o 3s.m>3fi/3p
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m

Y Y
3s.fi>x e-C,(i) ǫdade-C
Y Y
‘she’ ǫ-(a) ǫdad-V
Y Y
ag-e,o ǫdag-y
Y Y
ę-(e) ǫdat-n
3s.fi.a 3s.fi>3s.fi
3ns.fi>x gae-C,(i) gaǫdade-C
‘they’ gaǫ-(a) gaǫdad-V gǫwadi-C,(i)
ga:g-e,o gaǫdag-y gǫwan-V
gaę-(e) gaǫdat-n (hadi-)
3ns.fi.a 3fi>3fi(+ns) 3fi/3ns>3p
hǫwadi-C,(i)
hǫwan-V
3ns.zon>x gadi-C,(i) 3s.m/3s.fi>3ns.m,
‘they’ gęn-V 3ns>3m
3p.a shagodi-C,(i)
3ns.m>x hadi-C,(i) shagon-V
‘they’ hęn-V 3ns(nfi)>3fi
3ns.m.a

Figure 20.1: 3>3 interactions

419
20.9 interactive prefixes
20 Pronominal prefix meaning

20.9.2 Recap: pronominal prefix meaning

The concepts of person, number, gender, and clusivity are expressed in the a-
series, p-series, and interactive pronominal prefixes. Verbs express up to three
roles with these pronominal prefixes. Verbs with one role take either the a- or
p-series of non-interactive prefix (see §24, §25.1, and §26), whereas verbs with
two or three roles take both the interactive type and the non-interactive a- and
p-series prefixes (see §25.2). In the latter case, the non-interactive a- and p-series
prefixes express a non-zoic-neuter role plus an implied ‘it’ (zoic-neuter) role.

420
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation
Each pronominal prefix is actually a set of prefixes that share one meaning but
have different pronunciations. For example, while the prefixes in (1) all sound
different, they are the same prefix in the sense that they all mean 3s.fi.a ‘she,
someone’.

(1) Pronunciation changes in the a-series prefix meaning ‘she, someone’

a. ⌊y.ag-⌋ 3s.fi.a (before O stems – stems beginning with O or Ǫ)
i. ęya:gó:da:ˀ
ę-ya:g-ó:da:-ˀ
fut-3s.fi.a-drape-punc
‘she will drape it’
ii. a:yagó:da:ˀ
a:-yag-ó:da:-ˀ
indef-3s.fi.a-drape-punc
‘she might drape it’
iii. agó:da:s
agó:-da:-s
3s.fi.a-drape-hab
‘she is draping it’
b. ⌊y.e-⌋ 3s.fi.a (before C stems – stems beginning with a consonant)
i. ęyé:gęˀ
ę-yé:-gę-ˀ
fut-3s.fi.a-see-punc
‘she will see it’
ii. a:yé:gęˀ
a:-yé:-gę-ˀ
indef-3s.fi.a-see-punc
‘she might see it’
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

iii. aˀé:gęˀ
aˀ-é:-gę-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-see-punc
‘she did see it’
iv. é:gęhs
é:-gę-hs
3s.fi.a-see-hab
‘she sees it’

As shown in (1), the pronunciation of each prefix depends on whatever pre-

cedes or follows. For example, the prefix in (1) is pronounced as ⌊y.ag-⌋ – that is,
[yag] or [ag] – before stems beginning with an O sound (1a) but as ⌊y.e-⌋ – that
is, [ye] or [e] – before stems beginning with a C (consonant) sound (1b). In addi-
tion, many pronominal prefixes gain, lose, or change initial sounds, depending
on what precedes them: for example, the prefix in (1) begins with Y after a vowel
(1a-i, 1a-ii, 1b-i, 1b-ii); in other instances, the Y merges with S to become J (not
shown). The prefix is otherwise pronounced without a Y (1a-iii, 1b-iii, 1b-iv).
The pronunciation variants of each pronominal prefix are described in the
following sections.

21.1 Sound changes determined by C, A, E, I, and O stems

The pronunciation of each pronominal prefix is determined by the first sound of
the following stem (even when the first sound of the stem has been deleted, as
described below.) For example, the 3s.fi.a ‘she, someone’ prefix is ⌊y.e-⌋ before a
C stem (a stem beginning with a consonant, 2a). It is also ⌊y.e-⌋ before an I stem
(a stem beginning with an I, 2b). However, it is ⌊y.ǫ-⌋ before an A- or E stem (2c,d).
(E stem includes stems beginning with E or Ę). It is ⌊y.ag-⌋ before an O stem (2e).
(O stem includes stems beginning with O or Ǫ. Also, the stem-initial vowel (in
brackets) deletes in 2b-2d).

(2) a. C stem
aˀé:gęˀ
aˀ-e:-gę-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-see-punc
‘she saw it’

422
 21.1 Sound changes determined by C, A, E, I, and O stems

b. I stem
aˀédagraˀ
aˀ-e-(i)dagraˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-fall.down.punc
‘she fell down’
c. A stem
aˀǫdęnaˀtragwáhaˀ
aˀ-ǫ-(a)dę-naˀtra-gwáha-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-srf-provisions-go.and.get-punc
‘she went after groceries’
d. E-, Ę stem
aˀǫniˀdé:niˀ
aˀ-ǫ-(ę)niˀde:ni-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-fart-punc
‘she farted’
e. O-, Ǫ stem
dęyagodáihsiˀ
dę-yag-odaihsi-ˀ
du.fut-3s.fi.a-undrape-punc
‘she undraped it’

In addition, the prefix and stem vowel sometimes merge – A and I become Ę
in (3a). In other cases, a vowel might delete – prefix I and stem I become a single
I in (3b, see §19.2.)

(3) a. ęsę́:daˀ
ę-sa-idaˀ
fut-2s.p-sleep.punc
‘you will sleep’
b. ęyo:dí:daˀ
ę-yo:dí:-(i)daˀ
fut-3p.p-sleep.punc1
‘they will sleep, hibernate’

1
In this and similar cases, it is possible to say that either the prefix or the stem vowel was deleted.
Under either analysis, a vowel-final prefix merges with a vowel-initial stem, as in ęyodi-idaˀ,
and one of the vowels is lost. The choice of analysis about which vowel is lost has no practical
consequences. For consistency, however, I assume that the stem vowel deletes.

423
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

It is important to know which sound occurs at the beginning of the stem, even
if the stem-initial sound sometimes deletes. A method for determining the first
sound of the stem is suggested in the following section.2

21.1.1 Determining the first sound of the stem (most verbs, nouns)
The first sound of the stem can be determined by examining a specific type of
word chosen from a paradigm - a set of words that have the same basic meaning,
but perhaps different prefixes or suffixes to denote different participants, aspects,
or moods (see §36.3). Example (4) illustrates a partial paradigm of words that
share the basic meaning of ‘see’.
(4) A partial paradigm of the verb ⌊gę⌋ ‘see’
a. ęhsé:gęˀ
ę-hsé:-gę-ˀ
fut-2s.a-see-punc
‘you will see it’
b. ęyé:gęˀ
ę-yé:-gę-ˀ
fut-3s.fi.a-see-punc
‘she will see it’
c. ęhǫwadí:gęˀ
ę-hǫwadí:-gę-ˀ
fut-3s.m/3s.fi>3ns.m, 3ns>3m-see-punc
‘they or s/he will see him, them (m)’
d. aˀe:gęˀ
aˀ-é:-gę-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-see-punc
‘she saw it’
e. gé:gęhs
gé:-gę-hs
1s.a-see-hab
‘I see’
Words meaning ‘I’ or ‘me’ (as in 4e) can help to identify the first sound of the
stem, which occurs right after the prefix meaning ‘I’. (Words meaning ‘I’ or ‘me’
are referred to as I-words below.)
2
The rules outlined below do not apply to neuter, stative-only verbs, since the latter do not
reference an “I”.

424
 21.1 Sound changes determined by C, A, E, I, and O stems

Table 21.1: The stem sound is after the first GE

stem sound a-series prefix p-series prefix

G gegówanęh agega̱hágwaǫt
‘I am big’ ‘I have a stye’
K gekǫni ̱hsgęhę:ˀ agekǫníhne:ˀ
‘I used to cook’ ‘I have cooked’
J gejí:nah agejinyǫhgro:t
‘I am strong’ ‘I have a runny nose’
ˀ ge̱ˀohs ageˀó:gǫh
‘I’m a chopper’ ‘I did chop’, ‘I have chopped’
T getéˀtaˀ agéteˀdǫh
‘I’m a pounder’ ‘I did pound it’
TS getsę:nyeˀs, getsę:nyǫhs agétsęnyǫ:
‘I’m a finder of things’ ‘I have found it’
CC genhóha:s agenhoháhǫh, agenhohá:hǫh
‘I close the door (all the time)’ ‘I have closed the door’

In some cases, the first sound of the stem is right after the first instance of GE
in the I-word, Table 21.1.
Note that it is important to consider only ‘I’ or ‘me’ forms in order to locate
the first sound of the stem: as shown in (5), words without the pronominal prefix
meaning ‘I’ or ‘me’ can also contain a G, but the G in this case is not immediately
before the stem.
(5) Not useful for determining the stem sound
a. gyá:dǫh
gy-á:dǫh
1d.in.a-say.stat
‘we say’
b. gyohnegę́ˀǫh
g-yo-hneg-ę́ˀ-ǫh
cis-3s.p-water-fall-stat
‘falling water’

425
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

An exception to the above statement about GE involves a small number of E

stem verbs, Table 21.2 and Table 21.3. Such cases are easy to identify because the
E of the GE combination is present in all forms of the word paradigm – the E is
part of the stem, and E is resistant to deletion.

Table 21.2: 1s ‘I’ form before an E stem verb ⌊e:hah⌋ ‘gloat’ or ⌊e:ˀǫ:⌋
‘think, will, decide’

stem sound a-series prefix p-series prefix

E igé:hah agé:ˀǫ:
‘I am gloating, boastful’ ‘I have willed it, decided it’

Table 21.3: Other forms of E stem verb ⌊e:hah⌋ ‘gloat’ or ⌊e:ˀǫ:⌋ ‘think,
will, decide’

stem sound a-series prefix p-series prefix

E ihsé:hah hawé:ˀǫ:
‘you gloat’ ‘he willed, decided it’
gę:né:hah honé:ˀǫ:
‘they are proud’ ‘they willed, decided it’

In many cases, the first sound of the stem occurs after the first G of the I-word.
(The first G is part of the 1s ‘I’ prefix, Table 21.4, page 427.)
For some words, the first letter of the stem appears after the first K of the
I-word, Table 21.5 (page 427).
That being said, some of the stems following the first K really begin with a
glottal stop <ˀ> or H, which disappears in the I-word (due to a spelling rule which
turns the letters Kˀ and KH into K). The glottal stop <ˀ> or H reappears in other
forms of the verb, Table 21.6 (page 428).
The I-word in (6) is exceptional. It has a unique ⌊w-⌋ 1s.a prefix. The full
paradigm of this verb is listed in §B.2.

(6) í:wi:
⌊í:-w-i:⌋
proth-1s.a-think.stat
‘I want, hope, think’

426
 21.1 Sound changes determined by C, A, E, I, and O stems

Table 21.4: The stem sound is after the first G

stem sound a-series prefix p-series prefix

A gatahí:neˀ agáhsę:
‘I am walking’ ‘I am fat’
E igé:hah agé:ˀǫ:
‘I am gloating, boastful’ ‘I have willed, decided it’
Ę gęnǫhdǫnyǫh agęnihsgyá:ge:
‘I’m wondering, thinking, feel- ‘I’m urinating’
ing’
I gi ̱hsa:s agídaˀǫh
‘I’m looking for it’ ‘I was asleep’,
‘I am sleeping’
O gó:da:s hewágo̱hǫh
‘I drape it all the time’ ‘I have already dipped, sub-
merged it’
Ǫ gǫ:nihs agǫni ̱hne:ˀ
‘I make, earn (it)’ ‘I used to or have made, earned
it’
U nigú:ˀuh
‘I am small’
R gragé:wahs agríhoˀdeˀ
‘I am erasing or wiping (it)’ ‘I am working’

Table 21.5: The stem sound is after the first K

stem sound a-series prefix p-series prefix

D kdákseˀ akdǫhgwá:hǫh
‘I am running’ ‘I have a fever’
N knǫ̱hweˀs aknǫhaˀ
‘I like, admire it’ ‘I’m unable’

427
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.6: Spelling merger of Kˀ or KH to K

stem sound a-series prefix p-series prefix

ˀN knigǫ:ha:ˀ aknigǫ̱háhetgęˀs
(ˀ not heard/spelled) ‘I am expecting, watching’ ‘I’m crying uncontrollably’
ˀN (ˀ audible) haˀnígǫ̱ha:ˀ hoˀnigǫ̱háhetgęˀs
‘he is watching, expecting’ ‘he is crying uncontrollably’
HN or HR knę:ye:s akré:nęh
(H not heard/spelled) ‘I am tall’ ‘I did cut it’
HN (H audible) hahnę:ye:s
‘he is tall’
H ká:wiˀ akáˀjih
(H not heard/spelled) ‘I am carrying something’ ‘I’m hoarse’
H (H audible) hahá:wiˀ saháˀjih
‘he is carrying it’ ‘you’re hoarse’

21.2 Sound changes at the beginning of the pronominal

prefix
The two main types of pronunciation change at the beginning of a pronominal
prefix include the presence (7) or absence (8) of one or more sounds (specifically,
W, Y, YA, H). Such changes are described next.

(7) presence of [w] in ⌊(w)ag-⌋ 1s.p

a. ęwa:gí:daˀ
ę-wa:g-í:daˀ
fut-1s.p-sleep.punc
‘I will sleep’
b. a:wagí:daˀ
a:-wag-í:daˀ
indef-1s.p-sleep.punc
‘I should sleep’

428
 21.2 Sound changes at the beginning of the pronominal prefix

(8) absence of [w] in ⌊(w)ag-⌋ 1s.p

agída̱ˀǫh ‘I was asleep’,
ag-ída̱ˀ-ǫh
1s.p-sleep-stat
‘I am sleeping’

21.2.1 Prefixes that sometimes begin with a Y

The prefixes in Table 21.7 (page 430) begin with Y when they follow a vowel, but
have no Y when they are at the beginning of the word or when they follow the
⌊aˀ-⌋ fac.

21.2.2 Prefixes that sometimes begin with YA

The prefixes in Table 21.8 (page 432) begin with YA when they follow a vowel,
but YA is missing when the prefixes are at the beginning of the word or when
they follow the ⌊a-⌋ fac.

21.2.3 Prefixes that sometimes begin with an H

Several 2nd person (‘you’) prefixes optionally begin with an H when they follow
a vowel, Table 21.9 (page 432).
All of the 3rd masculine (‘he, they (males)’) prefixes lose their initial H when
they follow the ⌊t-⌋ cis or the ⌊a-t-⌋ fac-du combination. This is because in the
Henry orthography, the letter T stands for two sounds, T plus H or D plus H (9).

(9) Spelling merger of T and H

a. atóhe:t
a-t-hó-he:t
fac-du-3s.m.p-yell.ø.punc
‘he yelled’
b. atóhsi ̱ha:ˀs
a-t-hó-hsi ̱ha:ˀs
fac-du-3s.m.p-choke.ø.punc
‘he choked’
c. desáhsi ̱ha:ˀs
de-sá-hsi ̱ha:ˀs
du-2s.p-choke-hab
‘you are choking’

429
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.7: Y-initial prefixes

prefix [y] after ⌊ę-⌋ fut or beginning of word or

⌊a:-⌋ indef after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
⌊y.ǫg.e-⌋ ta:yǫgé:gęh aˀǫgé:gęˀ
3s.fi>1s ‘she will not see me’ ‘she might see me’
⌊y.ǫkni-⌋ deyǫkniˀdráihęh ǫkníˀdreˀ
1d.p ‘let us hurry’ ‘we two are riding
along in a vehicle’
⌊y.ǫki.y-⌋ ęyǫ:kí:yǫˀ ǫkiyadęˀnigǫha:ˀ
3s.fi/3ns>1ns ‘she will give us’, ‘monitors’ (literally,
‘they will give us’ ‘they watch over us’)
⌊y.ǫgwa.y-⌋ ęyǫ:gwá:yǫˀ aˀǫgwanhiˀk
1p.p ‘it will give us all’ ‘we all made a mistake’
⌊y.etsi.y-⌋ ęyetsihwá:waˀs aˀetsigwé:niˀ
3s.fi/3ns>2ns(opp) ‘you all will back them’ ‘you won a competition
(against them)’
⌊y.akn.i-⌋ á:yakhne:ˀ akníˀdreˀ
1d.ex.a ‘we two (excludes ‘we two (excludes
listener) would go listener) are dragging
together’ something’
⌊y.agwa-⌋ ęyagwade:kǫ:niˀ agwagowá:nęh
1p.ex.a ‘we all (excludes ‘we all (excludes
listeners) will eat’ listeners) are big’
⌊y.o-⌋ a:yó:daˀ aˀó:de:k
3s.p ‘it would sleep’ ‘it did burn’
⌊y.e-⌋ ęyé:gęˀ egánya̱ˀktaˀ
3s.fi (C stem) ‘she will see (it)’ ‘what someone pays
with’,
‘barter’

430
 21.2 Sound changes at the beginning of the pronominal prefix

⌊y.ǫ-⌋ a:yǫda:wę:ˀ aˀǫdawęˀneˀ

3s.fi.a (A stem) ‘she might swim’ ‘she is going
swimming’
⌊y.ǫ-⌋ ęyǫni ̱ˀdé:niˀ aˀǫni ̱ˀdé:niˀ
3s.fi.a (E stem) ‘she will fart’ ‘she farted’
⌊y.e, y.ę-⌋ ęyé:gęˀ aˀé:gęˀ
3s.fi.a (E stem) ‘she will see (it)’ ‘she saw (it)’
⌊y.ag-⌋ ęyagǫ:niˀ aˀa:gǫ:niˀ
3s.fi.a (O stem) ‘she will make, earn’ ‘how much she made,
earned’
⌊y.aki.y-⌋ ęyakiyęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ akíya̱htgaˀ
1ns.ex>3s.fi/3ns ‘they and I will startle ‘we let them go,
them’ released them’
⌊y.eti.y-⌋ ęye:tí:yǫˀ aˀetigwé:niˀ
1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns ‘presents’, ‘we won a competition’
‘we will give something
to her/them’
⌊y.ǫdad.e-⌋ aˀǫdadahǫ:dǫ:ˀ ęyǫ:dá:dǫˀ
3s.fi>3s.fi ‘she asked her’ ‘she will give her’
⌊y.on-⌋ a:yonadri ̱hwa:gyáǫˀ aˀonadrihwagyáoˀ
3p.p (V-stem) ‘they (animals) might ‘they (animals) had an
have an accident accident’
⌊y.odi-⌋ ęyódiˀdaˀ odí:gaˀs
3p.p (C stem, I stem) ‘they (animals) will ‘they (animals) like the
sleep, hibernate’ taste of it’

431
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.8: YA-initial prefixes

prefix ⌊ya-⌋ after ⌊ę-⌋ fut, beginning of word or

⌊a:-⌋ indef or another after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
vowel
⌊ya.godi.y-, ya.gon-⌋ ęyagodí:yǫˀ gonęnadi:nyǫ:dǫh
3ns.fi.p ‘it will give them ‘they (females or mixed
(females or mixed group) have moved in’
group)’
⌊ya.go-⌋ deyagoˀáhsawˀehs goˀdréhdaˀ
3s.fi.p ‘she has asthma’ ‘her car’

Table 21.9: H-initial prefixes

prefix optional [h] after a vowel, no [h] at beginning of

⌊ę-⌋ fut, or ⌊a:-⌋ indef word or after ⌊a-⌋ fac
⌊h.sa-⌋ 2s.p ę(h)saǫhyágę̱ dahk saní:yǫ:t
‘it’s going to make you ‘you hung it up’
groan’
⌊h.swa-⌋ 2p.a/o ę(h)swá:yǫˀ swanóˀjo:t
‘it will give you all’ ‘you all have teeth’
⌊h.s.e-⌋ 2s.a ę(h)syǫ:gyaˀt sehsága̱hę:t
‘you will smile!’ ‘on your mouth’
⌊h.she.y-⌋ 2s>3s.fi ę(h)sheyahdrǫhgwęˀ sheyadrǫ̱hgwá:nih
‘you will threaten some- ‘you’re threatening her’
one’

432
 21.2 Sound changes at the beginning of the pronominal prefix

On a related theme, the ‘whispered’ syllable DE̱H sounds like T (10).

(10) de̱hóhetaˀ
de̱-hó-het-haˀ
du-3s.m.p-yell-hab
‘he is hollering’ (sounds like tóhetaˀ)

21.2.4 Sound changes: prepronominal prefix-pronominal

combinations
Some of the pronominal prefixes merge or otherwise have special pronunciations
before certain of the prepronominals. Such sound changes are described below.
The ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac and ⌊(w)ag-⌋ 1s.p prefixes merge together to form ⌊ǫg-⌋ (11)

(11) merger of ⌊aˀ-wag-⌋ fac-1s.p prefixes

ǫgí:daˀ
ǫg-í:daˀ
fac.1s.p-sleep.punc
‘I am sleeping’, ‘I slept’
cf. ęwa:gí:daˀ
ę-wa:g-í:daˀ
fut-1s.p-sleep.punc
‘I will sleep’

The ⌊aˀ- or a-⌋ fac is instead pronounced as [e-] when before the pronominal
prefixes listed in Table 21.10 (page 434).

433
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.10: E-factual

prefix [e-] fac instead of [aˀ-] after ⌊ę-⌋ fut

⌊(eh)s-⌋ esáhdǫ:ˀ ęhsé:gęˀ
2s.a ‘you lost it’ ‘you will see it’
⌊(e)sni-⌋ ehsní:gęˀ ęhsní:gęˀ
2d.a ‘you two saw it’ ‘you two will see it’
⌊(e)swa-⌋ ehswá:gęˀ ęhswá:gęˀ
2p.a ‘you all saw it’ ‘you all will see it’
⌊(eh).sgwa.y-⌋ esgwadri ̱hwatǫdá:dęˀ ęsgwá:yǫˀ
2>1(p) ‘you have listened to ‘you all will give to me’
my idea’
⌊(e)dwa-⌋ edwatgwé:niˀ ędwádro̱he:k
1p.in.a ‘we all (includes ‘we all (includes
listener) won a listener) will gather
competition’ together’
⌊(e)tni-⌋, ⌊(e)kni⌋ etnina̱ˀná:węht dętnihsdá:teˀt
1d.in.a ‘we two (includes ‘we two (includes
listener) wet it’ listener) will shine it’
⌊(e)hy.a-⌋ ehyá:gęˀ (also ahyá:gęˀ) ęhyęhnǫksaˀ
3s.m>2s ‘he saw you (one)’ ‘he is looking for you
(one)’
⌊(eh)skni-⌋ eskní:gęˀ ęhskní:gęˀ
2>1(d) ‘you two saw me’ (etc.) ‘you two will see me’
(etc.)

434
 21.2 Sound changes at the beginning of the pronominal prefix

The pronominal prefixes listed in Table 21.10 (page 434) also take the [ae-]
form of the indef prefix instead of [a:-] (12).

(12) prefixes taking the [ae-] indef pronunciation variant

a. áeswa:k
ae-swa:-k
indef-2p.a-eat.ø.punc
‘you all should eat it’
cf. á:se:k
á:-s-e:-k
indef-2s.a-eat.ø.punc
‘you should eat it’
b. áedwe:ˀ
áe-dw-e:-ˀ
indef-2p.a-think-punc
‘we all should want, think’
cf. á:yagwe:ˀ
á:-yagw-e:-ˀ
indef-1p.ex.a-think-punc
‘we all should want, think’

And finally, several p-series prefixes take the [ędi-] fut.cis prefix combination
instead of the [ęt-] or [ęd-] variants (13). The same prefixes take the [adi-] fac.du
prefix combination instead of the [ad-] or [at-] variants (14).

(13) prefixes taking [ędi-] fut.cis

a. ędihsa̱hsíˀgyaˀk
ędi-s-ahsíˀg-yaˀk
fut.cis-2s.p-foot-break.ø.punc
‘you will stumble, stub your toe’
b. ędisanaˀgyę:ˀ
ędi-sa-naˀgyę:-ˀ
fut.cis-2s.p-mock-punc
‘it will mock, imitate you’
cf. ętsnaˀgyę:ˀ
ę-t-s-naˀgyę:-ˀ
fut-cis-2s.a-mock-punc
‘you will imitate, mock, mimic, something’

435
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

(14) prefixes taking [adi-] fac.du

a. adísaˀtsǫhs
adi-sa-ˀtsǫhs
fac.du-2s.p-sneeze.ø.punc
‘you sneezed’
cf. dęsáˀtsǫhs
d-ę-sá-ˀtsǫhs
du-fut-2s.p-sneeze.ø.punc
‘you will sneeze’
b. adígya̱ˀdraˀ
adí-gy-a̱ˀdraˀ
fac.du-1d.in.a-meet.ø.punc
‘we two met’
cf. atgáǫˀdraˀ
a-t-gáǫ-ˀdraˀ
fac-du-3ns.fi.a-meet.ø.punc
‘they met’

21.2.5 Explanation of pronominal prefix tables

The following sections each include two tables, designed to illustrate pronun-
ciation changes at the beginning and end of each pronominal prefix. (To save
space, translations are omitted from some tables.) The first type is exemplified in
Table 21.11.
Table 21.11: Sample table (beginning of prefix)

gloss beginning of prefix environment

1s.p ǫgé:gęˀ merged fac and 1s.p prefix
agé:gę: at the beginning of the word
ęwa:gé:gęˀ after ⌊ę-⌋ fut or ⌊aǫ-⌋ indef

The gloss column lists the meaning of the prefix (1s.p). The second and third
columns describe pronunciation changes at the beginning of the prefix: for exam-
ple, the 1s.p prefix either begins with [ǫ], [a], or [wa].
The second type of chart, shown in Table 21.12 (page 437), provides more in-
formation about any changes between the last sound of the pronominal prefix
and the first sound of the stem.

436
 21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation

Table 21.12: Sample table (end of prefix)

3p.a 3p.p
A E, Ę, O, Ǫ, U stem
⌊gęn-⌋ ęgęnadéˀgoˀ ⌊y.on-⌋ onadagáideˀ
‘they will run away’ ‘they are well’
I stem
⌊gadi-(i)⌋ gadídagrǫˀ ⌊y.odi-(i)⌋ odidagraˀǫh
‘they are lying around’ ‘they have fallen down’
C stem
⌊gadi-⌋ gadi:tsgó:dǫˀ ⌊y.odi-⌋ odinǫ̱hǫ́kdanih
‘they are sitting’ ‘they are sick’

For example, the 3p.a prefix is [gęn-] before any stem beginning with A, E,
Ę, O, Ǫ, or U. The same prefix is pronounced as [gadi-] before stems beginning
with I, and the I of the stem also deletes. (Deleted vowels are shown between
parentheses.) The prefix is [gadi-] before stems beginning with any consonant
(C). Similarly, the 3p.p prefix is ⌊y.on-⌋ before any stem beginning with A, E, Ę, O,
Ǫ, or U. The same prefix is pronounced as ⌊y.odi-⌋ before stems beginning with
I, and the I of the stem also deletes. (Deleted vowels are shown between paren-
theses.) Finally, the prefix is ⌊y.odi-⌋ before stems beginning with any consonant
(C).

21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix

pronunciation
The following sections describe the pronunciation of non-interactive (a- and p-
series) 1st person, 2nd person, and 3rd person pronominal prefixes. Recall that
these same prefixes can be used in an interactive sense, with an implied ‘it’. For
example, 1s.a can mean ‘I’ or ‘I>(it)’.

437
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

21.3.1 1st person, non-interactive (or interactive with implied ‘it’)

Table 21.13: 1s (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

1s.a agé:gęˀ (no change)
gé:gęhs
ęgé:gęˀ
1s.p ǫgé:gęˀ merged fac and 1s.p prefix
agé:gę: at the beginning of the word
ęwa:gé:gęˀ after a vowel- ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
⌊a:-⌋ indef

Table 21.14: 1s (prefix-stem boundary)

1s.a 1s.p
A, E, Ę, I, O, ⌊g-⌋ gadá:węhs ⌊w.ag-⌋ agadagaideˀ
Ǫ, U stem ‘I’m a swimmer’ ‘I am well’
C stem ⌊k- knę́:ye:s ⌊w.ak- dwaknigǫhí:yo:
(h),(h)n, (ˀ)n ⌋ ‘I’m tall’ (h),(h)n, (ˀ)n ⌋ ‘I am
⌊k-d ⌋ ⌊w.ak-d ⌋ satisfied,
peaceful’
C stem ⌊g-r,y ⌋ degrihwanǫ́hweˀs ⌊w.ag-r,y ⌋ agyáˀdadeht
‘I disapprove’ ‘I am
nimble,
active,
energetic’
C stem ⌊ge- gegę́hjih ⌊w.age- agégaˀs
g,s,w,CC ⌋ ‘I am old’ g,s,w,CC ⌋ ‘I like the
taste of it’

438
 21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation

Table 21.15: 1d (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

1d.in.a etní:gęˀ, ekní:gę after ⌊e-⌋ fac
tní:gęhs, kní:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ętní:gęˀ, ękní:gęˀ, aetní:gęˀ, after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
aekní:gęˀ ⌊ae-⌋ indef

1d.ex.a aˀa:kní:gęˀ, *a:kní:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac, (*fac often

deletes)
akní:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęya:kní:gęˀ after a vowel- ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
⌊a:-⌋ indef

1d.p aˀǫ:kní:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac

ǫkní:gę: at the beginning of the word
ęyǫ:kní:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
⌊a:-⌋ indef

439
440
1d.in.a 1d.ex.a 1d.p
A stem
⌊gy-⌋ gyá:dǫh ⌊y.agy-⌋ agyá:dǫh ⌊y.ǫgy-⌋ ǫgyadagáideˀ
‘you and I say’ ‘we two say’ ‘we two are healthy’
E, Ę, I, O, Ǫ, U stem
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

⌊kn-, tn-⌋ ekníˀ, etníˀ ⌊y.akn-⌋ niyaknú:ˀuh ⌊y.ǫkn-⌋ ǫkné:ˀǫ:

‘you and I said’ ‘we two are small’ ‘we two have
willed, decided it’
C stem
⌊tni-, kni-⌋ tnigę́hjih, knigę́hjih ⌊y.akni-⌋ aknihnę́:ye:s ⌊y.ǫkni-⌋ ǫkninǫ̱hǫ́kdanih
‘we two are old’ ‘we two are tall’ ‘we two are sick’

Figure 21.1: 1d (prefix-stem boundary)

 21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation

Table 21.16: 1p (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

1p.ex.a aˀágwagęˀ, *ágwagęˀ* after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac (*fac often
deletes)
agwá:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęyágwagęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
⌊a:-⌋ indef

1p.in.a edwá:gęˀ after [e-] fac

dwá:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ędwá:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
⌊ae-⌋ indef

1p.p aˀǫ:gwá:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac

ǫgwá:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęyǫ:gwá:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
⌊a:-⌋ indef

441
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.17: 1p (prefix-stem boundary)

1p.ex.a 1p.in.a 1p.p

A, E, Ę, stem
⌊y.agw-⌋ agwá:dǫh ⌊dw-⌋ dwá:dǫh ⌊y.ǫgw-⌋ ǫgwada-
‘we all ‘we all gaideˀ
say’ say’ ‘we all
are
healthy’
O, Ǫ, U stem
⌊y.agy-⌋ niyagy- ⌊gy-⌋ nigyu:ˀuh ⌊y.ǫgy-⌋ ǫgyǫ:dá:hǫh
u:ˀuh ‘we ‘we all ‘we all
are small’ are small’ have put
it in’
I stem
⌊y.agwę-(i) ⌋ á:gwęˀ, ⌊dwę-(i) ⌋, ⌊twę-(i) ⌋ edwę́ˀ, ⌊y.ǫgwę-(i) ⌋ ǫgwęda-
aˀá:gwęˀ etwę́ˀ ‘we graˀǫh
‘we all all said’ ‘we all
said’ have
fallen’
C stem
⌊y.agwa-⌋ agwa- ⌊dwa-⌋ dwa̱hnę́:ye:s ⌊y.ǫgwa-⌋ ǫgwanǫ̱h-
hnę́:ye:s ‘we all ǫ́kdanih
‘we all are tall’ ‘we all
are tall’ are sick’

442
 21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation

21.3.2 2nd person, non-interactive (or interactive with implied ‘it’)

Table 21.18: 2s (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

2s.a ahsé:gęˀ, esáhdǫ:ˀ after ⌊a-⌋ fac, after ⌊e-⌋ fac
sé:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęhsé:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut, ⌊ae-⌋ indef
2s.p ahsá:gęˀ after ⌊a-⌋ fac
sá:gę: at the beginning of the word
ęhsá:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut, ⌊a:-⌋ indef

443
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.19: 2s (prefix-stem boundary)

2s.a 2s.p
V stem A, E, Ę, O, Ǫ, U stem
⌊(h)s-⌋ nisú:ˀuh ⌊(h)s-⌋ sęnó:wę:
‘you are small’ ‘you are a liar’
R stem I stem
⌊(h)s-r ⌋, ⌊d-r ⌋ dahsrá:tęh, ⌊(h)sę-(i) ⌋ sędáǫ
dadrá:tęh ‘you are
‘climb (over fortunate’
here)!’
W, G, K, CC stem C stem
⌊(h)se-⌋ sekdǫ: ⌊(h)sa-⌋ sanǫhǫkdá:nih
‘examine it!’ ‘you are sick’
(H)N, N stem
⌊(h)s-(h)n, n ⌋ shnę́:ye:s
‘you are tall’

Table 21.20: 2d (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

2d.a ehsní:gęˀ ⌊e-⌋ fac
sní:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęhsní:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
⌊ae-⌋ indef
2d.p ahsní:gęˀ after ⌊a-⌋ fac
sní:gę: at the beginning of the word
ęhsní:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
⌊a:-⌋ indef

444
 21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation

Table 21.21: 2d (prefix-stem boundary)

2d.a 2d.p
A stem
⌊j-⌋ já:dǫh ⌊j-⌋ jadagaideˀ
‘you two say’ ‘you two are well’

E, Ę, O, Ǫ, U stem
⌊(h)sn-⌋ ęhsne:ˀ ⌊(h)sn-⌋ sné:ˀǫ:, sneˀǫ:
‘you two will want, ‘you two have willed it’
think’
I stem
⌊(h)sni-(i) ⌋ esníˀ ⌊(h)sni-(i) ⌋ snidáǫ
‘you two said’ ‘you two are fortunate’
C stem
⌊(h)sni-⌋ snihnę́:ye:s ⌊(h)sni-⌋ sninǫhǫkdá:nih
‘you two are tall’ ‘you two are sick’

Table 21.22: 2p (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

2p.a ehswá:gęˀ after ⌊e-⌋ fac
swá:gęhs at the beginning of the
word
ęhswá:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
⌊ae-⌋ indef
2p.p ahswá:gęˀ after ⌊a-⌋ fac
swá:gę: at the beginning of the
word
ęhswá:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut,
⌊a:-⌋ indef

445
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.23: 2p (prefix-stem boundary)

2p.a 2p.p
A stem
⌊(h)swa-(a) ⌋ swá:dǫh ⌊(h)swa-(a) ⌋ swadagáideˀ
‘you all say’ ‘you all are healthy’
E, Ę stem
⌊(h)sw-⌋ ęhswe:ˀ ⌊(h)sw-⌋ ihswé:
‘you all will want, ‘you all want, think’
think’
I stem
⌊(h)swę-(i) ⌋ eswę́ˀ ⌊(h)swę-(i) ⌋ ihswę́:
‘you all said’ ‘you all have said’
O, Ǫ, U stem
⌊j-⌋ nijú:ˀuh ⌊j-⌋ do: nijohsriyáˀgǫh
‘you all are small’ ‘how old are you all’
C-stem
⌊(h)swa-⌋ swagę́hjih ⌊(h)swa-⌋ swanǫhǫkdá:nih
‘you all are old’ ‘you two are sick’

21.3.3 3rd person singular, non-interactive (or interactive with

implied ‘it’)
The initial H deletes after a T in the prefixes shown in Table 21.24 (page 447) and
Table 21.25 (page 447).

446
 21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation

Table 21.24: 3s.m (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

3s.m.a ahá:gęˀ no change, takes ⌊a-⌋ fac
há:gęhs
ęhá:gęˀ
3s.m.p ahó:gęˀ no change, takes ⌊a-⌋ fac
hó:gę:
ęhó:gęˀ

Table 21.25: 3s.m (prefix-stem boundary)

3s.m.a 3s.m.p
A stem A, I stem
⌊ha-(a) ⌋ há:dǫh ⌊ho-(V) ⌋ hodagáideˀ
‘he says’ ‘he is well’
E, Ę, O, Ǫ, U stem E, Ę stem
⌊h-⌋ ahę́ˀ ⌊haw-⌋ há:wę:
‘he said’ ‘he has said’
I stem O, Ǫ stem
⌊hę-(i) ⌋ hęhsa:s ⌊ha-⌋ haǫtsánǫ̱hwa:s
‘he is looking for it’ ‘his knee hurts’
C-stem C-stem
⌊ha-⌋ hagę́hjih ⌊ho-⌋ honǫhǫkdá:nih
‘he is old’ ‘he is sick’

447
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.26: 3s.fi (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

3s.fi.a aˀé:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
é:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęyé:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut, ⌊a:-⌋ indef
3s.fi.p aˀa:gó:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
gó:gę: at the beginning of the word
ęya:gó:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut, ⌊a:-⌋ indef

Table 21.27: 3s.fi (prefix-stem boundary)

3s.fi.a 3s.fi.p
A stem A, I stem
⌊y.ǫ-(a) ⌋ ǫ́:dǫh ⌊ya.go-(a),(i) ⌋ deyagodáwęnyeˀ
‘she, someone says’ ‘she is walking about’
Ę, O, Ǫ, U stem E, Ę stem
⌊y.ag-⌋ niya:gu:ˀuh ⌊ya.gaw-⌋ gá:wę:
‘she is small’ ‘she has said’
E stem O, Ǫ stem
⌊y.ę-(e) ⌋ í:yę: ⌊ya.ga-⌋ gaǫtsanǫ́hwa:s
‘she wants, thinks’ ‘her knee hurts’
I stem C stem
⌊y.e-(i) ⌋ ęyédagraˀ ⌊ya.go-⌋ gonǫhǫkdá:nih
‘she will fall down’ ‘she is sick’
C stem
⌊y.e-⌋ egęhjih
‘she is old’

448
 21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation

The [e-] of the ⌊(y)e-⌋ prefix merges with the initial [e-] of the verb stem to
create a single vowel, [ę] (15). (Examples b-d are from Sasse & Keye 1998: 113.)

(15) a. dǫdáęˀ
dǫda-(y)e-e-ˀ
du-fac-cis-3s.fi.a-go-punc
‘she is coming back’
cf. dǫdá:geˀ
dǫdá:-g-e-ˀ
du-fac-cis-1s.a-go-punc
‘I am coming back’
b. ęhtaˀ
e-eht-haˀ
3s.fi.a-go-hab
‘she usually goes’
cf. gehtaˀ
g-eht-haˀ
1s.a-go-hab
‘I usually go’
c. í:yęˀs
í:-ye-e-ˀs
proth-3s.fi.a-go-hab
‘she is here’
cf. i:geˀs
í:-g-e-ˀs
proth-1s.a-go-hab
‘I am here’
d. hę́:yę:ˀ
h-ę́:-ye-e-:-ˀ
transl-fut-3s.fi.a-go-purp-punc
‘she will go there’
cf. hę́:ge:ˀ
h-ę́:-g-e-:-ˀ
transl-fut-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I will go there’

449
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.28: 3s (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

3s.a agá:gęˀ no change
gá:gęhs
ęgá:gęˀ
3s.p aˀó:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
ó:gę: at the beginning of the word
ęyó:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut, ⌊a:-⌋ indef

Table 21.29: 3s (prefix-stem boundary)

3s.a 3s.p
A, E, Ę, U stem A, I stem
⌊w-⌋ wa̱hsohǫt ⌊y.o-⌋(a),(i) ní:yoht
‘it is coloured’ ‘what it is like
I-stem E, Ę stem
⌊gę-(i) ⌋ dehsgę́:ne:s ⌊aw-, y.o-(e,ę) ⌋ awé:ˀǫ:
‘it is extinct’ ‘it has willed, decided it’
oneˀwaǫ:
‘it was startled’
O, Ǫ stem O, Ǫ stem
⌊y-⌋ í:yǫ:s ⌊y.a-⌋ aǫˀwé:sęht
‘it is long’ ‘it is enjoyable’
C stem C stem
⌊ga-⌋ ganí:yǫ:t ⌊y.o-⌋ onáˀno:ˀ
‘it is hanging’ ‘it is cold, cool’

450
 21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation

21.3.4 3rd person plural, non-interactive (or interactive with implied

‘it’)
The initial H deletes after a T in the prefixes shown in Table 21.30 and Table 21.31.
Table 21.30: 3ns.m (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

3ns.m.a aha:dí:gęˀ no change, takes ⌊a-⌋ fac
hadí:gęhs
ęha:dí:gęˀ
3ns.m.p aho:dí:gęˀ no change, takes ⌊a-⌋ fac
hodí:gę:
ęho:dí:gęˀ

Table 21.31: 3ns.m (prefix-stem boundary)

3ns.m.a 3ns.m.p
A, E, Ę, O, Ǫ, U stem
⌊hęn-⌋ ni ̱hę:nú:sˀuh ⌊hon-⌋ de̱honadráˀǫh
‘they are small’ ‘they are meeting right
now’
I stem
⌊hadi-(i) ⌋ hadiˀdrǫ́:dǫˀ ⌊hodi-(i) ⌋ hodidagráˀǫh
‘how they are placed’ ‘they have fallen down’
C stem
⌊hadi-⌋ de̱hadiyáhshe: ⌊hodi-⌋ hodinǫ̱hǫ́kdanih
‘two males’ ‘they are sick’

451
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.32: 3ns.fi (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

3ns.fi.a agáegęˀ no change
gáegęhs
ęgáegęˀ

3ns.fi.p aˀagodí:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac

godí:gę: at the beginning of the word
ęyagodí:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut, ⌊a:-⌋ indef

The [e-] of the ⌊gae-⌋ 3ns.fi.a prefix merges with the [e-] of the verb stem to
create a single vowel, [ę] (16).
(16) a. ętgáęˀ
ę-t-gae-e-ˀ
fut-cis-3ns.fi.a-go-punc
‘they will come’
cf. ęteˀ
ę-t-h-e-ˀ
fut-cis-3s.m.a-go-punc
‘he will come this way’
b. haˀgáęˀ
haˀ-gae-e-ˀ
transl.fac-3ns.fi.a-go-punc
‘they are going’
cf. haˀseˀ
haˀ-s-e-ˀ
transl.fac-2s.s-go-punc
‘you are going’
c. tigáęˀs
ti-gae-e-ˀs
contr-3ns.fi.a-go-hab
‘they are roaming about’
cf. tí:wehs
tí-w-e-hs
contr-3s.a-go-hab
‘a stray animal’

452
 21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation

Table 21.33: 3ns.fi (prefix-stem boundary)

3ns.fi.a 3ns.fi.p
A stem A, E, Ę, O, Ǫ, U stem
⌊gaǫ-(a) ⌋ gaǫgá:dǫh ⌊ya.gon-⌋ dó: niyagonohsriyáˀgǫh
‘they say’ ‘how old they are’
E, Ę, O, Ǫ, U stem I stem
⌊ga:g-⌋ ga:gǫgwéˀdase: ⌊ya.godi-(i) ⌋ godidagráˀǫh
‘young women’ ‘they have fallen down’
E stem C stem
⌊gaę-(e) ⌋ ęgáę:ˀ ⌊ya.godi-⌋ godinǫ̱hǫ́kdanih
‘they will want’ ‘they are sick’
I stem
⌊gae-(i) ⌋ gáedagrǫˀ
‘they are lying around’
C stem
⌊gae-⌋ gáegę̱ hjih
‘they are old’

Table 21.34: 3p (beginning of prefix)

gloss pronominal environment

3p.a aga:dí:gęˀ no change, takes ⌊a-⌋ fac
gadí:gęhs
ęga:dí:gęˀ
3p.p aˀo:dí:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
odí:gę: at the beginning of the word
ęyo:dí:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut, ⌊a:-⌋ indef

453
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.35: 3p (prefix-stem boundary)

3p.a 3p.p
A E, Ę, O, Ǫ, U stem
⌊gęn-⌋ ęgęnadéˀgoˀ ⌊y.on-⌋ onadagáideˀ
‘they will run away’ ‘they are well’
I stem
⌊gadi-(i) ⌋ gadídagrǫˀ ⌊y.odi-(i) ⌋ odidagraˀǫh
‘they are lying around’ ‘they have fallen down’
C stem
⌊gadi-⌋ gadi:tsgó:dǫˀ ⌊y.odi-⌋ odinǫ̱hǫ́kdanih
‘they are sitting’ ‘they are sick’

21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation

The pronunciation of the interactive pronominal prefixes is summarized in the
following sections. (The meaning of each prefix is also listed, but the meaning
distinctions are more fully described in §20.)

454
 21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation

21.4.1 1st and 2nd person interactions

Table 21.36: 1>2, interactive (beginning of prefix)

gloss no changes environment

(beg of prefix)
1s>2s agǫ́:gęˀ (no change)
gǫ́:gęhs
ęgǫ́:gęˀ

1>2(d) akní:gęˀ, kní:gęhs, kní:gęˀ (no change)

1>2(p) agwá:gęˀ (no change)

gwá:gęhs
ęgwá:gęˀ

Table 21.37: 1>2, interactive (prefix-stem boundary)

1s>2s 1>2(d) 1>2(p)

C stem ⌊gǫ-, go-n ⌋ ⌊kni-⌋ ⌊gwa-⌋
agǫ́:gęˀ akní: gęˀ agwá:gęˀ
A stem ⌊gǫy-⌋ ⌊gy-⌋ ⌊gwa-(a)⌋
gǫyahǫdǫ́haˀ gyahǫ́dǫ̱haˀ gwahǫ́dǫhaˀ
I stem ⌊gǫ-(i)⌋ ⌊kni-(i)⌋ ⌊gwę-(a)⌋
gǫhnǫ:s knihnǫ:s gwęhnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ⌊gǫ-(e)⌋ ⌊kn-⌋ ⌊gw-⌋
ęgǫne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęknęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęgwęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊gǫy-⌋ ⌊kn-⌋ ⌊gy-⌋
ęgǫ́:yǫˀ ęknǫˀ ęgyǫˀ

455
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.38: 2>1, interactive (beginning of prefix)

gloss changes environment

(beg of prefix)
2s>1s asgé:gęˀ (no change)
sgé:gęhs
ęhsgé:gęˀ
2>1(d) eskní:gęˀ ⌊e-⌋ fac
skní:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęhskní:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or
⌊a:-⌋ indef
2>1(p) esgwá:gęˀ ⌊e-⌋ fac
sgwá:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęhsgwá:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or
⌊a:-⌋ indef

Table 21.39: 2>1, interactive (prefix-stem boundary)

2s>1s 2>1(d) 2>1(p)

C stem ⌊(h)sge-⌋ ⌊(h)skni-⌋ ⌊(h)sgwa-⌋
asgé:gęˀ eskní:gęˀ esgwá:gęˀ
A stem ⌊(h)sge-⌋ ⌊(h)sgy-⌋ ⌊(h)sgw-⌋
sga̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ sgya̱hǫ́dǫhaˀ sgwa̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ
I stem ⌊(h)sge-⌋ ⌊(h)skni-(i)⌋ ⌊(h)sgwę-(i)⌋
sgi ̱hnǫ:s sknihnǫ:s sgwęhnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ⌊(h)sge-⌋ ⌊(h)skn-⌋ ⌊(h)sgw-⌋
ęhsgęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęsknęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęsgwęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊(h)sge-⌋ ⌊(h)skn-⌋ ⌊(h)sgy-⌋
ęhsgǫˀ ęhsknǫˀ ęsgyǫˀ

456
 21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation

21.4.2 3fi>1 and 3fi>2 interactions

Table 21.40: 3fi>1 and 1>3fi interactions (beginning of prefix)

gloss beginning of prefix environment

1s>3s.fi aké:gęˀ (no change)
ké:gęhs
ęké:gęˀ
1ns.ex>3s.fi/3ns aˀaki:gęˀ, akí:gęˀ* after ⌊a-⌋ fac (*fac optionally
deletes)
akí:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęya:kí:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or ⌊a:-⌋
indef
1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns aˀe:tí:gęˀ after ⌊a-⌋ fac
etí:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęye:tí:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or ⌊a:-⌋
indef
3s.fi>1s aˀǫ:gé:gęˀ after ⌊a-⌋ fac (*fac optionally
deletes)
ǫgé:gęhs after ⌊a-⌋ fac
ęyǫ:gé:gęˀ at the beginning of the word
3s.fi/3ns>1ns aˀǫ:kí:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or ⌊a:-⌋
indef
ǫkí:gęhs after ⌊a-⌋ fac
ęyǫ:kí:gęˀ at the beginning of the word
after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or ⌊a:-⌋
indef

457
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.41: 3fi>1 and 1>3fi interactions (prefix-stem boundary)

1s>3s.fi 1ns.ex>3s.fi/3ns 1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns 3s.fi>1s

C stem ⌊ke-⌋ ⌊y.aki-⌋ ⌊y.eti-⌋ ⌊y.ǫge-⌋
aké:gęˀ aˀa:kí:gęˀ aˀe:tí:gęˀ aˀǫgé:gęˀ
A stem ⌊key-⌋ ⌊y.akiy-⌋ ⌊y.etiy-⌋ ⌊y.ǫg-⌋
keyahǫdǫ́haˀ akiya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ etiya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ ǫgahǫdǫ́haˀ
I stem ⌊ke-(i) ⌋ ⌊y.aki-(i) ⌋ ⌊y.eti-(i) ⌋ ⌊y.ǫg-⌋
kehnǫ:s akíhnǫ:s etíhnǫ:s ǫgíhnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ⌊key-⌋ ⌊y.akiy-⌋ ⌊y.etiy-⌋ ⌊y.ǫg-⌋
ękeyęneˀ- ęyakiyęne̱- ęyetiyęne̱ˀ- ęyǫgęneˀ-
wá:ʰdęˀ ˀwá:ʰdęˀ wá:ʰdęˀ wá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊key-⌋ ⌊y.akiy-⌋ ⌊y.etiy-⌋ ⌊y.ǫg-⌋
ęké:yǫˀ ęya:kí:yǫˀ ęye:tí:yǫˀ ęyǫ́:gǫˀ

Table 21.42: 2>3s.fi and 3s.fi>2 interactions (beginning of prefix)

gloss beginning of prefix environment

2s>3s.fi ashé:gęˀ (no change)
shé:gęhs
ęshé:gęˀ
3s.fi>2s aˀe:sá:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
esá:gęhs at the beginning of the
word
ęye:sá:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or
⌊a:-⌋ indef
3s.fi/3ns>2ns(opp) aˀe:tsí:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
etsí:gęhs at the beginning of the
word
ęye:tsí:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or
⌊a:-⌋ indef

458
 21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation

Table 21.43: 2>3s.fi and 3s.fi>2 interactions (prefix-stem boundary)

2s>3s.fi 3s.fi>2s 3s.fi/3ns>2ns(opp)

C stem ⌊she-⌋ ⌊y.esa-⌋ ⌊y.etsi-⌋
ashé:gęˀ aˀe:sá:gęˀ aˀe:tsí:gęˀ

A stem ⌊shey-⌋ ⌊y.esa-(a) ⌋ ⌊y.etsiy-⌋

sheyahǫdǫ́haˀ esahǫdǫ́haˀ etsiya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ

I stem ⌊she-(i)⌋ ⌊y.esę-(i) ⌋ ⌊y.etsi-(i) ⌋

shehnǫ:s esę́hnǫ:s etsíhnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ⌊shey-⌋ ⌊y.es-⌋ ⌊y.etsiy-⌋
ęsheyęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęyesęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęyetsiyęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊shey-⌋ ⌊y.es-⌋ ⌊y.etsiy-⌋
ęshé:yǫˀ ęyé:sǫˀ ęye:tsí:yǫˀ

459
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

21.4.3 3s.m and 1 interactions

Table 21.44: 1>3s.m (no changes to beginning of prefix)

gloss beginning of prefix environment

1s>3s.m ahé:gęˀ, (no change)
hé:gęhs,
ęhé:gęˀ

1d.ex>3s.m asha:kní:gęˀ, (no change)

shakní:gęhs,
ęhsha:kní:gęˀ

1d.in>3s.m ashe:tní:gęˀ, (no change)

shetní:gęhs,
ęshe:tní:gęˀ

1pl.ex>3s.m asha:gwá:gęˀ, (no change)

shagwá:gęhs,
ęsha:gwá:gęˀ

1pl.in>3s.m ashe:dwá:gęˀ, (no change)

shedwá:gęhs,
ęshe:dwá:gęˀ

460
 1s>3s.m 1d.ex>3s.m 1d.in>3s.m 1pl.ex>3s.m 1pl.in>3s.m
C stem ahé:gęˀ asha:kní:gęˀ ashe:tní:gęˀ asha:gwá:gęˀ ashe:dwá:gęˀ
A stem heyahǫdǫ́haˀ shagyahǫdǫ́haˀ shegyahǫdǫ́haˀ shagwahǫdǫ́haˀ shedwahǫdǫ́haˀ,
shetwahǫdǫ́haˀ
I stem hehnǫ:s shakníhnǫ:s shetníhnǫ:s shagwę́hnǫ:s shedwę́hnǫ:s,
shetwę́hnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ęheyęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęshagyęneˀ- ęshetnęneˀ- ęshagwęneˀ- ęhshedwęneˀ-
wá:ʰdęˀ wá:ʰdęˀ wá:ʰdęˀ wá:ʰdęˀ,
ęhshetwęneˀ-
wá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ęhé:yǫˀ ęhshá:knǫˀ ęhshé:tnǫˀ ęshá:gyǫˀ ęhshégyǫˀ

Figure 21.2: 1>3s.m (prefix-stem boundary)

461
21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation
462
3s.m>1s 3s.m>1d 3s.m>1p
C stem ⌊hage-⌋ ⌊shǫkni-⌋ ⌊shǫgwa-⌋
aha:gé:gęˀ ashǫ:kní:gęˀ ashǫ:gwá:gęˀ

A stem ⌊hag-⌋ ⌊shǫgy-⌋ ⌊shǫgwa-(a) ⌋

hagahǫdǫ́haˀ shǫgyahǫdǫ́haˀ shǫgwahǫdǫ́haˀ
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

I stem ⌊hag-⌋ ⌊shǫkni-(i) ⌋ ⌊shǫgwę-(i) ⌋

hagíhnǫ:s shǫkníhnǫ:s shǫgwę́hnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ⌊hag-⌋ ⌊shǫgy-⌋ ⌊shǫgw-⌋
ęhagęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęshǫgyęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęshǫgwęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊hag-⌋ ⌊shǫkn-⌋ ⌊shǫgy-⌋
ęhá:gǫˀ ęshǫ́:knǫˀ ęshǫ́:gyǫˀ

Figure 21.3: 3s.m>1 (prefix-stem boundary)

 21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation

Table 21.45: 3s.m>1 (no changes to beginning of prefix)

gloss beginning of environment

prefix
3s.m>1s aha:gé:gęˀ, (no change)
hagé:gęhs,
ęha:gé:gęˀ
3s.m>1d ashǫ:kní:gęˀ, (no change)
shǫkní:gęhs,
ęshǫ:kní:gęˀ
3s.m>1p ashǫ:gwá:gęˀ, (no change)
shǫgwá:gęhs,
ęshǫ:gwá:gęˀ

463
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

21.4.4 3s.m and 2 interactions

Table 21.46: 3s.m>2, 2>3s.m (beginning of prefix)

gloss beginning of prefix environment

2s>3s.m ahehsé:gęˀ (no change)
hehsé:gęhs
ęhehsé:gęˀ

3s.m>2s ehyá:gęˀ, ahyá:gęˀ after ⌊a-⌋ fac, or ⌊e-⌋ fac

hyá:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęhyá:gęˀ, áehyagęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or ⌊ae-⌋
indef

2d>3s.m(opp) ashe:sní:gęˀ (no change)

shesní:gęhs
ęshe:sní:gęˀ

2d>3s.m(opp) ashe:swá:gęˀ (no change)

sheswá:gęhs
ęshe:swá:gęˀ

464
 2s>3s.m 3s.m>2s 2d>3s.m(opp) 2p>3s.m(opp)
C stem ⌊hehse-⌋ ⌊hya-⌋ ⌊shesni-⌋ ⌊sheswa-⌋
ahehsé:gęˀ ehyá:gęˀ ashe:sní:gęˀ ashe:swá:gęˀ

A stem ⌊hehs-⌋ ⌊hya-(a) ⌋ ⌊shej-⌋ ⌊sheswa-(a) ⌋

hehsahǫdǫ́haˀ hya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ shejahǫdǫ́haˀ sheswahǫdǫ́haˀ

I stem ⌊hehs-⌋ ⌊hyę-(i) ⌋ ⌊shesni-(i) ⌋ ⌊sheswę-(i) ⌋

hehsíhnǫ:s ęhyę́hnǫksaˀ shesníhnǫ:s sheswę́hnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ⌊hehs-⌋ ⌊hy-⌋ ⌊shesn-⌋ ⌊shesw-⌋
ęhehsęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęhyęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęshesnęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęsheswęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊hehs-⌋ ⌊hyay-⌋ ⌊shesn-⌋ ⌊shej-⌋
ęhé:hsǫˀ ęhyá:yǫˀ ęhshé:snǫˀ ęhshé:jǫˀ

Figure 21.4: 3s.m>2, 2>3s.m (prefix-stem boundary)

465
21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

21.4.5 3s.fi/3ns and 1 interactions

Table 21.47: 3s.fi,3ns>1 (beginning of prefix)

gloss changes environment

(beg of prefix)
3ns>1s agaǫgé:gęˀ (no change)
gaǫgé:gęhs
ęgaǫgé:gęˀ

3s.fi/3ns>1ns aˀǫ:kígęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac

ǫkí:gęhs at the beginning of the word
ęyǫ:kí:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or
⌊a:-⌋ indef

Table 21.48: 3s.fi,3ns>1 (prefix-stem boundary)

3ns>1s 3s.fi/3ns>1ns
C stem ⌊gaǫge-⌋ ⌊y.ǫki-⌋
agaǫgé:gęˀ aˀǫ:kí:gęˀ
A stem ⌊gaǫg-⌋ ⌊y.ǫkiy-⌋
gaǫga̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ ǫkiya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ

I stem ⌊gaǫg-⌋ ⌊y.ǫki-(i) ⌋

gáǫgi ̱hnǫ:s ǫkíhnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ⌊gaǫg-⌋ ⌊y.ǫkiy-⌋
ęgaǫgęne̱ˀwá:dʰęˀ ęyǫkiyęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊gaǫg-⌋ ⌊y.ǫkiy-⌋
ęgáǫgǫˀ ęyo:kí:yǫˀ

466
 21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation

Table 21.49: 1>3s.fi,3ns (changes to beginning of prefix)

gloss changes environment

(beg of prefix)
1s>3ns aga:ké:gęˀ, aka:ké:gęˀ (no change)
gaké:gęhs, kaké:gęhs
ęga:ké:gęˀ, ęka:ké:gęˀ
1ns.ex>3s.fi/3ns aˀa:kí:gęˀ, akí:gęˀ* after ⌊a-⌋ fac, (*fac
optionally deletes)
akí:gęhs at the beginning of the
word
ęya:kí:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or
⌊a:-⌋ indef
1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns aˀe:tí:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac
etí:gęhs at the beginning of the
word
ęye:tí:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut or
⌊a:-⌋ indef

467
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.50: 1>3s.fi,3ns (prefix-stem boundary)

1s>3ns 1ns.ex>3s.fi/3ns 1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns

C stem ⌊gake-, kake-⌋ ⌊y.aki-⌋ ⌊y.eti-⌋
agaké:gęˀ, aˀa:kí:gęˀ, akí:gęˀ aˀe:tí:gęˀ
akaké:gęˀ
A stem ⌊gakey-, kakey-⌋ ⌊y.akiy-⌋ ⌊y.etiy-⌋
gakeya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ, akiya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ etiya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ
kakeya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ

I stem ⌊gake-(i) , kake-(i) ⌋ ⌊y.aki-(i) ⌋ ⌊y.eti-(i) ⌋

gakéhnǫ:s, akíhnǫ:s etíhnǫ:s
kakéhnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ⌊gakey-, kakey-⌋ ⌊y.akiy-⌋ ⌊y.etiy-⌋
ęgakeyęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ, ęyakiyęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęyetiyęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ
ękakeyęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊gakey-, kakey-⌋ ⌊y.akiy-⌋ ⌊y.etiy-⌋
ęga:ké:yǫˀ, ęya:kí:yǫˀ ęye:tí:yǫˀ
ęka:ké:yǫˀ

468
 21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation

21.4.6 3s.fi/3ns and 2 interactions

Table 21.51: 3s.fi,3ns>2 and 2>3s.fi,3ns (changes to beginning of pre-

fix)

gloss beginning of prefix environment

2s>3ns aga:shé:gęˀ, aka:shé:gęˀ (no change)
gashé:gęhs, kashé:gęhs
ęga:shé:gęˀ, ęka:shé:gęˀ

3s.fi/3ns>2ns(opp) aˀe:tsí:gęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac

etsí:gęhs at the beginning of the
word
ęye:tsí:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut
or ⌊a:-⌋ indef
3ns>2s agaesá:gęˀ (no change)
gáesagęhs
ęgaesá:gęˀ

469
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.52: 3s.fi,3ns>2 and 2>3s.fi,3ns (prefix-stem boundary)

2s>3ns 3s.fi/3ns>2ns(opp) 3ns>2s

C stem ⌊gashe-, kashe-⌋ ⌊y.etsi-⌋ ⌊gaesa-⌋
aga:shé:gęˀ, aˀe:tsí:gęˀ agaesá:gęˀ
aka:shé:gęˀ

A stem ⌊gashey-, kashey-⌋ ⌊y.etsiy-⌋ ⌊gaesa-(a) ⌋

gasheya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ, etsiya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ gaesahǫ́dǫ̱haˀ
kasheya̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ

I stem ⌊gashe-(i) , kashe-(i) ⌋ ⌊y.etsi-(i) ⌋ ⌊gaesę-(i) ⌋

gashéhnǫ:s, etsíhnǫ:s gáesęhnǫ:s
kashéhnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ⌊gashey- kashey-⌋ ⌊y.etsiy-⌋ ⌊gaes-⌋
ęgasheyęne̱ˀ- ęyetsiyęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęgaesęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ
wá:ʰdęˀ,
ękasheyęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊gashey-, kashey-⌋ ⌊y.etsiy-⌋ ⌊gaes-⌋
ęga:shé:yǫˀ, ęye:tsí:yǫˀ ęgáesǫˀ
ęka:shé:yǫˀ

470
 21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation

21.4.7 3>3 interactions

Table 21.53: 3>3 (changes to beginning of prefix)

gloss beginning of prefix environment

3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m ahǫ́wagęˀ, hǫwá:gęhs, (no change)
ęhǫ́wagęˀ
3s.m/3s.fi>3ns.m, 3ns>3m ahǫwadí:gęˀ, (no change)
hǫwa:dí:gęhs,
ęhǫwadí:gęˀ

3s.fi>3s.fi aˀǫdadégęˀ after ⌊aˀ-⌋ fac

ǫda:dé:gęhs at the beginning of the
word
ęyǫdadé:gęˀ after a vowel - ⌊ę-⌋ fut
or ⌊a:-⌋ indef

3fi>3fi(+ns) agaǫda:dé:gęˀ, (no change)

gaǫdadé:gęhs,
ęgaǫda:dé:gęˀ

3s.m>3fi/3p asha:gó:gęˀ, (no change)

shagó:gęhs,
ęsha:gó:gęˀ

3fi/3ns>3pa agǫwadí:gęˀ, (no change)

gǫwa:dí:gęhs,
ęgǫwadí:gęˀ

3ns(nfi)>3fi ashagodí:gęˀ, (no change)

shago:dí:gęhs,
ęshagodí:gęˀ

a
⌊hadi-⌋ can also be used.

471
472
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m 3s.m/3s.fi>3ns.m, 3s.fi>3s.fi 3fi>3fi(+ns)
3ns>3m
C stem ⌊hǫwa-⌋ ⌊hǫwadi-⌋
ahǫ́wagęˀ ahǫwadí:gęˀ
C stem (G, K, CC) ⌊y.ǫdade-⌋ ⌊gaǫdade-⌋
aˀǫdadé:gęˀ agaǫda:dé:gęˀ
C stem (R,Y) ⌊y.ǫdag-⌋ ⌊gaǫdag-⌋
haˀǫdagyaˀdatsęi:ˀ gaǫdagyenawáˀseh
C stem (HN, ˀN, N) ⌊y.ǫdat-⌋ ⌊gaǫdat-⌋
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

ǫdatno̱haˀ agaǫda:tgwé:niˀ

A stem ⌊hǫwa-(a) ⌋ ⌊hǫwęn-⌋ ⌊y.ǫdad-⌋ ⌊gaǫdad-⌋

hǫwahǫdǫ́haˀ hǫwęna̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ ǫdada̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ gaǫdadahǫdǫ́haˀ

I stem ⌊hǫwę-(i) ⌋ ⌊hǫwadi-(i) ⌋ ⌊y.ǫdad-⌋ ⌊gaǫdad-⌋

hǫwę́hnǫ:s hǫwádihnǫ:s ǫdádi ̱hnǫ:s gaǫdadíhnǫ:s
E, Ę stem ⌊hǫw-⌋ ⌊hǫwan-⌋ ⌊y.ǫdad-⌋ ⌊gaǫdad-⌋
ęhǫwęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęhǫwanęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęyǫdadęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęgaǫdadęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊hǫway-⌋ ⌊hǫwęn-⌋ ⌊y.ǫdad-⌋ ⌊gaǫdad-⌋
ęhǫ́wayǫˀ ęhǫ:wę́:nǫˀ ęyǫ́dadǫˀ ęgaǫdá:dǫˀ

Figure 21.5: 3>3 (prefix-stem boundary)

 21.5 Variation in pronominal prefix pronunciation before O/Ǫ and E/Ę stems

Table 21.54: more 3>3 (prefix-stem boundary)

3s.m>3fi/3p 3fi/3ns>3pa 3ns(nfi)>3fi

C stem ⌊shago-⌋ ⌊gǫwadi-⌋ ⌊shagodi-⌋
asha:gó:gęˀ agǫwadí:gęˀ ashagodí:gęˀ

A stem ⌊shago-(a) ⌋ ⌊gǫwan-⌋ ⌊shagon-⌋

shagohǫdǫ́haˀ gǫwana̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ shagona̱hǫ́dǫ̱haˀ

I stem ⌊shago-(i) ⌋ ⌊gǫwadi-(i) ⌋ ⌊shagodi-(i) ⌋

shagóhnǫ:s gǫwádihnǫ:s shagódihnǫ:s

E, Ę stem ⌊shago-(ę) ⌋ ⌊gǫwan-⌋ ⌊shagon-⌋

ęshagoneˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęgowanęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ ęshagonęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ
O, Ǫ stem ⌊shaga-⌋ ⌊gǫwan-⌋ ⌊shagon-⌋
ęshágaǫˀ ęgǫ́wanǫˀ ęsha:gó:nǫˀ

a
⌊hadi-⌋ can also be used. See Table 21.30 (page 451).

21.5 Variation in pronominal prefix pronunciation before

O/Ǫ and E/Ę stems
There is possibly some variation in the pronunciation of certain p-series pronom-
inal prefixes, specifically before stems beginning with O, Ǫ, E, or Ę. The follow-
ing sections describe expected versus novel pronominal prefixes.3 The expected
forms of the pronominal prefixes were also described earlier. The novel forms
depart from those descriptions. Examples are provided in the following sections.

21.5.1 Pronominal prefix variants before O and Ǫ stems

Several alternative (and possibly new or recent) p-series pronominal prefixes are
attested before O and Ǫ stems, as summarized in Table 21.55 (page 474).
Example (17) (page 474) contrasts the novel and expected forms of the prefixes.
The verbs used in the examples are ⌊ǫtsanǫhwa:s⌋ ‘have a sore knee’ and ⌊de-
…odaihsi⌋ ‘comb someone’s hair’.4 The novel forms all tend to preserve both the
prefix and the stem vowel.
3
Most of the novel forms were provided by one of the co-authors of this book.
4
Some of the examples provided are non-sensical but grammatical – meaning the word is pos-
sible, but it is hard to imagine how or when the word would be used.

473
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

Table 21.55: p-series pronominal prefixes before O and Ǫ stems

expected novel meaning

(h)sa (h)say 2s.p
(y)ǫgy (y)ǫgway 1p.p
(h)sn (h)sniy 2d.p
j (h)sway 2p.p
(ya)ga (ya)goy, (ya)g, (ya)gwa 3s.fi.p
ha h, hoy 3s.m.p
(y)a ø, (y)oy 3s.p
hon hodin 3ns.m.p
gon godin 3ns.fi.p
on odin 3p.p

(17) a. novel ⌊dę-hsay-odáihsiˀ⌋

du.fut-2s.p-hair.comb.punc
cf. expected ⌊dę-hs-odáihsiˀ⌋
b. novel ⌊dę-yǫgway-odáihsiˀ⌋
du.fut-1p.p-hair.comb.punc
cf. expected ⌊dę-yǫgy-odáihsiˀ⌋
c. novel ⌊dę-hsniy-odáihsiˀ⌋
du.fut-2s.p-hair.comb.punc
cf. expected ⌊dę-hsn-odáihsiˀ⌋
d. novel ⌊dę-hsway-odáihsiˀ⌋
du.fut-2p.p-hair.comb.punc
cf. expected ⌊dę-j-odáihsiˀ⌋
e. novel ⌊dę-yagoy-odáihsiˀ⌋
du.fut-3s.fi.p-hair.comb.punc
cf. expected ⌊dę-yaga-odáihsiˀ⌋
f. novel ⌊g-ǫtsánǫ̱hwa:s⌋, ⌊gwa-ǫtsanǫ́hwa:s⌋
3s.fi.p-sore.knee.stat 3s.fi.p-sore.knee.stat
cf. expected ⌊ga-ǫtsanǫ́hwa:s⌋
g. novel ⌊h-ǫtsánǫ̱hwa:s⌋
3s.m.p-sore.knee.stat
cf. expected ⌊ha-ǫtsanǫ́hwa:s⌋

474
 21.5 Variation in pronominal prefix pronunciation before O/Ǫ and E/Ę stems

h. novel ⌊dę-hoy-odáihsiˀ⌋
du.fut-3s.m.p-hair.comb.punc
cf. expected ⌊dę-ha-odáihsiˀ⌋
i. novel ⌊ø-ǫtsánǫ̱hwa:s⌋
no.prefix-sore.knee.stat (ø = no prefix)
cf. expected ⌊a-ǫtsanǫ́hwa:s⌋ 3s.p-sore.knee.stat
j. novel ⌊dę-yoy-odáihsiˀ⌋
du.fut-3s.p-hair.comb.punc
cf. expected ⌊dę-ya-odáihsiˀ⌋
k. novel ⌊hodin-ǫtsánǫ̱hwa:s⌋
3ns.m.p-sore.knee.stat
cf. expected ⌊hon-ǫtsanǫ́hwa:s⌋
l. novel ⌊godin-ǫtsánǫ̱hwa:s⌋
3ns.fi.p-sore.knee.stat
cf. expected ⌊gon-ǫtsanǫ́hwa:s⌋
m. novel ⌊odin-ǫtsánǫ̱hwa:s⌋
3p.p-sore.knee.stat
cf. expected ⌊on-ǫtsanǫ́hwa:s⌋

21.5.2 Pronominal prefix variants before E and Ę stems

Several alternative (and possibly new or recent) p-series pronominal prefixes are
also attested before E and Ę stems, as summarized in Table 21.56.
Table 21.56: p-series pronominal prefixes before E, Ę stems

expected novel meaning

(y)ǫkn (y)ǫgy 1d.p
(h)sn j 2d.p
haw ho* (*stem vowel deletes) 3s.m.p
(ya)gaw (ya)go* (*stem vowel deletes) 3s.fi.p
(y)aw (y)o* (*stem vowel deletes) 3s.p

Example (18) contrasts the novel and expected pronominal prefix forms. The
verbs used in the examples are E stem ⌊e:ˀǫ⌋ ‘to will something’, Ę stem ⌊ęneˀwaǫ⌋
‘to be startled’, and Ę stem ⌊ęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ⌋ ‘to startle someone’.5
5
For the stem ⌊ęneˀwá:ʰdęˀ⌋, the second-last vowel is typically always long and followed by a
short [h] sound.

475
21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation

(18) a. novel ⌊ǫgy-ęne̱ˀwáǫ⌋

1d.p-startled.stat
cf. expected ⌊ǫkn-ęne̱ˀwáǫ⌋
b. novel ⌊ę-j-ęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ⌋
fut-1d.p-startle.punc
cf. expected ⌊ę-hsn-ęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ⌋
c. novel ⌊ho-ne̱ˀwaǫ⌋
3s.m.p-startled.stat
cf. expected ⌊haw-ęne̱ˀwáǫ⌋
d. novel ⌊ę-ho-ne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ⌋
fut-3s.m.p-startle.punc
cf. expected ⌊ę-haw-ęne̱ˀwá:ʰdę⌋
e. novel ⌊go-néˀwaǫ⌋
3fi.sg.o-startled.stat
cf. expected ⌊gaw-ęne̱ˀwáǫ⌋
f. novel ⌊ę-yago-ne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ⌋
fut-3s.fi.p-startle.punc
cf. expected ⌊ę-yagaw-ęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ⌋
g. novel ⌊o-néˀwaǫ⌋
3s.p-startled.stat
cf. expected ⌊aw-ęne̱ˀwáǫ⌋
h. novel ⌊ę-yo-ne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ⌋
fut-3s.p-startle.punc
cf. expected ⌊ę-yaw-ęne̱ˀwá:ʰdęˀ⌋

476
22 Nouns and pronominal prefix
selection
This section describes pronominal prefix selection for nouns, beginning with un-
possessed nouns (1a), and then possessed nouns (1b). Unpossessed nouns do not
denote ownership, while possessed nouns do.

(1) a. ganǫ́hsaˀ ‘house(s)’ (unpossessed noun)

b. aknǫ́hsaˀ ‘my house(s)’ (possessed noun)

Table 22.1 (page 478) summarizes pronominal prefix selection for nouns.

22.1 Unpossessed nouns

Unpossessed basic nouns either take the ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a (a-series) pronominal prefix
(2a), the ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p (p-series) pronominal prefix (2b), or no prefix. Nouns without
a prefix typically begin with A (2c).

(2) a. ganǫ́hsaˀ ‘house(s)’ a-series

b. oˀnhǫ́hsaˀ ‘egg(s)’ p-series
c. adáhdi ̱ˀtraˀ ‘sock(s)’ (no pronominal prefix)

While the ⌊ga-⌋ and ⌊o-⌋ prefixes both mean ‘it’, they are generally not inter-
changeable. For example, the word meaning ‘house’ always begins with ⌊ga-⌋,
never with ⌊o-⌋. That being said, some nouns can take either ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊o-⌋ (3),
and still others take ⌊o-⌋ or begin without a prefix (4). (See §5.1 for more exam-
ples.) (Dropping the ⌊o-⌋ prefix in words like hǫ́na̱ ˀdaˀ / ohǫ́na̱ ˀdaˀ ‘potato’ was
common in the variety of Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ spoken in Oklahoma, see §1.3.)

(3) a- or p-series
gajíhoha:ˀ, ojíhyo̱ha:ˀ ‘straight pin’, ‘pin’, ‘brooch’, ‘safety pin’
22 Nouns and pronominal prefix selection

Table 22.1: Pronominal prefix selection, nouns

grammatical cat- prefix type prefix choice

egory
unpossessed •basic nouns ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a The type of
•body part nouns ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix (⌊ga-⌋, ⌊o-⌋
inflected like ba- ∅ (no prefix) or none) must
sic nouns be memorized
for each for each
word.
possessed •basic nouns p-series p-series pronom-
•body part nouns inal prefixes de-
inflected like ba- note possession
sic nouns or ownership.

possessed •body part nouns a-series a-series pronom-

inal prefixes de-
note the person
or being who has
the body part in
question.

(4) p-series or no pronominal prefix

a. ohsgwáęˀdaˀ, sgwáęˀdaˀ ‘coltsfoot’
b. ogyáǫhsraˀ, agyáǫhsraˀ ‘a trick’

22.1.1 Noun suffixes do not affect prefix choice

Noun suffixes do not affect the choice of ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊o-⌋ pronominal prefix. For
example, the nouns in (5) retain their ⌊ga-⌋ prefix regardless of whether or not
a suffix is present, and similarly for the nouns with ⌊o-⌋ in (6), and the noun
without a pronominal prefix in (7).
(5) a. ganǫhsáǫweh
ga-nǫhs-á-ǫweh
3s.a-house-joinerA-typ
‘cook-house’ (at the longhouse)

478
 22.1 Unpossessed nouns

cf. ganǫ́hsaˀ
ga-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.a-house-nsf
‘house’
b. ganaˀjáǫweh
ga-naˀj-á-ǫweh
3s.a-pot-joinerA-typ
‘cooking pots’ (used at the longhouse)
cf. ganáˀjaˀ
ga-náˀj-aˀ
3s.a-pot-nsf
‘pail’, ‘pot’, etc.

(6) a. oyęhsráǫweh
o-yęhsr-á-ǫweh
3s.p-blanket-joinerA-typ
‘shawl’ (for dancing, or the type put on a corpse at a funeral)
cf. oyę́hsraˀ
o-yę́hsr-aˀ
3s.p-blanket-nsf
‘blanket’
b. onęhęˀǫ́:weh
o-nęhęˀ-ǫ́:weh
3s.p-corn-typ
‘corn’ (flint corn)
cf. onę́hę:ˀ
o-nę́hę:-ˀ
3s.p-corn-nsf
‘corn’

(7) ahdahgwáǫweh
ahdahgw-á-ǫweh
ø.shoe-joinerA-typ
‘shoe’, ‘moccasin’
cf. ahdáhgwaˀ
ahdáhgw-aˀ
ø.shoe-nsf
‘shoe’

22.1.2 Body part nouns inflected as unpossessed basic nouns

While body part nouns generally take different prefixes and suffixes than basic
nouns do (as described in §22.2.2), they can also be inflected just like unpossessed

479
22 Nouns and pronominal prefix selection

basic nouns (see §22.2.3). In such cases, they take the ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix and the ⌊-aˀ⌋
nsf suffix. Such nouns tend to denote “detachable” body parts or elements (8).

(8) a. onóˀjaˀ
o-nóˀj-aˀ
3s.p-tooth-nsf
‘tooth’
b. ojíˀehdaˀ, ojíˀohdaˀ
o-jíˀehd/jiǫˀd-aˀ
3s.p-fingernail-nsf
‘fingernail’
c. ogéˀa:ˀ
o-géˀa:-ˀ
3s.p-hair-nsf
‘hair’, ‘a rag’
d. oˀdaˀ
o-ˀd-aˀ
3s.p-feces-nsf
‘feces’
e. otsgraˀ
o-tsgr-aˀ
3s.p-saliva-nsf
‘saliva’
f. ojínǫ̱hgraˀ
o-jínǫ̱hgr-aˀ
3s.p-mucus-nsf
‘mucus’
g. onyáˀgwaˀ
o-nyáˀgw-aˀ
3s.p-vomit-nsf
‘vomit’, ‘vomitus’

Consistent with the detached meaning, unpossessed body part nouns can refer
to (dismembered) body parts or toys (9a, b) or to objectified body parts (9c,d).

480
 22.2 Possessed nouns

(9) a. oˀyó:tsaˀ
o-ˀyó:ts-aˀ
3s.p-chin-nsf
‘a chin’
b. onóˀa:ˀ
o-nóˀa:-ˀ
3s.p-head-nsf
‘a head’ (owner unknown)
c. onę́:tsaˀ
o-nę́:ts-aˀ
3s.p-arm-nsf
‘arm’ (said, for example, when holding up a doll’s arm for show)
d. ohnáˀtsaˀ
o-hnáˀts-aˀ
3s.p-buttock-nsf
‘a bare butt’
As shown in (10), unpossessed body part nouns also appear in compound noun
constructions (§5.3).
(10) a. gwihsgwíhs onǫ́ˀa:ˀ
gwihsgwíhs onǫ́ˀa:ˀ
pig head
‘pig’s head’
b. gwihsgwíhs ohsíˀdaˀ
gwihsgwíhs ohsíˀdaˀ
pig foot
‘pig’s feet’
c. gwihsgwíhs oˀwáhǫh
gwihsgwíhs oˀwáhǫh
pig meat
‘pig meat’, ‘pork chop’

22.2 Possessed nouns

Possessed nouns convey a relationship of ownership. Both basic nouns and body
part nouns can denote possession, but are inflected in different ways, as described
in §22.2.1.

481
22 Nouns and pronominal prefix selection

22.2.1 Possessed basic nouns (p-series)

Possessed basic nouns take p-series pronominal prefixes to denote the possessor.
A full paradigm is shown in (11).1

(11) a. aknǫ́hsaˀ
ak-nǫ́hs-aˀ
1s.p-house-nsf
‘my house’
b. ǫknínǫ̱hsaˀ
ǫkní-nǫ̱hs-aˀ
1d.p-house-nsf
‘our house (two people)’
c. ǫgwánǫ̱hsaˀ
ǫgwá-nǫ̱hs-aˀ
1p.p-house-nsf
‘our house (more than two people)’
d. sanǫ́hsaˀ
sa-nǫ́hs-aˀ
2s.p-house-nsf
‘your house (one person)’
e. sninǫ́hsaˀ
sni-nǫ́hs-aˀ
2d.p-house-nsf
‘your house (two people)’
f. swanǫ́hsaˀ
swa-nǫ́hs-aˀ
2p.p-house-nsf
‘your house (more than two people)’
g. honǫ́hsaˀ
ho-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.m.p-house-nsf
‘his house’

1
p-series pronominal prefixes do not distinguish between inclusive and exclusive.

482
 22.2 Possessed nouns

h. gonǫ́hsaˀ
go-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.fi.p-house-nsf
‘her house’
i. onǫ́hsaˀ
o-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.p-house-nsf
‘its house’
j. hodínǫ̱hsaˀ
hodí-nǫ̱hs-aˀ
3ns.m.p-house-nsf
‘their (males’) house’
k. godínǫ̱hsaˀ
godí-nǫ̱hs-aˀ
3ns.fi.p-house-nsf
‘their (females’ or mixed) house’
l. odínǫ̱hsaˀ
odí-nǫ̱hs-aˀ
3p.p-house-nsf
‘their (animals’) house

22.2.2 Possessed body part nouns (a-series)

Possessed body part nouns take a-series pronominal prefixes to denote the pos-
sessor (and require the ⌊-ˀgeh⌋ on suffix). A full paradigm is shown in (12).
(12) a. knętsáˀgeh
k-nęts-áˀgeh
1s.a-arm-on
‘on my arm’
b. kninę́tsa̱ˀgeh
kni-nę́ts-a̱ˀgeh
1d.in.a-arm-on
‘on our arm’ (two people, including listener)
c. akninętsáˀgeh
akni-nęts-áˀgeh
1d.ex.a-arm-on
‘on our arm’ (two people, excluding listener)

483
22 Nouns and pronominal prefix selection

d. dwanę́tsa̱ˀgeh
dwa-nę́ts-a̱ˀgeh
1p.in.a-arm-on
‘on our arm’ (more than two people, including listener(s))
e. agwanętsáˀgeh
agwa-nęts-áˀgeh
1p.ex.a-arm-on
‘on our arm’ (more than two people, excluding listener(s))
f. hanę́tsa̱ˀgeh
ha-nę́ts-a̱ˀgeh
3s.m.a-arm-on
‘on his arm’
g. enę́tsa̱ˀgeh
e-nę́ts-a̱ˀgeh
3s.fi.a-arm-on
‘on her arm’
h. ganę́tsa̱ˀgeh
ga-nę́ts-a̱ˀgeh
3s.a-arm-on
‘on its arm’
i. snętsáˀgeh
s-nęts-áˀgeh
2s.a-arm-on
‘on your arm (one person)’
j. sninę́tsa̱ˀgeh
sni-nę́ts-a̱ˀgeh
2d.a-arm-on
‘on your arm (two people)’
k. swanę́tsa̱ˀgeh
swa-nę́ts-a̱ˀgeh
2p.a-arm-on
‘on your arm (more than two people)’
l. hadinętsáˀgeh
hadi-nęts-áˀgeh
3ns.m.a-arm-on
‘on their arm (males only)’

484
 22.2 Possessed nouns

m. gaenętsáˀgeh
gae-nęts-áˀgeh
3ns.fi.a-arm-on
‘on their arm (females or mixed)’
n. gadinętsáˀgeh
gadi-nęts-áˀgeh
3p.a-arm-on
‘on their arm (animals)

22.2.3 Body part nouns inflected as possessed basic nouns

Possessed body part nouns can also be inflected like possessed basic nouns, tak-
ing p-series pronominal prefixes (§22.1.2). In such cases, the body part can be
interpreted as detached or detachable (as in 13b, c).

(13) a. gonę́:tsaˀ
go-nę́:ts-aˀ
3s.fi.p-arm-nsf
‘her arm’ (i.e. a doll’s)
b. honę́:tsaˀ
ho-nę́:ts-aˀ
3s.m.p-arm-nsf
‘his arm’ (i.e. said when holding up a Ken doll’s arm)

485
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix
choice
Kinship terms describe blood relations, marriage relations, relationships between
clans, sides (or moieties, including longhouse moieties), relationships between
friends and neighbours, and relationships among Ǫgwehǫ́:weh peoples.1 For a
list of kinship terms, see §D.1.
Based on pronominal prefix selection, kinship terms can be divided into two
types. The first type takes non-interactive (a or p) prefixes. They include verbs
and nouns functioning as “kinship terms”. The second type take interactive
prefixes. They are “kinship terms proper” or interactive kinship terms.2
In several cases, the same kinship term can be inflected two ways (either
as non-interactive or interactive): example (1a) shows a verb functioning as a
“kinship term”, inflected with a non-interactive, p-series pronominal prefix. In
contrast, example (1b) shows the same stem, inflected with an interactive prefix.
More examples are provided in later sections.

(1) a. ǫgyáˀse:ˀ (⌊p-aˀse:ˀ⌋ ‘cousin’, with p-series prefix)

ǫgy-áˀse:ˀ
1d.p-doubled.stat
‘my cousin’
b. gya̱ˀse:ˀ (⌊interactive-aˀse:ˀ⌋ ‘cousin’, with interactive prefix)
gy-aˀse:ˀ
1>2(d)-doubled.stat
‘cousin!’ (when directly addressing a cousin)

Table 23.1 summarizes pronominal prefix selection and meaning for kinship
terms.

1
The kinship terms listed in this section were compiled from Deer & Deer (2015), Foster (1993),
Foster (p.c.), Froman et al. (2002), Mithun & Henry (1984), and Sasse & Keye (1998).
2
Kinship terms are atypical words, for reasons described in §5.8.
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

Table 23.1: Pronominal prefix selection, kinship terms

grammatical prefix type meaning of prefix choice

category
verbs or nouns p-series or a series • p prefix or a prefix refers to
functioning as point-of-view (or “possessor”)
“kinship terms” • Stem specifies the type of relative
same- interactive • 1st role refers to point-of-view (or
generation “possessor”)
kinship term • 2nd role specifies the number and
gender of the kin or relative
• Stem specifies a same-generation
relative
different- interactive • 1st role refers to older generation,
generation regardless of point-of-view
kinship term • 2nd role refers to younger
generation, regardless of
point-of-view
• Stem specifies a
different-generation relative
• or, with reversed roles, works like
same-generation kinship terms

488
grammatical prefix type meaning of prefix choice
category
different- interactive • 1st role refers to older generation,
generation regardless of point-of-view
kinship term • 2nd role refers to younger
(in-laws) generation, regardless of
point-of-view
• Stem specifies a
different-generation relative
•or, with reversed roles, works like
same-generation kinship terms
• In either case, if 1st role refers to
‘she’, then the overall word refers to a
male’s mother-in-law
different- p series • p-prefix refers to a younger person,
generation and the overall word must refer to an
kinship term older-generation female (or mixed
group of people)
different- /k-/ 1s.a, /ha-/ 3s.m.a • /k-/ means ‘my older female
generation relative’
kinship term /ha-/ means ‘my older male relative’
and such words can also be used as
terms of address

489
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

23.1 Verbs functioning as “kinship terms”, a-series

prefixes
Several verbs with a-series pronominal prefixes function as “kinship terms” (2–
8). The pronominal prefix expresses the 1st , 2nd , or 3rd person point-of-view (or
the “owner” of the relative), and the verb stem specifies the type of relative. Such
kinship terms tend to describe relations between people of the same approximate
age.

(2) ⌊de-a-adęhnǫde:ˀ⌋ ‘siblings’ (related to verb ⌊hnǫd(r)⌋ ‘follow someone’)

a. degaǫdęhnǫ́:de:ˀ
de-gaǫ-dę-hnǫ́:de:ˀ
du-3ns.fi.a-srf-sibling
‘his/her sister/brother’ (literally, ‘they follow each other’)
b. de̱hęnadęhnǫ́:de:ˀ
de̱-hęn-adę-hnǫ́:de:ˀ
du-3ns.m.a-srf-sibling
‘his brother’
c. de̱hęnadęhnǫ́:drǫˀ
de̱-hęn-adę-hnǫ́:dr-ǫˀ
du-3ns.m.a-srf-sibling-distr
‘his brothers’

(3) ⌊de-a-(r)ihwawaˀkǫˀ⌋ ‘spouse’ (related to verb ⌊rihwawaˀs⌋ ‘support

someone’)
a. degaeihwawáˀkǫˀ ‘her husband’,
de-gae-ihwawáˀkǫˀ
du-3ns.fi.a-support.distr
‘his wife’
b. desni:hwáwaˀkǫˀ
de-sni:-hwáwaˀkǫˀ
du-2d.a-support.distr
‘your wife/husband’
c. deyakni:hwawáˀkǫ:ˀ
de-yakni:-hwawáˀkǫ:ˀ
du-1d.ex.a-support.distr
‘my wife/husband’

490
 23.1 Verbs functioning as “kinship terms”, a-series prefixes

(4) ⌊a-adę-nǫhk(sǫˀ)⌋ ‘to be mutually related’

a. agya:dę́:nǫhk
agy-a:dę́:-nǫhk
1d.ex.a-srf-related.stat
‘my relative’
b. ǫgya:dę́:nǫhk
ǫgy-a:dę́:-nǫhk
1d.in.a-srf-related.stat
‘my relative’
c. ǫgwa:dę́:nǫhk
ǫgwa:-dę́:-nǫhk
1p.in.a-srf-related.stat
‘our relative’
d. ǫgwadęnǫhksǫˀ
ǫgwa-dę-nǫhksǫˀ
1p.in.a-srf-related.plrz
‘our relatives’
e. ja:dę́:nǫhk
j-a:dę́:-nǫhk
2d.a-srf-related.stat
‘your relative’
f. gęna:dę́:nǫhk
gęn-a:dę́:-nǫhk
3n.sg.a-srf-related.stat
‘they are related’
g. ǫdę́nǫ̱hksǫˀ
ǫ-dę́-nǫ̱hksǫˀ
3fi.sg.a-srf-related.plrz
‘relatives, kin’, etc.

(5) ⌊t-a-gowanę(ˀs)⌋ ‘older sibling’ (verb ⌊t-…-gowanę⌋ ‘biggest’, with ⌊ˀs⌋ pl)
tgaegówanęˀs
t-gae-gówanęˀs
cis-3ns.fi.a-big.pl
‘my older siblings’

491
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

(6) ⌊a-ad-riyahsǫˀ⌋ ‘older siblings’

gaǫdriyáhsǫˀ
gaǫ-d-riyáhsǫˀ
3ns.fi.a-srf-older.sibling.plrz
‘my older siblings’

(7) ⌊de-a-nǫhsakahǫh⌋ ‘neighbour’ (consists of ⌊nǫhsa-kahǫ⌋ ‘adjoining

houses’)
deyagwanǫhsakáhǫh
de-yagwa-nǫhsa-káhǫh
du-1p.ex.a-house-adjoin.stat
‘my neighbours’

(8) ⌊de-a-nǫhsane:gę:⌋ ‘neighbour’ (contains ⌊nǫhsa-negę:⌋ ‘side-by-side

houses’)
deyagwanǫhsané:gę:
de-yagwa-nǫhs-a-né:gę:
du-1p.ex.a-house-joinerA-side.by.side.stat
‘my neighbour’

23.2 Verbs and nouns functioning as “kinship terms”,

p-series prefixes
Several verbs with p-series pronominal prefixes function as “kinship terms” (9–
13), as do some nouns (14–17). The pronominal prefix expresses the 1st , 2nd , or
3rd person point-of-view (or the “owner(s)” of the relative(s)), and the stems spec-
ify the type of relative. These kinship terms tend to describe relations between
people of the same approximate age.

(9) ⌊p-adaoˀ⌋ ‘ceremonial friend’ (related to verb ⌊ao, ęo⌋ ‘to run, race’)
a. ǫgya:dáoˀ
ǫgya:-d-áoˀ
1d.p-srf-run.stat
‘my ceremonial friend’
b. hona:dáoˀ
hon-a:d-áoˀ
3ns.m.p-srf-run.stat
‘his ceremonial friend’

492
 23.2 Verbs and nouns functioning as “kinship terms”, p-series prefixes

c. ǫgwadáoˀsǫˀ
ǫgwa-d-áoˀ-sǫˀ
1pl.o-srf-run.stat-plrz
‘all of our ceremonial friends’
(10) ⌊p-aˀse:ˀ⌋ ‘cousin’ (related to verb ⌊aˀse:ˀ⌋ ‘doubled’)
a. ǫgyáˀse:ˀ
ǫgy-áˀse:ˀ
1d.p-doubled.stat
‘my cousin’
b. honáˀse:ˀ
hon-áˀse:ˀ
3ns.m.p-doubled.stat
‘his cousin’
c. ǫgwaˀse:ˀsǫ́:ˀah
ǫgwa-ˀse:ˀ-sǫ́:-ˀah
1pl.o-doubled.stat-plrz-dim
‘all of my cousins’
(11) ⌊p-atsih⌋ ‘friend’ (related to verb ⌊atsih⌋ ‘paired’)
a. ǫgyá:tsih
ǫgy-á:tsih
1d.p-paired.stat
‘my friend’
b. honá:tsih
hon-á:tsih
3ns.m.p-paired.stat
‘his friend’
c. ǫgwátsi ̱hsǫˀ
ǫgw-átsi ̱h-sǫˀ
1pl.o-paired.stat-plrz
‘all of our friends’
(12) ⌊p-agyoh⌋ ‘sibling-in-law, in-laws’
a. ǫgyá:gyoh
ǫgy-á:g-yoh
1d.p-sibling.in.law
‘my brother-in-law, sister-in-law’

493
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

b. honá:gyoh
hon-á:g-yoh
3ns.m.p-sibling.in.law
‘her/his brother-in-law’

(13) ⌊de-p-hsnyeˀǫh⌋ ‘adopted one’ (related to verb ⌊hsnyeˀ⌋ ‘care for, look
after’)
deyago̱hsnyéˀǫh
de-yago̱-hsnyéˀǫh
du-3s.fi.p-cared.for.stat
‘her adopted daughter’

(14) ⌊p–hwajiy-aˀ⌋ ‘family’ (noun ⌊hwajiy⌋ ‘family’)

akwa:jí:yaˀ
ak-hwa:jí:y-aˀ
1s.p-family-nsf
‘my family’

(15) ⌊p-ǫgweˀd-aˀ⌋ ‘relatives, people’ (noun ⌊ǫgwe-ˀd⌋ ‘person’)

agǫ́gwe̱ˀdaˀ
ag-ǫ́gwe̱ˀd-aˀ
1s.p-people-nsf
‘my relatives’

(16) ⌊p-adreˀtr-aˀ⌋ ‘grandchild(ren)’ (noun ⌊adreˀtr⌋ ‘grandchild(ren)’)

agádre̱ˀtraˀ
ag-adreˀtr-aˀ
1s.p-grandchildren-nsf
‘my grandchild(ren)’

(17) ⌊p-ksaˀgowahsr-aˀ⌋ ‘someone’s boyfriend, girlfriend’ (noun

⌊ksaˀgowahsr⌋ ‘beautiful one’)3
a. ageksaˀgówa̱hsraˀ
age-ksaˀgówa̱hsr-aˀ
1s.p-beautiful.one-nsf
‘my boyfriend or girlfriend’

3
In context, the boy/girl-friend is taken to be the opposite sex to the person referred to by the
pronominal prefix.

494
 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes

b. hoksaˀgohwáhsraˀ
ho-ksaˀgohwáhsr-aˀ
3s.m.p-beautiful.one-nsf
‘his girlfriend’
c. goksaˀgowáhsraˀ
go-ksaˀgowáhsr-aˀ
3s.fi.p-beautiful.one-nsf
‘her boyfriend’
cf. keksaˀgowáhsraˀ ‘my girlfriend’ with an interactive prefix
ke-ksaˀgowáhsr-aˀ
1s>3s.fi-beautiful.one-nsf (see 19)

23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal

prefixes
Interactive kinship terms consist of a stem with an interactive pronominal prefix.
For comparison, example (18) illustrates an interactive kinship term (18a) and two
verbs (not kinship terms, 18b,c) that take the same type of interactive prefix.

(18) a. heyá:dreˀ
hey-á:dreˀ
1s>3s.m-grandchild
‘my grandson’ (kinship term with interactive prefix)
b. henǫ́hweˀs
he-nǫ́hweˀ-s
1s>3s.m-like-hab
‘I like him’ (verb with interactive prefix)
c. hehswáˀne:t
he-hswáˀn-e:t
1s>3s.m-back-stand.stat
‘I support or back him’ (verb with interactive prefix)

Recall that interactive pronominal prefixes express two sets of person, number,
and gender features. The two sets are referred to below as first and second roles.
(The format first>second role is used in the translations.) For verbs (18b, c), the
first role generally refers to the “doer” or agent and the second role refers to the
“recipient” or patient of the action. However, for interactive kinship terms, the
interactive prefixes work differently, as described in the following sections.

495
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

The two types of interactive kinship terms to be described next are same-
generation versus different-generation ones.

23.3.1 Same-generation kinship terms, interactive pronominal

prefixes
same-generation kinship terms denote a relationship between people (or groups
of people) of approximately the same generation. For such words, the first role
of the interactive prefix refers to the point-of-view or “possessor” of the relative:
for example, the prefix ⌊he-⌋ 1s>3s.m refers to my relative, as does ⌊ke-⌋ 1s>3s.fi
(19). The second role specifies the number and gender of the kin or relative be-
ing referred to: for example, ⌊he-⌋ 1s>3s.m refers to one male relative, while ⌊ke-⌋
1s>3s.fi refers to one female relative (19). Other kinship terms that work the same
way are listed below.

(19) ⌊int-ksaˀgowahsraˀ⌋ ‘boyfriend, girlfriend’

a. heksaˀgowáhsraˀ
he-ksaˀgowáhsr-aˀ
1s>3s.m-beautiful.one-nsf
‘my boyfriend’
b. keksaˀgowáhsraˀ
ke-ksaˀgowáhsr-aˀ
1s>3s.fi-beautiful.one-nsf
‘my girlfriend’

(20) ⌊int-nǫhk(sǫˀ)⌋ ‘close relative, to be closely related to someone’ (related

to verb ⌊nǫhkw⌋ ‘love someone’)
a. kenǫ́hksǫˀ
ke-nǫ́hksǫˀ
1s>3s.fi-related.plrz
‘my relatives’
b. shenǫ́hksǫˀ
she-nǫ́hksǫˀ
2s>3s.fi-related.plrz
‘your relatives’ (high language, describing our relationship to all
people)

496
 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes

(21) ⌊int-gęhjih⌋ ‘spouse’ (literally, ‘old person’)

a. hegę́hjih
he-gę́hjih
1s>3s.m-old.one.stat
‘my husband’ ‘my old man’ (informal)
b. kegę́hjih
ke-gę́hjih
1s>3s.fi-old.one.stat
‘my wife’, ‘my old lady’ (informal)
c. hehségę̱ hjih
hehsé-gę̱ hjih
2s>3s.m-old.one.stat
‘your husband’, ‘your old man’ (informal)
d. shegę́hjih
she-gę́hjih
2s>3s.fi-old.one.stat
‘your wife’, ‘your old lady’ (informal)
e. hǫwágę̱ hjih
hǫwá-gę̱ hjih
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-old.one.stat
‘her husband’, ‘her old man’ (informal)
f. shagógę̱ hjih
shagó-gę̱ hjih
3s.m>3fi/3p-old.one.stat
‘his wife’, ‘his old lady’ (informal)

The following terms of address (words used when speaking directly to the
relative in question, or words used instead of a name) are also inflected like kin-
ship terms. They refer to same-generation relatives and use interactive prefixes
(22).

(22) ⌊int-aˀse:ˀ⌋ ‘cousin!’ (term of address)

a. gya̱ˀse:ˀ
gy-aˀse:ˀ
1>2(d)-doubled
‘cousin!’ (when directly addressing a cousin)

497
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

b. gwa̱ˀse:ˀ
gw-aˀse:ˀ
1>2(p)-doubled
‘cousins!’ (when directly addressing one’s cousins)

In addition, examples (22) and (23) (repeated from page 493) together show
that the same stem can sometimes be inflected in two different ways. Exam-
ple (23a) shows a verb functioning as a “kinship term”, inflected with p-series
pronominal prefixes. In contrast, example (23b) illustrates the same stem as an
interactive kinship term, inflected with interactive pronominal prefixes.

(23) a. ⌊p-aˀse:ˀ⌋ ‘cousin’

ǫgyáˀse:ˀ
ǫgy-áˀse:ˀ
1du-doubled.stat
‘my cousin’
b. ⌊int-aˀse:ˀ⌋ ‘cousin’
gya̱ˀse:ˀ
gy-aˀse:ˀ
1>2(d)-doubled.stat
‘cousin!’ (when directly addressing a cousin)

23.3.2 Different-generation kinship terms, interactive pronominal

prefixes
different-generation kinship terms describe a relationship between people
(or groups of people) of different generations. They prioritize the older genera-
tion over the younger generation: the first role of the pronominal prefix refers
to the older generation, and the second role refers to the younger generation,
regardless of point-of-view. For example, in heyá:dreˀ ‘my grandson’ (24a), the
first role of the ⌊he-⌋ 1s>3s.m prefix refers to the older relative (the grandpar-
ent/“possessor” ‘I, my’) and the second role refers to the younger relative (the
grandson, ‘he, him’). Meanwhile, in hagá:dreˀ ‘his grandson, me’4 or ‘I am his
grandson’ (24b), the first role of the ⌊hag-⌋ 3s.m>1s prefix still refers to the older
relative (the grandparent/“possessor”, ‘he, his’), and the second role still refers to
the younger relative (the grandson, ‘I, me’).

4
Thanks to Karin Michelson for this wording.

498
 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes

(24) ⌊int-adreˀ⌋ ‘grandchild relationship’

a. heyá:dreˀ
hey-á:dreˀ
1s>3s.m-grandchild
‘my grandson’
b. hagá:dreˀ
hag-á:dreˀ
3s.m>1s-grandchild
‘his grandson, me’, ‘I am his grandson’
c. keyá:dreˀ
key-á:dreˀ
1s>3s.fi-grandchild
‘my granddaughter’
d. hǫwá:dreˀ
hǫwá:-dreˀ
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-grandchild
‘his/her grandson’
e. sheyá:dreˀ
shey-á:dreˀ
2s>3s.fi-grandchild
‘your granddaughter’
f. ǫdádadreˀ
ǫdád-adreˀ
3s.fi>3s.fi-grandchild
‘her granddaughter’
g. shagó:dreˀ
shagó:-dreˀ
3s.m>3fi/3p-grandchild
‘his granddaughter’
h. gaǫdadreˀsǫ́:ˀah
gaǫd-adreˀ-shǫ́:ˀah
3fi>3fi(+ns)-grandchild-plrz
‘her grandchildren’

499
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

i. shagódre̱ˀsǫˀ
shagó-dre̱ˀ-shǫˀ
3s.m>3fi/3p-grandchild-plrz
‘his grandchildren’
j. gakeyadréˀsǫˀ
gakey-adréˀ-shǫˀ
1s>3ns-grandchild-plrz
‘my grandchildren’
k. gasheyadréˀsǫˀ
gashey-adréˀ-shǫˀ
2s>3ns-grandchild-plrz
‘your grandchildren’
l. hehsá:dreˀ
hehs-á:dreˀ
2s>3s.m-grandchild
‘your grandson’
m. gwadre:ˀ
gw-adreˀ
1>2(p)-grandchild
‘you are my grandchild’ (term of address)

Other kinship terms that work the same way are listed below.

(25) ⌊int-ˀgę:ˀęh⌋ ‘younger sibling’

a. heˀgę́:ˀęh
he-ˀgę́:ˀęh
1s>3s.m-younger.sibling
‘my younger brother’
b. hesheˀgę́:ˀęh
heshe-ˀgę́:ˀęh
2s>3s.m-younger.sibling
‘your younger brother’

500
 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes

c. keˀgę́:ˀęh
khe-ˀgę́:ˀęh
1s>3s.fi-younger.sibling
‘my younger sister’
d. ǫdade̱ˀgę́:ˀęh
ǫdade̱-ˀgę́:ˀęh
3s.fi>3s.fi-younger.sibling
‘her younger sister’
e. shagoˀgę́:ˀęh
shago-ˀgę́:ˀęh
3s.m>3fi/3p-younger.sibling
‘his younger sister’
f. hǫwaˀgę́:ˀęh
hǫwa-ˀgę́:ˀęh
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-younger.sibling
‘his/her younger brother’
g. sheˀgę́:ˀęh
she-ˀgę́:ˀęh
2s>3s.fi-younger.sibling
‘your younger sister’
h. etiˀgę́:ˀah
eti-ˀgę́:ˀah
1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns-younger.sibling
‘our younger sister’
i. shǫgwaˀgę́:ˀah
shǫgwa-ˀgę́:ˀah
3s.m>1p-younger.sibling
‘our younger brother’

(26) ⌊int-hawahk(sǫˀ)⌋ ‘child(ren)’

a. hehá:wahk
he-há:wahk
1s>3s.m-child
‘my son’

501
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

b. kehá:wahk
ke-há:wahk
1s>3s.fi-child
‘my daughter’

(27) ⌊int-hawa:kˀah⌋ ‘(maternal) niece’ (i.e. the child of one’s mother’s

brother or mother’s sister)
a. ǫdatawá:kˀah
ǫdat-hawá:kˀah
3s.fi>3s.fi-niece
‘her maternal niece’
b. kehawá:kˀah
ke-hawá:kˀah
1s>3s.fi-niece
‘my maternal niece’

(28) ⌊int-ǫhwadęˀ(sǫˀ)⌋ ‘niece, nephew’

a. gakeyǫ̱hwá:dęˀ
gakey-ǫ̱hwá:dęˀ
1s>3ns-niece/nephew
‘my brother’s children’, ‘my nieces and nephews’
b. keyǫhwá:dęˀ
key-ǫhwá:dęˀ
1s>3s.fi-niece/nephew
‘my niece’
c. gasheyǫ̱hwádę̱ ˀsǫˀ
gashey-ǫ̱hwádę̱ ˀsǫˀ
2s>3ns-niece/nephew
‘your nieces and nephews’

(29) ⌊int-yaˀdawęh⌋ ‘niece, nephew’ (literally, ‘to support someone’)

a. gakeya̱ˀdá:węh
gake-ya̱ˀdá:węh
1s>3ns-niece/nephew
‘my brother’s children’

502
 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes

b. heyáˀdawęh
he-yáˀdawęh
1s>3s.m-niece/nephew
‘my nephew’
c. keyáˀdawęh
ke-yáˀdawęh
1s>3s.fi-niece/nephew
‘my brother’s kids’

(30) ⌊int-hjiˀah⌋ ‘older sibling’

a. hehshéhjiˀah
hehshé-hjiˀah
2s>3s.m-older.sibling
‘your older brother’
b. kehjíˀah
khe-hjíˀah
1s>3s.fi-older.sibling
‘my older sister’

(31) ⌊int-hsot⌋ ‘grandparent’

a. hagéhso:t, hakso:t
hagé/hak-hso:t
3s.m>1s-grand.parent
‘my grandfather’
b. hǫwáhso:t
hǫwá-hso:t
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-grand.parent
‘his/her grandfather’

(32) ⌊int-no:haˀ⌋ ‘mother’ (also see 48, 53)

ǫkíno̱haˀ
ǫkí-no̱haˀ
3s.fi/3ns>1ns-mother
‘our mother’

503
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

(33) ⌊int-nohá:ˀah⌋ ‘(maternal) aunt’5 (also see 49, 54)

ǫkino̱há:ˀah
ǫki-no̱há:ˀah
3s.fi/3ns>1ns-aunt
‘our (plural) aunt’
(34) ⌊int-noˀsęh⌋ ‘(maternal) uncle’6 (also see 55)
a. hǫwáno̱ˀsęh
hǫwá-no̱ˀsęh
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-uncle
‘his/her uncle’
b. hyanóˀsęh
hya-nóˀsęh
3s.m>2s-uncle
‘your uncle’
c. shǫkníno̱ˀsęh
shǫkní-no̱ˀsęh
3s.m>1d-uncle
‘our uncle’
(35) ⌊int-ˀnih⌋ ‘father’ (also see 56)
a. hǫwáˀnih
hǫwá-ˀnih
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-father
‘his/her father’
b. hya̱ˀnih
hya̱-ˀnih
3s.m>2s-father
‘your father’
(36) ⌊int-naˀehs⌋ ‘step-mother’ (also see 47)
ǫknáˀehs
ǫk-náˀehs
3s.fi>1s-step.mother
‘my step-mother’
5
This word used to refer only to one’s mother’s sister. Nowadays, it can also refer to one’s
father’s sister.
6
This word used to refer only to one’s mother’s brother. Nowadays, it can also refer to one’s
father’s brother.

504
 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes

(37) ⌊int-ˀni:hah⌋ ‘godfather, step-father’ (also see 57)

hǫwaˀní:hah
hǫwa-ˀní:hah
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-step.father
‘her godfather/step-father’

(38) ⌊int-no:ˀ⌋ ‘step-parent/child’

a. hakno:ˀ
hak-no:ˀ
3s.m>1s-step.parent/child
‘my step-father’
b. hehsno:ˀ
hehs-no:ˀ
2s>3s.m-step.parent/child
‘your step-son’
c. shé:no:ˀ
shé:-no:ˀ
2s>3s.fi-step.parent/child
‘your step-daughter’

Different-generation kinship terms, reversed roles

Several of the different-generation kinship terms described in the last section can
instead be inflected just like same-generation kinship terms (see §23.3.1): the first
role denotes the point-of-view (the “possessor” of the relative) and the second
role specifies the number and gender of the relative in question. We can think of
these as “reversed role” kinship terms. Examples contrasting the two types are
shown below.

(39) ⌊int-nohá:ˀah⌋ ‘(maternal) aunt’ (reversed roles, like same-generation

kinship terms)
etino̱há:ˀah
‘our aunt’ (two of us)
eti-no̱há:ˀah
1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns-aunt
cf. ǫkino̱há:ˀah
ǫki-no̱há:ˀah
3s.fi/3ns>1ns-aunt
‘our aunt’ (non-reversed roles, like regular different-generation kinship terms)

505
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

(40) ⌊int-noˀsęh⌋ ‘(maternal) uncle’

Etino̱ˀsę́h Ęhęnatnoˀáowanaht
eti-no̱ˀsę́h
1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns-uncle they.become.bigheads
‘Our Uncles ceremony’ (reversed roles, like same-generation kinship
terms)
cf. shǫkníno̱ˀsęh
shǫkní-no̱ˀsęh
3s.m>1d-uncle
‘our (dual) uncle’ (non-reversed roles, like regular different-generation kinship terms)

Different-generation kinship terms, in-laws

The two kinship terms described in this section both refer to different-generation
in-laws (the parent-in-law / child-in-law relationship). These terms work differ-
ently than other different-generation kinship terms (§23.3.2), partly because of
the unique meaning of the stems.
For the kinship term ⌊nenhǫs⌋, the first role can refer to the older generation
and the second role can refer to the younger generation (41a–c), which is mostly
like the different-generation kinship terms described on page 498. However, if
the first role and point-of-view (the “possessor”) coincide, then the stem means
‘son-in-law’ (41a), and if the first role and point-of-view (the “possessor”) do not
coincide, then the stem means ‘father-in-law’ (41b, c). Lastly, if the first role is
3s.fi ‘she’, the word refers only to a male speaker’s mother-in-law (41d).

(41) ⌊interact-nenhǫs⌋ ‘someone’s father/son-in-law’, ‘a male’s

mother-in-law’
a. hené:nhǫ:s
he-né:nhǫ:s
1s>3s.m-in.law
‘my son-in-law’
b. hakné:nhǫ:s
hak-né:nhǫ:s
3s.m>1s-in.law
‘my father-in-law’
c. hyané:nhǫ:s
hya-né:nhǫ:s
3s.m>2s-in.law
‘your father-in-law’

506
 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes

d. ǫkné:nhǫ:s
ǫk-né:nhǫ:s
3s.fi>1s-in.law
‘my mother-in-law’ (a man speaking)
Alternatively, ⌊nenhǫs⌋ can work like the same-generation kinship terms de-
scribed in §23.3.1: the first role can just refer to the point-of-view (the “possessor”
of the relative) while the second role will describe the number and gender of the
relative (42a). That being said, if the second role is 3s.fi ‘she’, the word refers
only to a male’s mother-in-law (42b, c).
(42) ⌊interactive-nenhǫs⌋ ‘someone’s father/son-in-law’, ‘a male’s
mother-in-law’
a. hǫwánenhǫ:s
hǫwá-nenhǫ:s
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-in.law
‘his/her father-in-law, son-in-law’
b. shagónenhǫ:s
shagó-nenhǫ:s
3s.m>3fi/3p-in.law
‘his mother-in-law’
c. shené:nhǫ:s
she-né:nhǫ:s
2s>3s.fi-in.law
‘your mother-in-law’ (when speaking to a man)
For ⌊hseyǫh⌋, the first role can refer to the older generation and the second
role can reference the younger generation, as long as both roles refer to females
(43a, b).
(43) ⌊interact-hse-yǫh⌋ ‘a female’s mother/daughter-in-law’
a. ǫgehsé:yǫh
ǫge-hsé:yǫh
3s.fi>1s-in.law
‘my mother-in-law’ (a woman speaking)
b. kehsé:yǫh
khe-hsé:yǫh
1s>3s.fi-in.law
‘my daughter-in-law’ (a woman speaking)

507
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

Alternatively (as with same-generation kinship terms, §23.3.1), the first role
for ⌊hseyǫh⌋ can just refer to the point-of-view (the “possessor” of the relative)
while the second role denotes the relative. Both roles still only refer to females
(44).

(44) ⌊interact-hse-yǫh⌋ ‘a female’s mother/daughter-in-law’

a. ǫdade̱hsé:yǫh
ǫdade̱-hsé:yǫh
3s.fi>3s.fi-in.law
‘her mother-in-law’
b. shehsé:yǫh
she-hsé:yǫh
2s>3s.fi-in.law
‘your mother-in-law, daughter-in-law’ (when speaking to a woman)

23.3.3 Different-generation kinship terms taking non-interactive a-

or p-series prefixes
The different-generation kinship terms described in §23.3 normally (or maybe
traditionally) take interactive prefixes. However, several of these terms can also
be inflected with non-interactive, a- or p-series prefixes. They are described next.

Different-generation kinship terms taking p-series prefixes

While different-generation kinship terms normally take interactive pronominal
prefixes (§23.3.2), they can take p-series prefixes instead. In such cases, the pronom-
inal prefix refers to the younger member(s) of the relationship, and the stem
refers to older-generation females (45–47). If interactive prefixes are used, the
same stem can refer to older-generation males (as shown by the forms labelled
“cf.” in 45-47).

(45) ⌊p-hjiˀah⌋ ‘to have an older sister’

hohjíˀah
ho-hjíˀah
3s.m.p-older.sibling
‘his older sister’
cf. hehshéhjiˀah
hehshé-hjiˀah
2s>3s.m-older.sibling
‘your older brother’ (from example 30)

508
 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes

(46) ⌊p-hsot⌋ ‘to have a grandmother’

a. hohso:t
ho-hso:t
3s.m.p-grand.parent
‘his Grandma’
b. sa̱hso:t
sa̱-hso:t
2s.p-grand.parent
‘your Grandmother’
cf. hagéhso:t, hakso:t
hagé/hak-hso:t
3s.m>1s-grand.parent
‘my grandfather’ (from example 31)

(47) ⌊p-no:ˀ⌋ ‘have a step-mother’

a. sano:ˀ
sa-no:ˀ
2s.p-step.parent/child
‘your step-mother’
b. hono:ˀ
ho-no:ˀ
3s.m.p-step.parent/child
‘his step-mother’
cf. hakno:ˀ
hak-no:ˀ
3s.m>1s-step.parent/child
‘my step-father’ (from example 38)

(48) ⌊p-no:haˀ⌋ ‘to have a mother’

a. honó:haˀ
ho-nó:haˀ
3s.m.p-mother
‘his mother’
b. sanó:haˀ
sa-nó:haˀ
2s.p-mother
‘your mother’

509
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

cf. ǫkíno̱haˀ
ǫkí-no̱haˀ
3s.fi/3ns>1ns-mother
‘our mother’ (from example 32)

(49) ⌊p-no:ha:ˀah⌋ ‘to have a (maternal) aunt’

a. gono:há:ˀah
go-no:há:ˀah
3s.fi.p-aunt
‘her aunt’
b. hono:há:ˀah
ho-no:há:ˀah
3s.m.p-aunt
‘his aunt’ (on the maternal side)
c. sano:há:ˀah
sa-no:há:ˀah
2s.p-aunt
‘your aunt’
cf. ǫkino̱há:ˀah
ǫki-no̱há:ˀah
3s.fi/3ns>1ns-aunt
‘our aunt’ (from example 33)

(50) ⌊p-naˀehs⌋ ‘to have a step-mother’

a. aknáˀehs
ak-náˀehs
1s.p-step.mother
‘I have a step-mother’
b. sanáˀehs
sa-náˀehs
2s.p-step.mother
‘your step-mother’
cf. ǫknáˀehs
ǫk-náˀehs
3s.fi>1s-step.mother
‘my step-mother’
(from example 36)

510
 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes

(51) ⌊p-haˀk⌋ ‘to have an aunt’ (archaic word, possibly related to verb ga̱ haˀk
‘it did sit on something’)
agé:haˀk
agé:-haˀk
1s.p-aunt
‘my aunt’ (archaic word)

(52) ⌊p-adę-ni-ho:nǫˀ⌋ ‘to have relatives on one’s father’s side’. (Related to

⌊ˀnih⌋ ‘father’)
sadęni ̱hó:nǫˀ
s-adę-ni ̱-hó:nǫˀ
2s.p-srf-father-pop
‘your relatives on your father’s side’

Different-generation kinship terms taking a-series prefixes

While different-generation kinship terms normally take interactive pronominal
prefixes (§23.3.2), they can instead take the a-series ⌊k-⌋ 1s.a prefix or the a-series
⌊ha-⌋ 2ms.a prefix. In such cases, ⌊k-⌋ 1s.a means ‘my maternal relative’ (53–55)
and ⌊ha-⌋ 2ms.a means ‘my paternal relative’ (56–57). Some of these same words
can also be used as terms of address (see §5.8.1).

(53) ⌊k-nó:haˀ⌋ ‘(my) mother’ (optionally also a term of address)

knó:haˀ
k-nó:haˀ
1s.a-mother
‘my mother’, ‘Mom’
cf. ǫkíno̱haˀ
ǫkí-no̱haˀ
3s.fi/3ns>1ns-mother
‘our mother’ (from example 32)

(54) ⌊k-no:ha:ˀah⌋ ‘(my) (maternal) aunt’ (optionally also a term of address)

kno:há:ˀah
k-no:há:ˀah
1s.a-aunt
‘my (maternal) aunt’, ‘Auntie’
cf. ǫkino̱há:ˀah
ǫki-no̱há:ˀah
3s.fi/3ns>1ns-aunt
‘our aunt’ (from example 33)

511
23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice

(55) ⌊k-noˀsęh⌋ ‘my (maternal) uncle’ (optionally also a term of address)

knóˀsęh
k-nóˀsęh
1s.a-uncle
‘my uncle’
cf. hǫwáno̱ˀsęh
hǫwá-no̱ˀsęh
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-uncle
‘his/her uncle’ (from example 34)

(56) ⌊ha-ˀnih⌋ ‘my father’ (optionally a term of address)

haˀnih
ha-ˀnih
3s.m.a-father
‘my father’, ‘Dad’
cf. hǫwáˀnih
hǫwá-ˀnih
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-father
‘his/her father’ (from example 35)

(57) ⌊ha-ˀni:hah⌋ ‘my godfather’ (optionally a term of address)

haˀní:hah
ha-ˀní:hah
3s.m.a-godfather
‘my godfather’
cf. hǫwaˀní:hah
hǫwa-ˀní:hah
3s.m/3s.fi>3s.m-step.father
‘her godfather/step-father’ (from example 37)

Similarly, stems like ⌊hsot⌋ ‘grandparent’ only refer to older-generation fe-

males when ⌊k-⌋ 1s.a is used (58). For such words, in order to refer to an older-
generation male, an interactive prefix is used instead (see the “cf.” examples in
58, as previously described in §23.3.2).

(58) ⌊k-so:t⌋ ‘grandmother’ (optionally also a term of address)

kso:t
k-hsot
1s.a-grand.parent
‘my grandmother’, ‘Grandma’

512
 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes

cf. hagéhso:t, hakso:t

hagé/hak-hso:t
3s.m>1s-grand.parent
‘my grandfather’ (from example 31)
cf. hehso:t
he-hso:t
1s>3s.m-grand.parent
‘Grandpa’

513
24 Pronominal prefix choice for
stative-only verbs
Stative-only verbs only occur in the stative aspect, and describe a state, prop-
erty, or attribute. They are single-role verbs (§20.6), taking either a- or p-series
pronominal prefixes. Table 24.1 (page 516) summarizes the factors influencing
pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs.
The two main types of stative-only verbs are personal and neuter verbs
(stative-only column in Table 24.1). Personal verbs take a complete set of either
a- or p-series pronominal prefixes, while neuter verbs only take ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a or ⌊o-⌋
3s.p prefixes.
Three subtypes of stative-only verbs are also shown in Table 24.1, (subtype
column): ⌊NV⌋ refers to fixed expressions, where the incorporated noun is a fixed
part of the verb’s meaning (see §9.1). In terms of pronominal prefix choice, ⌊NV⌋
fixed expressions are identical to non-incorporating verbs, ⌊V⌋. ⌊(N)-V⌋ refers to
verbs that optionally take an incorporated noun. Finally, ⌊+V⌋ refers to verbs that
require incorporated nouns (see §9.1.)
Pronominal prefix choice for personal verbs (both ⌊V⌋ and fixed ⌊NV⌋ types)
must be memorized: some verbs take a-series and some take p-series prefixes. For
personal verbs, noun incorporation does not affect pronominal prefix choice.
Pronominal prefix choice for neuter verbs without incorporation (both ⌊V⌋ and
fixed ⌊NV⌋ types) must also be memorized: some begin with ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a and some
begin with ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p.
In contrast, for incorporating neuter verbs (both optionally-incorporating ⌊(N)-
V⌋ and obligatorily-incorporating ⌊+V⌋ types), pronominal prefix selection is in-
fluenced both by the type of incorporated noun, and also by possession (the in-
corporated noun is ‘owned’). All of these factors are described in the following
sections.
24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

Table 24.1: Pronominal prefix selection, single-aspect verbs.

stative-only P?a subtypes without nib with ni inc noun

type
personal 7 ⌊a-⌋ or ⌊p-⌋

neuter 7 ⌊V⌋, no NI ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊o-⌋

⌊NV⌋ (fixed)

neuter 7 ⌊(N)-V⌋ ⌊o-V⌋ ⌊ga-N-V⌋ ⌊ga-N⌋

⌊+V⌋ n/a ⌊o-N-V⌋ ⌊o-N⌋

⌊ga-V⌋ ⌊ga-N-V⌋ ⌊ga-/o-N⌋

neuter 7 ⌊(N)-V⌋ ⌊ga-/o-V⌋ ⌊ga-N-V⌋ ⌊ga-N⌋

(positional V) ⌊o-N-V⌋ ⌊o-N⌋

some ⌊ga-V⌋ ⌊ga-N-V⌋ ⌊ga-/o-N⌋

neuter 7 ⌊N+V⌋ ⌊ga-N-V⌋ ⌊ga-N⌋

(counting V) ⌊o-N-V⌋ ⌊o-N⌋
⌊ga-/o-N-V⌋ ⌊o-N⌋

neuter 3 ⌊(N)-V⌋ ⌊a-/p-V⌋ ⌊p-N-V⌋ basic noun or

(possession) detachable
body part
noun

⌊a-N-V⌋ non-
detachable
body part
noun

neuter 3 ⌊N+o:t⌋ ⌊p-N+o:t/+ęˀ⌋ basic noun or

‘have’ detachable
⌊N+ęˀ⌋ ‘have’ body part
noun

⌊a/p- non-
N+o:t/+ęˀ⌋ detachable
body part
noun

a
“P” denotes possession.
b
Noun Incorporation

516
 24.1 Personal stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

24.1 Personal stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix

choice
Personal stative-only verbs take either the a-series or the p-series of pronominal
prefix. The choice has to be memorized for each verb. For example, the verb in (1a)
exclusively takes a-series prefixes, and the verb in (1b) requires p-series prefixes.

(1) personal stative-only verbs

a. sewáihǫh
se-wáihǫh
2s.a-good.at.something.stat
‘you are good at something’
b. agáhshę:
ag-áhshę:
1s.p-slow.moving.stat
‘I am slow to act’

Incorporated nouns do not influence the choice of prefix for personal, stative-
only verbs. For example, while both verbs in (2) have the same incorporated
noun, the verb in (2a) takes an a-series prefix and the verb in (2b) takes a p-
series prefix. Similarly, the verbs in (3) have either an a- or p-series prefix, while
the incorporated noun ⌊ǫgweˀd⌋ ‘person’ is the same in both cases.

(2) ⌊a/p-haˀd-stative.only.verb⌋
a. shaˀdá:tęhs
s-haˀd-á:-tęhs
2s.a-throat-joinerA-dried.out. hab
‘you are thirsty’ (⌊NV⌋ fixed expression)
b. go̱haˀdí:yo:
go̱-haˀd-í:yo:
3s.fi.p-throat-good.stat
‘she is a good singer’, ‘she has a good voice’ (⌊NV⌋ fixed expression)

(3) ⌊a/p-ǫgweˀd-stative.only.verb⌋
a. hǫgweˀdí:yo:
h-ǫgweˀd-í:yo:
3s.m.a-person-good.stat
‘he is a charming or nice person’ (obligatorily-incorporating ⌊+V⌋)

517
24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

b. agǫgwe̱ˀdáhetgęˀ
ag-ǫgwe̱ˀd-á-hetgęˀ
3s.fi.p-person-ugly.stat
‘she is a cruel, mean person’ (optionally-incorporating ⌊(N)+V⌋)

24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix

choice
For neuter stative-only verbs, pronominal prefix choice is influenced by the type
of incorporated noun and by possession (whether or not the incorporated noun
is ‘owned’ - see Table 24.1, page 516.) These factors are described next.

24.2.1 Neuter stative-only verbs without an incorporated noun, and

NV fixed expressions
Neuter stative-only verbs without an incorporated noun take either a-series
⌊ga-, w-⌋ 3s.a prefixes or the p-series ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix. The type of prefix has to be
memorized. For example, the verbs in (4) require a ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊w-⌋ 3s.a prefix, and
the verbs in (5) require an ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix.
(4) neuter stative-only verbs, no noun incorporation, with ⌊ga-, w-⌋ 3s.a
prefix
a. gashá:sdeˀ
ga-shá:sdeˀ
3s.a-strong.stat
‘it is strong’
b. ganǫ:ˀ
ga-nǫ:ˀ
3s.a-costly.stat
‘it is expensive, dear, precious’
c. ga̱hǫ́ˀji:
ga̱-hǫ́ˀji:
3s.a-dark.coloured.stat
‘it is dark-coloured’
d. wagyé:sęh
w-ag-yé:s-ęh
3s.a-srf-easy-stat
‘it is easy’

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 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

(5) neuter stative-only verbs, no noun incorporation, with ⌊o-⌋ 3s.a prefix
a. ohní:yǫh
o-hní:yǫh
3s.p-hard.stat
‘it is hard’
b. ogáhdeh
o-gáhdeh
3s.p-raw.stat
‘it is raw’
c. onáˀno:ˀ
o-náˀno:ˀ
3s.p-cold.stat
‘it is cold, cool’

⌊NV⌋ fixed expressions (ones that are neuter, stative-only verbs) are like the
above verbs. For example, the ones in (6) require a ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a prefix (or a ⌊w-⌋
3s.a prefix, 6b), and the ones in (7) require an ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix. Moreover, exam-
ples (6a) and (7a), which both incorporate ⌊hneg⌋ ‘water’, show that the type of
incorporated noun does not affect prefix choice in these ⌊NV⌋ fixed expressions.

(6) ⌊NV⌋ fixed expressions with ⌊ga-, w-⌋ 3s.a prefix

a. ga̱hné:ga:t
ga̱-hné:g-a:-t
3s.a-water-joinerA-stand.stat
‘it is watery’
b. wa̱hsóhǫ:t
w-a̱hsóh-ǫ:t
3s.a-dye-attached.stat
‘it is dyed’
c. gadręnagáˀǫh
ga-dręn-a-gáˀǫh
3s.a-smell-joinerA-good.tasting.stat
‘it smells good, sweet, appetizing’
d. gahsdaowá:nęh
ga-hsda:-owá:nęh
3s.a-rain-big.stat
‘it is raining hard’

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24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

(7) ⌊NV⌋ fixed expressions with ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix

a. ohneganá:wę:
o-hneg-a-ná:wę:
3s.p-water-joinerA-wet.stat
‘lead, lukewarm water’
b. oihwí:yo:
o-ihw-í:yo:
3s.p-matter-good.stat
‘it is for certain, sure’
Positional verbs (a thematic subtype of neuter, stative-only verb) without an
incorporated noun are also like the above verbs. For example, the ones in (8)
require a ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊w-⌋ 3s.a prefix, and the ones in (9) require an ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix.
(8) positional verbs, no noun incorporation, with ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a prefix,
a. degáhǫˀ
de-gá-hǫˀ
du-3s.a-lie.across.stat
‘something is lying across a path, a door, etc.’
b. gá:yęˀ
gá:-yęˀ
3s.a-lie.stat
‘it is lying on the ground’
c. gadę́hda:ˀ
ga-dę́hda:ˀ
3s.a-spread.out.on.ground.stat
‘it is lying spread out on the floor or the ground’
d. gagéhǫˀ
ga-géhǫˀ
3s.a-lie.about. stat
‘things are lying about, around’
(9) positional verbs, no noun incorporation, with ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix
a. áǫt
á-ǫt
3s.p-stick.out.stat1
‘it is attached’, ‘it is sticking out’
1
In áǫt the 3s.p prefix is ⌊a-⌋, which is the regular pronunciation of this prefix before o-stems.

520
 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

b. owaˀnę́:da:ˀ
o-waˀnę́:da:ˀ
3s.p-stuck.stat
‘it is stuck’
c. odáhǫh
o-dáhǫh
3s.p-draped.stat
‘it is draped’

24.2.2 Neuter stative-only verbs, with noun incorporation

Noun incorporation can influence pronominal prefix choice for neuter stative-
only verbs. In addition, ⌊o-V⌋ verbs and ⌊ga-V⌋ verbs behave differently with
respect to noun incorporation.

24.2.3 ⌊o-V⌋ and ⌊+V⌋, neuter stative-only verbs with noun

incorporation
Neuter stative-only verbs that begin with ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p (⌊o-V⌋, 10), and those that are
obligatorily incorporating (⌊+V⌋, 11), tend to take the same type of pronominal
prefix as the non-incorporated noun. For example, the ⌊o-V⌋ verb oˀdáihę: (10)
takes ⌊ga-⌋ when it incorporates ⌊hsǫwahd⌋ ‘wire’ – a noun with a ⌊ga-⌋ prefix.
Meanwhile, the same verb takes ⌊o-⌋ when it incorporates ⌊ˀnehs⌋ ‘sand’ – a noun
with an ⌊o-⌋ prefix.

(10) ⌊o-V⌋
a. oˀdáihę:
o-ˀdáih-ę:
3s.p-hot-stat
‘it is hot’
b. ga̱hsǫwa̱hdadáihę:
ga̱-hsǫwa̱hd-a-dáih-ę:
3s.a-wire-joinerA-hot-stat
‘hot plate’
cf. ga̱hsǫ́wa̱hdaˀ
ga̱-hsǫ́wa̱hd-aˀ
3s.a-wire-nsf
‘wire, needle, nails’

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24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

c. oˀnehsadaihę:
o-ˀnehs-a-dáih-ę:
3s.p-sand-joinerA-hot-stat
‘desert’
cf. oˀnéhsaˀ
o-ˀnéhs-aˀ
3s.p-sand-nsf
‘sand’

The facts are similar for the obligatorily incorporating verb in (11).

(11) ⌊+owanęh⌋ ‘big’ (obligatorily incorporating neuter verb)

a. ga̱hǫhsrowá:nęh
ga̱-hǫhsr-owá:n-ęh
3s.a-box-big-stat
‘big box’
cf. gahǫ́hsraˀ
ga-hǫ́hsr-aˀ
3s.a-box-nsf
‘a box’
b. ojǫˀdowá:nęh
o-jǫˀd-owá:n-ęh
3s.p-fish-big-stat
‘big fish’
cf. ojǫ́ˀdaˀ
o-jǫ́ˀd-aˀ
3s.p-fish-nsf
‘a fish’

24.2.4 Neuter stative-only positional verbs, with incorporated noun

Positional verbs are a thematic subtype of neuter, stative-only verbs describing
the position of an object. Most positional verbs take the same type of pronominal
prefix as the noun that they incorporate. For example, wadíhǫh ‘it is leaning’
takes the same ⌊ga-⌋ prefix as the noun ⌊hǫw⌋ ‘boat’ in (12a), and takes the same
⌊o-⌋ prefix as the noun ⌊hah⌋ ‘road’ in (12b).

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 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

(12) a. wadíhǫh
w-adíh-ǫh
3s.a-lean-stat
‘it is leaning’
b. ga̱hǫwadíhǫh
ga̱-hǫw-adíh-ǫh
3s.a-boat-lean-stat
‘a leaning boat’
cf. ga̱hǫ́:waˀ
ga̱-hǫ́:w-aˀ
3s.a-boat-nsf
‘a boat’
c. ohahaˀdíhǫh
o-hah-adíh-ǫh
3s.p-road-lean-stat
‘the Milky Way’
cf. oháhaˀ
o-háh-aˀ
3s.p-road-nsf
‘road’

Similar examples are shown in (13).

(13) a. áǫt
á-ǫt
3s.p-stick.out.stat
‘it is attached’, ‘it is sticking out’
cf. węˀníhsgaǫt
w-ęˀníhsg-a-ǫt
3s.a-wheel-joinerA-stick.out.stat
‘an attached wheel’
cf. ohsgyę́ˀdǫ:t
o-hsgyę́ˀd-ǫ:t
3s.p-bone-stick.out.stat
‘bone’
b. gá:hǫh
gá-:hǫh
3s.a-covered.stat
‘it is covered’

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24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

cf. ga̱hnegá:hǫh
ga̱-hneg-á-:hǫh
3s.a-water-joinerA-covered.stat
‘Head Lead on a Stick’ (snowsnake game vocabulary)
cf. onyęˀgwáohǫh
o-nyęˀgw-á-ohǫh
3s.p-drifted.snow-joinerA-covered.stat
‘drifted snow’
c. nitgá:deˀ
ni-t-gá:-deˀ
part-cis-3s.a-exist.stat
‘how high it is’ (inanimate object), ‘the height of something’
cf. ga̱hwajiyá:deˀ
ga̱-hwajiy-á:-deˀ
3s.a-family-joinerA-exist.stat
‘a family’ (matrilineal)
cf. ohá:deˀ
o-há:-deˀ
3s.p-road-exist.stat
‘an existing road’
d. gadę́hda:ˀ
ga-dę́hda:ˀ
3s.a-lie.spread.out.stat
‘it is lying spread out on the floor or the ground’
cf. ganehsdá:dę̱ hda:ˀ
ga-nehsdá:-dę̱ hda:ˀ
3s.a-board-lie.spread.out.stat
‘a floor’
cf. owidradę́hda:ˀ
o-widr-a-dę́hda:ˀ
3s.p-ice-lie.spread.out.stat
‘ice patch’
e. ga̱he:ˀ
ga̱-he:ˀ
3s.a-sit.up.on.top.stat
‘it is sitting up on top of something’, ‘it is sitting here’
cf. ganáˀja̱he:ˀ
ga-náˀj-a̱-he:ˀ
3s.a-pail-joinerA-sit.up.on.top.stat
‘pail setting on something’

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 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

cf. ohsgę́ˀdra̱he:ˀ
o-hsgę́ˀdr-a̱-he:ˀ
3s.p-rust-joinerA-sit.up.on.top.stat
‘it is rusting, rusty’
f. gá:yęˀ
gá:-yęˀ
3s.a-lie.on.ground.stat
‘it is lying on the ground’
cf. ganǫ́ˀaęˀ
ga-nǫ́ˀa:-ęˀ
3s.a-head-lie.on.ground.stat
‘a head lying on the ground’
cf. ohǫ́daęˀ
o-hǫ́d-a-ęˀ
3s.p-sapling-joinerA-lie.on.ground.stat
‘a bush, shrub’
g. degáhǫˀ
de-gá-hǫˀ
du-3s.a-lie.across.stat
‘something is lying across a path, a door, etc.’
cf. dewahǫhdáhǫˀ
de-w-ahǫhd-á-hǫˀ
du-3s.a-ear-joinerA-lie.across.stat
‘jackass, donkey’
cf. odóˀda̱hǫˀ
o-dóˀd-a̱-hǫˀ
3s.p-wave-joinerA-lie.across.stat
‘little waves’
h. gahnyo:t
ga-hny-o:t
3s.a-stick-stand.stat
‘it is standing’
cf. ga̱há:do:t
ga̱-há:d-o:t
3s.a-forest-stand.stat
‘forest’
cf. odrǫ́hyo:t
o-drǫ́hy-o:t
3s.p-beam.of.light-stand.stat
‘sunbeam’, ‘ray of light’, ‘sunshine’

The obligatorily-incorporating positional verbs in (14) also behave like the

verbs in (13).

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24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

(14) a. ⌊+itgęˀǫh⌋ ‘come out, issue out, rise from, emanate from’
i. gawęnitgę́ˀǫ:ˀ
ga-węn-itgę́ˀǫ-:-ˀ
3s.a-word-emanate.from-nmlz-stat
‘a speech’
ii. gyotsaditgę́ˀǫh
g-yo-t-hsad-itgę́ˀ-ǫh
cis-3s.p-srf-fog-emanate.from-stat
‘steam coming out’
b. ⌊+kahǫ⌋ ‘adjoin, abut’
i. sgahsakáhǫ:ˀ
s-ga-hs-a-káhǫ-:ˀ
rep-3s.a-mouth-joinerA-adjoin.stat-nmlz
‘large mouth bass’
ii. ohyákahǫˀ
o-hy-á-kahǫˀ
3s.p-berry-joinerA-adjoin.stat
‘tomatoes’

The obligatorily-incorporating positional verbs in (15–19) may be like the verbs

in (14). However, only one type of incorporated noun is shown in each case, and
so the evidence is inconclusive.

(15) ⌊+hsiha:ˀ⌋ ‘stand in a bunch or group’

ojihsǫdáhsi ̱ha:ˀ
o-jihsǫd-á-hsi ̱ha:ˀ
3s.p-star-joinerA-stand.in.group.stat
‘stars showing’ (a group of stars)
cf. ojihsǫ́:da:ˀ
o-jihsǫ́:da:-ˀ
3s.p-star-nsf
‘a cluster of stars, a star’

(16) ⌊+ęhę:⌋ ‘direction of’

a. nigyowáęhę:
ni-g-yo-wá:-ęhę:
part-cis-3s.p-wind-direction.of.stat
‘the direction of the wind’

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 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

cf. ó:wa:ˀ
ó:-wa:-ˀ
3s.p-air-nsf
‘air, wind, a moth’
b. heyohnegę́hę:ˀ
he-yo-hneg-ę́hę:ˀ
transl-3s.p-water-direction.of.stat
‘downstream’
cf. ohnéga̱ˀgeh
o-hnég-a̱ˀgeh
3s.p-water-on
‘on the water’

(17) ⌊+iˀ⌋ ‘be stuck to something’

a. oˀnéhsaiˀ
o-ˀnéhs-a-iˀ
3s.p-sand-joinerA-stuck.to.stat
‘it is sandy’
cf. oˀnéhsaˀ
o-ˀnéhs-aˀ
3s.p-sand-nsf
‘sand’
b. ohéhdaiˀ
o-héhd-a-iˀ
3s.p-earth-joinerA-stuck.to.stat
‘earth is stuck to it’
cf. ohéhdaˀ
o-héhd-aˀ
3s.p-earth-nsf
‘dirt, earth, ground, land’

(18) ⌊+gęhyad⌋ ‘end, edge, top’

a. oihwagę́hya:t
o-ihw-a-gę́hya:t
3s.p-matter-joinerA-edge.of.stat
‘it is almost to the end’
cf. oíhwaˀ
o-íhw-aˀ
3s.p-matter-nsf
‘message’, ‘it matters’, ‘it is its fault’, ‘word, affair, business’

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24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

b. ohnegagę́hya:t
o-hneg-a-gę́hya:t
3s.p-water-joinerA-edge.of.stat
‘just above the water’
cf. ohnéga̱ˀgeh
o-hnég-a̱ˀgeh
3s.p-water-on
‘on the water’

(19) ⌊+o:t⌋ ‘standing objects’, ⌊+od-ǫˀ⌋ ‘several standing objects’

a. degaiˀę́ho:t
de-ga-iˀę́h-o:t
du-3s.a-pile-stand.stat
‘it is piled up’
b. ga̱hsdęhó:dǫˀ
ga̱-hsdęh-ó:d-ǫˀ
3s.a-rock-stand.stat-distr
‘mountains, pile of boulders’

Finally, some positional verbs always take a ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a prefix, regardless of
what type of prefix the non-incorporated noun takes. They are described in the
following section.

24.2.5 ⌊ga-V⌋ neuter stative-only verbs with noun incorporation

Several neuter stative-only verbs that begin with ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a (or ⌊w-⌋ 3s.a, not
shown) tend to keep their original prefix, regardless of the prefix type of the
non-incorporated noun. For example, the verb ganǫ:ˀ in (20) still begins with
⌊ga-⌋ when it incorporates ohwíhsdaˀ, and similarly for the example in (21).

(20) a. ganǫ:ˀ
ga-nǫ:ˀ
3s.a-costly.stat
‘it is expensive, dear, precious’
b. ga̱hwíhsdanǫ:ˀ
ga̱-hwíhsd-a-nǫ:ˀ
3s.a-metal-joinerA-costly.stat
‘gold’, ‘anything expensive’

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 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

cf. ohwíhsdaˀ
o-hwíhsd-aˀ
3s.p-metal-nsf
‘money, metal’

(21) a. gahshá:sdeˀ
ga-hshá:sdeˀ
3s.a-strong.stat
‘it is strong’
b. gawa:shá:sdeˀ
ga-wa:-shá:sdeˀ
3s.a-air-strong.stat
‘strong wind’
cf. ó:wa:ˀ
ó:-wa:-ˀ
3s.p-air-nsf
‘wind, air’

Other examples are shown in (22–24).

(22) a. gagéhǫˀ
ga-géhǫˀ
3s.a-lie.about.stat
‘things are lying about’
b. gawidragéhǫˀ
ga-widr-a-géhǫˀ
3s.a-ice-joinerA-lie.about.stat
‘ice scattered’
cf. owí:draˀ
o-wí:dr-aˀ
3s.p-ice-nsf
‘ice’

(23) a. í:ga:ˀ
í:-ga-:ˀ
part-3s.a-contain.stat
‘it contains’
b. do: niyǫ́: ga̱hna:ˀ
do: niyǫ́: ga̱-hn-a-:ˀ
how a.certain.amount 3s.a-oil-joinerA-contain.stat
‘how much gas is in there’

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24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

cf. ohnaˀ
o-hn-aˀ
3s.p-oil-nsf
‘oil’, ‘grease’

(24) a. ganí:yǫ:t
ga-ní:yǫ:t
3s.a-hang.stat
‘it is hanging’
b. gayęhsraní:yǫ:t
ga-yęhsr-a-ní:yǫ:t
3s.a-blanket-joinerA-hang.stat
‘a hanging blanket’
cf. oyę́hsraˀ
o-yę́hsr-aˀ
3s.p-blanket-nsf
‘a blanket’
c. gayahkwaní:yǫ:t
ga-yahkw-a-ní:yǫ:t
3s.a-pants-joinerA-hang.stat
‘hanging pants’
cf. oyáhkwaˀ
o-yáhkw-aˀ
3s.p-pants-nsf
‘pants’

24.2.6 Neuter stative-only counting verbs, with an incorporated noun

(This topic is also covered in Counting with basic nouns, §31.2.)
Two neuter stative-only verbs are used for counting. The relevant fixed expres-
sions are ⌊s-…+t⌋ ‘one object’, and ⌊de-/ni-…+age:⌋ ‘two or more objects’. These
expressions always incorporate a basic noun.
When they incorporate a noun beginning with ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a, counting verbs tend
to take ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a as well (25).

(25) ⌊s-…+t⌋ ‘one object’, with a-series incorporated noun, resulting word
takes ⌊ga-⌋
sganáˀja:t
s-ga-náˀj-a:-t
rep-3s.a-drum-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one bottle’

530
 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

cf. ganáˀja:t
ga-náˀj-a:-t
3s.a-drum-joinerA-stand.stat
‘a standing bottle’

In contrast, when they incorporate a noun beginning with ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p, the choice
of pronominal prefix can vary: sometimes, such verbs take either ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a or
⌊(y)o-⌋ 3s.p (26–27), while in other cases, such verbs only take ⌊(y)o-⌋ 3s.p (28).

(26) ⌊ni-…age:⌋ ‘a number of objects’, with p-series incorporated noun,

resulting word takes either ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊(y)o-⌋
a. ahsę́h niyohǫnáˀdage:
ahsę́h ni-yo-hǫnáˀd-age:h
three part-3s.p-potato-two.or.more.stat
‘three potatoes’
b. ahsę́h nigahǫnáˀdage:
ahsę́h ni-ga-hǫnáˀd-age:
three part-3s.a-potato-two.or.more.stat
‘three potatoes’
cf. ohǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ
o-hǫ́na̱ˀd-aˀ
3s.p-potato-nsf
‘potatoes’

(27) ⌊s-… -t⌋ ‘one object’, with p-series incorporated noun, resulting word
takes either ⌊ga-⌋ or ⌊(y)o-⌋
a. sgayę́hsra:t,
s-ga-yę́hsr-a:-t
rep-3s.a-blanket-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one blanket’
b. joyę́hsra:t
j-o-yę́hsr-a:-t
rep-3s.p-blanket-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one blanket’
cf. oyę́hsraˀ
o-yę́hsr-aˀ
3s.p-blanket-nsf
‘blanket’

531
24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

c. sgahǫ́na̱ˀda:t
s-ga-hǫ́na̱ˀd-a:-t
rep-3s.a-potato-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one potato’
d. jo̱hǫ́na̱ˀda:t
j-o̱-hǫ́na̱ˀd-a:-t
rep-3s.p-potato-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one potato’
cf. ohǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ
o-hǫ́na̱ˀd-aˀ
3s.p-potato-nsf
‘potato’

(28) ⌊s-… -t⌋ ‘one object’, with p-series incorporated noun, resulting word
takes ⌊(y)o-⌋
joháha:t
j-o-háh-a:-t
rep-3s.p-road-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one road’
cf. oháhaˀ
o-háh-aˀ
3s.p-road-nsf
‘road’

24.2.6.1 Navel, belly button, and bottle

Two easily-confused noun stems ⌊kseˀd⌋ and ⌊(i)tseˀd⌋ appear both in basic noun
and body-part noun forms and in fixed expressions. The resulting meanings are
illustrated in (29) and (30). Note that ⌊(i)tseˀd⌋ ‘bottle’ means ‘navel’ only when
it takes an a-series prefix (30c).

(29) ⌊kseˀd⌋ in nouns and fixed expressions

a. sekséˀda̱ˀgeh
s-e-kséˀd-a̱ˀgeh
2s.a-joinerE-belly-on
‘on your belly’ (body part noun, a prefix)
b. gikséˀdo:t
g-ikséˀd+o:t
1s.a-belly-attached.stat
‘my navel, my belly button’ (fixed expression, a prefix)

532
 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

(30) ⌊(i)tseˀd⌋ in nouns and fixed expressions

a. gętséˀdaˀ, gatséˀdaˀ
ga/gę-tséˀd-aˀ
3s.a-bottle-nsf
‘a bottle’ (basic noun, a prefix)
b. otséˀdo:t
o-tséˀd+o:t
3s.p-bottle-stand.stat
‘hubbard squash’ (fixed expression, p-series prefix)
c. getséˀdo:t
g-e-tséˀd+o:t
1s.a-joinerE-bottle-stand.stat
‘my navel’ (fixed expression, a-series prefix)

24.2.7 Neuter stative-only verbs, incorporating, conveying possession

Neuter stative-only verbs without an incorporated noun normally only take
⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a or ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p, as described earlier. However, in order to convey pos-
session or ownership of an incorporated noun, they will take a full range of
either a- or p-series pronominal prefixes.
The choice of a- or p-series prefix depends on the type of incorporated noun:
these verbs take p-series prefixes when the possessed, incorporated noun is a
basic noun or detachable body part (31–32).

(31) a. niwú:ˀuh
niwú:ˀuh
part-3s.a-small.stat
‘it is small’
b. nihohkyędahkú:ˀuh
ni-ho-hkyędahk-ú:ˀuh
part-3s.m.p-chair-small.stat
‘his small chair’
cf. akyę́da̱hkwaˀ
akyę́da̱hkw-aˀ
ø.prefix.chair-nsf
‘chair’

533
24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

(32) ⌊+es⌋ ‘long’

sanóˀje:s
sa-nóˀj-e:s
1s.p-tooth-long.stat
‘your tooth is long’
cf. onóˀjaˀ
o-nóˀj-aˀ
3s.p-tooth-nsf
‘tooth’

In contrast, they take a-series prefixes when the possessed, incorporated noun
is a non-detachable body part (33–34).

(33) a. niwú:ˀuh
niwú:ˀuh
part-3s.a-small.stat
‘it is small’
b. nihahna̱ˀtsˀú:ˀuh
ni-ha-hna̱ˀts-ú:ˀuh
part-3s.m.a-buttocks-small.stat
‘he has a small butt’
cf. hahnáˀtsa̱ˀgeh
ha-hnáˀts-a̱ˀgeh
3s.m.a-buttocks-on
‘on his buttocks’

(34) ⌊+es⌋ ‘long’

degénętse:s
de-g-é-nęts-e:s
du-1s.a-joinerE-arm-long.stat
‘my arms are long’, ‘I have two long arms’
cf. knętsáˀgeh
k-nęts-áˀgeh
1s.a-arm-on
‘on my arm’

a-series prefixes can also be used when a basic noun functions as a “body
part noun” (35).

534
 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

(35) hahnyǫhsowá:nęh
ha-hnyǫhs-owanęh
3s.m.a-squash-big.stat
‘he has a big head’ (not flattering)
cf. ohnyǫ́hsaˀ
o-hnyǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.p-squash-nsf
‘squash’

Neuter stative-only verbs without an incorporated noun and NV fixed expres-

sions, see §24.2.1

24.2.7.1 Gahnyo:t, gá:yęˀ, incorporating, conveying possession

The following two neuter, stative-only (positional) verbs are commonly used
when expressing ownership. The verb ga̱ hnyo:t ‘it is standing’ tends to be used
for owned objects that are normally attached to something else (such as body
parts, 36), and gá:yęˀ ‘it is lying on the ground’ is used in other cases (37). When
a noun is incorporated, ga̱ hnyo:t has the form ⌊+o:t⌋ and gá:yęˀ has the form
⌊+ęˀ⌋.

(36) a. ga̱hnyo:t
ga̱-hnyyo:t
3s.a-stick-stand.stat
‘it is standing’
b. snętso:t
s-nęts-o:t
2s.a-arm-stand.stat
‘you have an (attached) arm’
cf. snętsáˀgeh
s-nęts-áˀgeh
2s.a-arm-on
‘on your arm’

(37) a. gá:yęˀ
gá:-yęˀ
3s.a-lie.on.ground.stat
‘it is lying on the ground’

535
24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

b. hoˀdréhdaęˀ
ho-ˀdréhd-a-ęˀ
3s.m.p-car-joinerA-lie.stat
‘he has a car, his car’
c. hó:yęˀ
hó:-yęˀ
3s.m.p-lie.stat
‘he has, owns it’
cf. ga̱ˀdréhdaˀ
ga̱-ˀdréhd-aˀ
3s.a-car-nsf
‘car’

The verb ⌊+o:t⌋ takes a p-series prefix when denoting possession of either an
incorporated basic noun or a ‘detachable’ body part (38). In contrast, it can take
either an a- or p-series prefix with body part nouns that are not normally ‘de-
tachable’, at least for some nouns, (39a, b). The difference in meaning conveyed
by the pronominal prefix choice in this case is unclear.

(38) ⌊p-basic.noun+o:t⌋ ‘to have a basic noun’

agége̱ˀo:t
ag-é-ge̱ˀ-o:t
1s.p-joinerE-hair-stand.stat
‘I have hair’
cf. ogéˀa:ˀ ‘hair’,
o-géˀa:-ˀ
3s.p-hair-nsf
‘a rag’

(39) ⌊a/p-body.part.noun+o:t⌋ ‘have a body part noun’

a. sanę́:tso:t, snę́:tso:t
sa-/s-nę́:ts-o:t
1s.p/2s.a-arm-stand.stat
‘you have an arm’, ‘your attached arm’
cf. snętsáˀgeh
s-nęts-áˀgeh
2s.a-arm-on
‘on your arm’

536
 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

b. enǫ́ˀgo:t
e-nǫ́ˀg-o:t
3s.fi.a-breast-stand.stat
‘her (attached) breast’
cf. enǫ́ˀgwa̱ˀgeh
e-nǫ́ˀgw-a̱ˀgeh
3s.fi.a-breast-on
‘on her breast’
c. knoˀjo:t
k-noˀj-o:t
1s.a-tooth-stand.stat
‘I have teeth’
cf. kno̱ˀjáˀgeh
k-no̱ˀj-áˀgeh
1s.a-tooth-on
‘on my teeth’

The verb ⌊+ęˀ⌋ takes a p-series prefix to convey ownership of an incorporated

basic noun (40). In contrast, it takes either an a- or p-series prefix when the
incorporated noun is a non-detachable body part noun (41). The difference in
meaning conveyed by the pronominal prefix choices is unclear.
(40) ⌊p-basic.noun+ęˀ⌋ ‘have a basic noun’
honáhsgwaęˀ
ho-náhsgw-a-ęˀ
3s.m.p-domestic.animal-joinerA-lie.stat
‘he has a pet’
cf. ganáhsgwaˀ
ga-náhsgw-aˀ
3s.a-domestic.animal-nsf
‘pet’, ‘domestic animal’

(41) ⌊a/p-body.part.noun+ęˀ⌋ ‘have a body part noun’

a. ganóˀjaęˀ
ga-nóˀj-a-ęˀ
3s.a-teeth-joinerA-lie.stat
‘it has teeth’
b. sagǫ́hsaęˀ
sa-gǫ́hs-a-ęˀ
1s.p-face-joinerA-lie.stat
‘you have a face’

537
24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

Both ⌊+ęˀ⌋ and ⌊+o:t⌋ also have plural forms which denote the existence or
ownership of more than one object. The obligatorily-incorporating plural form
of ⌊+ęˀ⌋ is ⌊+ędǫˀ⌋ or ⌊+ędǫnyǫˀ⌋ (43), and the obligatorily-incorporating plural
form of ⌊+o:t⌋ is ⌊+o:dǫˀ⌋ or ⌊+odǫnyǫˀ⌋ (42). Pronominal prefix selection is the
same as for the singular verb forms.

(42) ⌊p-basic.noun+o:dǫˀ⌋ ‘have basic nouns’, ⌊a-body.part.noun-o:dǫˀ⌋

‘have body part nouns’
a. aknǫhsó:dǫˀ
ak-nǫhs-ó:d-ǫˀ
1s.p-house-stand.stat-distr
‘I have several houses’, ‘I have put up several houses’
b. ehyagwiyó:dǫˀ
e-hyagwiy-ó:d-ǫˀ
3s.fi.a-toe-stand.stat-distr
‘she has toes’, ‘her toes’

(43) ⌊p-basic.noun+ędǫˀ⌋ ‘have basic nouns’

godinǫhsáędǫˀ
godi-nǫhs-á-ę-d-ǫˀ
3s.fi.p-house-joinerA-lie.stat-euph.d-distr
‘they (females or mixed) have several houses’
cf. ganǫ́hsaˀ
ga-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.a-house-nsf
‘house’

24.2.8 Neuter, stative-only verbs (fixed expressions)

The main point in this section is that for fixed NV expressions, pronominal prefix
choice is memorized, while for transparent (N)-V expressions, pronominal prefix
choice is determined by the incorporated noun.
Fixed expressions include ⌊NV⌋ combinations whose meaning cannot be pre-
dicted from the separate meanings of the noun and verb stems. For fixed ex-
pressions, the pronominal prefix type has to be memorized, just as with non-
incorporating stative-only verbs. To illustrate this point, let us compare regular,
transparent ⌊N+V⌋ combinations with fixed ⌊NV⌋ expressions.
First, recall that the transparent expression ga̱ he:ˀ normally takes the same
type of prefix as its incorporated noun (44).

538
 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice

(44) a. ga̱he:ˀ
ga̱-he:ˀ
3s.a-sit.up.on.top. stat
‘it is sitting up on top of something’, ‘it is sitting here’
b. ganáˀja̱he:ˀ
ga-náˀj-a̱-he:ˀ
3s.a-pail-joinerA-sit.up.on.top. stat
‘pail setting on something’
cf. ganáˀjaˀ
ga-náˀj-aˀ
3s.a-pail-noun.stem.former
‘pail’
c. ohsgę́ˀdra̱he:ˀ
o-hsgę́ˀdr-a̱-he:ˀ
3s.p-rust-joinerA-sit.up.on.top. stat
‘it is rusting, rusty’
cf. ohsgę́ˀdraˀ
o-hsgę́ˀdr-aˀ
3s.p-rust-nsf
‘rust’

However, (45a) is an apparent counterexample – the verb’s pronominal prefix

is different from the incorporated noun’s. Meanwhile, (45b) appears to be a reg-
ular case – the verb’s pronominal prefix is the same as the incorporated noun’s.

(45) a. onakda̱he:ˀ ‘a loft’

cf. ganá:kdaˀ ‘a bed’
b. ganakda̱he:ˀ ‘a bed is up here’ (Kehte Deer, p.c.)

The difference between (45a) and (45b) is that (45a) is a fixed expression, while,
in contrast, (45b) has a transparent meaning that is predictable from the meaning
of the noun and verb stems.
Similarly, example (46a) illustrates an incorporating verb whose choice of pronom-
inal prefix is predictable – the verb takes ⌊ga-⌋ regardless of the prefix type of
the incorporated noun (46b,c). In contrast, when the same verb is part of a fixed
expression (47), the choice of pronominal prefix is not predictable. (The NV ex-
pression in (47) has no pronominal prefix, like the noun it incorporates.)

539
24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs

(46) a. ganí:yǫ:t
ga-ní:yǫ:t
3s.a-hang.stat
‘it is hanging’
b. gayęhsraní:yǫ:t
ga-yęhsr-a-ní:yǫ:t
3s.a-blanket-joinerA-hang. stat
‘a hanging blanket’
cf. oyę́hsraˀ
o-yę́hsr-aˀ
3s.p-blanket-nsf
‘a blanket’
c. gayahkwaní:yǫ:t
ga-yahkw-a-ní:yǫ:t
3s.a-pants-joinerA-hang. stat
‘hanging pants’
cf. oyáhkwaˀ
o-yáhkw-aˀ
3s.p-pants-nsf
‘pants’

(47) adęhęní:yǫ:t
adęhę-ní:yǫ:t
ø.prefix.gate-hang. stat
‘gate’
cf. adę́hęˀ
adę́hę-ˀ
ø.prefix.gate-nsf
‘a fence’

Examples (45)-(47) illustrate a hallmark of lexicalization (the change from a

transparent to a fixed meaning): pronominal prefix choice is no longer predictable.

540
25 Pronominal prefix choice for
three-aspect verbs
Three-aspect verbs occur in the habitual, punctual, and stative aspects. They
tend to describe a happening or event. There are three types of such verbs. (For
role, see §20.6.)

• one-role verbs, taking non-interactive prefixes (either the a- or p-series);

• two-role verbs, taking interactive prefixes, as well as a- or p-series, used

in an interactive sense, with implied ‘it’;

• three-role verbs, which take interactive prefixes, as well as a- or p-series,

used in an interactive sense, with implied ‘it’.

As shown in Table 25.1 (page 542), aspect is the main factor influencing pronom-
inal prefix choice for three-aspect verbs.

25.1 Pronominal prefix choice for one-role, three-aspect

verbs
As shown in Table 25.1 (following page), there are two types of one-role, three-
aspect verb: the first type takes a-series prefixes in the habitual or punctual, but
switches to the p-series in the stative aspect. The second type takes the p-series
prefixes in all three aspects.

25.1.1 One-role, three-aspect verbs, a-series prefixes in the habitual

and punctual, p prefixes in the stative
Type 1 one-role, three-aspect verbs (see Table 25.1, following page) take an a-
series prefix in the habitual or punctual (1a, b), (2a, b), but change to a p-series
prefix in the stative (1c), (2c). Many of these verbs describe activities or actions.
The examples in (2) also show that noun incorporation is irrelevant to pronomi-
nal prefix choice for such verbs.
25 Pronominal prefix choice for three-aspect verbs

Table 25.1: Pronominal prefix selection, three-aspect verbs

three-aspect V subclass prefix choice roles

one-role type 1 ⌊a-V⌋ hab, punc •typically, a
⌊p-V⌋ stat “doer”/agent role

one-role type 2 ⌊p-V⌋ hab, punc, stat •typically, an

experiencer or
undergoer role

two-role type 1 ⌊int-V⌋ hab, punc, •int-prefixes express

stat “doer”/agent and
⌊a:(it-obj)-V⌋ hab, experiencer or
punc undergoer roles.
⌊p:(it-obj)-V⌋ stat or •p-prefixes in the stat
⌊(it-animal):p-V⌋ stat are ambiguous: an
implied ‘it-animal’ is
either the “doer”/agent
or the experiencer or
undergoer

two-role type 2 ⌊p:(it-obj)-V⌋ in the •p-prefixes only; prefix

hab, punc, and stat often expresses an
experiencer or
undergoer role. The
second role is always
an implied ‘it’ – often
the percept

three-role Like type 1 two-role Like type 1 two-role

verbs verbs.

542
 25.1 Pronominal prefix choice for one-role, three-aspect verbs

(1) ⌊du-pronominal prefix-verb-aspect⌋

a. degaǫwę́hda:s
de-gaǫ-wę́hda:d-s
du-3ns.fi.a-run-hab
‘they run’
b. da:gáǫwę̱ hda:t
d-a:-gáǫ-wę̱ hda:t
du-indef-3ns.fi.a-run.ø.punc
‘they might run’
c. dewagę̱ hdá:dǫh
de-wag-ę̱ hdá:d-ǫh
du-1s.p-run-stat
‘I have run’
(2) ⌊du-pronominal prefix-incorporated noun-verb-aspect⌋
a. de̱haihwágenhahs
de̱-ha-ihw-á-genh-a-hs
du-3s.m.a-matter-joinerA-advocate-joinerA-hab
‘he is a lawyer’
b. dęhsrihwagé:nhaˀ
d-ę-hs-rihw-a-gé:nh-a-ˀ
du-fut-2s.a-matter-joinerA-advocate-joinerA-punc
‘you will argue, debate, protest’
c. deyagodihwágenhęh
de-yagodi-ihw-á-genh-ęh
du-3ns.fi.p-matter-joinerA-advocate-stat
‘they are arguing’

25.1.2 One-role, three-aspect verbs that always take p-series prefixes

Type 2 one-role, three-aspect verbs (see Table 25.1, page 542) take a p-series prefix
in all three aspects. Many of these verbs describe actions that happen to someone
rather than being caused by someone. However, there are obvious exceptions,
including the verb in (6).
(3) a. i:sóˀ agida̱hsgęhę́:ˀ gę:s
i:sóˀ ag-ida̱-hs-gęhę́: gę:sˀ
a.lot 1s.p-sleep-hab-past usually
‘I used to sleep a lot’

543
25 Pronominal prefix choice for three-aspect verbs

b. ęwa:gí:daˀ
ę-wa:g-í:da-ˀ
fut-1s.p-sleep-punc
‘I will sleep’
c. ǫgí:daˀ
ǫg-í:da-ˀ
factual.1s.p-sleep-punc
‘I slept’, ‘I’m sleeping’
d. agída̱ˀǫh
ag-ída̱ˀ-ǫh
1s.p-sleep-stat
‘I am sleeping’

(4) a. hoyǫ́:dih
ho-yǫ́:di-h
3s.m.p-smile-hab
‘he is smiling’
b. aho:yǫ́:diˀ
a-ho:-yǫ́:di-ˀ
fac-3s.m.p-smile-punc
‘he smiled’

(5) a. agénya̱ˀgwahs
ag-é-nya̱ˀgw-a-hs
1s.p-joinerE-vomit-joinerA-hab
‘I vomit all the time’
b. ǫgénya̱ˀgoˀ
ǫg-é-nya̱ˀgo-ˀ
factual.1s.p-joinerE-vomit-punc
‘I vomited’
c. agenya̱ˀgwáhǫh
ag-e-nya̱ˀgw-á-h-ǫh
1s.p-joinerE-vomit-joinerA-disl-stat
‘I am vomiting’ (right now)

544
 25.2 Pronominal prefix choice for two- and three-role, three-aspect verbs

(6) a. de̱hóhetaˀ
de̱-hó-het-haˀ
du-3s.m.p-yell-hab
‘he is hollering’
b. atóhe:t
a-t-hó-he:t
fac-du-3s.m.p-yell.ø.punc
‘he hollered or yelled’

25.2 Pronominal prefix choice for two- and three-role,

three-aspect verbs
As summarized in (see Table 25.1, page 542), there are two types of two-role,
three-aspect verb, both of which are described below. (Three-role, three-aspect
verbs also pattern the same way and so are described below.)

25.2.1 Two- and three-role verbs, pronominal prefix choice

Recall that two- and three-role verbs take interactive prefixes, but also use non-
interactive (a- or p-series) prefixes in an interactive sense, with an implied ‘it’
role (see §20.7.)
When such verbs take an interactive prefix, the pronominal prefix does not
change with aspect: for example, ⌊shǫgwa-⌋ 3s.m>1p remains the same in the
punctual and stative examples in (7).

(7) a. ęhshǫ:gwá:yǫˀ
ę-hshǫ:gwá:y-ǫ-ˀ
fut-3ms:1p-give-punc
‘he will give (it) to us all’
b. shǫgwá:wi:
shǫgw-á:wi-:
3ms:1p-give-stat
‘he has given (it) to us all’

When two- and three-role verbs use a non-interactive prefix in an interactive

545
25 Pronominal prefix choice for three-aspect verbs

sense, the interpretation of the implied ‘it’ depends on aspect.1 First, in the habit-
ual and punctual, an a-series prefix overtly expresses a “doer”, ‘I’, and also implies
a non-“doer”-it (animal) (8a). In contrast, a p-series prefix used in an interactive
sense implies a “doer”-it (animal) and overtly expresses a non-“doer” role, ‘me’
(8b).

(8) a. ę́:gǫˀ
ę-g-ǫ-ˀ
fut-1s.a-give-punc
‘I (doer) will give it to it (non-doer, animal)’
b. ęwá:gǫˀ ‘it (doer, animal) will give (it) to me (non-doer)’, ‘I will be
given’,
ę-wá:g-ǫ-ˀ
fut-1s.p-give-punc
‘something will be given to me’

However, in the stative aspect, p-series prefixes used in an interactive sense

are ambiguous: the implied role can refer to a “doer” (animal) or a non-“doer”
(animal) role (9).2

1
The examples in (i) demonstrate that incorporated nouns are irrelevant to pronominal prefix
choice for this type of verb. The only factor affecting pronominal prefix choice is aspect.

(i) ⌊pronominal prefix-incorporated noun-verb-aspect⌋

a. hehaihwę́hęhs ‘he always takes the message’,
he-ha-ihw-ę́hę-hs
transl-3s.m.a-matter-convey-hab
‘he is a messenger’
b. hęhaihwę́hę:ˀ
h-ę-ha-ihw-ę́hę-:ˀ
transl-fut-3s.m.a-matter-convey-punc
‘he will take the message’
c. hehoihwę́hę:
he-ho-ihw-ę́hę-:
transl-3s.m.p-matter-convey-stat
‘he has taken a message’

2
With only one example to bear it out, the analysis in (9) is tentative.

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 25.2 Pronominal prefix choice for two- and three-role, three-aspect verbs

(9) hewagi ̱hnǫ́:gǫh

he-wag-i ̱hnǫ́g-ǫh
transl-1s.p-call-stat
‘I have called it (non-doer, animal), ‘it (doer, animal) has called me
(non-doer)’

25.2.2 Two-role verbs that always take p-series prefixes

Type 2 two-role verbs (see Table 25.1, page 542) take a p-series pronominal prefix
in all three aspects (10–13). Unlike other two-role verbs, these verbs do not take
interactive prefixes at all, but only p-series prefixes (with an implied ‘it’ for the
second role). Many of these verbs describe activities that happen to someone
rather than being caused by someone. However, there are exceptions, such as
the verb in (13).

(10) a. agé:gaˀs
ag-é:-gaˀ-s
1s.p-joinerE-like.the.taste.of-hab
‘I like the taste (of it)’
b. ęwa:gé:gaˀ
ę-wa:g-é:-gaˀ
fut-1s.p-joinerE-like.the.taste.of.ø.punc
‘I will like the taste’
c. ǫge:gáˀ giˀ
ǫg-e:-gáˀ giˀ
1s.p-joinerE-like.the.taste.of.stat just
‘I did like (it)!’ (said when you just finished tasting something)

(11) a. agé:swahs
ag-é:-sw-a-hs
1s.p-joinerE-smell-joinerA-hab
‘I smell (it) right now’
b. ęwágeshoˀ
ę-wág-e-sho-ˀ
fut-1s.p-joinerE-smell-punc
‘I’ll smell (it)’

547
25 Pronominal prefix choice for three-aspect verbs

c. ǫgé:shoˀ
ǫg-é:-sho-ˀ
fac.1s.p-joinerE-smell-punc
‘I did smell (it)’

(12) a. aga:tǫ́:dęhs
ag-a:tǫ́:dęh-s
1s.p-hear-hab
‘I hear (it) all the time’ (continually or off-and-on, i.e. the sound of a
regular train going by one’s house)
b. ǫga:tǫ́:dęh
ǫg-a:tǫ́:dęh
1s.p-hear.ø.punc
‘I heard (it)’
c. agatǫdę́ˀǫh
ag-atǫdę́ˀ-ǫh
1s.p-hear-stat
‘I’ve heard (it) before’

(13) a. hehó:gyeˀs
he-hó:-gy-eˀs
transl-3s.m.p-throw-hab
‘he throws (it)’ (all the time), ‘he is a pitcher’
b. haˀhó:diˀ
haˀ-hó:-di-ˀ
transl-3s.m.p-throw-punc
‘he threw (it)’
c. hehó:gyǫ:
he-hó:-gy-ǫ:
transl-3s.m.p-throw-stat
‘he has thrown (it)’

25.3 Pronominal prefix choice and variations on aspectual

forms
Many two- and three-role verbs take variations of the habitual and stative aspect
(see §15.6). For such verbs, pronominal prefix choice is the same as for the regular

548
 25.3 Pronominal prefix choice and variations on aspectual forms

verb. For example, the habitual past variant in (14a) takes the same kind of p
prefix as the plain habitual in (14b). More examples are provided in the following
sections.

(14) a. ageswa̱hsgę́hę:ˀ
ag-e-sw-a̱-hs-gę́hę:ˀ
1s.p-joinerE-smell-joinerA-hab-past
‘I used to be able to smell’ (but my nose quit working)
b. agé:swahs
ag-é:-sw-a-hs
1s.p-joinerE-smell-joinerA-hab
‘I smell it’ (at the time when this is being said)

25.3.1 Pronominal prefix choice for variations on the habitual aspect

For variations of habitual aspect verbs (§15.6.1), the pronominal prefix is always
of the same type as the original habitual verb.

(15) a-series habituals

a. hadó:wa:s
h-adó:wa:d-s
3s.m.a-hunt-hab
‘he is a hunter’
cf. hadowasgę́hę:ˀ
h-adowad-s-gę́hę:ˀ
3s.m.a-hunt-hab-past
‘he used to be a hunter’
cf. hadówa̱hstahk
h-adówa̱hst-ha-hk
3s.m.a-hunt-hab-former
‘he used to be a hunter (long ago)’
b. hahdo:s
h-ahdo:-s
3s.m.a-dive-hab
‘he dives, he is a diver’
cf. hahdóhsgę̱ hę:ˀ
h-ahdó-hs-gę̱ hę:ˀ
3s.m.a-dive-hab-past
‘he used to dive’

549
25 Pronominal prefix choice for three-aspect verbs

(16) p-series habituals

a. agé:swahs
ag-é:-sw-a-hs
1s.p-joinerE-smell-joinerA-hab
‘I smell it’ (at the time when this is being said)
cf. ageswa̱hsgę́hę:ˀ
ag-e-sw-a̱-hs-gę́hę:ˀ
1s.p-joinerE-smell-joinerA-hab-past
‘I used to be able to smell’ (but my nose quit working)
b. go̱hsóˀkaˀ
go̱-hsóˀk-haˀ
3s.fi.p-limp-hab
‘she is limping’
cf. go̱hsóˀkahk
go̱-hsóˀk-ha-hk
3s.fi.p-limp-hab-former
‘she used to limp’
cf. ęhsáhso̱ˀka:k
ę-hs-áhso̱ˀk-ha-:k
fut-2s.p-limp-hab-modz
‘you will limp’
c. agé:gaˀs
ag-é:-gaˀ-s
1s.p-joinerE-like.the.taste.of-hab
‘I like the taste of it’
cf. agega̱ˀsgę́hę:ˀ
ag-e-ga̱ˀ-s-gę́hę:ˀ
1s.p-joinerE-like.the.taste.of-hab-past
‘I used to like the taste of it’ (but I don’t anymore)

25.3.2 Pronominal prefix choice for variations on the stative aspect

For variations of stative aspect verbs (§15.6.2.1), the pronominal prefix is always
the same as the regular stative verb.

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 25.3 Pronominal prefix choice and variations on aspectual forms

(17) p-series statives

a. saníˀǫh
sa-níˀ-ǫh
2s.p-cheap-stat
‘you are stingy, greedy, cheap’
cf. saníˀǫhne:ˀ
sa-níˀ-ǫh-ne:ˀ
2s.p-cheap-stat-past
‘you used to be stingy’
b. deyagodáwęnyeˀ
de-yago-d-áwęnye-ˀ
du-3s.fi.p-srf-stir-stat
‘she is walking about’
cf. dęyagodawęnyéha:k
d-ę-yago-d-awęnyé-h-a-:k
du-fut-3s.fi.p-srf-stir-euph.h-joinerA-modz
‘she will be walking about’

(18) a-series statives

a. hahę́:dǫ:
ha-hę́:d-ǫ:
3s.m.a-lead-stat
‘he is the front, leader’
cf. hahę́dǫ̱hne:ˀ
ha-hę́d-ǫ̱h-ne:ˀ
3s.m.a-lead-stat-past
‘he used to be a leader’
b. degágwatwęh
de-gá-gwatw-ęh
du-3s.a-hem-stat
‘a hem’
cf. dęgagwatwę́hę:k
dę-ga-gwatw-ę́h-ę-:k
fut-3s.a-hem-stat-joinerA-modz
‘it will be hemmed’

551
26 e-verbs and pronominal prefix
choice
e-verbs are verbs with two stems, one of which is ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ (see §16). Pronominal
prefix choice for e-verbs is summarized in Table 26.1
Table 26.1: Pronominal prefix selection, e-verbs

e-verb type prefix choice

simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ ⌊a-V⌋ only (also, no stative form)

complex motion verbs ⌊V-e⌋ ⌊a-V⌋

⌊p-V⌋

dislocative e-verbs ⌊a-V⌋

⌊V-dislocative-e⌋ ⌊p-V⌋

progressive verbs ⌊V-gy-eˀ⌋ ⌊a-V⌋

⌊p-V⌋

stative progressive verbs ⌊p-V⌋ only (like the stative verbs they
⌊V-ǫ-h-ǫ-gy-eˀ⌋ are based on)

26.1 Simple and complex motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ prefix choice
The simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ (§16.2) always takes a-series prefixes (1).
(1) simple motion verb ⌊e⌋ ‘go’
a. itgeˀs
i-t-g-e-ˀs
proth-cis-1s.a-go-hab
‘I am here’
26 e-verbs and pronominal prefix choice

b. haˀgeˀ
haˀ-g-e-ˀ
transl.fac-1s.a-go-punc
‘I am going there’
c. haˀge:ˀ
haˀ-g-e-:-ˀ
transl.fac-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I went there’
d. í:geˀ
í:-g-e-ˀ
proth-1s.a-go-stat
‘I am walking, moving’
e. to há:ge:
to h-á:-g-e-:
there transl-indef-1s.a-go-purp.no_aspect
‘where I might go’

complex motion verbs (§16.3) take either a- or p-series prefixes. The choice
must be memorized for each verb (2).

(2) complex motion verbs

a. ge̱hsreˀ
g-e̱-hsr-e-ˀ
1s.a-joinerE-chase-go-stat
‘I am chasing it’
b. agéˀdreˀ
ag-é-ˀdr-e-ˀ
1s.p-joinerE-drag-go-stat
‘I am riding along’

26.2 Dislocative e-verb prefix choice

dislocative e-verbs (§16.4) take the same kind of pronominal prefix as the reg-
ular verbs on which they are based: (3) illustrates a dislocative e-verb and the
corresponding regular verb, both taking a-series prefixes in the habitual. Ex-
ample (4) illustrates a dislocative e-verb and a corresponding regular verb,
both taking p-series prefixes in the habitual.

554
 26.3 Progressive verb prefix choice

(3) dislocative e-verbs and regular verbs, a-series

dehęnatkwáhneˀ
de-hęn-at-kw-á-hn-e-ˀ
du-3ns.m.a-srf-dance-joinerA-disl-go-stat
‘they are going to dance’
cf. de̱hę́natkwaˀ
de̱-hę́n-at-kw-haˀ
du-3ns.m.a-srf-dance-hab
‘they dance’ (all the time)

(4) dislocative e-verbs and regular verbs, p-series

de̱hohedáhneˀ
de̱-ho-hed-á-hn-e-ˀ
du-3s.m.p-yell-joinerA-disl-go-stat
‘he is going along hollering’
cf. de̱hóhetaˀ
de̱-hó-het-haˀ
du-3s.m.p-yell-hab
‘he is hollering’

26.3 Progressive verb prefix choice

progressive verbs take the same type of prefix as the non-progressive verb on
which they are based. Recall that there are two types of progressive verb (§16.5).
The first type of progressive is formed by adding ⌊-gy-eˀ⌋ to a verb stem. These
verbs take the same types of pronominal prefixes as the non-progressive verbs
on which they are based (5–7)

(5) ⌊int-V-agy-eˀ⌋ progressive verb, based on ⌊int-V⌋

hǫwahnǫdrá:gyeˀ
hǫwa-hnǫdr-á:-gy-e-ˀ
3ms/3fis:3ms-follow-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘someone is following him along’
cf. hǫwáhnǫdreˀ
hǫwá-hnǫdr-e-ˀ
3ms/3fis:3ms-follow-go-stat
‘someone is following him’

555
26 e-verbs and pronominal prefix choice

(6) ⌊a-V-agy-eˀ⌋ progressive verb, based on ⌊a-V⌋

gayę́twagyeˀ
ga-yę́tw-a-gy-e-ˀ
3s.a-plant-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘it is planted along’
cf. gayę́:twęh
ga-yę́:tw-ęh
3s.a-plant-stat1
‘it is planted’

(7) ⌊p-V-agy-eˀ⌋ progressive verb, based on ⌊p-V⌋

ohsáwagyeˀ
o-hsáw-a-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-begin-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘it is beginning’
cf. tohsa:ˀ
t-ho-hsa:-ˀ
cis-3s.m.p-begin-stat
‘he has begun’

The second type of progressive verb is formed by adding ⌊-ǫgy-eˀ⌋ or ⌊-ęgy-

eˀ⌋ to a stative verb. These stative progressives always take p-series prefixes,
because they are based on the stative forms of three-aspect verbs, which take
p-series prefixes in the stative (8).

(8) ⌊p-V-ǫ-h-ǫgy-eˀ⌋ or ⌊p-V-ę-h-ęgy-eˀ⌋ stative progressive verbs

a. sa̱hohdęhgyǫ́hǫgyeˀ
sa̱-ho-hdęhgy-ǫ́-h-ǫ-gy-e-ˀ
rep-3s.m.p-leave-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘he is on his way home’
cf. hesáhdęgyǫ:
he-sá-hdęgy-ǫ:
transl-2s.p-leave-stat
‘you went over there’
b. otsihsˀǫ̱hǫ́:gyeˀ
o-tsihsˀ-ǫ̱-h-ǫ́:-gy-e-ˀ
3s.p-mature-stat-euph.h-joiner-prog-go-stat
‘it is getting mature’

1
This is a special type of stative verb requiring an a-series prefix. See §5.5.

556
 26.3 Progressive verb prefix choice

cf. otsíhsˀǫh
o-tsíhsˀ-ǫh
3s.p-mature-stat
‘it is done for the season’, ‘it has gone full cycle’, ‘it is mature’, ‘they (plants)
have finished out’

557
 Part V

Sentences
This part of the grammar describes sentence formation. The first chapter, Simple
Sentences, describes sentences consisting of a single clause, including commands,
various types of questions, and sentences joined with the linking verbs né:ˀ ‘it is’
or de̱ˀgę: ‘it is not’. (See §36.9 for definitions of clauses, etc.) The second chapter
on Sentences with side-by-side clauses describes sentences made up of clauses
that are joined without linking words (particles). The chapter on Clauses with
linking words describes clauses beginning with particles or particle groups such
as sǫ: nˀaht ‘who’ or dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’. The chapter on Clauses with conjunctions
describes clauses (and smaller phrases) connected by words such as hniˀ ‘and’,
hne:ˀ ‘but, in fact’, and the like. The last chapter in this part of the grammar
describes phrases used for Comparisons, counting, and measuring.
27 Simple sentences
Various types of simple sentence (which contain just one independent clause) are
described in this chapter. For background concepts, see the following sections.

Related
⇒ Utterances, clauses, phrases, and sentences, §36.9
⇒ Simple and complex sentences, clause types, §36.9.1
⇒ Independent and dependent clauses, relative clauses, §36.9.2

27.1 Commands (imperatives) and suggestions

Commands (imperatives) and suggestions are used for asking someone to do (or
not do) something. Several types are described next.

27.1.1 2nd person (‘you’) commands

2nd person commands begin with a 2nd person (‘you’) pronominal prefix. They
do not have an aspect suffix (1) – they are no-aspect verbs – and most do not
have a mood prefix (but see below). (For no-aspect, see §9.3.3 and for euphonic
H (euph.h), see §19.5.5).1

(1) ⌊2nd person prefix-verb-no_aspect⌋

a. sejá:gǫh
s-e-já:gǫ-h
2s.a-joinerE-persevere-euph.h/no_aspect
‘persevere!’, ‘keep it up!’ (a word of encouragement)

1
In translations, an exclamation point ‘!’ denotes that the verb in question is a command. Also
in translations, “you” is in parentheses because the “you” concept is specifically expressed in
the Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ prefix but is typically not expressed in English commands.
27 Simple sentences

cf. ęhse:já:gǫ:ˀ
ę-hs-e:-já:gǫ-:ˀ
fut-2s.a-joinerE-persevere-punc
‘you will persevere’
b. dehsáhsawęh
de-hs-áhsawę-h
cis-2s.a-start-euph.h
‘(you) start!’
cf. ętsáhsawęˀ
ę-t-s-áhsawę-ˀ
fut-cis-2s.a-begin-punc
‘you will begin’

2nd person commands can also begin with interactive pronominal prefixes, as
long as the prefix in question references a 2nd person ‘you’ (2).

(2) ⌊interactive-verb-no_aspect⌋
a. sheyénawaˀs
she-yénawaˀs
2s:3fis-help.no_aspect
‘(you) help her!’
b. hehsyénawaˀs
hehs-yénawaˀs
2s:3ms-help.no_aspect
‘(you) help him!’

A third type of 2nd person command takes an ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefix, but again has
no aspect suffix (3).

(3) ⌊indefinite-2nd person prefix-verb-no_aspect⌋

dǫdasa̱hsá:węh
dǫda-s-a̱hsá:wę-h
du.indef.cis-2s.a-start-euph.h/no_aspect
‘you should start again!’

As noted earlier, 2nd person commands often lack an aspect suffix. Such verbs
end with euphonic H if they would otherwise end with a short vowel (4).

562
 27.1 Commands (imperatives) and suggestions

(4) ⌊2nd person prefix-verb-euph.h/no_aspect⌋

a. sadeˀnyę́:dęh
s-ade-ˀnyę́:dę-h
2s.a-srf-try-euph.h/no_aspect
‘try it!’
cf. ęhsade̱ˀnyę́:dęˀ
ę-hs-ade̱-ˀnyę́:dę-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-try-punc
‘you will try it’
b. Gǫdagyéˀ desahdę́:dih.
gǫdagyéˀ de-s-ahdę́:di-h
right.away du-2s.a-leave-euph.h/no_aspect
‘Leave right away!’
cf. ęsahdę́:diˀ
ę-s-ahdę́:di-ˀ
fut-2s.a-leave-punc
‘you will leave’

However, euphonic H does not appear in words ending with a long vowel (5)
or a consonant (6).

(5) ⌊2nd person prefix-verb-no_aspect⌋

sadahǫ́:dǫ:
s-ad-ahǫ́:dǫ:
2s.a-srf-ask.no_aspect
‘ask!’
cf. ęsada̱hǫ́:dǫ:ˀ
ę-s-ad-a̱hǫ́:dǫ:-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-ask-punc
‘you will ask’

(6) ⌊2nd person prefix-verb-no_aspect⌋

segá:nę:t
s-e-gá:nę:t
2s.a-joinerE-lick.no_aspect
‘lick it!’
cf. ęhséganę:t
ę-hs-é-ganę:t
fut-2s.a-joinerE-lick.ø.punc
‘you will lick it’

563
27 Simple sentences

27.1.2 1st person (‘let me’ or ‘let us’) commands (suggestions)

1st person (‘let me’ or ‘let us’) commands take 1st person pronominal prefixes.
They do not have a mood prefix or an aspect suffix. They sound more like sug-
gestions (7).

(7) ⌊1st person prefix-verb-no_aspect⌋

a. hé:ge:
hé:-g-e-:
transl-1s.a-go-purp.no_aspect
‘let me go there’
b. deyǫkni ̱ˀdráihęh
de-yǫkni ̱-ˀdráihę-h
du-1d.p-hurry-euph.h/no_aspect
‘let us two hurry’
c. deyǫgwa̱ˀdráihęh
de-yǫgwa̱-ˀdráihę-h
du-1p.p-hurry-euph.h/no_aspect
‘let us all hurry’

1st person (‘let me’ or ‘let us’) commands can also take interactive pronominal
prefixes, as long as the prefix references a 1st person ‘I’ or ‘we’ (8).

(8) ⌊interactive-verb-no_aspect⌋
a. etiyená:waˀs
eti-yená:waˀs
1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns-help.no_aspect
‘let us all help her/them’
b. dedwadagyénawaˀs
de-dw-adag-yénawaˀs
du-1inp.a-refl-help.no_aspect
‘let us all help one another’

1st person commands do not have an aspect suffix. However, some 1st person
imperatives can end with euphonic H (9).

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 27.1 Commands (imperatives) and suggestions

(9) ⌊1st person prefix-verb-euph.h/no_aspect⌋

ó: gadeˀyę́:dęh
ó: g-ad-e-ˀnyę́:dę-h
oh 1s.a-srf-joinerE-try-euph.h/no_aspect
‘Oh, let me try!’
cf. a:gadeˀnyę́:dęˀ
a:-g-ad-e-ˀnyę́:dę-ˀ
indef-1s.a-srf-joinerE-try-punc
‘I might try or attempt it’

However, euphonic H does not appear in words ending with a long vowel (10)
or a consonant (11)2 . Such verbs just lack a final ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc ending.
(10) ⌊1st person prefix-verb-no_aspect⌋
a. dedwayenáwa̱ˀkǫ:
de-dwa-yenáwa̱ˀkǫ:
du-1inp.a-work.together.no_aspect
‘let’s all work together’
b. dwagyę:
dwa-g-yę:
1inp.a-srf-sit.no_aspect
‘let’s all sit down’
(11) ⌊1st person prefix-verb-no_aspect⌋
a. dwa̱hshe:t
dw-a̱hshe:t
1inp.a-count.no_aspect
‘let’s all count’
b. dedwadagyénawahs
de-dw-adag-yénawaˀs
du-1inp.a-refl-help.no_aspect
‘let’s all help each other’

27.1.3 3rd person (‘someone’) commands

3rd person (‘someone’) commands begin with an interactive pronominal prefix,
which includes a 3fi.s reference to ‘she, someone’ - an audience member or po-
tential listener who isn’t known to the speaker. These commands have no aspect
suffix (12).
2
The ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix also deletes after consonant-final stems. See §19.

565
27 Simple sentences

(12) ⌊3rd person prefix-verb-no_aspect⌋

Sǫga:ˀáh ǫgyénawaˀs
sǫga:ˀáh ǫg-yénawaˀs
someone 3s.fi>1s-help.no_aspect
‘Someone help me!’

27.1.4 Statements functioning as commands or suggestions

2nd person statements can be interpreted as commands in context. For example,
2nd person verbs with the ⌊ę-⌋ fut prefix and ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix can be interpreted
as suggestions (13).

(13) ⌊future-2nd person prefix-verb-punc⌋

a. ęhsade̱ˀnyę́:dęˀ
ę-hs-ad-e̱-ˀnyę́:dę-ˀ
fut-2s.a-srf-joinerE-try-punc
‘you will try it’
b. ęsada̱hǫ́:dǫ:ˀ
ę-s-ada̱hǫ́:dǫ:-ˀ
fut-2s.a-ask-punc
‘you will ask’
c. Gǫdagyéˀ ętsahdę́:diˀ’
Gǫdagyéˀ ę-t-s-ahdę́:di-ˀ
right.away fut-du-2s.a-leave-punc
‘You will leave right away.’
d. Sgatsǫ́ˀ ętsáhshe:t
sgatsǫ́ˀ ę-t-s-áhshe:t
ones fut-du-2s.a-count.ø.punc
‘You will count by ones.’, ‘Count one by one!’

Similarly, 2nd person statements with an ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefix and ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix
can be interpreted as suggestions (14).

(14) ⌊indefinite-2nd person prefix-verb-punc⌋

a. a:yagwahsę́:nǫˀ
a:-yagwa-hsę́:n-ǫ-ˀ
indef-1p.ex.a-name-give-punc
‘we all should give it a name’

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 27.1 Commands (imperatives) and suggestions

b. ǫ:dasáhsawęˀ
ǫ:da-s-áhsawę-ˀ
indef.cis-2s.a-begin-punc
‘you should begin’
c. ǫ:tahá:wiˀ
ǫ:t-ha-há:wi-ˀ
indef.cis-3s.m.a-carry-punc
‘he should bring something’
d. áeswa:k
áe-swa:-k
indef-2p.a-eat.ø.punc
‘you all should eat it’

27.1.5 Particles and particle groups used with commands

The following particles and particle groups either function as commands in their
own right or are used with commands. The following examples are described in
the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ A:we:tˀah ‘it is pretend’, ’it’s implied’

⇒ Aweˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ:, Awęˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ: ‘let it go!’
⇒ Do: i:ˀ ‘let me!’, ‘how about me?’
⇒ Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘just do it!’
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘do it now!’
⇒ Hanyoh, Hanyohanyoh ‘do it!’, ‘come on!’, ‘you go!’
⇒ Haoˀ ‘come on!’
⇒ Hę:gyeh giˀ ‘leave well enough alone!
⇒ Nę: ‘look!’, ‘say!’, ‘see!’
⇒ Nę:-dah ‘here, take this!’
⇒ Si gwa:dih ‘move it!’
⇒ Waˀ-gyęh ‘listen!’, ‘excuse me!’, ‘would you’
⇒ Waˀ-jih ‘wait!’
⇒ Waˀ-jih hya:ˀ ‘wait a minute’, ’wait a while’, ‘wait!’

567
27 Simple sentences

27.1.6 Negative commands with ahgwih ‘don’t’

Negative 2nd person commands optionally begin with ahgwih ‘don’t’, followed
by a verb that begins with an ⌊ę-⌋ fut mood prefix and a 2nd person ‘you’ prefix.
Negative commands are often no-aspect verbs (15, see §9.3.3). However, some-
times negative commands have a ⌊-ˀ⌋ punc suffix (16).

(15) ⌊ahgwih fut-2nd person prefix-verb-no_aspect⌋

a. Ahgwíh ęhsa:tró:wih
ahgwíh ę-hs-a:t-hró:wi-h
don’t fut-2s.a-srf-tell-euph.h/no_aspect
‘Don’t tell anything!’
b. Ahgwíh ędíhsa̱ˀdre:
ahgwíh ę-dí-hsa̱-ˀdre:
don’t fut-cis-2s.p-drive.no_aspect
‘Don’t drive over there.’
c. Ahgwíh hęhsáˀdre:
ahgwíh h-ę-hsá-ˀdre:
don’t transl-fut-2s.p-drive.no_aspect
‘Don’t drive over there.’
d. Ahgwíh ęhsá:sdi:s
ahgwíh ę-hs-á:sdi:s
don’t fut-2s.a-care.for.no_aspect
‘Don’t disturb it!’, ‘Don’t handle it!’

(16) ⌊ahgwih fut-2nd person prefix-verb-punc⌋

a. Ahgwíh dęhsnigǫ̱háęˀ.
ahgwíh d-ę-hs-ˀnigǫ̱h-á-ęˀ
don’t du-fut-2s.a-mind-joinerA-lie.ø.punc
‘Don’t bother it!’
b. Ahgwíh ęhsatwi ̱hsdę́ˀda:ˀ
ahgwíh ę-hs-at-hwi ̱hsd-ę́ˀda:-ˀ
don’t fut-2s.a-srf-money-burn.up-punc
‘Don’t waste your money!’

Additional examples of negative commands can be found in the Particle dictio-

nary, §C.

568
 27.2 Yes-no questions with gęh, ę:ˀ, and do:gęhs

Related

⇒ Ahgwih gwaˀ ‘don’t!’

⇒ Ahgwih hwaˀ ‘don’t!’
⇒ Ahgwih hwę:dǫh ‘don’t ever’

27.1.7 Negative suggestions

Negative suggestions optionally begin with tęˀ ‘no’, plus a no-aspect verb that
begins with the ⌊ta:-, tae-, te:-, etc.⌋ contr.indef combination (17).

(17) ⌊tęˀ contr.indef-2nd person prefix-verb-no_aspect⌋

tęˀ taeswá:gę:
tęˀ t-ae-swá:-gę:
not contr-indef-2p.a-see.no_aspect
‘You all shouldn’t/won’t see it.’

Another type of negative suggestion begins with the phrase tęˀ ta:wá:dǫh ‘you
may not’, followed by a verb with an ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefix and ⌊ -ˀ⌋ punc suffix (18).
(Tęˀ ta:wá:dǫh is related to the phrase ęwá:dǫˀ ‘yes, you may…’, both of which are
described in §35.2.4.)

(18) ⌊tęˀ ta:wa:dǫ́h indef-2nd person prefix-verb-punc⌋

tęˀ ta:wa:dǫ́h a:sejáodęˀ
tęˀ t-a:-w-a:dǫ́-h
not contr-indef-3s.a-become-euph.h
a:-s-e-j-á-odę-ˀ
indef-2s.a-joinerE-smoke-joinerA-put.in-punc
‘No smoking!’
cf. ęwá:dǫˀ
ę-w-á:dǫ-ˀ
fut-3s.a-become-punc
‘yes, you may’

27.2 Yes-no questions with gęh, ę:ˀ, and do:gęhs

Yes-no questions prompt for answers that optionally begin with ęhę:ˀ ‘yes’ or
tęˀ ‘no’. (In contrast, questions beginning with words like sǫ́: ‘who’ or dęˀ hoˀdęˀ

569
27 Simple sentences

‘what’, require answers other than ęhęˀ or tęˀ.) Types of yes-no questions are
described next.

27.2.1 Yes-no questions with gęh, tęˀ gęh

Yes-no questions require either gęh ‘Q(uestion)’ (19) or tęˀ gęh ‘isnʼt it’ (20). (Also
see tag questions, §27.2.2.)

(19) Sgęnǫ́jih gęh?

it.is.really.well Q
‘Are you well?’

(20) Tęˀ gęh deshó:yǫ:?

Not Q he.doesn’t.come.back
‘Did he not come home?’

Negative yes-no questions begin with tęˀ gęh ‘isn’t, didn’t…etc.’, followed by a
negative verb (21).

(21) Tęˀ gęh neˀ desá:węh?

Tęˀ gęh neˀ de-sá:-w-ęh
not Q the neg-2s.p-own-stat
‘Isn’t it yours?’

In positive questions, gęh has to occur after another word, for example after
the first word in the simple sentence in (22) or after the first word in the utterance
in (23).

(22) Enǫ́hweˀs gęh?

she.likes.it Q
‘Does she like it?’

(23) Ęhę́ˀ gęh?

Yes Q
‘Is that right?’

In addition to having to appear after another word, gęh must appear as close to
the beginning of the clause as possible: for example, it occurs as part of a particle
group diˀ gęh in (24) but instead, immediately after the verb in (25) and (26).

570
 27.2 Yes-no questions with gęh, ę:ˀ, and do:gęhs

(24) Dó:gęhs diˀ gęh?

true so Q
‘Is that true?’
(25) Sanǫhǫkdá:niˀ gęh diˀ?
you.are.sick Q so
‘Are you sick?’
In (26) and (27), gęh appears after the third word in a complex sentence. How-
ever it is still as close to the beginning of its clause as possible – it appears after
the first word of the dependent clause (shown in square brackets).
(26) Daskro:wíh ędwé: gęh.
you.tell.me we.will.go.together Q
‘Tell me if you are coming along.’
(27) Daskro:wíh sanǫhǫkdá:niˀ gęh?
you.tell.me you.are.sick Q
‘Tell me whether you are sick.’
Gęh does not translate into a specific word, but turns a statement (28) into a
question (29).
(28) Sanǫhǫkdá:niˀ.
you.are.sick
‘You are sick.’
(29) Sanǫhǫkdá:niˀ gęh diˀ?
you.are.sick Q so
‘So, are you sick?’
Statements without gęh can also function as yes-no questions: in the following
examples, there is no explicit question word (30).
(30) a. Sanǫhǫkdá:niˀ?
‘Are you sick?’
b. Gwé:, odeˀdre̱hdágadeˀ?
‘Well, were there a lot of cars?’
The following questions with gęh or tęˀ gęh are described further in the Particle
dictionary, §C.

571
27 Simple sentences

Related

⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker)

⇒ Gęh hne:ˀ ‘how about this one?’
⇒ Oˀǫ:, O: ǫh ‘Oh really?’
⇒ O: gęh ‘really?’
⇒ Tęˀ gęh deˀ- ‘didn’t?’
⇒ To gęh ǫ ne:ˀ ‘I wonder if it is…’

27.2.2 Tag questions (asking for confirmation from the listener)

Tag questions prompt for confirmation from the listener, and end with short
words/phrases (or tags) such as ę:ˀ ‘is it so?, isn’t it so?’, tęˀ gęh ‘isn’t it?’, ęhę:ˀ
gęh ‘is it?’, and dó:gęhs ‘sure, truly’ (31-35, examples from Deer & Deer 2015.)

(31) Enǫ́hweˀs ę:ˀ?

she.likes.it affirm
‘She likes it, doesn’t she?’

(32) Wę̱ hnihsri:yó: waˀneˀ, dó:gęhs?

nice.day today truly
‘It’s a nice day today, innit?’

(33) Wę̱ hnihsri:yó: waˀneˀ, dó:gęhs ę:ˀ?

nice.day today truly affirm
‘It’s a nice day, innit?’

(34) Wę̱ hnihsri:yó: waˀneˀ, tęˀ gęh?

nice.day today not Q
‘It’s a nice day, innit?’

(35) Wę̱ hnihsri:yó: waˀneˀ, neˀ ę:ˀ?

nice.day today the affirm
‘It’s a nice day, innit?’

As shown in (36), ę:ˀ can also be used in statements, to signal agreement

(§35.3.1).

572
 27.3 Negative questions

(36) Háe. Wę̱ hnisri:yó: ę́:ˀ.

Hi. nice.day affirm
‘Hi. Nice day, isn’t it.’
Ęhę́ˀ ę́:ˀ.
Yes affirm
‘Yes, it is.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 339, Oˀdréhdatgiˀ dialogue)

The following examples of tag questions and statements are described in the
Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Ę:ˀ, Neˀ ę:ˀ ‘isn’t it so?’, ‘yes?’, ‘no?’, ‘innit?’

⇒ Ęhęˀ gęh ‘is that right?’
⇒ Do:gęhs ‘it’s true’, ‘isn’t it true?’
⇒ Do:gęhs diˀ gęh ‘it’s true’, ‘isn’t it true?’
⇒ Do:gęhs ę: ‘it’s true’, ‘isn’t it true?’
⇒ Gęh ‘didn’t I’
⇒ Tęˀ gęh ‘no?’, ‘isn’t it?’

27.3 Negative questions

The following examples of negative questions can be found in the Particle dictio-
nary, §C.

Related

⇒ Gęh tęˀ nigęˀǫh ‘or not?’

⇒ Tęˀ gęh deˀ- ‘didn’t?’
⇒ Tęˀ gęh ‘no?’, ‘isn’t it?’

573
27 Simple sentences

27.4 Equative sentences with linking verbs né:ˀ, deˀgę:

Equative sentences link two nouns (or noun phrases) – shown in [] square brack-
ets – implying that the nouns are equal or somehow the same. Positive equative
sentences optionally include the linking word né:ˀ ‘it is’ (37.

(37) ⌊N … (ne:ˀ) N⌋
[Ganyó:ˀ] hęˀ hne:ˀ (ne:ˀ) [gwíhsgwihs].
animal also in.fact (it.is) pigs
‘Pigs are animals.’

Negative equative sentences include the words tęˀ … de̱ˀgę: ‘it isn’t’. The linked
nouns (in square brackets) are shown in (38). (The ellipsis ‘…’ in tęˀ … de̱ˀgę: shows
where other particles can appear, to dress up the phrase.)

(38) ⌊tęˀ … N de̱ˀgę: N⌋

Tęˀ hne:ˀ [ganyó:ˀ] de̱ˀgę: [neˀ awę́hęˀ]
Not in.fact animal it.is.not the flower(s)
‘Flowers are not animals.’

The following sections contain examples of equative sentences and are de-
scribed further in the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Ę:, E: ‘atypical verb’

⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’ (equative)
⇒ Tęˀ de̱ˀgę: ‘it isn’t’
⇒ Tęˀ ne:ˀ de̱ˀgę: ‘without’, ’lacking’

Verbs of existence
Verbs of existence are thematically related to the linking words used in equative
sentences, and are listed below for interest’s sake. (To save space, many examples
only contain links to other sections.)
Verbs meaning ‘to be, to exist’ are listed in (39).

(39) a. ne:ˀ ‘it is’ (§C.9)

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 27.4 Equative sentences with linking verbs né:ˀ, deˀgę:

b. tęˀ … de̱ˀgę:
‘it isn’t’ (§C.13)
c. iheˀs
i-h-e-ˀs
proth-3s.m.a-go-hab (§16.2.2)
‘he is here’

Other verbs of existence have more specific meanings (40–41).

(40) ⌊iˀdrǫˀ, iˀdrǫd, iˀdrǫdǫˀ⌋ ‘live, dwell someplace, be placed’

a. shęh tgiˀdrǫˀ
t-g-iˀdrǫˀ
cis-1s.a-dwell.stat
‘where I live’
b. hadiˀdrǫ́:dǫˀ
had-iˀdrǫ́:-d-ǫˀ
3ns.m.a-dwell-euph.d-distr
‘how they are placed’
c. ęhsniˀdrǫ́:daˀk
ę-hsn-iˀdrǫ́:-d-a-ˀk
fut-2d.a-dwell-caus-joinerA-modz
‘you two will stay home’
d. nęgiˀdrǫ́:daˀk
n-ę-g-iˀdrǫ́:-d-a-ˀk
part-fut-1s.a-dwell-caus-joinerA-modz
‘where I will dwell, live’

(41) ⌊nagreˀ⌋ ‘live someplace’

a. tgáenagreˀ
t-gáe-nagreˀ
cis-3ns.fi.a-dwell.stat
‘where they live over there’
b. knagreˀ
k-nagreˀ
1s.a-dwell.stat
‘I live, stay’

575
27 Simple sentences

Positional verbs (a thematic type of stative-only verb) describe the typical po-
sition of an object (42).

(42) positional verbs

a. shęh dwaknǫ́hso:t
shęh d-wak-nǫhs-o:t
that cis-1s.p-house-stand.stat
‘where I dwell’
b. nigá:yęˀ
ni-gá:-yęˀ
part-3s.a-lie.on.ground.stat
‘where it is at’, ‘where it is placed’
c. ohwę́jadeˀ
o-hwę́j-a-deˀ
3s.p-land-joinerA-exist.stat
‘existing earth, land’

Finally, counting verbs (a thematic type of stative-only verb) describe the num-
ber of items that exist (43, see Comparisons, counting, measuring, §31).

(43) counting verbs

To: gitsǫ: ni:yǫ:.
To: gi-tsǫ: ni:-y-ǫ:
that just-only part-3s.p-certain.amount.stat
‘That’s just all there is.’

576
28 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses
(no linking words)
In sentences with juxtaposed (collocated) clauses, two or more clauses are joined
without linking words. Four types are described next.

28.1 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses sharing the same

role
Sentences may consist of juxtaposed clauses (or juxtaposed verbs) that both have
the same role (clauses are shown in square brackets below). (For role, see §20.6.)
For example, both clauses in (1) refer to the same experiencer or actor, ‘I’, while
both clauses in (2) refer to something that burned down. Other examples are
shown in (3–4).

(1) [dewagegaę́hs] [to há:ge:ˀ]

I’m.unwilling there I.would.go.there
‘I am unwilling to go there.’

(2) [Haˀwa:tsˀá:ˀ] [aˀó:de:k].

it.went.down.to.nothing it.burned
‘It burned down to nothing.’

(3) [A:hęni:hę́:ˀ] [hahjáotaˀ].

he.would.quit he.smokes.all.the.time
‘He would stop himself from smoking.’, ‘He would quit smoking.’

(4) [Ęgęni ̱hę́:ˀ] [knegéhaˀ].

I.will.quit I.drink.habitually
‘I’ll quit drinking.’
28 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses (no linking words)

28.2 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses (different roles)

Sentences may consist of juxtaposed clauses (or juxtaposed verbs) that express
different roles – for example, one describing an experiencer ‘I’, and one describ-
ing an agent, ‘her’ (5). Other examples are provided in (6–7).

(5) [Knigǫhá:ˀ] [ęyé:yǫˀ].

I’m.expecting she.will.arrive
‘I am expecting [her to arrive]’, ‘I am waiting [for her to arrive.]’

(6) [O:nę́h giˀ haˀgahé:ˀ] [ęshétro̱hna].

now just it.is.time you.will.take.him.back
‘It is time [for you to take him back].’

(7) [I:wí:] [to na:yá:węh].

I.want that it.should.happen
‘I want, intend [(for) that to happen]’

Two special types of sentences containing juxtaposed clauses and expressing

different roles are described next.

28.2.1 Sentences with á:węˀ, wá:dǫh, á:yęˀ, a:wé:tˀah

Juxtaposed sentences can also begin with a clause from the list in (8), followed by
a clause that expresses a different role. Such sentences convey hearsay or degrees
of certainty (9- 10, also see Evidential markers, §35.2).

(8) a. á:węˀ ‘it is said’

b. agęˀ ‘it is said’
c. wá:dǫh ‘it is said’
d. á:yęˀ ‘it seems’
e. a:wé:tˀah ‘it is pretend, implied’

(9) Gwé:, [a:yéˀ] [sanǫ́hnya̱ˀgǫh].

well it.seems you.are.hurt
‘Well, [it looks like] [you are hurt].’

(10) [A:we:tˀáh] [agída̱ˀǫh].

it.is.pretend I’m.sleeping
‘I am pretending [(that) I am asleep].’, ‘I am pretending [to be asleep].’

578
 28.2 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses (different roles)

28.2.2 Sentences with wę́ :do:ˀ, wagyéhsaˀgeh

Certain juxtaposed sentences begin with the clause (verb) wę́:dǫ:ˀ ‘it is hard’ (11)
or wagyéhsa̱ ˀgeh ‘it is easy’ (12). (For the structure of the verbs in the second
clause in these examples, see §15.6.1.3, §15.6.2.3.)

(11) Wę:dó:ˀ [da:syadǫhsrí:yaˀk].

it.is.hard you.would.cut.paper
‘It’s hard [for you to cut the paper].’
cf. d-a:-s-hyadǫhsr-í:yaˀk
cis-indef-2s.a-paper-cut.ø.punc

(12) Wagyehsa̱ˀgéh [da:syadǫhsrí:yaˀk].

it.is.easy you.would.cut.paper
‘It’s easy [for you to cut the paper].’
cf. d-a:-s-hyadǫhsr-í:yaˀk
cis-indef-2s.a-paper-cut.ø.punc

Sometimes the role (actor, experiencer, etc.) of the second verb is overtly ex-
pressed in a noun (‘John’). The noun comes either before the verb (13), or after
the verb. In the second case, the noun is preceded by neˀ ‘the’ (14).

(13) Ǫ:gwéh gaǫdǫ́h wę:dó:ˀ [John dahátahahk].

people they.say it.is.difficult John he.took.the.road
‘People say that it is hard [for John to walk].’
cf. d-a-h-át-hah-a-hkw
cis-fac-3s.m.a-srf-road-joinerA-pick.up.ø.punc

(14) Wę:dó:ˀ agę́ˀ [dahataháhk neˀ John]

it.is.difficult it.is.said he.took.the.road the John
‘It’s said that it’s hard [for John to walk].’

In the following examples, where the “doer” or agent (e.g., of cutting) is un-
known, the second clause contains a special type of habitual verb (15–16) or sta-
tive verb (17-18, see §15.6.1, §15.6.2).

(15) wagyesa̱ˀgéh [da:ga̱hyadǫ̱hsríyaˀksǫ:k].

it.is.easy for.the.paper.to.cut
‘The paper [(it) is easy to cut].’
cf. d-a:-ga̱-hyadǫ̱hsr-íyaˀk-sǫ:-k
du-indef-3s.a-paper-cut-hab-plrz-modz

579
28 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses (no linking words)

(16) Wę:dó:ˀ da:ga̱hyadǫ̱hsríyaˀksǫ:k.

it.is.hard the.paper.should.be.cut
‘The paper [(it) is hard to cut].’

(17) Wagyehsa̱ˀgeh da:ga̱hyadǫ̱hsriya̱ˀgǫ́ha:k.

it.is.easy the.paper.would.be.cut
‘The paper is easy to cut.’
cf. d-a:-ga̱-hyadǫ̱hsr-iya̱ˀg-ǫ́-h-a-:k
du-indef-3s.a-paper-cut-stat-euph.h-joinerA-modz

(18) Wę:do:ˀ da:ga̱hyadǫ̱hsriya̱ˀgǫ́ha:k.

it.is.hard the.paper.should.be.cut
‘The paper is hard to cut.’

It may be that wę́:dǫ:ˀ and wagyéhsa̱ ˀgeh are only followed by certain kinds
of verbs – for example, verbs describing activities: for verbs describing mental
states, alternative phrases or work-arounds seem to be preferable (19–25).

(19) Tihǫgwe̱ˀdoˀdę:hę́h gę́:s tǫ: John ta:hehsnǫ́hweˀ.

all.sorts.of.people(males) usually that.one John you.don’t.like.him
‘It is hard to like John.’, ‘John is hard to like.’

(20) De̱hǫwadinǫ̱hwéˀs neˀ John.

they(males).don’t.like.him the John
‘It is hard to like John.’, ‘John is hard to like.’

(21) Hǫwadi ̱hswahę́hs tǫ: John.

They.hate.him that.one John
‘It is hard to like John.’, ‘John is hard to like.’

(22) Hǫgweˀdi:yó: gę́:s tǫ: John.

he.is.a.good.person usually that.one John
‘It is easy to like John.’, ‘John is easy to like.’

(23) Hǫgweˀdi:yó: neˀ John.

he.is.a.good.person the John
‘It is easy to like John.’, ‘John is easy to like.’

(24) Hodǫgwe̱ˀdanǫ̱hwéˀ tǫ: John.

he.is.a.liked.person that.one John
‘It is easy to like John.’, ‘John is easy to like.’

580
 28.2 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses (different roles)

(25) Hǫwadinǫhwéˀs John hǫgweˀdí:yo:

they(males).like.him John he.is.a.good.person
‘It is easy to like John.’, ‘John is easy to like.’

581
29 Clauses with linking words
(particles)
Independent and dependent clauses that begin with linking words (particles)
are described next. (For independent and dependent clauses, see §36.9.2.)

29.1 Clauses with shęh ‘that’, ⌊shęh ni-⌋ ‘how, what’, ne:ˀ
‘it is’
In clauses beginning with shęh ‘that’, ⌊shęh ni-⌋ ‘how, what’, or ne:ˀ ‘it is’, the link-
ing words serve to make such clauses dependent on another clause in the same
complex sentence: as shown in (1), shęh links a dependent clause (such as shęh
sadaˀgáideˀ ‘that you are well’) with an independent one (such as agatsęnǫ́:nih giˀ
‘I am just happy’). Shęh is also optional – the dependent clause can begin without
it. (Examples are provided later in this section. For complex sentences, see 660)

(1) Agatsęnǫ:ní: giˀ [shęh sadaˀgáideˀ].

I’m.happy just that you.are.well
‘I am just happy that you are well.’

Phrases with ⌊shęh … ni-⌋ ‘how, what’ introduce a type of dependent clause
that functions as a “noun” (naming a person, place, thing, or concept). For ex-
ample, in (2), the phrase shęh niyo:wéˀ gakwi:yó: agadekǫ́:niˀ ‘the amount of food
that I ate’ functions as a noun.

(2) Ęyonishéˀ hęwagi ̱ˀdrǫ́:ˀ [shę niyo:wéˀ gakwi:yó:

it.will.take.time it.will.last.me that a.certain.distance good.food
agadekǫ́:niˀ].
I.ate
‘The amount of food that I ate will last me a long time.’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 294, Dwade:kǫ:nih dialogue)
29 Clauses with linking words (particles)

The particle ne:ˀ ‘it is’ can also introduce a dependent clause that functions as
a “noun”. In (3), né:ˀ desadǫ̱hwę:jǫ́:nih denotes ‘something wanted’ or a ‘wanted
item’.

(3) Agyę́ˀ [né:ˀ desadǫ̱hwę:jǫ́:nih].

I.have it.is you.want.it
‘I have what you want.’

Shęh can also introduce a type of relative clause, which further specifies the
meaning of some noun, §36.9.2. Example (4) illustrates a phrase that functions
as a noun. It begins with neˀ hęnǫ́:gweh ‘the men’ plus a relative clause, shęh
ená:greˀ ‘that live there’. The relative clause modifies the meaning of the noun
by specifying a group of men, as opposed to any other group.

(4) O:nę́h hniˀ ohsǫdagwe:gǫ́h de̱hodinęhę́:ˀ neˀ hęnǫ:gwéh [shęh

now and all.night they.guard the men that
ená:greˀ].
someone.lives.there
‘Now too all night they are guarding, the men who live there.’ (Keye 2012)

As mentioned earlier, relative and dependent clauses do not always begin with
shęh. Instead pronominal prefixes alone can provide the needed link: in (5), the
phrase neˀ haksotgęhę́:ˀ togyę́h da̱ hayagę́ˀ functions as a noun (denoting a person).
The pronominal prefix ⌊ha-⌋ 3s.m.a in daháyagęˀ links the relative clause togyę́h
daháyagęˀ ‘he was going out from there’ to the noun it modifies, neˀ haksótgę̱hę:ˀ
‘my late grandfather’.

(5) Onę́h gwaˀ, nę́-gwaˀ ahsha:kni:gę́ˀ neˀ haksotgęhę́:ˀ

Now right.now now-right.now we.saw.him the my.late.grandfather
[togyę́h da̱hayagę́ˀ],
there he.went.out
‘And then we saw my late grandfather (who) was going out from there.’
(Henry 2005)

More examples of relative clauses with shęh and ne:ˀ are provided in the “Re-
lated” sections.

584
 29.2 Conditional clauses with gyę:gwaˀ, gęh, hę:gyeh ‘if, whether’

Related

⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, §C.9

⇒ Shęh ‘that’, §C.12

29.2 Conditional clauses with gyę:gwaˀ, gęh, hę:gyeh ‘if,

whether’
Conditional clauses are dependent clauses describing hypothetical situations
or prerequisite conditions. The linking word appears first in the clause (6–8),
or more accurately, gyę́:gwaˀ and hę́:gyęh appear at the beginning of the clause
(6–7), while gęh occurs after the first word of its clause (8). (In example 8, gęh
means ‘whether, if’, rather than ‘Q(uestion) word’, see §C.5) More examples of
conditional clauses are provided in the “Related” sections.

(6) Tęˀ dejǫ́hsdi:s o:nę́h [gyę:gwáˀ a:yáihe:]

not she.didn’t.pay.attention now if she.would.die
‘She didn’t care if she was going to her death.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(7) Tę́ˀ dˀáǫ a:wadahsgwi ̱ˀtrǫ́:niˀ, [hę:gyę́h neˀ

not not.at.all it.won’t.wrinkle, even.if the
haesatroni ̱há:k aesę́:daˀ].
you.would.have.clothes.on you.would.sleep
‘It won’t wrinkle, even if you sleep with your clothes on.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

(8) Daskro:wíh [sanǫhǫkdá:niˀ gęh]?

you.tell.me you.are.sick Q
‘Tell me whether you are sick.’

Related

⇒ Gęh ‘whether’, ‘if’, §C.5

⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ ‘if’, §C.5

585
29 Clauses with linking words (particles)

⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ ta:- ‘if not’, ‘if it hadn’t been’, §C.5

⇒ Hę:-gyęh shęh ‘no matter how much’, ‘whether or not’, ‘even if’, §C.6
⇒ To gęh ǫ ne:ˀ ‘is it that?’, ‘if it is that’, §C.13

29.3 Causative clauses with dęˀ ni:yoht shęh ‘why’, neˀ

hǫ:niˀ ‘how’
Causative clauses are dependent clauses describing cause or effect. They can
function as direct questions (9), indirect questions (10), or dependent state-
ments (11). (For these clause types, see §36.9.2.) The linking words appear at the
beginning of the clause, sometimes intermixed with other particles.
(9) [Dęˀ hné:ˀ ni:yóht shęh tóh nahsye:ˀ]?
why in.fact the.way.it.is that that.one you.did.it
‘Why in fact did you do that?’
(10) Honǫhdǫ́ˀ diˀ gęh Gwí:deh [dęˀ ni:yóht shęh Tina
he.knows so Q Peter what the.way.it.is that Tina
gowanawę́ˀdagaˀs?]
she.likes.the.taste.of.candy
‘So does Peter know why Tina likes candy?’
(11) Agahsę́: [shęh age:jí:yoh].
I’m.slow that I’m.lame
‘I am slow because I am lame.’
Causation may also implied just by juxtaposing (placing side by side) two
clauses without using linking words (12–14).
(12) [Agyǫ:díh] [degakegáhneˀ niga:gú:sˀuh].
I’m.smiling I’m.looking.at.them children
‘I’m smiling (because) I’m looking at the children.’
(13) [Tiga:gwe:gǫ́h tsǫ: agahyagwę́hęgyeˀs,] [aknǫháˀ
all.over.the.place just I’m.going.along.picking.fruit [I’m.unable
a:knǫnhéht agáˀahdraˀ].
I.would.fill.it my.basket]
‘I am just going along picking fruit here and there (because) I am unable
to fill my basket.’

586
 29.4 Manner clauses with ⌊dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni-⌋ ‘how’, shęh ni:yoht ‘how so’

(14) [De̱hadawę:nyéˀ haya:sǫ́h ǫgwehǫwéhne̱ha:ˀ,] [gyotgǫ́:t gyę:ˀ

he.wanders he.is.named Cayuga.language, always the.one
nǫ́ne:ˀ ę:-tsǫ́: isheˀ de̱hadawę́:nyeˀ].
you.know there.just he.is.here he.walks.about
‘De̱hadawę:nyéˀ, (‘he wanders’), is his Cayuga name, (because), you
know, he always wanders around here and there.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
317, Sanahsgwaęˀ Gęh Sga̱hoˀdę:ˀęh? dialogue)

More examples of linking words and phrases used with causative sentences
are provided in the “Related” sections.

Related

⇒ Dęˀ ni:yoht shęh ‘why?’, §C.3

⇒ Hne:ˀ shęh ‘because’, §C.6
⇒ Ji trehs ‘because’, ‘overly’, §C.8
⇒ Ne:ˀ dagaihǫ:niˀ ‘the reason why’, ‘that’s why’, ‘because’, §C.9
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘because’, ‘it’s just’, §C.9
⇒ Shęh ‘that, because’, §C.12

29.4 Manner clauses with ⌊dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni-⌋ ‘how’, shęh

ni:yoht ‘how so’
Manner clauses ask for or provide information about the manner in which an
action is performed. Example (15) illustrates a direct question or independent
clause, while example (16) shows a dependent clause. The linking words occur
at the beginning of the clause. More examples are provided in the “Related” sec-
tions.

(15) Asadadwęˀna̱hsáik? [Dęˀ hne:ˀ hoˀdę́ˀ na̱ˀsye:ˀ?]

you.bit.your.tongue what in.fact kind how.you.did.it]
‘You bit your tongue? How did you do that?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 386,
Ga̱há:gǫ: dialogue)
cf. n-a̱ˀ-s-ye:-ˀ
part-fac-2sg.a-do-punc

587
29 Clauses with linking words (particles)

(16) Knigǫhá:ˀ [shęh ni:yóht dęgátahahk].

I.watch that how.it.is I.will.walk
‘I watch how I walk.’
cf. ni:-yó-ht
part-3sg.o-resemble.stat

Related

⇒ Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni- ‘how’, ‘what way’, §C.3

⇒ Shęh ni:yoht ni- ‘how’, ‘the manner in which’, §C.12

29.5 Measuring clauses with ⌊do: … ni-⌋ ‘how much, many’

Measuring clauses describing measurements, degrees, or amounts. The linking
word do: ‘how’ begins the clause, and is followed by a verb with the ⌊ni-⌋ part
prefix. Measuring clauses can function as direct questions (17), indirect questions
(18), and dependent statements (19). (For clause types, see §36.9.2.)
Other examples of ⌊do: … ni-⌋ are provided in the “Related” sections.

(17) [Do: nidihsé:no:]?

how where.you.come.from
‘How old are you (singular)?’
cf. ni-di-hs-é:no-:
part-cis-2s.p-originate.from-stat

(18) Tę́ˀ gyę́:ˀ de̱ˀsgahǫ:dǫ́ˀ [dó: niyagonohsriyáˀgǫh].

not the.one you.didn’t.ask.me how how.old.they.are
‘You didn’t ask me how old they are.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88,
Eksaˀgó:wah dialogue)
cf. ni-yagon-ohsr-iyáˀg-ǫh
part-3ns.fi.p-winter-cross-stat

(19) Ęgatgęˀsé:ˀ [dó: ni:s niswahwají:yaˀ].

I.will.go.and.see how you how.your.family.is
‘I will see how big your family is.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 257,
Ga̱hwajiyá:deˀ dialogue)
cf. ni-swa-hwají:y-aˀ
part-2p.p-family-nsf

588
 29.6 Clauses with sǫ́: … (nˀaht) ‘who’

Related

⇒ Do: ‘how’, §C.3

⇒ Do: ni-…nisheˀ ‘how long’, ‘how much time’, §C.3
⇒ Do: ni+…ǫ: ‘how many people’, §C.3

29.6 Clauses with sǫ́: … (nˀaht) ‘who’

Clauses with sǫ́:… (nˀaht) ‘who’ ask for or provide information about people. Sǫ: is
at the beginning of the clause, nˀaht is optional, and other particles can intervene.
Sǫ: clauses appear as direct questions (20), indirect questions (21) and dependent
statements (22). (For clause types, see §36.9.2.)

(20) [Sǫ: hne:ˀ nˀáht to:gyę́h eksá:ˀah]?

who in.fact person that.one girl
‘Who is that girl?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 71, Sǫ: Hne:ˀ Nˀaht To:gyęh?
dialogue)

If the actual person is unknown, the verb in a sǫ: clause typically takes a 3s.fi
pronominal prefix meaning ‘she, someone, people’ (21–22).

(21) Daskro:wíh [sǫ: nˀáht daǫdekǫ́nya̱hneˀ].

you.tell.me who person she’ll.come.and.eat
‘Tell me who’s coming to eat.’
cf. da-ǫ-d-e-kǫ́ny-a̱-hn-e-ˀ
cis.fac-3s.fi.a-srf-joinerE-eat-joinerA-disl-go-punc

(22) Honǫhdǫ́ˀ Gwí:deh [sǫ ˀǫ nˀáht gowanawę́ˀdagaˀs].

he.knows Peter who I.guess person she.likes.the.taste.of.sugar
‘Peter knows who likes candy.’
cf. go-wanawę́ˀd-a-gaˀ-s
3s.fi.p-sugar-joinerA-like.the.taste.of-hab

Sǫ́: (nˀaht) can be omitted when the context makes the meaning clear. For
example, it is omitted in (23), resulting in juxtaposed clauses (§28). The same
sentence with sǫ: nˀaht is shown in (24).

589
29 Clauses with linking words (particles)

(23) Daskro:wíh [gado:gę́: dędwá:do:t].

you.tell.me together we.will.eat
‘Tell me (who) will eat together with us.’

(24) Daskro:wiˀ [sǫ: nˀaht gado:gę́: dęwá:dǫ:t].

you.tell.me who person together we.will.eat
‘Tell me who is going to dine with us.’

More examples of clauses with sǫ́: ‘who’ are provided in the “Related” sections.

Related

⇒ Sǫ: nˀaht ‘who’, §C.12

⇒ Sǫ: go:węh ‘whose’, §C.12

29.7 Clauses with dęˀ … (hoˀdęˀ) ‘what’

Clauses with dę́ˀ … (hoˀdęˀ) ‘what’ ask for or provide information about objects
or ideas. Dęˀ is at the beginning of the clause, hoˀdęˀ is optional, and other parti-
cles can intervene between them. Dę́ˀ … (hoˀdęˀ) appears in direct questions (25),
and in dependent clauses (26). (It likely also appears in indirect questions.) More
examples of dęˀ clauses are provided in the “Related” sections.

(25) [Dę́ˀ ní:s hoˀdę́ˀ sniya:sǫh]?

what you kind you.two.are.called
‘What are you two called?’

(26) Haoˀ dahskro:wíh [dęˀ ni:ˀ nęga:gye:ˀ].

o.k., you.tell.me what I I.will.do.it
‘O.k., you tell me what to do!’

Related

⇒ Dęˀ- element meaning ‘what’, ‘how’, §C.3

⇒ Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’ (‘indefinite pronoun’), §C.3

590
 29.8 Clauses with hǫ:(weh) ‘the place where’

⇒ Dęˀ hne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’, §C.3

⇒ Dęˀ ǫh ne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what on earth?!’, §C.3

29.8 Clauses with hǫ:(weh) ‘the place where’

Clauses with hǫ́:(weh) include ones beginning with gaę … hǫ:(weh), shęh … hǫ:(weh)
or tohgeh … hǫ:(weh). Such clauses ask for or provide information about locations.
Gaę, shęh, and tohgeh appear at the beginning of the clause and are followed by
hǫ:(weh). Other particles can intervene. (Hǫ:weh also has the short forms hǫ: or
nhǫ:.)
Examples (27–29) illustrate independent clauses, and (28) is a dependent clause
functioning as a “noun” denoting a location.

(27) [Gaę: nhǫ: tsiˀdrǫˀ]?

Which place you.live.there
‘Where do you live?’

(28) Hętsyę́:ˀ [shęh hǫ: hesá:gwęh].

you.will.put.it.back.there that where you.picked.it.up.there
‘You will put it back where you got it.’

(29) [Toh-géh gęh hǫ:wéh toh naˀá:weh?]

that.one-on Q place there something.happened
‘Where did it happen?’

More examples are provided in the “Related” sections.

Related

⇒ Gaę hǫ:weh ‘which place’, ‘where’, §C.5

⇒ Shęh hǫ:weh ‘the place where’, ‘whereabouts’, §C.12
⇒ Toh-geh hǫ:weh ‘where’, §C.13

591
29 Clauses with linking words (particles)

29.9 Clauses with hwę:dǫh, nęh, nę:gyęh hwaˀ, ne:ˀ hwaˀ,

etc. ‘when’
Clauses with hwę́:dǫh ‘when’ (30) and nę́h ‘when’ (31) ask for or provide infor-
mation about the time of an event. Hwę́:dǫh is only used in direct and indirect
questions, and nę́h is only used in dependent statements.
(30) Hwę:dǫ́h ne:ˀ to nęya:węh?
when it.is that it.will.happen
‘When is that going to happen?’
(31) [Nęh toh hędwá:yǫˀ] nę:dáh nędwá:ye:ˀ.
when there we.will.arrive.there this.way we.will.do.something
‘When we arrive there, we will do it this way.’1
Other phrases such as do: niyowi ̱hsdáˀe:ˀ ‘what time’ (32), nę:gyę́h hwaˀ ‘this
time’ (33), and né:ˀ hwaˀ ‘this time’ (34) also ask for or provide information about
the time of an event, and also appear at the beginning of direct questions, indirect
questions, and dependent clauses.
(32) Daskro:wíˀ [do: niyowiẖ sdaˀe:ˀ ęsahdę́:diˀ].
you.tell.me how it.is.a.certain.time you.will.leave
‘You tell me when you are going to leave.’
(33) Dęˀ diˀ hoˀdę́ˀ nę̱ hsa:gyé:ˀ [nę:gyę́h hwaˀ
What so what.kind you.will.do.something this this.time
dęjogęnhǫ́:diˀ]?
it.will.be.summer
‘What will you do when summer comes?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 349,
Dęˀ Hoˀdęˀ Nǫ̱hsa:gye:ˀ? dialogue)
(34) [Ne:ˀ hwaˀ nę:gyę́h sá:dǫh: ‘dęyǫkidé:niˀ’] neˀ gę́:dǫh neˀ
it.is this.time this you.say they.will.change.us the it.means the
tęˀ-da̱ˀǫ́: ǫgwehǫ:wéh ǫ:sawá:dǫˀ.
definitely.not real.people it.will.no.longer.become
‘When you say ‘they will change us,’ it means that you’ll no longer be
Indian.’ (Henry 2005)
For more examples, see the “Related” sections.

1
In this example and in (34), the dependent clause appears before the independent one.

592
 29.10 Clauses with (gaoˀ) shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before, until’

Related

⇒ Do: niyowi ̱hsda̱ ˀe:ˀ ‘what time is it?’, ‘when?’, §C.3

⇒ Hwę:dǫh ‘ever’, ‘when’, §C.6
⇒ Ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘this (coming) time’, ‘when’, §C.9
⇒ Nęh, ne:ˀ nęh ‘when’, ‘once’, ‘as soon as’, §C.9
⇒ Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘when’, §C.9

29.10 Clauses with (gaoˀ) shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before, until’

Dependent clauses beginning with (gaoˀ) shęh niyó:(weˀ) ‘before, until’ describe
events that happened up until the time of the event described in the independent
clause (35). (Niyó:weˀ also has the short forms ní:yo:ˀ and nyó:.)
Shęh niyó:weˀ occurs at the beginning of dependent clauses, but is also omit-
ted when the context makes the meaning clear (36). More examples with shęh
niyó:weˀ ‘before, until’ are provided in §C.5.

(35) O:nę́h aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Waˀgyę́h,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “ęgehsrǫ:níˀ i:wí: tó: neˀ

now she.said just.now she.said I.will.fix.it I.want that the
sageˀaˀgéh [gaoˀ shę́h nyó:ˀ ęhsę́da̱ˀdraˀ.]”
on.your.hair which that it.is.a.certain.distance you.will.go.to.bed
‘“Just a minute,” she said, “I want to fix your hair right there before you
go to bed.”’ (Henry 2005)

(36) [Ęhseganyáˀk] [ęhskéya̱htgaˀ].

you.will.pay I.will.release.her
‘You will pay (before) I let her go.’

29.11 Clauses with shęh naˀonisheˀ, tsaˀonisheˀ, ⌊tsi-⌋

‘while, when’
Clauses with shęh naˀónisheˀ ‘while’, ‘when’ (37), tsaˀónisheˀ ‘while’, ‘during’,
‘when’ (38), and clauses beginning with ⌊tsi-⌋ coin verbs (39), describe events
that occur at the same time as the event in the independent clause. The link-
ing words appear at the beginning of the dependent clauses. More examples are
provided in §C.12.

593
29 Clauses with linking words (particles)

(37) Agahyagóˀ [shęh na̱ˀonishéˀ odahyǫ́:ni:]

I.picked.fruit that it.is.a.certain.time fruit.is.making
‘I did pick fruit while it was plentiful.’

(38) Hohsę́: [tsaˀonihseˀ hǫgwéˀdase:].

he.was.fat while he.is.a.young.man
‘While he was young, he was fat.’

(39) Deˀagowihsrá:t [tsaˀǫ́nagra:t].

she.had.no.breath when.she.was.born
‘She had no breath when she was born.’
cf. ts-aˀ-ǫ́-nagra:t
coin-fac-3s.fi.a-caused.to.dwell.ø.punc

594
30 Clauses with conjunctions
Conjunctions are linking words that connect list items. Words like hniˀ ‘and’
connect similar words or phrases in a list. Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, ‘but’ connects contrast-
ing or dissimilar items. Finally, conjunctions like nigę́ˀǫh ‘or’ connect alternatives
or choices of item(s). Phrases with these linking words are described in the fol-
lowing sections.

30.1 Hniˀ ‘and’ conjunction

The conjunction hniˀ ‘and’ links similar items in a list. For example, two con-
joined independent clauses (in square brackets) are linked by hniˀ in (1). Hniˀ
tends to occur at the end of the list of items.

(1) [Sanaháowe:k], [sagyaˀdawíˀt] hniˀ.

[put.your.hat.on], [put.your.coat.on] and
‘Put your hat and coat on!’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 212, Satrǫ́:nih
dialogue)

Hniˀ is optional in lists: for example, the conjoined word-groups in (2) just
occur side-by-side. (The conjoined items in this example function as “nouns”).

(2) A:yę́:ˀ to-ˀǫ-tsǫ: ni:yǫ́: gwahs dewagadǫhwęjó:nih,

it.seems that-maybe-just a.certain.kind really I.want.it
[nę:gyę́ neˀ gajihwáˀ] [né:ˀ neˀ enesdanyáˀktaˀ].
this.one the hammer it.is the saw.
‘That seems to be all I want, really, this hammer (and) the saw.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 159, Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ:ˀǫh dialogue)

More examples are provided in the “Related” sections.

30 Clauses with conjunctions

Related
⇒ Sentences with juxtaposed clauses, 28
⇒ Clauses with conjunctions, 30
⇒ Independent and dependent clauses, relative clauses, 36.9.2
⇒ Hniˀ ‘and’, C.6
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ hniˀ ‘and that too’, ‘also’, C.9

30.2 Hne:ˀ, Ne:ˀ … (tsǫ: shęh) ‘but’

Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, ‘but’ and ne:ˀ … (tsǫ: shęh) ‘it.is (just that)’ link contrasting or
dissimilar ideas.1 Hne:ˀ tends to occur at the end of the list of contrasting ideas
(shown in square brackets in 3. The first instance of hne:ˀ in 3 is described in
§C.6.)

(3) [Tęˀ hne:ˀ de̱hahǫkáˀ ǫgwehǫ́:weh], [hoˀnigǫ̱haędaˀs] hné:ˀ.

not in.fact he.doesn’t.speak Indian he.understands in.fact
‘He doesn’t speak Indian, but he does understand.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
61, Sǫ: hne:ˀ nˀaht to:gyęh? dialogue)

Ne:ˀ (plus other optional particles) appears at the beginning of a contrasting

idea or clause (4).

(4) [Swahyo:wá:ˀ age:gáˀs], [né:ˀ giˀ heyohé: age:gáˀs neˀ jihsó:dahk]

apples I.like it.is just more I.like the strawberries
‘I like apples, (but) I just like strawberries more.’ (Michelson 2011: 45)

More information about such constructions can be found in the following sec-
tions.

1
Strictly speaking, the words described here are contrastive focus markers (see “Related”), de-
scribed here because they can be translated as ‘but’.

596
 30.3 Nigę́ˀǫh ‘or?’, Giˀ shęh ‘or’, etc.

Related
⇒ Sentences with side-by-side clauses, 28
⇒ Clauses with conjunctions, 30
⇒ Independent and dependent clauses, relative clauses, 36.9.2
⇒ Deˀę: gwaˀ-heh tęˀ seˀ ‘but then not really’, C.3
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘but’, C.6
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: shęh ‘but’, ‘it’s just that…’, C.9

30.3 Nigę́ˀǫh ‘or?’, Giˀ shęh ‘or’, etc.

A range of words and word-groups are used for lists of alternative items. Phrases
with nigę́ˀǫh ‘or…?’ tend to be used in questions (5), in which case, nigę́ˀǫh is
always preceded by gęh ‘Q(uestion)’ earlier in the sentence. In contrast, phrases
with giˀ shęh ‘or’ tend appear in statements (6). In both cases, nigę́ˀǫh and giˀ
shęh tend to occur after the last choice. (In 5-6, the items of choice are in square
brackets.) Examples of similar alternative choice questions and statements are
provided in the “Related” sections.

(5) [Hǫ:gwéh] gęh [agǫ:gwéh] nigę́ˀǫh?

Man Q woman or
‘Was it a man or a woman?’

(6) Tęˀ sga̱hoˀdę́ˀ neˀ [oˀwáhǫh], [ji ̱ˀdę:ˀę́h], [ojǫˀdáˀ] gi ̱ˀ-shęh.

Not anything the meat, birds, fish or
‘No meat, no birds, no fish.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Clauses with conjunctions, 30
⇒ Independent and dependent clauses, relative clauses, 36.9.2
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, C.5
⇒ Gęh tęˀ nigęˀǫh ‘or not?’, C.5
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh ‘or maybe’, C.5

597
30 Clauses with conjunctions

⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ … giˀ shęh ‘or’, C.9

⇒ Ne:ˀ/Neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … ‘or?’, C.9

598
31 Comparisons, counting, measuring
This chapter describes the various phrases used for making comparisons, count-
ing objects, and measuring. (For related information, see Pluralizing §18.2, Num-
bers and money, §D.15.)

31.1 Comparisons (more, the same, or less)

Comparisons apply to qualities or attributes, and convey concepts like degrees
of sameness or difference (1). Comparative phrases typically include stative-only
verbs beginning with ⌊ni-⌋ part, which function as “adjectives”.
(1) Aǫhę:ˀę́h hniˀ gyogaˀǫ́h shęh gaoˀ nitode̱ˀnyę́:dę:
the.most and it.tastes.good that even.so so.much.he.had.tasted
‘And it was sweeter than anything he had ever tasted.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)
cf. ni-t-ho-d-e̱-ˀnyę́:dę-:
part-cis-3s.m.p-srf-joinerE-try-stat

Comparative constructions are described in the following sections.

Related

⇒ “Adjectives” (words that function as adjectives), §7

⇒ ⌊tsaˀde-verb⌋, §12.2.1
⇒ ⌊tsi-incorporated noun-verb⌋ ‘be the same kind of incorporated
noun’, §12.2.1
⇒ ⌊ti-incorporated noun-deˀ(ah)⌋ ‘a different incorporated noun’,
§12.2.2
⇒ ⌊ni-⌋ (partitive) with verbs describing measures or degrees, §12.2.3
⇒ ⌊d-pronominal prefix-stative.verb⌋ ‘-est’, 12.2.5

Particles used in comparative constructions are listed below and are described
in the Particle dictionary, §C.
31 Comparisons, counting, measuring

Related

⇒ Gaoˀ ni- ‘less so’

⇒ Gwahs shęh ni- ‘as…as’
⇒ Heyohe:ˀ shęh ‘more than’
⇒ I:nǫh gaoˀ neˀ ‘far from enough’
⇒ Ji trehs shęh ‘too much so for’, ‘so much so’
⇒ Neˀ aǫhę:ˀęh d- ‘the most, -est, -er (of)’
⇒ Neˀ gyaǫhę:ˀęh d- ‘the most’, ‘the greatest’
⇒ Neˀ heyohe:ˀ ‘more, -er’
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs d- ‘the most’
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs heyohe:ˀ ‘the most, -est’
⇒ Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘as far as’, ‘as much as’
⇒ Toh niyo:weˀ ‘that far’
⇒ Toh shęh ni- ‘to that degree’

31.2 Counting with basic nouns

Counting with basic nouns is summarized next. (For basic nouns, see §5.1.)

31.2.1 Counting one object

The template for the verb meaning ‘one object’ is shown in (2, also see §12.2.4).

(2) ⌊s-pronominal prefix-incorporated noun-joinerA-t⌋

For basic nouns beginning with ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a, the corresponding counting verb
begins with ⌊s-ga-⌋ rep-3s.a (3).

(3) sganáˀja:t
s-ga-náˀj-a:-t
rep-3s.a-drum-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one bottle’
cf. ganáˀja:t
ga-náˀj-a:-t
3s.a-drum-joinerA-stand.stat
‘a standing bottle’

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 31.2 Counting with basic nouns

Basic nouns beginning with ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p are less straightforward: for some, the
corresponding counting verb begins with ⌊s-ga-⌋ rep-3s.a (4). However, for oth-
ers, the corresponding counting verb begins either with ⌊s-ga-⌋ rep-3s.a or ⌊j-o-⌋
rep-3s.p (5). For yet another set of nouns beginning with ⌊o-⌋, the counting verb
can only begin with ⌊j-o-⌋ (6).

(4) sgayę́hsra:t
s-ga-yę́hsr-a:-t
rep-3s.a-blanket-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one blanket’
cf. oyę́hsraˀ
o-yę́hsr-aˀ
3s.p-blanket-nsf
‘blanket’

(5) a. sgaˀnhǫ́hsa:t
s-ga-ˀnhǫ́hs-a:-t
rep-3s.a-egg-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one egg’
b. joˀnhǫ́hsa:t
j-o-ˀnhǫ́hs-a:-t
rep-3s.p-egg-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one egg’
cf. oˀnhǫ́hsaˀ
o-ˀnhǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.p-egg-nsf
‘egg’

(6) joháha:t
j-o-háh-a:-t
rep-3s.p-road-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one road’
cf. oháhaˀ
o-háh-aˀ
3s.p-road-nsf
‘road’

For basic nouns beginning with [a], the corresponding counting verb begins
with ⌊s-wa-⌋ rep-3s.a (7).

601
31 Comparisons, counting, measuring

(7) swanaháotra:t
s-w-anaháotr-a:-t
rep-3s.a-hat-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one hat’
cf. anaháotraˀ
anaháotr-aˀ
hat-nsf
‘hat’

At least one instrumental noun (§5.4.1) can be enumerated just like basic
nouns beginning with ⌊ga-⌋ (8).

(8) sgahyádǫ̱hkwa:t
s-ga-hyádǫ̱hkw-a:-t
rep-3s.a-pencil-joinerA-stand.stat
‘one pencil’
cf. ehyádǫ̱hkwaˀ
e-hyádǫ̱-hkwaˀ
she/someone.a-write-instr
‘pencil’

31.2.2 Counting two objects

The template for the verb meaning ‘two objects’ is shown in (9, also see §12.2.6).

(9) ⌊de-pronominal prefix-incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘two incorporated

nouns’

For basic nouns beginning with ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a, the corresponding counting verb
begins with ⌊de-ga-⌋ du-3s.a (10).

(10) degaji ̱hsdá:ge:

de-ga-ji ̱hsd-á:ge:
du-3s.a-lamp-certain.number.stat
‘two lamps’
cf. gajíhsdaˀ
ga-jíhsd-aˀ
3s.a-lamp-nsf
‘lamp’

For basic nouns beginning with ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p, the corresponding counting verb
begins with ⌊de-yo-⌋ du-3s.p (11).

602
 31.2 Counting with basic nouns

(11) a. deyoˀnǫ̱hsá:ge:
de-yo-ˀnǫ̱hs-á:ge:
du-3s.p-egg-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘two eggs’
cf. oˀnhǫ́hsaˀ
o-ˀnhǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.p-egg-nsf
‘egg’
b. deyohsi ̱ˀdá:ge:
de-yo-hsi ̱ˀd-á:ge:
du-3s.p-foot-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘two feet’
cf. ohsíˀdaˀ
o-hsíˀd-aˀ
3s.p-foot-nsf
‘foot’

For basic nouns beginning with [a], the corresponding counting verb begins
with ⌊de-wa-⌋ du-3s.a (12).

(12) dewahda̱hgwá:ge:
de-wa-hda̱hgw-á:ge:
du-3s.a-shoe-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘two shoes’
cf. ahdáhgwaˀ
ahdáhgw-aˀ
shoe-nsf
‘shoe’

31.2.3 Counting three or more objects

The template for the verb meaning ‘three or more objects’ is shown in (2, also
see §12.2.3).

(13) ⌊number⌋ ⌊ni-pronominal prefix-incorporated noun-age:⌋ ‘number

of incorporated nouns’

For basic nouns beginning with ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a, the corresponding counting verb
begins with ⌊ni-ga-⌋ part-3s.a (14).

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31 Comparisons, counting, measuring

(14) ahsęh niganǫ̱hsá:ge:

ahsęh ni-ga-nǫ̱hs-á:ge:
three part-3s.a-house-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘three houses’
cf. ganǫ́hsaˀ
ga-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.a-house-nsf
‘house’

Basic nouns beginning with ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p are less straightforward: for some, the cor-
responding counting verb begins with ⌊ni-yo-⌋ part-3s.p (15). For others, the cor-
responding counting verb begins with either ⌊ni-yo⌋ part-3s.p or ⌊ni-ga⌋ part-
3s.a (16).

(15) ahsęh niyohsi ̱ˀdá:ge:

ahsęh ni-yo-hsi ̱ˀd-á:ge:
three part-3s.p-foot-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘three feet’
cf. ohsíˀdaˀ
o-hsíˀd-aˀ
3s.p-foot-nsf
‘feet’

(16) a. ahsęh niyohǫnáˀdage:

ahsęh ni-yo-hǫnáˀd-age:
three part-3s.p-potato-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘three potatoes’
b. ahsęh nigahǫnáˀdage:
ahsęh ni-ga-hǫnáˀd-age:
three part-3s.a-potato-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘three potatoes’
cf. ohǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ
o-hǫ́na̱ˀd-aˀ
3s.p-potato-nsf
‘potatoes’

For basic nouns beginning with [a], the corresponding counting verb begins
with ⌊ni-wa⌋ part-3s.a (17).

604
 31.3 Counting words that are not basic nouns

(17) ahsęh niwahda̱hgwá:ge:

ahsęh ni-w-ahda̱hgw-á:ge:
three part-3s.a-shoe-be.a.certain.number.stat
‘three shoes’
cf. ahdáhgwaˀ
ahdáhgw-aˀ
shoe-nsf
‘shoes’

31.3 Counting words that are not basic nouns

Several other strategies, described next, are used for counting words that are
not basic nouns. (Such alternative counting strategies are needed because most
words functioning as “nouns” cannot be incorporated, unlike the basic nouns
described earlier).

31.3.1 Counting with placeholder words and placeholder incorporated

nouns
Many nouns, and words functioning as “nouns”, cannot be incorporated into the
counting verbs described earlier. In such cases, alternative methods are used in-
stead, as shown in (18–19). For these constructions, the counting verbs (described
previously) are still employed. However, they do not incorporate the noun that
is actually counted. Instead, they incorporate a placeholder noun, which has a
generic meaning. The enumerated noun appears after the verb, as a stand-alone
word.

(18) ⌊s-pronominal prefix-placeholder.incorporated.noun-t

specific.noun⌋ ‘one specific noun’
a. swa̱hdahgwá:t ahdahgwáǫweh
s-wa̱-hdahgw-á:-t ahdahgwá-ǫweh
rep-3s.a-shoe-joinerA-stand.stat no.prefix-shoe-typ
‘one ceremonial shoe’
b. sganahsgwá:t dagus
s-ga-nahsgw-á:t dagus
rep-3s.a-tame.animal-joinerA-stand.stat cat
‘one pet cat’

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31 Comparisons, counting, measuring

(19) ⌊de-pronominal prefix-placeholder.incorporated noun-age:

specific.noun⌋ ‘two specific nouns’
degrahe̱ˀda:gé: ohó:draˀ
de-grahe̱ˀd-a:gé: o-hó:dr-aˀ
du-tree-be.a.certain.number.stat 3s.p-basswood-nsf
‘two basswood trees’

The special verbs used for counting living things (“nouns”) are illustrated in
(20–22).

(20) ⌊s-pronominal prefix-yaˀd-joinerA-t [living.thing]⌋ ‘one [living.thing]’

a. sgayaˀdá:t dagu:s
s-ga-yaˀd-á:-t dagu:s
rep-3s.a-body-joinerA-stand.stat cat
‘one cat’
b. sgayaˀdá:t jogrihs ‘one blackbird’
c. sgayaˀdá:t ohtahyǫ́:ni: ‘one wolf’
d. sgayaˀdá:t twę́:twę:t ‘one duck’
e. sgayaˀdá:t degaya̱ˀdáhkwaˀ ‘one hen hawk’

(21) ⌊de-pronominal prefix-yahshe: [living.thing]⌋ ‘two [living.things]’

degadiyahshé: dagu:s
de-gadi-yahshé: dagu:s
du-3p.a-two.living.things.stat cat
‘two cats’

(22) [number] ⌊ni-pronominal prefix-ǫ: [living.thing]⌋ ‘three or more

[living.things]’
ahsę́h nigę:nǫ́: dagus
ahsę́h ni-gę:n-ǫ́: dagu:s
three part-3p.a-certain.number.stat cat
‘three cats’

As shown in (23–24), the same verbs are also used for counting people. (The
words describing people (agǫgweˀdá:se:, haksá:ˀah, etc.) are verbs functioning as
“nouns”, rather than true nouns, and so cannot be incorporated.) Additionally,
however, the pronominal prefix of the counting verb has to describe the number
and gender of the people referred to.

606
 31.3 Counting words that are not basic nouns

(23) ⌊counting verb [person]⌋ (Michelson 2011)

a. jeyaˀdá:t agǫgwe̱ˀdá:se:
j-e-yaˀd-a:-t ag-ǫgweˀd-a:se:
rep-3s.fi.a-body-joinerA-stand.stat 3s.fi.a-person-new.stat
‘one young woman’
b. degaeyahshé: ga:gǫgwéˀdase:
de-gae-yahshé: ga:g-ǫgwéˀd-ase:
du-3ns.fi.a-two.stat 3ns.fi.a-person-new.stat
‘two young women’
c. ahsę́h niga:gǫ́: ga:gǫgwéˀdase:
ahsę́h ni-ga:g-ǫ́:
three part-3ns.fi.a-be.a.certain.number.stat
ga:g-ǫgwéˀd-ase:
3ns.fi.a-person-new.stat
‘three young women’

(24) ⌊counting verb [person]⌋ (Michelson 2011)

a. shayaˀdá:t haksá:ˀah
s-ha-yaˀd-á:t ha-ksá:ˀah
rep-3s.m.a-body-stand.stat 3s.m.a-young.child
‘one boy’
b. de̱hadiyahshé: hadiksá:ˀah
de̱-hadi-yahshé: hadi-ksá:ˀah
du-3ns.m.a-two.living.things.stat 3ns.m.a-young.child
‘two boys’
c. ahsę́h ni ̱hę:nǫ́: hadiksa̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
ahsę́h ni ̱-hę:n-ǫ́: hadi-ksa̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh
three part-3ns.m.a-certain.number.stat 3ns.m.a-young.child-plrz
‘three boys’

31.3.2 Counting without noun incorporation

The counting verbs ⌊yahshe:⌋ ‘two living things’ and ⌊ǫ:⌋ ‘a number of things’
cannot incorporate nouns. Instead the nouns they refer to appear after the verb
(25). Similar examples were provided in (23-24 above).

607
31 Comparisons, counting, measuring

(25) ⌊number ⌊ni-y-ǫ:⌋ [thing]]⌋

ahsę́h ni:yǫ́: oná:tsih
ahsę́h ni:-y-ǫ́: on-á:tsih
three part-3s.p-be.a.number.of.things.stat 3ns.o-friends.stat
‘three pairs of socks’

The following example has the same basic structure as (25). However, the noun
after ⌊ní:yǫ:⌋ is a long-ish phrase functioning as a “noun” (shown in square brack-
ets in (26).

(26) ⌊[number] ⌊ni-y-ǫ:⌋ [thing/phrase]⌋

geí ni:yǫ́: [geí nigętse̱ˀda:gé: wadǫ:dá:taˀ]
geí ni:-y-ǫ́: geí
four part-3s.p-be.a.number.of.things.stat four
ni-ga-itse̱ˀd-á:ge: w-ad-ǫ:dá:t-haˀ
partitive-3s.a-bottle-two.or.more.stat 3s.a-srf-contain-hab
‘four gallons’

A less common method of counting is just to place a number before the rel-
evant word. This strategy is used for several unincorporable nouns (27a) and
several verbs functioning as “nouns” (27b).

(27) ⌊[number] [word/phrase]⌋

a. sgá:t awę́hęˀ ‘one flower’
b. sgá:t heyótga̱htwęh ‘one mile’

And finally, nouns that are already incorporated into verbs (regular ones, not
counting verbs) can be enumerated by just adding a number before the relevant
incorporating verb (28).

(28) ⌊[number] prefix-incorporated noun-verb⌋ ‘do something to

[number] of [incorporated nouns]’
sgá:t shayę́dǫtaˀ
sgá:t s-ha-yę́d-ǫt-h-a-ˀ
one rep-3s.m.a-firewood-place-disl-joinerA-punc
‘He put one more piece of wood on the fire.’
cf. oyę́:daˀ
o-yę́:d-aˀ
3s.p-firewood-nsf
‘firewood’

608
 Part VI

Discourse and discourse

signposts
Discourse signposts are any means of managing information in connected
speech. They include ways of expressing new or old news, changes in topic, and
so on. Discourse signposts in Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ include word order choices,
noun incorporation choices, information provided by the pronominal prefixes,
and the use of discourse markers (particles and particle groups).
32 Word order effects
Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ word order is flexible, meaning for example that a noun de-
scribing an agent or “doer”, such as neˀ kso:t, can appear either before the verb
(1) or after (2). Similarly, a noun undergoing an action, such as jihsǫ́:dahk, can
occur either before the verb (3) or after (4).

(1) Neˀ giˀ aˀa:gę́ˀ, [neˀ ksó:t aˀa:gę́ˀ], “Ęhsnigǫ̱há:k

The just she.said, [the grandmother, she.said], you.two.be.careful
gwaˀ to:gyę́h, ahgwí, ęhsahdǫ́: neˀ gayá:ˀ.”
intensifier that.one, don’t you.will.lose the bag
‘So then [our grandmother said], “You two be careful, don’t lose that
bag!”’(Henry 2005)

(2) Neˀ giˀ to: neˀ, [onę́h aˀa:gę́ˀ neˀ kso:t,] “Jadohswe̱ˀdá:nih
The just that the, [now she.said the grandmother], you.two.are.hungry
gę́h?”
Q
‘It’s just that then [our grandma said], “Are you both hungry?”’ (Henry
2005)

(3) Jihsǫ:dáhk ga̱hyá:gwahs

strawberries I’m.picking.fruit
‘I’m picking strawberries.’

(4) Ga̱hya:gwáhs jihsǫ́:dahk

I’m.picking.fruit strawberries
‘I’m picking strawberries.’

Since word order is flexible, speakers can and do use it to manage information
flow. Some examples of the kinds of information implied by word order choice
are provided next. The following descriptions are tentative, since more research
is needed on this topic.
32 Word order effects

32.1 First position

Words in first position are either at the very beginning of an utterance, or
right after a particle group. They tend to convey significant, notable, or topical
information. For example, in (5b), the speaker uses oda:dí:dęht first in the sen-
tence because it is the main point. (The village described in 5a was undergoing
a famine.)

(5) a. O:nę́h haha:di:yǫ́ˀ shęh ho:wę́h hadinagrehsraę́ˀ neˀ ǫgwehǫ́:weh.

now they.arrived that where they.live the real.people
‘Now they arrived where the Real People lived.’
b. Oda:di:dę́ht dęˀhoˀdę́ˀ ahęnatgáhtoˀ.
it.was.pitiful what they.looked.at.it
‘It was pitiful what they saw.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

As another example, in answer to the salesman’s question in the dialogue in

(6), Sam first mentions the item that he wants, enesdanyáktaˀ (6b), because it is
the direct, relevant response to the salesman’s question. In contrast, later in the
dialogue (6c), the main point, (again expressed first), is about buying (ękni:nǫ́ˀ ),
and mention of the saw (neˀ gwáhs ga̱ henˀatri:yó: enesdanyáktaˀ) is now at the
end of the utterance.

(6) a. Salesman: Sga̱hoˀdę́:ˀęh gęh o:yáˀ desadǫ̱hwę:jo:nih?

anything Q other you.want.it
‘Is there something else you want?’
b. Sam: Ęhę́ˀ. Enesdanyaˀktáˀ giˀ hniˀ dewagadǫhwęjó:nih.
yes saw just and I.want.it
‘Yes, I also want a saw.’
c. Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀǫh ękni:nǫ́ˀ neˀ gwáhs ga̱hena̱ˀtri:yó:
it.is just I.guess I.will.buy.it the best
enesdanyáˀktaˀ.
good.knife saw
‘Then I guess I’ll buy the best cutting saw.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
159, Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)

From previous studies, we know that first position is for new information (in-
formation that the speaker believes is not known to the listener(s) (Mithun 1992:
29–30, Mithun 1995: 408). First position is also for information contrasting with
something mentioned earlier (Mithun 1992: 37). Finally, first position is reserved

612
 32.2 Last position

for words expressing a new topic or a shift in topic (Mithun 1992: 27, 29–32,
Mithun 1995: 405, also see Chafe 1994).
Example (7) introduces an additional point, that speakers can use several strate-
gies at once to manage information flow. In (7), the speaker introduces a new
topic (another way to hunt for rabbits) and so places ó:yaˀ ‘another (way)’ in
first position (the closest possible position is after tohgeh). Meanwhile, tohgeh
also signals a shift in topic. (It functions as a discourse marker or topic man-
ager, described in §35).

(7) Tohgeh o:yaˀ hniˀ gę:s niyagwayé:haˀ.

then other too used-to so-we-did-it.
‘There is another way we used to do it.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

32.2 Last position

Last position refers to the end of an utterance. Words in last position tend to ex-
press old information (information that the speaker believes to be already known
or readily accessible from the context of the discourse, Mithun 1995: 405). For ex-
ample, neˀ ksotgę̱hę́:ˀ appears near the end of (8b) because ‘the grandmother’ was
previously introduced. In contrast, the most important information in (8b) is neˀ
dyotgǫ́:t gę:s, which appears first in order to emphasize that grandmother always
had bread.

(8) a. Neˀ giˀ agása:ˀs

the just I.remember
‘What I remember’
b. neˀ dyotgǫ́:t gę:s gonaˀdaę́ˀ neˀ ksotgę̱hę́:ˀ.
the always usually she.had.bread the late.grandmother
‘is that she always had bread, that grandma.’
c. Neˀ gotnaˀdáǫdaˀk.
the she.made.bread
‘She made bread.’ (Henry 2005)

Last position also introduces sub-themes, or alternatively, reminds listener(s)

about information that continues to be relevant: in (9b) neˀ odiˀtragáˀǫh intro-
duces the subtopic of “Good Tea” (the name of the dog), who is then described
in the following sentence (9c). More examples are provided in §33.2.

613
32 Word order effects

(9) a. Da̱hataę́: shayaˀdá:t gwahs hniˀ nę: hahayé: neˀ hotse:nę́ˀ

he.spoke one.man just.then and then he.touched the his.pet
só:wa:s
dog
‘One man spoke up and touched his pet dog.’
b. Ahę́ˀ, “Ne:ˀ seh-gyę:ˀ sęh tęˀ ní:s desana̱hsgwaę́:
he.said it’s you.know-this.one that not you you.don’t.have.a.pet
toh nagana̱hsgwiyohá:k sęh niyóht neˀ odiˀtragáˀǫh.”
that.one how.good.the.pet.is that it’s.like the good.tea
‘He said, “Because you don’t have a pet as good as Good Tea.”’
c. “Tęˀ-hné: hwę́:dǫˀ da̱hodahdǫ́:dęˀ ó:nęh ęhayanę́hę:ˀ
not-in.fact ever it.disappears.on.him now he.will.track.it
ga:nyo:ˀ.”
wild.animal
‘“It never disappears on him when he tracks an animal.”’ (He never
loses the track.) (Keye 2012)

614
33 Noun incorporation in discourse
Recall that noun incorporation is optional for some verbs. When noun incor-
poration is optional, speakers can make deliberate choices about whether or not
to incorporate, for stylistic effect. In fact, pairs of non-incorporated and incor-
porated nouns often appear together in connected speech: for example, the non-
incorporated noun oˀę:náˀ appears in the sentence in (1a), while its incorporated
counterpart ⌊ˀęn⌋ appears in (1b). The discourse-relevant reasons for such pair-
ings are described in the following sections. (For related information, see §9.1
and 14.)

(1) a. O:nę́h hahonadíˀ ohyoˀti:yéht oˀę:náˀ shęh í:ga:t.

now they.threw.it.there it.is.sharp spear that it.stands
‘Now they threw a sharp spear where he (the Bear) stood.’
cf. oę:náˀ
o-ę:n-áˀ
3s.p-spear-nsf
b. Ne:ˀ neˀ hohsę́: hahoˀęnǫ:díˀ gwahs tsaˀdeyonǫˀahę́ˀ
it.is the he.is.fat he.spear-threw right middle.of.its.head
haˀgahnyó:daˀ.
it.stuck.there
‘The fat one threw the spear right in the middle of its head, (where) it
stuck.’ (Keye 2012)
cf. hahoˀęnǫ:díˀ
ha-ho-ˀęn-ǫ:dí-ˀ
transl-3s.m.p-spear-throw-punc

33.1 Non-incorporated nouns in first position

Non-incorporated nouns in first position tend to introduce prominent or new in-
formation (that is, foregrounded material). In contrast, incorporated nouns by
definition do not occur in first position. They often refer to previously-established,
non-topical, or background information (that is, given information), (Mithun
1995: 406). For example, the use of non-incorporated oˀnhǫhsaˀ in first position
33 Noun incorporation in discourse

in (2a) signals that ‘eggs’ have become important or relevant to the point at hand.
In contrast, the switch to incorporated ⌊ˀnhǫhs⌋ ‘eggs’ in (2b) conveys that eggs
are now old news, with the question about borrowing becoming more relevant
or topical in (2b), (Mithun 1999: 429).
(2) a. Oˀnhǫhsaˀ hniˀ to í:wa:t.
eggs too there it.is.in.there
‘There are some eggs in there too.’
b. Tęˀ de̱ˀgę́: hne:ˀ a:se̱ˀnhǫhsaníhaˀ hniˀ?
not it.isn’t in.fact you.should.borrow.eggs too
‘Don’t you think you should egg-borrow too?’ (Mithun 1999: 429,
modified orthography and glosses)
For Kanien’kéha, Decaire et al. (2017: 2,8) convincingly argue that noun in-
corporation is obligatory when the verb allows it and that excorporation is a
device for placing focus on the noun in question. Excorporated nouns express-
ing focus appear to the left of the verb, in first position.

33.2 Excorporated nouns in final position

Excorporated nouns can also appear in final position, where they can express
points of clarification, or can also remind the listener about concepts that con-
tinue to be relevant to the conversation (Chafe 1976, Mithun 1999: 199–200. Also
see §32.2). For example, otgwę́hsaˀ appears in final position in (3b), where it clar-
ifies ‘what is dripping’. (Also, illustrating that excorporation was a deliberate
choice, otgwę́hsaˀ could have been incorporated into ęyó:kaˀ ‘it will drip’, as
shown by words like otgwęhsokahs ‘dripping blood’.)
(3) a. O:nę́h gę:s ahadinyóˀ ętgawe̱hsahíˀ neˀ hnyagwaidatgiˀgó:wah.
now usually they.kill.it it.will.bleed the Ugly.Bear
‘When they kill it, Ugly Bear bleeds.’
b. Ne:ˀ hne:ˀ ęyo:káˀ gaǫhyada:gyéˀ otgwę́hsaˀ.
it.is in.fact it.will.drip along.the.sky blood
‘That is what drips in the sky, blood.’
c. Ne:ˀ dęhsgade:níˀ shęh niyohso̱hgoˀdę́hs onrahdǫ:dǫ́ˀ neˀ
it.is it.will.change that what.colours.they.are the.leaves the
gra̱héˀdǫˀ.
trees
‘That’s what changes the colours the leaves of the trees.’ (Keye 2012)

616
 33.2 Excorporated nouns in final position

Similarly, in example (4), excorporated oˀwáhǫh, neˀ onę́hę:ˀ, and ohsáheˀdaˀ

appear in final position. (The choice of excorporation must have been deliber-
ate, since the verbs used, ǫgwá:yęˀ and de̱ˀjǫ:gwá:yęˀ, tend to have incorporated
nouns.) By placing excorporated nouns in final position, the speaker specifies
and emphasizes all the items that are lacking.

(4) Nę: tsǫ: ni:yǫ́: ǫgwa:yę́ˀ oˀwáhǫh. Tęˀ gwa̱ˀtóh

it.is just a.certain.amount we.have meat not any.at.all
de̱ˀjǫ:gwa:yę́ˀ neˀ onę́hę:ˀ, ohsáheˀdaˀ.
we.don’t.have the corn, beans.
‘We have very little meat left. We have no corn or beans left.’ (Carrier
et al. 2013)

In (5c), the choice to use a non-incorporated noun in final position signals a

clarification, or even a punch-line, about which type of liquid or sap is under
discussion, nę:gyę́h ohwahdáˀ otséhsdaˀ. In contrast, earlier in the story in (5a, b),
⌊hnega⌋ ‘liquid, sap’ is incorporated because the main point is not about the type
of sap, but instead, about collecting and heating it.

(5) a. Tga:gǫ́:t heyohé: i:sóˀ ędwahnegá:goˀ,

it.is.necessary much more we.will.collect.liquid
‘We must collect the sap,’
cf. ę-dwa-hneg-á:-go-ˀ
fut-1p.in.a-liquid-joinerA-gather-punc
b. ędwahnegaíht,
we.will.heat.liquid
‘we will heat it,’
cf. ę-dwa-hneg-a-íht
fut-1p.in.a-liquid-joinerA-break.into.bits.ø.punc
c. ędwahsrǫ:níˀ nę:gyę́h ohwahdáˀ otséhsdaˀ.
we.will.make.it this.one maple syrup.
‘and make this maple syrup.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

617
34 Pronominal prefixes in discourse
Pronominal prefixes also help to manage the flow of information in discourse.
Examples are provided in the following sections.

34.1 Pronominal prefixes and flexible word order

Pronominal prefixes enable the kind of flexible word order (Mithun, 1995, 411)
described earlier, in that they remove potential ambiguity of reference. For ex-
ample, in (1), the pronominal prefix ⌊ha-⌋ 3s.m.a in da-há-yagęˀ clearly links the
description togyę́h daháyagęˀ to the noun it modifies, neˀ haksótgę̱hę:ˀ.

(1) Onę́h gwaˀ, nę́-gwaˀ ahsha:kni:gę́ˀ neˀ haksotgęhę́:ˀ

Now right.now now-right.now we.saw.him the my.late.grandfather
[togyę́h da̱hayagę́ˀ].
[there he.went.out]
‘And then we saw my late grandfather [(who) was going out from there].’
(Henry 2005)

Because pronominal prefixes remove ambiguity of reference, the order of phrases

in sentences can be freer. To use an earlier example, the noun-group neˀ ksó:t can
appear before the verb aˀa:gę́ˀ in (2), but after the verb in (3), with no ambiguity
concerning who is speaking.

(2) Neˀ giˀ aˀa:gę́ˀ, [neˀ ksó:t aˀa:gę́ˀ,] “Ęhsnigǫ̱há:k

The just she.said, [the grandmother, she.said], you.two.be.careful
gwaˀ to:gyę́h, ahgwí, ęhsahdǫ́: neˀ gayá:ˀ.”
intensifier that.one, don’t you.will.lose the bag
‘So then our grandmother said, “You two be careful, don’t lose that bag.”’
(Henry 2005)
34 Pronominal prefixes in discourse

(3) Neˀ giˀ to: neˀ, [onę́h aˀa:gę́ˀ neˀ kso:t,] “Jadohswe̱ˀdá:nih
The just that the, [now she.said the grandmother], you.two.are.hungry
gę́h?”
Q
‘It’s just that then [our grandma said], “Are you both hungry?”’ (Henry
2005)

34.2 Backgrounding and pronominal prefixes

The 3s.fi (‘she/someone’) pronominal prefix often refers to backgrounded peo-
ple. It can even refer to more than one person, either male(s), female(s), or a
mixed group. For example, in (4), which sets the stage for the rest of a story, the
3s.fi.a prefix refers to people who are being terrorized by a magic bear. In (4a),
the pronominals in go̱hdrǫˀs ‘she/someone is scared’ and he:yęˀ ‘she/someone
is there’ refer to neˀ ǫgweh ‘the person’ (in context, ‘the people’). In (4b), the
pronominal in dejǫtga̱ hnyeh ‘she/someone doesn’t play’ refers to eksaˀshǫ:ˀǫh
‘the children’. Similarly, the prefix in ęyǫtgę̱hęhsǫ:ˀ ‘she/someone will get up sev-
erally’ refers to neˀ ǫgwehsǫ:ˀǫh ‘the people’ in (4d).

(4) a. Go̱hdrǫˀs agęˀ hniˀ i:nǫh he:yęˀ neˀ

someone.is.scared it’s.said and far someone.is.over.there the
ǫgweh shęh ena:greˀ.
person that someone.lives
‘They are scared to go too far, the people who live there.’
cf. go̱hdrǫˀs
go-hdrǫˀs
3s.fi.a-scared.stat
b. Eksaˀshǫ:ˀǫh hniˀ ǫ:nęh tęˀ ahsdeh dejǫtga̱hnyeh.
children and now not outside someone.doesn’t.play
‘The kids too now, they do not play outside.’
cf. dejǫtga̱hnyeh
de-j-ǫ-t-ga̱hnye-h
neg-rep-3s.fi.a-srf-play-hab
c. O:nęh hniˀ ohsǫdagwe:gǫh dehodinęhę:ˀ neˀ hęnǫ:gweh shęh
now and all.night they(males).guard the men that
ena:greˀ.
someone.lives.there
‘Now too all night the men are guarding the village.’

620
 34.3 Foregrounding and pronominal prefixes

d. He:yǫ:ˀ ęyǫtgę̱hęhsǫ:ˀ neˀ ǫgwehsǫ:ˀǫh

every.time someone.will.get.up.severally the people
oyę:deht giˀ shęh,
it.is.obvious just that
‘Every time the people get up its obvious it was there,’
cf. ęyǫtgę̱ hęhsǫ:ˀ
ę-yǫ-t-gę̱ h-ę-hs-ǫ-:ˀ
fut-3s.fi.a-srf-get.up-joinerA-disl-plrz-punc
e. weˀsgę̱ hę:ˀ neˀ hnyagwaiˀdatgiˀgo:wah shęh
it.was.there the big.ugly.bear that
niwahsǫ:di:s.
a.certain.length.of.night
‘the big ugly bear, during the night.’ (Keye 2012)

34.3 Foregrounding and pronominal prefixes

Choosing between 3m (3rd person male) or 3fi (3rd person feminine-indefinite)
prefixes possibly signals that the entities referred to are either foregrounded or
backgrounded.1 In connected speech, 3m prefixes meaning ‘he’ or ‘they (males)’
refer to foregrounded entities, and 3fi prefixes meaning ‘she/someone’ or ‘they
(females or mixed group)’ possibly refer to backgrounded entities (Baldwin 1997).
For example, in (5b), ǫtahí:neˀ ‘she or someone walks’ refers to a backgrounded,
unspecified shǫ:gwaˀ-noht (who was introduced in (5a, b). Then, this unknown
shǫ:gwaˀ-noht is revealed to be a male in (5c), named as ‘Grandpa’ in (5d).
Crucially, in (5c), the speaker switches to a ‘he’ pronominal in da̱ hanhohá:goˀ
when referring to shǫ:gwaˀ-noht. The switch in prefix implies that shǫ:gwaˀ-noht
has been revealed and is now part of the new or foregrounded information in the
discourse.

(5) a. O:nę́h gwaˀ aˀǫgyatǫ:dę́h to: shǫ:gwaˀ-noht ahsdéh i:wa:kˀah

now just.now we.heard that some-person outside near
ganǫ́hso:t,
standing.house
‘And then suddenly we heard someone outside beside the house,’

1
The analysis in this section is tentative. It is based on Baldwin’s analysis of Onʌyotaʼa:ká: texts,
(Baldwin 1997).

621
34 Pronominal prefixes in discourse

b. shǫ:gwaˀ-nóht ǫtahí:neˀ.
some-person she/someone.walks
‘someone walking.’
cf. ǫtahí:neˀ
ǫ-t-hah-í:ne-ˀ
3s.fi.a-srf-road-lead-punc
c. O:nę́h gwaˀ ǫgya:tǫ́:deˀ shǫgwaˀ-nóht da̱hanhohá:goˀ.
now just.now we.heard some-person he.opened.the.door
‘Then we also heard someone open the door.’
cf. da̱hanhohá:goˀ
d-a̱-ha-nhoh-á:-go-ˀ
cis-fut-3s.m.a-door-joinerA-pick.up-punc
d. O:, neˀ giˀ gyę-ǫ-ˀǫh ó:nęh shaknihsó:t
Oh the just this.one-I.guess-I.guess now our.grandfather
sa̱há:yǫˀ.
he.came.home
‘Oh, then I guess our grandpa came home.’ (Henry 2005)

622
35 Discourse markers
Discourse markers (mostly particles) figure prominently in managing the flow
of information in discourse. They convey at least four types of meaning, listed
in (1) and described in the following sections.
(1) Types and meaning of discourse markers (after the classification scheme
proposed in Andersen 2001: 26)
a. exclamations convey the speaker’s spontaneous reactions;
b. evidential markers communicate the speaker’s belief about the
nature of the evidence for his/her statements;
c. interactional markers help to manage turn-taking and other
verbal interactions between speaker(s) and listener(s);
d. topic markers communicate how utterances relate to one another –
what is topical, what is backgrounded, etc.
Most of the following sections end with lists of links to other sections in this
work – the examples are in other sections. Although unsatisfying, this method of
presentation results in much less duplication. (The discourse particles described
next were deliberately listed elsewhere, in the Particle dictionary, §C, in order to
showcase relationships among particles.)

35.1 Exclamations
Exclamations are discourse markers (particles) that express emotions or reac-
tions such as shock, surprise, pain, disgust, and anger (2–3).
(2) “Agí:!” agyohé:t onę́h awádegoˀ.
ow she.cried now she.ran.away
‘“Ow!” she cried and ran away.’ (Keye 2016, Circle Book 10, The Magic
Chair)
(3) “O: tsę:,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “ahsdéh jatgáhnye̱hah!”
oh my she.said outside you.two.go.and.play
‘“Oh my,” she said, “go play outside!’ (Henry 2005)
35 Discourse markers

The following exclamations described in the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Agi: ‘ouch!’
⇒ Aju: ‘yikes!’
⇒ Gwe: ‘well!’
⇒ Hoh, Ho: ‘what the…?!’
⇒ Hoho: ‘aha!’, ‘oh no!’
⇒ Otgǫˀ, Hotgǫˀǫh ‘what the…?!’, ‘for Heaven’s sake!’
⇒ O:, O:ò: ‘oh’
⇒ Trehs giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘my goodness!’, ‘too bad!’, ‘that’s amazing!’
⇒ Tsę: ‘oh my!’

35.2 Evidential markers

Evidential markers express the speaker’s opinion about whether his or her
statements are first-hand, hearsay, etc. Types of evidential words and phrases are
described in the following sections. (Also see Mood and negation prefixes, §12.1.)

35.2.1 Quotation markers

Quotation markers are words or phrases introducing direct quotations. These
markers are generally versions of the verb ‘to say’ (4–5).

(4) Gwi:déh ha:dǫ́h, “Nawęˀdáˀ go:gáˀs Tina.”

Peter he.said sugar she.likes.it Tina
‘Peter said, “Tina likes candy.”’

(5) O:nę́h aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Ja̱ˀsnę́ht to:gyę́h waˀjíh neˀ sǫ:gwaˀnóht

now she.said you.two.get.down there right.now the someone
ęyagonǫ́hnyaˀk.”
someone.will.get.hurt
‘And then she said, “Both of you get down before somebody gets hurt.”’
(Henry 2005)

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 35.2 Evidential markers

35.2.2 Hearsay markers

Hearsay markers express the idea that the information presented is hearsay or
second-hand (6). These markers are also generally versions of a verb meaning ‘it
is said’.

(6) O:nę́”, agęˀ, neˀ Government nitawe:nǫ́: hǫgwéh, aha:yǫ́ˀ neˀ

now it.is.said the Government he.was.sent man he.arrived the
toh. Ahshǫgwa̱hó:wiˀ. O:nę́h, agę́ˀ, dęyǫkidé:niˀ.
there he.told.us now it.is.said they.will.change.us
‘Now then the Government man arrived here. He said that they would
change us now.’ (Henry 2005)

(7) Hǫwadigówaneh wá:dǫh Onǫdowáˀga:ˀ, Hiˀnoˀ hayá:sǫh.

he.is.their.leader it.is.said Seneca, Hiˀnoˀ he.is.called
‘It is said that the one called Hiˀnoˀ was the leader of the Senecas.’
(Carrier et al. 2013)

35.2.3 Doubt or certainty markers

Doubt or certainty markers (particles or particle groups) express the speaker’s
degree of confidence in what he or she is saying.

(8) Ó:, degyega̱hné:ˀ giˀ. O:nę́h gyę́:ˀ ǫh ǫkwái.

oh, she.is.looking.out just now this.one I.guess the.food.is.cooked
‘Oh, she is looking out. The food must be cooked now.’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 294, Dwade:kǫ́:nih dialogue)

(9) Mary ǫh ne:ˀ gohwihsdagaˀdeˀ.

Mary I.wonder it.is she.has.a.lot.of.money
‘Maybe Mary has a lot of money.’

The following doubt or certainty markers are described in the Particle dictio-
nary, §C.

625
35 Discourse markers

Related

⇒ A:yę:ˀ ‘I guess’, ‘it seems’

⇒ Do:gaˀ ‘I don’t know’
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh tęˀ ‘maybe not’, ‘or not’
⇒ Giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’
⇒ Gwaˀ ti:gę: ‘plainly’, ‘clearly’, ‘as it is’
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘maybe’, ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder’
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ hne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘just maybe’
⇒ Hę:-gyęh, hę:gyeh ‘no matter’
⇒ Hę:-gyęh tsǫ: ‘it doesn’t matter’, ‘never mind’
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess’
⇒ Ne:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess it is’
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’
⇒ Oh, ǫ:, ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’
⇒ Oh ne:ˀ ‘maybe’
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ daˀǫ ‘maybe not’

35.2.4 Possibility markers

Possibility markers (particles or particle groups) provide the speaker’s opinion
about whether something is possible or permissible.

(10) Swasha:ˀsé:k shęh taˀdewę̱ hnihsragé: ęwa:dǫ́ˀ

you.remember that every.day it.is.possible
daedwadęnǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ.
we.should.give.thanks
‘Remember every day is a good day, and we can give thanks for that.’
(Carrier et al. 2013)

The following possibility markers are described in the Particle dictionary, §C.

626
 35.3 Interactional markers

Related

⇒ Ęwa:dǫˀ ‘yes, you may’, ‘it is permissible’, ‘you can’

⇒ Ęwa:dǫˀ gęh ‘may I’, ‘may we’
⇒ Ęwa:dǫˀ giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘a possibility’
⇒ Tęˀ ta:wa:dǫh ‘you may not’

35.3 Interactional markers

Interactional markers (particles or particle groups) help to manage interac-
tions between speaker(s) and listener(s). Various types are described in the fol-
lowing sections.

35.3.1 Agreement markers

Agreement markers (particles or particle groups) express the speaker’s agree-
ment with previous statements or ideas.

(11) Trehs taˀdeyodriˀsdagé: ga̱ha:gǫ́: waˀne:ˀ.

too not.much.noise in.woods today
‛The woods are too quiet.’
Ęhę:ˀ, gwahs ǫ́:weh seˀ.
yes very it.is.true you.know
‛Yes, much too quiet.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

The following agreement markers are described in the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Do:gęhs ‘exactly’, ‘just so’

⇒ Do:s giˀ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’
⇒ Ęhęˀ ‘yes’
⇒ Ęhęˀ ę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’
⇒ Ęhęˀ gyę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’
⇒ Ęhęˀ seˀ ‘it is so’, ‘yes indeed’

627
35 Discourse markers

⇒ Gwahs ǫ:węh seˀ ‘indeed’, ‘for sure’

⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’

35.3.2 Disagreement markers

Disagreement markers express the speaker’s disagreement with previous state-
ments or ideas (12).

(12) Tęˀ giˀ hne:ˀ dedo:gę́hs deˀsá:dǫh.

not just in.fact it.isn’t.true you.are.not.saying.it
‘No, it isn’t really true what you are saying.’

The following disagreement markers are described in the Particle dictionary,

§C.

Related

⇒ Hęˀęh ‘no’
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’
⇒ Tęˀ daˀǫ ‘it will never happen’, ‘definitely not’
⇒ Tęˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh, tęˀ gęˀǫh ‘not really’
⇒ Tęˀ gwahs ǫ:weh ‘not really’, ‘not quite’
⇒ Tęˀ hne:ˀ ‘definitely not’
⇒ Tęˀ seˀ ‘not really’, ‘but then not really’
⇒ Tęˀ tǫ ne:ˀ, Tęˀ to ne:ˀ ‘not really’
⇒ Tęˀ dedo:gęhs ‘it isn’t true’, ‘not really’

35.3.3 Acknowledgement markers

Acknowledgement markers signal that the speaker is responding to something
previously stated or implied (13–14).

628
 35.3 Interactional markers

(13) Ęhsnéˀ gęh diˀ?

we.two.will.go.together Q then
‘Are you coming along then?’, ‘So, are you coming along?’

(14) Haoˀ diˀ sáh, ękni:nǫ́ˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀǫh.

o.k. so you.know I.will.buy.it just I.guess
‘O.k., I guess I’ll buy it then.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ
dialogue)

The following acknowledgement markers are described in the Particle dictio-

nary, §C.

Related

⇒ Diˀ ‘so’, ‘then’

⇒ Haoˀ ‘o.k.’
⇒ Haoˀ dęˀ nyoh ‘o.k. then’
⇒ Haoˀ diˀ sah ‘alright’, ‘o.k.’
⇒ Nya:węh ‘thank you’, ‘thanks’
⇒ Nyoh ‘you’re welcome’, ‘alright’, ‘o.k.’

35.3.4 Shared knowledge markers

Shared knowledge markers convey the idea that the topic at hand is known
to both speaker and listener (15).

(15) Sǫheh gyę:ˀ nóne:ˀ gá:dǫh deyonadáwęnyeˀ.

nighttime the.one you.know I.say they.walk.about
‘As I said, at night, you know, they walk around.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

The following shared knowledge markers are described in the Particle dictio-
nary, §C.

629
35 Discourse markers

Related

⇒ Gęh ‘mind you’

⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’
⇒ None:ˀ, Nǫne:ˀ ‘mind you’, ‘you know’
⇒ Ne:ˀ seˀ gyę:ˀ ‘you know’
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’

35.4 Topic markers

Topic markers help speakers and listeners to identify and manage topics. Several
types are described in the following sections.

35.4.1 Topic starters and conclusions

Topic starters and conclusions signal the beginning or end of a topic (16).

(16) Da ne:ˀ onę́h toh niyáwę̱ hdreˀ.

and it.is now that.one what.is.going.to.happen
‘And now this is what is going to happen.’

The following topic starters and conclusions are described in the Particle dic-
tionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Da: ‘and’
⇒ Da: ne:ˀ onęh ‘and now’
⇒ Da: nę: dah ‘and now’
⇒ Da: ne:ˀ ‘that’s it’
⇒ Da: neˀ toh ‘that’s all’
⇒ Hę:-dah ‘and now’
⇒ Hę: (syllable)
⇒ To tsǫ: ‘that’s all’

630
 35.4 Topic markers

35.4.2 Topic continuation markers

Topic continuation markers express the idea that the speaker is continuing a
topic by adding or asking for new information (17).

(17) Dęˀ hniˀ hoˀdę́ˀ hoihoˀdę́hsro̱ˀdeˀ?

What and kind his.kind.of.work
‘And what does he do?’

The following topic continuation markers are described in the Particle dictio-
nary, §C.

Related

⇒ Hęˀ ‘also’, ‘too’

⇒ Hniˀ ‘and’, ‘also’, ‘too’
⇒ Da: ne:ˀ hniˀ ‘too’, ‘also’, ‘and’
⇒ Neˀ tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ‘also’
⇒ Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ ‘too’, ‘also’
⇒ Ne:ˀ hniˀ ne:ˀ ‘and that also’
⇒ Toh-geh ‘and then’

35.4.3 Topic changers

Topic changers signal that the speaker is changing topics or introducing new
information that is thematically different from what was previously talked about.
In (18), David and Pete have just exchanged greetings, and then David uses gwé:
to signal a change in topic.

(18) Gwé:, í:s gęh satse:nę́ˀ to:gyę́h so:wa:s?

well, you Q its.your.pet that.one dog
‘Well, is that your dog?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 317, Sanahsgwaę́ˀ Gęh
Sga̱hoˀdę́:ˀęh dialogue)

The following topic changers are described in the Particle dictionary, §C.

631
35 Discourse markers

Related

⇒ Giˀ hne:ˀ ‘but’, ‘however’

⇒ Gwe: ‘well’
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: shęh ‘it’s just that’

35.4.4 Focus, contrastive focus, and emphasis markers

Focus markers highlight new information introduced by the speaker (19). Con-
trastive focus markers signal that the new information being presented is a
correction or contrast with previous information (20). Emphasis markers high-
light old or background information (19–21).

(19) Neˀ seˀ hǫwę́:dǫh.

the you.know she.means.him
‘He is just the one she means.’

(20) Ohyadǫhsra:sé: i:wí: tęˀ hne:ˀ ohyadǫ̱hsra:gá:yǫh.

new.book I.want not in.fact old.book
‘I want the new book, not the old one.’

(21) Nę́: swatgahtóh gra̱he:t. Weˀsgęhę́: neˀ hnyagwái:. Heˀtgę́h dęˀ

look you.all.look.at.it tree it.was.here the bear high what
hniˀ hegano̱ˀjoyaǫní: tó:gyęh!
and the.marks.are.made.up.there those.ones
‘Look at this pine tree. The bear has been here. See just how high up those
marks are!’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

The following focus, contrastive focus, and emphasis markers are described in
the Particle dictionary, §C.

Related

⇒ Dęˀ hniˀ ‘for sure’

⇒ Giˀ ne:ˀ ‘it’s just’
⇒ Giˀ tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘really’

632
 35.4 Topic markers

⇒ Gwahs ‘anyway’
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’
⇒ Gyę:ˀ hne:ˀ tęˀ neˀ ‘it was this one, (not that one)’
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’
⇒ Neˀ seˀ ‘that’s just the one’, ‘that’s just who’
⇒ Neˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ gyę:ˀ, negęˀnagęˀ ‘that is what’
⇒ Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ ‘emphasis’
⇒ Neˀ to gyę:ˀ ‘that’s what’
⇒ Ne:ˀ/Neˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘that’s just it’, ‘that’s it for sure’
⇒ Ne:ˀ diˀ gęh ‘is that it then?’, ‘is that…?’
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ ‘just’
⇒ Ne:ˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ ‘that really is’
⇒ Ne:ˀ he:gę: ‘just’, ‘only’, ‘all’
⇒ Ne:ˀ hne:ˀ ne:ˀ ‘in fact, it is’, ‘it IS’
⇒ Ne:ˀ neˀ ‘it is’, ‘that is’, ‘that’s what’
⇒ Shęh nohgeh ‘even’
⇒ Tęˀ gyę:ˀ nę neˀ ‘NOT’, ‘what on earth?’
⇒ Tęˀ hne:ˀ neˀ ‘not THAT ONE’
⇒ tęˀ seˀ ‘not really’, ‘but then, not really’

633
 Part VII

Technical notes
36 Technical notes
This section includes various explanations of technical linguistic terms and con-
cepts which are useful – even necessary – background information. They are
placed here, rather than in the main text, where the concepts were deemed to
detract from the main message.

36.1 Syllable structure

Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ syllables require a vowel, v, and optionally begin or end with
a consonant, c. The largest syllable is a cvc syllable, one with a consonant, vowel,
and consonant. Smaller syllables include v, cv or vc, as shown in (1).

(1) a. ó: ‘oh’ (v syllable)

b. dó: ‘how’ (cv syllable)
c. í:s ‘you’ (vc syllable)
d. nę́h ‘when, then’ (cvc syllable)

Words consist of strings of syllables. Table 36.1 summarizes the basic shape of
Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ words in schematic form. (Optional consonants are shown
in parentheses (c), and so (c)v(c) is an abbreviation for 4 syllables: ones with v,
cv, vc, or cvc shapes.)
Table 36.1: Word shape

Extra word-initial c Syllable More syllables

c (c)v(c) (c)v(c)

The sounds that can appear in each c or v slot are listed in (2). Some example
words are provided in (3). Finally, an extra consonant (which does not fit into the
cvc template) can appear at the beginning of some words (as shown in Table 36.1
and example 3a–c).
36 Technical notes

(2) (a hyphen denotes a syllable boundary)

a. extra c at the beginning of the word = s, t [tʰ], k [kʰ]
b. c = h, ˀ, t [tʰ], d, k [kʰ], g, s, ts [tˢʰ], n, w, y, r, cw [gʷ, kʷ, sʷ], cy [gʲ, kʲ,
nʲ]
c. v = [a, ah, aˀ, a:, a:h, a:ˀ] (where a = any vowel. For [ah, aˀ], etc., see
the next section)
d. cc1 = t [t-h], k [k-h], ts [t-sʰ], j [d-ʒ, d-z], s-h , g-w, k-w, s-w, g-y, k-y,
s-n, k-n, t-n, n-y, g-r, k-r [kʰ-r], d-r, t-r [tʰ-r], s-r, s-k, s-g, s-t, t-ˀ, k-ˀ,
s-ˀ, n-ˀ, t-k, k-t

(3) Example syllabifications

a. kdagǫˀ (k-da-gǫˀ) ‘grey squirrel, black squirrel’
b. snętsáˀgeh (s-nęt-sʰáˀ-geh) ‘on your arm’
c. tganǫ́hso:t (t-ga-nǫ́h-so:t) ‘a standing house’
d. diˀdi:ˀ (diˀ-di:ˀ) ‘blue jay’
e. oˀnéhsaˀ (oˀ-néh-saˀ) ‘sand’
f. gaˀgaˀ: (gaˀ-ga:ˀ) ‘crow, raven’
g. haˀhó:diˀ (haˀ-hó:-diˀ) ‘he threw it’
h. ó:gę:ˀt (ó:-gęˀt) ‘it is visible’
i. oháˀkdaˀ (oh-háˀk-daˀ) ‘soot’2
j. aˀǫda̱hǫhdo̱háeˀ (aˀ-ǫ-da̱h-hǫh-do̱h-há-eˀ) ‘she washed her ears’
k. goyéhtaˀ (go-yéht-haˀ) ‘alarm clock’
l. ehstaˀ (ehs-tʰaˀ) ‘she or someone uses it’
m. otéˀtraˀ (o-téˀtʰ-raˀ) ‘flour, powder’
n. wa̱hdǫhs (wa̱h-dǫhs) ‘it disappears’
o. a:hagwé:niˀ (a-ah-hag-wé:-niˀ) ‘he was able to do it’ 3
p. só:wa:s (só:-wa:s) ‘dog’
q. eksá:ˀah (ek-sá:ˀ-ˀah) ‘girl’
r. onohotsgę́ˀęh (o-noh-hotˢʰ-gę́ˀ-ˀęh) ‘beech tree’
s. tsahgó:wah (tˢʰah-gó:-wah) ‘pigeon’4
1
(cc is a consonant cluster, originating from having two cvc-cvc syllables in a row.)
2
In this and later examples, a double <h-h> or double <ˀ-ˀ> denotes that a single consonant, H
or <ˀ>, affiliates with both the preceding and following vowel (i.e. it is ambisyllabic).
3
Words like a:hagwé:niˀ begin with the ⌊a:-⌋ indef prefix. This prefix counts as two syllables
for the syllable count, which is described in §3.5.1.
4
Recall that TS stands for [tˢʰ] in the Henry orthography.

638
 36.2 Prefixes, suffixes, affixes, and stems

Some words have three consonants in a row, rather than the maximal number
of two c’s between vowels predicted by a hypothetical string of [cvc-cvc] sylla-
bles. In such cases, one of the consonants is always S, W, or Y (4), analysed here
as consonant secondary articulations.

(4) a. ęhsrihwanéˀaksrǫ:ˀ (ęhs—rih—wa—néˀ—akˢ—rǫ:ˀ) ‘you will swear’

b. de̱hę́natkwaˀ (de̱h—hę́—nat—kʷaˀ) ‘they dance’
c. ętgyǫˀ (ęt—gyǫˀ) ‘I will come in’
d. gwé: (gʷé:) ‘hello’, ‘well!’
e. gatgwę́ˀdaˀ (gat-gʷę́ˀ-daˀ) ‘wallet’, ‘purse’, ‘suitcase’, etc.

36.2 Prefixes, suffixes, affixes, and stems

Many Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ words consist of smaller parts, namely prefixes, suf-
fixes, affixes, and stems. (“Affix” is a cover term for prefixes and suffixes.) The
stem is the core or substantive part of any word. Prefixes occur before the stem,
and suffixes occur after the stem, Table 36.2. Affixes tend to contribute more
abstract meanings to words, while stems contribute the main meaning. For ex-
ample, the prefix ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a in Table 36.2 denotes that the word refers to a thing,
and also that the noun is unpossessed. In turn, the ⌊-aˀ⌋ nsf suffix identifies the
word as a noun. Finally, the stem ⌊nǫhs⌋ ‘house’ is the meaningful “heart” of the
word ga-nǫhs-aˀ ‘house(s)’.
Table 36.2: Prefixes, stems, and suffixes

prefix stem suffix

ga nǫ́hs aˀ
3s.a house nsf

Some affixes are optional, as with the ⌊-gó:wah⌋ suffix shown in (5a). Suffixes
are optional if their absence still results in a stand-alone word. For example, ⌊-
gó:wah⌋ is optional because otrę́ˀdaˀ (5b) is a stand-alone word without the suffix.
(The word without the suffix has a different meaning, but it is still a word).

(5) a. otręˀdagó:wah ‘horsefly’

b. otrę́ˀdaˀ ‘fly’

639
36 Technical notes

More often than not, however, Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ affixes are obligatory: their
absence results in an incomplete word. When the prefixes in (6a, b) are removed,
the result ⌊nǫhǫkda:nih⌋ does not make sense. In fact, ⌊nǫhǫkda:nih⌋ requires the
prefix in order to be a word.

(6) a. aknǫhǫkdá:nih
ak-nǫhǫkdá:nih
1s.p-sick.stat
‘I am sick’
b. sanǫhǫkdá:nih
ak-nǫhǫkdá:nih
2s.p-sick.stat
‘you are sick’
cf. *nǫhǫkdá:nih (not a word)

In words with obligatory affixes, one affix can still be substituted for another
of the same type. For example, ⌊nǫhǫkda:nih⌋ can take either /ak-/ 1s.p or /sa-/
2s.p, or any other pronominal prefix (6).
The following words were suggested as candidates for Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ
grammatical terms.

(7) a. owę́:naˀ ‘word’

b. deganǫ̱hsó:taˀ ‘particle’ (literally, ‘it connects’)
c. gayaˀda̱hsró:nih ‘adjective’ (literally, ‘it dresses things up’)
d. gawęnagwe:ní:yo: ‘base, stem’ (literally, ‘the main word’)
e. dwasáwa̱hkwaˀ ‘prefix’ (literally, ‘it begins’)
f. ohę́:dǫh ‘pronominal prefix’ (literally, ‘in front of’)
g. ohę:dǫ́h dwasáwa̱hkwaˀ ‘prepronominal prefix’ (‘literally in front of
the prefix’)
h. hewádoktaˀ ‘suffix’ (literally, ‘it ends’)
i. ęsehsgo̱haowá:neht ‘branch it out’ (i.e. add particles, etc. to ‘dress up’
speech)

36.3 Paradigm, inflection, and conjugation

The concepts of paradigm, inflection, and conjugation describe relationships
between words.

640
 36.3 Paradigm, inflection, and conjugation

A paradigm is a group of words that have the same stem but different affixes.
For example, the basic noun paradigm in (8) consists of a noun stem that has
been inflected for person pronominal prefixes.
Both verb and noun stems can be inflected or systematically changed by sub-
stituting prefixes or suffixes of the same type – for example, by changing the
pronominal prefix, as in (8).

(8) A basic noun inflected for pronominal prefixes

a. aknǫ́hsaˀ ‘my house’
b. ǫknínǫ̱hsaˀ ‘our house (2 of us)’
c. ǫgwánǫ̱hsaˀ ‘our house (more than 2)’
d. sanǫ́hsaˀ ‘your (singular) house’
e. sninǫ́hsaˀ ‘your house (2 of you)’
f. swanǫ́hsaˀ ‘your house (all of you)’
g. honǫ́hsaˀ ‘his house’
h. gonǫ́hsaˀ ‘her house’
i. onǫ́hsaˀ ‘its house’
j. hodínǫ̱hsaˀ ‘their (males) house’
k. godínǫ̱hsaˀ ‘their (females) house’
l. odínǫ̱hsaˀ ‘their (animals) house’

The term conjugation is relevant for verbs. An example is shown in (9),

where the verbs are conjugated for the three major aspect suffixes (the hab, punc,
and stat, see §36.7).

(9) a. sga̱hdę́:gyeˀs
s-g-a̱hdę́:gy-eˀs
rep-1s.a-arrive-hab
‘I go home all the time’
b. ęsgahdę́:diˀ
ęs-g-ahdę́:di-ˀ
fut.rep-1s.a-arrive-punc
‘I will go home’
c. swagáhdęgyǫ:
s-wag-áhdęgy-ǫ:
rep-1s.p-arrive-stat
‘I am going home’, ‘I have gone home’

641
36 Technical notes

36.4 Atypical words

Atypical words cannot be categorized into one of the three classes of Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ
words – nouns, verbs or particles (defined in §4). They include atypical nouns,
“suffix-words” (enclitics), atypical verbs, and kinship terms. With the exception
of kinship terms, atypical words lack pronominal prefixes and sometimes other
obligatory affixes as well.
Atypical nouns (atypical words functioning as “nouns”) are unlike other nouns
in that they have no prefixes or suffixes (10).

(10) atypical nouns

a. diˀdi:ˀ ‘blue jay’
b. dó:dihs ‘salamander’
c. ǫ́:gweh ‘person’

“Suffix-words” (enclitics) can appear either as suffixes (11a) or as stand-alone

words (11b).

(11) suffix-words
a. ohahakdá:gyeˀ
o-hah-akdá:gyeˀ
3s.p-road-alongside
‘along the edge of the road’
b. akdá:gyeˀ ‘the edge, beside’

Atypical verbs lack the pronominal prefixes normally required of verbs, but
have verbal suffixes. The ones in (12) function as “nouns”.

(12) atypical verbs functioning as “nouns”

a. gi ̱hę:k
g̱ih-ę:-k
ø.prefix.river-lie.stat-modz
‘river, stream, creek’
b. nigihú:ˀuh
ni-gih-ú:ˀuh
part-ø.prefix.river-small.stat
‘small stream’

642
 36.5 No prepositions

c. gi ̱hę́:deˀ
gi ̱hę:-deˀ
ø.prefix.river-exist.stat
‘creek, river, stream’, ‘it is a river’

Kinship terms are atypical. Their structure is described in greater detail in

§5.8.

36.5 No prepositions
Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ does not have prepositions: instead, concepts such as ‘for’,
‘to’, ‘from’, ‘up’, and ‘down’ are an inherent part of the meaning of some verbs. For
example, some verbs take a benefactive suffix (§15.2.2) to convey the meaning
of doing something for someone’ (13).

(13) ahékǫnyęˀ
a-he-kǫny-ę-ˀ
fac-1s:3ms-cook-ben-punc
‘I cooked a meal for him’

Similarly, the verbs in (14) refer to a source, a recipient, and an object being
transferred. In this case, the concepts of the recipient (‘to me’) or source (‘from
her’) are encoded in the interactive pronominal prefix.

(14) a. ęsgwá:yǫˀ
ę-sgwa-yǫ-ˀ
fut-2:1(p)-give-punc
‘you all will give it to me’
b. ahsagokwáhkwaˀ
a-hsago-kwá-hkwa-ˀ
fac-3ms:3fi/3p.p-food-take.from-punc
‘he grabbed the food from her’, ‘he took the food from her’

36.6 Potential change-of-state suffixes

The following notes speculate about the possible existence of causative suffixes
pronounced as [-:] (added vowel length), and about the nature of the ⌊-(h)sˀ)⌋
eventuative (ev) suffix.

643
36 Technical notes

36.6.1 ⌊-:⌋ (vowel length suffixes)

This section is about a group of suffixes – or perhaps, one suffix – pronounced
as [-:] (vowel length).
Vowel length possibly serves as a causative suffix ⌊-:⌋ that changes an unin-
tentional happening into an intentional action. To illustrate, ęhsáhdǫˀ ‘you will
disappear’ (15a) would not have the suffix, while esáhdǫ:ˀ ‘you lost it’ (15b) might
have the suffix – (15b) could be translated as ‘you caused it to disappear’. Simi-
larly, (15c), without the ⌊-:⌋ suffix, would describe an accidental happening, while
(15d), with the suffix, would describe a deliberate action.

(15) a. ęhsáhdǫˀ
ę-hs-áhdǫ-ˀ
fut-2s.p-lose-punc
‘you will disappear’
b. esáhdǫ:ˀ
e-sá-hdǫ-:-ˀ
fac-2s.p-lose-caus-punc
‘you lost it’
c. ęhsaˀnigǫ́hahdǫˀ
ę-hsa-ˀnigǫ́h-ahdǫ-ˀ
fut-2s.p-mind-lose-punc
‘you will faint’ (literally, ‘your mind will disappear’)
d. esahwi ̱hsdáhdǫ:ˀ
e-sa-hwi ̱hsd-áhdǫ-:-ˀ
fac-2s.p-money-lose-caus-punc
‘you lost money’

The same proposed ⌊-:⌋ caus suffix possibly distinguishes between many pairs
of punctual verb forms with ⌊-:⌋ and stative verb forms without ⌊-:⌋ (16). Like
other causative suffixes (see §15.2.1), it would have the effect of changing a state
into an activity. For example, ⌊tsaˀdę́hsyę:ˀ⌋ (16a) describes an activity (‘you will
cause them to be lying side-by-side’), while ⌊tsaˀdégayęˀ⌋ (also in 16a) describes
the state of ‘lying side-by-side’.

(16) a. tsaˀdę́hsyę:ˀ
tsaˀd-ę́-hs-yę-:-ˀ
coin.fac.du-future-2s.a-lay-caus-punc
‘you will lay them side-by-side’

644
 36.6 Potential change-of-state suffixes

cf. tsaˀdégayęˀ
tsaˀdé-ga-yęˀ
coin-du.3s.a-lie.stat
‘they are (literally, ‘it is’) lying or setting side-by-side’
b. ęhsyę:ˀ
ę-hs-yę-:-ˀ
fut-2s.a-lie-caus-punc
‘you will put it there’ (or, ‘you will cause it to be placed there’)
cf. nigá:yęˀ
ni-gá:-yę-ˀ
part-3s.a-lie.stat
‘where it is at, where it is placed’
c. ęgátge̱hǫ:ˀ
ę-g-át-ge̱hǫ-:-ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-sell-caus-punc
‘I will have for sale’ (or, ‘I will cause to sell’)
cf. honátge̱hǫˀ
hon-át-ge̱hǫ-ˀ
3ns.m.p-srf-sell-hab
‘they (m) are selling something’

In the same vein, a length ⌊-:⌋ suffix relevant to the purposive aspect possi-
bly occurs in e-verbs (see §16). When e-verbs end with short ⌊e⌋, they appear
to describe a state (which translates as a present tense). In contrast, when they
take long ⌊e-:⌋ forms, they appear to describe an activity or happening (often
translated as past tense, 17).

(17) a. haˀgeˀ
h-aˀ-g-e-ˀ
transl-fac-1s.a-go-punc
‘I am going there’
cf. haˀge:ˀ
h-aˀ-g-e-:-ˀ
transl-fac-1s.a-go-purp-punc
‘I went there’
b. hadíhsreˀ
hadí-hsre-ˀ
3ns.m.a-follow-stat
‘they follow’

645
36 Technical notes

cf. ęséhsre:ˀ
ę-s-é-hsre-:-ˀ
fut-2s.a-joinerE-chase-purp-punc
‘you will chase or follow’
c. géhseˀ
ag-é-hs-e-ˀ
1s.p-joinerE-lower.back-go-stat
‘I am riding’
cf. agéhse:ˀ ‘I rode’,
ag-é-hs-e-:-ˀ
1s.p-joinerE-lower.back-go-purp-stat
‘I came riding’
d. gegyeˀ
g-e-gye-ˀ
1s.a-joinerE-fly-stat
‘I am flying’
cf. gegye:ˀ
g-e-gy-e-:-ˀ
1s.a-joinerE-fly-go-purp-stat
‘I came flying’

Finally, a set of suffixes, tentatively analysed as consisting of ⌊-:-ˀ⌋ caus-nsf

potentially appears at the end of stative nouns (a type of noun based on stative
verb forms (18, see §5.5). It would turn a stative verb into a noun, which would
then require the ⌊-ˀ⌋ nsf suffix. The words in (18) describe an ‘object’ resulting
from an activity.
(18) a. adrihwa̱hséhdǫ:ˀ
ad-rihw-a̱hséhd-ǫ-:-ˀ
ø.prefix.srf-matter-hide-stat-nmlz-nsf
‘a secret (was caused)’
cf. odrihwa̱hséhdǫh
o-d-rihw-a̱hséhd-ǫh
3s.p-srf-matter-hide-stat
‘it is secret’
b. adówadǫ:ˀ
adówad-ǫ-:-ˀ
ø.prefix.hunt-stat-nmlz-nsf
‘the hunt’
cf. agadowá:dǫh
ag-adowá:d-ǫh
1s.p-hunt-stat
‘I have hunted’, ‘I am hunting’

646
 36.6 Potential change-of-state suffixes

36.6.2 ⌊-(h)sˀ⌋ (the eventuative) (ev)

An ⌊-(h)sˀ⌋ ev suffix was previously posited for Gayogo̱honǫˀnéha:ˀ (and Onön-
dowaˀga:ˀ / Seneca). It is said to occur before the ⌊-ǫh⌋ stat suffix, where it “…sig-
nif[ies] an event that is finally complete.” (Charles 2010: 283) The verb provided
as an example of the ⌊-ˀs⌋ ev is shown in (19a).
However, it may be that ⌊hsˀ, ihsˀ, at.hsˀ⌋ is instead the verb meaning ‘finish’,
‘use up’, in which case, (19a) should be reanalysed as a compound construction
with two verb stems, as in (19b).

(19) a. with ev
agade̱hsrǫ́ni ̱hsˀǫh
ag-ad-e̱-hsr-ǫ́ni ̱-hsˀ-ǫh
1s.p-srf-joinerE-tool-make-ev-stat
‘I am ready’
b. with ⌊hsˀ, ihsˀ, at.hsˀ⌋ ‘finish’
agade̱hsrǫ́ni ̱hsˀǫh
ag-ad-e̱-hsr-ǫ́ni ̱-hsˀ-ǫh
1s.p-srf-joinerE-tool-make-finish-stat
‘I am ready’

Example (20) illustrates a verb with a structure similar to the one proposed in
(19b).

(20) ⌊at-geni-hsˀ⌋ srf-compete-finish ‘have a meeting’

a. swatgénihsˀahs
sw-at-géni-hsˀ-a-hs
2pl.a-srf-compete-finish-joinerA-hab
‘you have meetings all the time’
b. ęhswatgeníhsˀa:ˀ
ę-hsw-at-gení-hsˀ-a:ˀ
fut-2pl.a-srf-compete-finish-punc
‘you all will have a meeting’
c. swatgénihsˀǫh
sw-at-géni-hsˀ-ǫh
2p.p-srf-compete-finish-stat
‘you are having a meeting right now’

647
36 Technical notes

The remaining examples in (21–28) provide evidence that a verb ⌊hsˀ, ihsˀ,
at.hsˀ⌋ ‘finish, use up’ exists independently. As a member of the S13 conjuga-
tion class (§36.7), it would take the ⌊-a-hs⌋ hab, the ⌊-a-:ˀ⌋ punc, and the ⌊-ǫh⌋
stat. Examples supporting the S13 conjugation class analysis, and exemplifying
other compound structures with ⌊hsˀ, ihsˀ, at.hsˀ⌋ ‘finish’, ‘use up’, are provided
in (21–28).

(21) ⌊rihw-ihsˀ⌋ matter-finish ‘promise, make an agreement’

a. haíhwi ̱hsˀahs
ha-íhw-i ̱hsˀ-a-hs
3s.m.a-matter-finish-joinerA-hab
‘he is making promises’, ‘he is making agreements’
b. ęgríhwihsˀa:ˀ
ę-g-ríhw-ihsˀ-a:ˀ
fut-1s.a-matter-finish-punc
‘I will promise’

(22) ⌊-at-noun-ihˀs⌋ srf-noun-finish ‘finish something’

a. ęgatędíhsˀa:ˀ
ę-g-at-hęd-íhsˀ-a:ˀ
fut-1s.a-srf-field-finish-punc
‘I will finish gardening’, I will finish the field’
b. agataháhsˀa:ˀ
a-g-at-hah-á-hsˀ-a:ˀ
fac-1s.a-srf-road-joinerA-finish-punc
‘I finished a road’

(23) ⌊ag-yaˀd-ihsˀ⌋ srf-body-finish ‘mature’

ęyǫgya̱ˀdíhsa:ˀ
ę-yǫ-g-ya̱ˀd-íhs-a:ˀ
fut-3s.fi.a-srf-body-finish-punc
‘she has matured’, ‘she has completed her life cycle’

(24) ⌊ad-rihw-a-hsˀ⌋ srf-matter-joinerA-finish ‘plan’

ędwadri ̱hwáhsˀa:ˀ
ę-dw-ad-ri ̱hw-á-hsˀ-a:ˀ
fut-1p.in.a-srf-matter-joinerA-finish-punc
‘we all will plan something’

648
 36.6 Potential change-of-state suffixes

(25) ⌊-hsˀ-a-hd⌋ finish-joinerA-causative ‘use up’

a. hęgéhsˀaht
h-ę-g-é-hsˀ-a-ht
transl-fut-1s.a-joinerE-finish-joinerA-caus.ø.punc
‘I will use up’

(26) ⌊-at/adat-hsˀ⌋ srf/refl-finish ‘get used up’

a. awá:tsˀa:ˀ
a-w-á:t-hsˀ-a:ˀ
fac-3s.a-srf-use.up-punc
‘it is worn out, all gone, burnt up’, ‘it went down to nothing’
b. haˀwádatsˀǫh
haˀ-w-ádat-hsˀ-ǫh
transl-3s.a-refl-use. up-stat
‘it is empty, burnt up, used up’

(27) ⌊de … adęt-hsˀ⌋ du…refl-finish ‘earn, deserve’

a. desádętsˀahs
de-s-ádęt-hsˀ-a-hs
du-2s.a-refl-finish-joinerA-hab
‘your salary’, ‘what you make’
b. dęhsádętsˀa:ˀ
d-ę-hs-ádęt-hsˀ-a:ˀ
du-fut-2s.a-refl-finish-punc
‘you will earn it (money)’
c. desádętsˀǫh
de-s-ádęt-hsˀ-ǫh
du-2s.p-refl-finish-stat
‘you’ve earned or deserve it’, ‘you’ve paid your dues’

(28) ⌊de-…-adat-hsˀ⌋ du-refl-finish ‘quarrel’

dęhsádatsˀa:ˀ
d-ę-hs-ádat-hsˀ-a:ˀ
du-fut-2s.a-refl-finish-punc
‘you will quarrel’

Example (29) appears to consist of ⌊at-hs-ihsˀ⌋ ‘srf-noun-finish’, where the

⌊-hs⌋ element is a type of placeholder incorporated noun (see §14.1.1).

649
36 Technical notes

(29) ⌊-at-hs-ihsˀ⌋ srf-noun-finish ‘ripen, mature’

a. watsíhsˀahs
w-at-hs-íhsˀ-a-hs
3s.a-srf-noun-finish-joinerA-hab
‘it is ripening, maturing’
b. ęwátsihsˀa:ˀ
ę-w-át-hs-ihsˀ-a:ˀ
fut-3s.a-srf-noun-finish-punc
‘it will mature, ripen’
c. tsíhsˀǫh
o-t-hs-íhsˀ-ǫh
3s.p-srf-noun-finish-stat
‘it is done for the season’, ‘it has gone full cycle’, ‘it is mature’, ‘they
(plants) have finished out’

And finally, in (30) and (31), it may be that the ⌊at⌋ srf has been reanalyzed as
part of the verb stem and can thus occur after an incorporated noun.

(30) ⌊-(noun)-at.hsˀ-a-hd⌋ srf.finish-joinerA-causative ‘be all gone’

a. haˀwá:tsˀaht
h-aˀ-w-á:t.hsˀ-a-ht
transl-fac-3s.a-use.up-caus.ø.punc
‘it is all gone’
b. haˀwatnegá:tsˀaht
h-aˀ-w-at-hneg-á:t.hsˀ-a-ht
transl-fac-3s.a-srf-water-srf.finish-joinerA-caus.ø.punc
‘water is all gone’
c. heyótsˀahdǫh
he-yó-t.hsˀ-a-hd-ǫh
transl-3s.p-srf-finish-joinerA-caus-stat
‘it is all gone’

(31) ⌊d…ad-rihw-at.hsˀ⌋ cis…srf-matter-srf.finish ‘earn, fulfill’

atadri ̱hwa:tsˀa:ˀ
a-t-ha-d-ri ̱hw-a:t.hsˀ-a:ˀ
fac-cis-3s.m.a-srf-matter-srf.finish-punc
‘he earned it’, ‘he fulfilled it’

650
 36.7 Aspect conjugation classes

36.7 Aspect conjugation classes

Every verb takes a set of aspect endings (§9.3) known as a conjugation class,
which is relevant for choosing the appropriate aspect and post-aspect (tense) suf-
fixes. Sasse & Keye (1998) describe three types of aspect conjugation classes, the s,
h, and m or mixed class. These classes are defined by the pairings of habitual and
stative endings. For example, s class verbs take ⌊-(h)s⌋ hab and ⌊-ǫh⌋ stat end-
ings (32–33), while h class verbs take ⌊-haˀ⌋ hab and ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat endings (34). (The
punctual forms are also shown below, but are not relevant to the classification
system.)
The aspect conjugation classes are also subdivided according to the last sound
of the verb stem. For example, while the s classes all take an ⌊-s⌋ hab ending
(32–33), the s3 subclass of verb stems end in T/D (32) and s4 verb stems all end
in K/G (33).5

(32) s3 verb stem ends with T/D, and takes ⌊-s⌋ hab, ⌊-ø⌋ ø.punc, and ⌊-ǫh⌋
stat endings
a. gadó:wa:s
g-ad-ó:wa:d-s
1s.a-srf-hunt-hab
‘I am a hunter’
b. ęga:dó:wa:t
ę-g-a:d-ó:wa:t-ø
fut-1s.a-srf-hunt-ø.punc
‘I will hunt’
c. agadowá:dǫh
ag-ad-owá:d-ǫh
1s.p-srf-hunt-stat
‘I am hunting’

(33) s4 verb stem ends with K/G, and takes ⌊-s⌋ hab, ⌊-ø⌋ ø.punc, and ⌊-ǫh⌋
stat endings
5
The description in this section is the analysis in Sasse & Keye (1998). Also see Lounsbury (1953:
85) and Michelson & Doxtator (2002: 20, 27) for Oneida, and Woodbury (2018: 89) for Onondaga
conjugation classes. The other Iroquoian languages have fewer aspect conjugation classes, in
part because they use just one criterion – the pairings of habitual and stative endings. In con-
trast, Sasse & Keye (1998) further subdivide the same classes according to the final sound(s) of
the stem, following the insights in Michelson (1975). Finally, see §19.1 regarding the simplifica-
tion of word-final consonant clusters, which occurs in many of the following examples.

651
36 Technical notes

a. degáˀswe:s
de-g-áˀswe:g-s
du-1s.a-deaf-hab
‘I am going deaf’
b. dęgáˀswe:k
d-ę-g-áˀswe:k-ø
du-fut-1s.a-deaf-ø.punc
‘I will go deaf’
c. dewaga̱ˀswé:gǫh
de-wag-a̱ˀswé:g-ǫh
du-1s.p-deaf-stat
‘I went deaf’

(34) h3 verb stem ends with a vowel and takes ⌊-haˀ⌋ hab, ⌊-:ˀ⌋ punc, and ⌊-ˀ⌋
stat endings
a. gadǫtgadǫ́haˀ
g-ad-ǫtgadǫ́-haˀ
1s.a-srf-have.fun-hab
‘I am fun-loving’
b. ęhswadǫtgá:dǫ:ˀ
ę-hsw-ad-ǫtgá:dǫ-:ˀ
fut-2pl.a-srf-have.fun-punc
‘you all will have a good time’
c. ǫgwadǫtgá:dǫˀ
ǫgw-ad-ǫtgá:dǫ-ˀ
1inp.o-srf-have.fun-stat
‘we all are having fun’

The m class verbs have mixed pairings of habitual and stative endings: the ma
classes take ⌊-haˀ⌋ hab endings with ⌊-ǫh⌋ stat endings (35) and the mb classes
take ⌊-(h)s⌋ hab endings with ⌊-ˀ⌋ stat endings (36).

(35) ma1 class verb stem ends with HD or ˀD and takes ⌊-haˀ⌋ hab, ⌊-ø⌋
ø.punc, and ⌊-ǫh⌋ stat endings
a. hęnáˀswa̱htaˀ
hęn-áˀswa̱ht-haˀ
3ns.m.a-extinguish-hab
‘they are firemen’

652
 36.7 Aspect conjugation classes

b. ęgáˀswaht
ę-g-áˀswah-t-ø
fut-1s.a-extinguish-ø.punc
‘I will extinguish it’
c. agáˀswa̱hdǫh
ag-áˀswa̱hd-ǫh
1s.p-extinguish-stat
‘I am extinguishing it’

(36) mb1 verb stem ends with a vowel and takes ⌊-hs⌋ hab, ⌊-:ˀ⌋ punc, and ⌊-ˀ⌋
stat endings
a. degadawę́:nyehs
de-g-ad-awę́:nye-hs
du-1s.a-srf-stir-hab
‘I wander about all the time’, ‘I am a wanderer’
b. dęgadawę́:nye:ˀ
d-ę-g-ad-awę́:nye-:ˀ
du-fut-1s.a-srf-stir-punc
‘I will wander, travel, walk about’
c. deyagodáwęnyeˀ
de-yago-d-áwęnye-ˀ
du-3s.fi.p-srf-stir-stat
‘she is walking about’

Finally, stative-only and habitual-only verbs take a subset of the three-aspect

conjugation class endings. For example, the stative-only verb in (37) belongs to
the s20a conjugation class, like its “parent” verb ⌊gri⌋ ‘wrinkle, fold’.

(37) An s20a, stative-only verb

a. degéˀnyǫgri:
de-g-é-ˀnyǫ-gri-:
du-1s.a-joinerE-nose-fold-stat
‘my nose is stuffed up’
cf. dawá:tgri:k
d-a-wá:-t-gri-:k
cis-fac-3s.a-srf-fold-punc.modz
‘it pulled back, flinched, shrank’ (three-aspect verb)

653
36 Technical notes

cf. totgri:
t-ho-t-gri-:
cis-3s.m.p-srf-fold-stat
‘he’s a wimp’, ‘he pulls back’ (three-aspect verb)

36.7.1 List of aspect conjugation classes

The aspect conjugation classes are listed in Table 36.3 (page 654), Table 36.4 (page
655), and Table 36.5 (page 656). These have been modified from Sasse & Keye
(1998) in order to more clearly show the sound changes that occur when the
verb stem and aspect suffix are joined. (Also, some smaller subclasses have been
removed from the tables.) Sounds in uppercase letters in the tables are deleted or
not pronounced.
Table 36.3: H-class (after Sasse & Keye 1998)

stem-final sound hab class stat punc

d ⌊-haˀ⌋ H1 ⌊-ø⌋ ⌊-ęˀ⌋
aw, ow ⌊-ehaˀ⌋ H2 ⌊a:W-ˀ⌋, ⌊o:W-ˀ⌋a ⌊-ęˀ⌋
Vb ⌊-haˀ⌋ H3 ⌊-ˀ⌋ ⌊-:ˀ⌋
⌊+ę⌋ ‘lie’ ⌊+ę-haˀ⌋, ⌊+ę-hęˀ⌋ H3 ⌊+ęˀ⌋ ⌊+ę-:ˀ⌋
⌊yę⌋ ‘lie’ ⌊yę-haˀ⌋, ⌊yę-hęˀ⌋ H3 ⌊yęˀ⌋ ⌊yę-:ˀ⌋
dr, gr ⌊-ehaˀ⌋ H4 ⌊e:ˀ⌋ ⌊-ęˀ⌋
hRc ⌊-ehaˀ⌋ H4 ⌊-e:ˀ⌋ ⌊-ęˀ⌋
a: ⌊-haˀ⌋ H5 ⌊-ˀ⌋ ⌊aę-ˀ⌋ instead of ⌊a:-ˀ⌋

a
Uppercase letters DELETE.
b
V = any vowel.
c
R deletes if between vowels.

36.8 Lexical aspect and sentential aspect

This section introduces the concepts of lexical and sentential aspect, in order to
provide more context for the discussion of the “present tense” (see §15.5.2).
A type of aspect known as lexical aspect or Aktionsart (Vendler 1957) is
inherent to the meaning of verb stems. For example, certain verbs describe an
event that naturally has no duration, one that begins and ends at (virtually) the
same time (38).

654
 36.8 Lexical aspect and sentential aspect

Table 36.4: S-class (after Sasse & Keye 1998)

stem-final sound hab class stat punc

i, e, ę, o, ǫ, a, a: ⌊-s⌋, ⌊-h⌋ S1 ⌊-:⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋
i, e, ę, o, ǫ, a, a: ⌊-s⌋, ⌊-h⌋ S1 ⌊-ˀ-ǫh⌋ (inch-stat) ⌊-ˀ⌋
ˀ ⌊-s⌋ S2 ⌊-ǫh⌋ ⌊-ø⌋
d ⌊D-s⌋a S3 ⌊-ǫh⌋ ⌊-ø⌋
g ⌊G-s⌋ S4 ⌊-ǫh⌋ ⌊-ø⌋
h ⌊-s⌋ S5 ⌊-ǫh⌋ ⌊-ø⌋
h ⌊-s⌋ S5 ⌊H-ˀ-ǫh⌋ (inch-stat) ⌊-ø⌋
a:h ⌊a:H-s⌋ S5 ⌊-ǫh⌋ ⌊a:H-ø⌋
s ⌊-ahs⌋ S6 ⌊-ęh⌋ ⌊-ø⌋
kh, nh ⌊-ahs⌋ S7a ⌊-ęh⌋ ⌊-aˀ⌋
h ⌊-ahs⌋ S7b ⌊-ęh⌋ ⌊-aˀ⌋
Vnb ⌊-ahs⌋ S8 ⌊-ęh⌋ ⌊N-:ˀ⌋
Vw ⌊-ahs⌋ S9 ⌊-ęh⌋ ⌊W-:ˀ⌋
Cw ⌊-ahs⌋ S10 ⌊-ęh⌋ ⌊o-ˀ⌋c
aˀw ⌊-ahs⌋ S11 ⌊-ęh⌋ ⌊aWˀ⌋
⌊aWˀ-s⌋
a:ˀw ⌊a:ˀW-s⌋ S11 ⌊-ęh⌋ ⌊a:Wˀ⌋
d, g ⌊-ahs⌋ S12 ⌊-ǫh⌋, ⌊ęh⌋ ⌊-ø⌋d
sˀ ⌊-ahs⌋ S13 ⌊-ǫ⌋ ⌊-a:ˀ⌋
kd ⌊-ǫhs⌋ S14 ⌊-ǫ:⌋ ⌊kD-ø⌋
aǫ, ęǫ ⌊-s⌋ S15 ⌊-ø⌋ ⌊aǪ:-ˀ⌋
⌊ęǪ:-ˀ⌋
ey ⌊-ǫhs⌋ S16 ⌊-ǫ:⌋ ⌊eY:-ˀ⌋
Cy (dy, gy, ny) ⌊-eˀs⌋, ⌊-ǫhs⌋ S17 ⌊-ǫ:⌋ ⌊Ci-ˀ⌋ instead of ⌊Cy-ˀ⌋
Cy (sy) ⌊-ǫhs⌋ S17 ⌊sY-ǫ:⌋ ⌊si-ˀ⌋ instead o: ⌊sy-ˀ⌋
dr ⌊-ǫhs⌋ S18 ⌊-ǫ:⌋ ⌊DRs-e:ˀ⌋
Rye ⌊ny-eˀs⌋ S19 ⌊ny-ǫ:⌋ ⌊wi-ˀ⌋ or ⌊i-ˀ⌋ instead of ⌊Ri-ˀ⌋
V:G ⌊VG-hs⌋ S20a ⌊V:G-ø⌋ or ⌊V:g-ǫh⌋ ⌊V:k-ø⌋
VˀG ⌊VˀG-s⌋ S20b ⌊VˀG-ǫh⌋ ⌊Vˀk-ø⌋

a
Uppercase letters DELETE.
b
V = any vowel.
c
W becomes O.
d
D,G pronounced as T,K respectively.
e
Stem historically ended in R but now ends in NY/WI or NY/I.

655
36 Technical notes

Table 36.5: M-class (after Sasse & Keye 1998)

stem-final sound hab class stat punc

hd, ˀd ⌊-haˀ⌋a MA1 ⌊-ǫh⌋ ⌊-ø⌋
hsd ⌊-haˀ⌋b MA1 ⌊-ǫh⌋ ⌊hsD-ø⌋c
d, g ⌊-haˀ⌋d MA2 ⌊-ǫh⌋ ⌊-ø⌋
hgw ⌊-haˀ⌋ e MA3 ⌊-ęh⌋ ⌊-ø⌋
a: ⌊-haˀ⌋ MA4 ⌊-ø⌋ ⌊-ˀ⌋
eh ⌊H-haˀ⌋ MA5 ⌊-ęh⌋ ⌊-aˀ⌋
Vf ⌊-hs⌋ MB1 ⌊-ˀ⌋ ⌊-:ˀ⌋
(3 verbs) ⌊-ę-hs⌋, ⌊-ę:-s⌋ MB2 ⌊-e-ˀ⌋ ⌊-ę-h⌋, ⌊ę-ø⌋

a
Pronounced as [ht-haˀ] and [ˀt-haˀ] respectively.
b
Pronounced as [-hst-haˀ].
c
Uppercase letters DELETE.
d
Pronounced as [t-haˀ] and [k-haˀ] respectively
e
Pronounced as [-hkw-haˀ].
f
V = any vowel.

(38) instantaneous events

a. aˀé:yǫˀ
aˀ-é:-yǫ-ˀ
fac-3s.fi.a-arrive-punc
‘she arrived’
b. ęga:dé:gaˀt
ę-g-a:dé:g-a-ˀt-ø
fut-1s.a-burn-joinerA-caus-ø.punc
‘I will start a fire’

Other verbs denote an activity that naturally extends or repeats over time, but
without any implied end-point (39), page 656.

(39) durative events with no end-point

a. ęhségawe:ˀ
ę-hs-é-gawe-:ˀ
fut-2s.a-joinerE-paddle-punc
‘you will row’

656
 36.8 Lexical aspect and sentential aspect

b. sagawe̱há:gyeˀ
sa-gawe̱-h-á:-gy-e-ˀ
2s.p-paddle-euph.h-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘you are paddling along’

Finally, other verbs describe a state of affairs (as opposed to an event, happen-
ing, or activity, 40).

(40) states
a. agadǫ̱hswéˀdanih
ag-ad-ǫ̱hswéˀd-a-ni-h
1s.p-srf-hunger-joinerA-ben-hab
‘I am hungry’
b. ogé:draˀ
o-gé:draˀ
3s.p-unripe.stat
‘it is green, unripe’, ‘raw fruit’

These are just a few examples of the possible types of lexical aspect.6
The main lexical aspect distinction in Ǫgwehǫwéhne̱ha:ˀ ‘Iroquoian’ languages
is between nonconsequential and consequential verbs (Chafe 1980).7 Conse-
quential verbs imply an end-point or result in a new state of affairs. In contrast,
nonconsequential verbs have no end-point or fail to result in a new state of affairs.
The consequential/nonconsequential distinction is relevant for interpreting the
meaning (including the time-frame) of the habitual and stative forms of verbs of
three-aspect verbs (see §15.5.3, §15.5.4).
6
Vendler (1957)’s original Aktionsart categories are listed below. More categories have been
proposed in later works on aspect.

• achievement verbs describe an event that has no duration or that occurs in an instant.
The beginning and end-points are nearly simultaneous; the event results in a new state
of affairs;
• accomplishment verbs describe events that take some time and that have a natural
end-point. The event results in a new state of affairs;
• activity verbs describe events that take some time, but which do not necessarily have
an end-point. The event does not result in a new state of affairs;
• states describe a state of affairs (and not an event).

7
Chafe (1980)’s consequential category includes Vendler’s accomplishment and achieve-
ment types, while the non-consequential category corresponds to Vendler’s activity type.

657
36 Technical notes

Another type of aspect known as sentential aspect is conveyed by groups

of words (specifically, verbs and the words that modify verbs in sentences, in-
cluding particles that function as “adverbs” (described earlier) and the objects –
incorporated or not – that undergo the verb’s action). For example, the activity
(verb) in (41) does not imply a natural end-point. However, when the same verb
incorporates a noun (an object undergoing the action of the verb), the activity
gains an end-point (42).

(41) no end-point, no change of state

a. dęgéhsnyeˀ
d-ę-gé-hsnye-ˀ
du-fut-1s.a-care.for-punc
‘I will look after it’

(42) end-point, with change of state

a. atgatnǫ̱hsáhsnyeˀ
a-t-g-at-nǫ̱hsá-hsnye-ˀ
fac-du-1s.a-srf-house-care.for-punc
‘I cleaned up the house’

36.9 Utterances, clauses, phrases, and sentences

The concepts of utterance, clause, phrase, and sentence are defined in this
section. All of these terms refer to groups of related or mutually-relevant words.
An utterance is any group of related words uttered by a speaker. Utterances
can include any type of word (nouns, verbs, or particles), as long as the words
make sense together. Some utterances just include particles (43), while others
include verbs and other related words (shown in later examples).

(43) all-particle utterances

a. Dęˀ hne:ˀ.
what in.fact
‘That’s why.’
b. Dó: í:ˀ!
how I
‘Let me!’

658
 36.9 Utterances, clauses, phrases, and sentences

c. Nę́:dah.
here.this
‘Here, take this.’
d. Trehs giˀ gyę:ˀ!
too.much just the.one
‘My goodness!’

Clauses obligatorily contain a single verb, and can optionally include other
relevant nouns or particles. The clause (and utterance) in (44a) only contains the
obligatory verb. (The clause is between square brackets, and the verb is shown
in bold.) The clause in (44b) includes a verb and a noun phrase (defined later).
In contrast, the utterance in (44c) contains two clauses, the second of which has
two particles and a verb. The utterance in (44d) also includes two clauses, the
second of which contains a verb, followed by a noun (technically, niga:gú:sˀuh is
a verb functioning as a “noun”).

(44) utterances and sentences

a. [Agatsęnǫ́:ni:.]
‘I am happy.’
b. [Godiˀgrǫ́ˀ neˀ Mary.]
godiˀgrǫ́ˀ neˀ Mary
she.is.shy the Mary
‘Mary is shy.’
c. [Hętsyę́:ˀ] [shęh hǫ: hesá:gwęh.]
Hętsyę́:ˀ shęh hǫ: hesá:gwęh
you.will.put.it.back.there that where you.gathered.it.there
‘You will put it back where you got it.’
d. [Agyǫ:díh] [degakegáhneˀ niga:gú:sˀuh].
Agyǫ:díh degakegáhneˀ niga:gú:sˀuh
I’m.smiling I’m.looking.at.them children
‘I am smiling (because) I am looking at the children.’

Phrases are groups of words which minimally include either a noun, verb, or
particle. A noun with related words is a noun phrase. For example, the noun
phrase neˀ Mary, (44b), consists of a particle neˀ ‘the’ and a noun (Mary). A verb
with related words is a verb phrase (which is also the smallest type of clause).
An example is the second verb phrase (also a clause) in (44c). Finally a particle

659
36 Technical notes

phrase (or particle group), is a group of related particles, such as shęh hǫ: in
(44c). (Particle groups typically occur at the beginning of clauses.)
The utterances in (44) are also sentences. Sentences consist of one or more
clauses, and therefore contain one or more verbs, plus other related words. (Un-
like sentences, utterances do not require verbs, as shown in 43.) The sentences
in (44a, b) each have one clause, while the sentences in (44c, d) each have two
clauses. The number of clauses per sentence is relevant for the distinction be-
tween simple and complex sentences, which is described next.

36.9.1 Simple and complex sentences, clause types

Sentences are either simple or complex, depending on the number of clauses.
Simple sentences have just one clause, and complex sentences have more than
one.
The simple sentence in (45a) contains one clause, which in turn is so small that
it only consists of the obligatory element, a verb (in bold). The simple sentence
in (45b) also contains just one clause, consisting of a verb plus a particle.

(45) a. Agatsęnǫ́:ni: ‘I am happy’

b. Ęwá:dǫh gęh? ‘May I?’

xa Complex sentences contain more than one clause, and therefore, more than
one verb plus associated words. The second clause of each sentence is shown
between square brackets in (46).

(46) a. Agatsęnǫ:ní: [shęh ahsyǫˀ].

agatsęnǫ:ní: shęh ahsyǫˀ
I.am.happy that you.arrived
‘I am happy [that you’ve arrived].’
b. Daskro:wíh [sǫ: nˀaht daǫdekǫ́nya̱hneˀ].
Daskro:wíh sǫ: nˀaht daǫdekǫ́nya̱hneˀ
tell.me who person someone.will.come.and.eat
‘Tell me [who’s coming to eat].’

The complex sentences in (46) each consist of an independent and dependent

clause, described next.

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 36.9 Utterances, clauses, phrases, and sentences

36.9.2 Independent and dependent clauses, relative clauses

Complex sentences can include either independent and dependent clauses. In-
dependent clauses can stand on their own as complete thoughts. Examples in-
clude agatsęnǫ́:ni: ‘I am happy’ or daskro:wíh ‘tell me’, both from example (46)
in the previous section. In contrast, dependent clauses such as shęh ahsyǫˀ ‘that
you’ve arrived’ (46a) or sǫ: nˀaht daǫdekǫ́nya̱ hneˀ ‘who’s coming to eat’ (46b)
sound incomplete or normally cannot stand alone (unless the context makes their
meaning clear). In (46), the dependent clauses occur after the independent ones.
However, dependent clauses also occur before independent ones (examples are
provided in later sections).
A distinct type of complex sentence, shown in (47), consists of two clauses,
each of which could stand alone as independent. However, the second clause is
clearly relevant to the first one, even though it has no special words linking it to
the first clause. This type of complex sentence contains juxtaposed clauses.

(47) [A:hęni:hę́:ˀ] [hahjáotaˀ].

he.would.quit he.smokes.all.the.time
‘He would quit smoking.’

Independent and dependent clauses also have distinct functions, either as “state-
ments” or as “questions”. This results in four types of complex sentence (48).

(48) a. Simple sentences, consisting of

• an independent clause functioning as a “stand-alone
statement” (45a)
• an independent clause functioning as a “direct question” (45b)
b. Complex sentences, consisting of an independent clause and
• a dependent clause functioning as a “dependent statement”
(46a)
• a dependent clause functioning as an “indirect question” (46b)

Finally, dependent statements – (48b) or (46a) – also have two distinct func-
tions (49).

(49) a. a dependent statement functioning to complete the meaning of an

independent clause;
b. a dependent statement functioning to complete the meaning of a
noun.

661
36 Technical notes

The first function, (49a), was illustrated in (46a), where the dependent state-
ment completes the meaning of the independent clause. The second type, (49b),
is relevant for nouns, and is described next.

36.9.2.1 Dependent statements functioning as “nouns”, and relative clauses

Certain dependent statements function as “nouns” in their own right, (50).

(50) shęh ní:waˀs

that it.is.a.certain.size
‘sizes’
cf. ní:-w-aˀs
part-3s.a-certain.size.stat

Other dependent statements (technically known as relative clauses) mod-

ify or complete the meaning of nouns. Example (51) includes the noun phrase
Gwi:déh hǫwa:yę:dí: hǫ́:gweh ‘the man that Peter knows’, which functions as
a type of multi-word “noun” for the rest of the sentence (describing the per-
son who likes sugar). It includes a relative clause, Gwi:déh hǫwa:yę́:di: ‘Peter
he.knows.him’, plus the noun whose meaning is modified, hǫ́:gweh ‘the man’.

(51) [Gwi:déh hǫwa:yę:dí: hǫ́:gweh] ho:gáˀs nawę́ˀdaˀ.

[Peter he.knows.him man] he.likes.the.taste.of.it sugar
‘[The man that Peter knows] likes candy.’

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 Part VIII

Appendices
Appendix A: Noun dictionary
A.1 Basic nouns ending in ⌊-aˀ⌋ nsf, ⌊-tr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf or
⌊-hsr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf
The following basic nouns all end with ⌊-aˀ⌋ nsf. Some of these nouns also have
a nominalizer suffix, and end either with ⌊-tr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf or ⌊-(h)sr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-
nsf (for which, see §5.1). Basic nouns begin with ⌊ga-⌋ 3s.a, ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p or [a] (see
§5.1).

[adaˀditra] adáˀditraˀ ‘cane’ [adoda:] adóda:ˀ ‘bow’ (as in bow

[adahdiˀtra] adáhdi ̱ˀtraˀ ‘socks’ and arrow)
[adahǫdǫhsra] odahǫdǫ́hsraˀ ‘ask- [adogę] adó:gęˀ ‘axe, tomahawk’
ing’ [adǫhneˀtsa] odǫ́hne̱ˀtsaˀ, adǫ́hne̱ˀt-
saˀ ‘ladder or stairs’
[adęˀhę] adę́hęˀ ‘fence’
[adoˀjina] adoˀjí:naˀ ‘skate’
[adęhęgaǫsra] adęhęgáǫhsraˀ ‘an in-
vitation’ [adǫnhehsra] adǫ́nhehsraˀ ‘birth’
[adǫnheˀtra] odǫnhehtrá:gǫ: ‘in the
[adehsę] odéhshęˀ ‘cocoon, nest,
heart’
hive, bee-hive’
[adǫtgadǫhsra, adǫtgadehsra] odǫt-
[adehswa] adéhswaˀ ‘blouse, middy’
gadǫ́hsraˀ, odǫtgadéhsraˀ, ‘celebra-
[adejęˀtra] sadéjęˀtraˀ ‘your doctor’ tion, fun’
[adekwahahsra] adekwaháhsraˀ ‘ta- [adǫwa] adǫ́:waˀ ‘men’s personal
ble’ chant’
[adęnideǫsra] adęnidéǫsraˀ ‘the act [adra:hgwa:] odráhgwa:ˀ ‘sun dog’
of kindness’ [adraˀswa] adráˀswaˀ ‘luck’
[adęnihsa] adęni ̱hsáˀgeh ‘on the [adreˀtra] agádrˀetraˀ ‘my grand-
wall’, odę́ni ̱hsaˀ ‘wall’ child(ren)’
[adiˀgrǫhsra] adíˀgrǫ̱hsraˀ ‘shyness’ [adrihwagyaǫhsra] adrihwagyáǫh-
[adihakǫhsra] adihakǫ́hsraˀ ‘cere- sraˀ ‘disaster’
monial feast’ [aˀęna] oˀę́:naˀ ‘snowsnake, pole’
A Noun dictionary

[aˀgęhę] oˀgę́hęˀ ‘ashes, bullet, dust’ [atgǫˀtra] otgǫ́ˀtraˀ ‘ominous

[aˀgra] oˀgraˀ ‘snow, snowflake’ medicine’
[agyaˀdawiˀtra] agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ [atgwęnyaˀtra, atgǫnyaˀtra] gat-
‘coat, dress’ gwę́nya̱ ˀtraˀ, gatgǫ́nya̱ ˀtraˀ ‘corn
bread paddles, corn soup paddles’
[agyaǫhsra] ogyáǫhsraˀ, agyáǫhsraˀ
‘trick’ [atnaˀgwihdra] atnáˀgwi ̱hdraˀ ‘belt’
[ahdahgwa] ahdáhgwaˀ ‘shoes’ [atnaˀtsotra] atnáˀtsotraˀ ‘pants’
[ˀahdra] ga̱ ˀáhdraˀ ‘basket’ [atrǫniˀda] atrǫ́ni ̱ˀdaˀ ‘clothes’
[ahgwęnya] ahgwę́:nyaˀ ‘clothing, [atsogę] atsó:gęˀ ‘calendar’
clothes’ [atsohgwa] atsókwa̱ hdaˀ ‘big-
[ahjiˀgra] ohjíˀgraˀ ‘cloud’ headed sucker’
[ˀahsa] oˀáhsaˀ ‘chest’ [atsohgwahdaˀ] otsógwa̱ hdaˀ ‘pipe
(for tobacco)’
[ahsdęha] ohsdę́hęˀgeh ‘on the
chalk’ [atsoˀkdǫhsra] atsóˀkdǫ̱hsraˀ ‘hoe’
[ahsgwa] ahsgwaˀ ‘roof’ [awęhę] awę́hęˀ ‘flower’
[awęhsa] awę́hsaˀ ‘sunflower’
[ahsheda] ohshé:daˀ ‘number’
[awęˀnahsa, awęˀnohsa] awę́ˀna̱ h-
[ahsrǫhęˀda] ohsrǫ́hęˀdaˀ ‘angry
saˀ ‘tongue’, gwęˀnóhsa̱ ˀgeh ‘on
person, temper’
my tongue’
[ahya] ohyaˀ ‘fruit’
[aˀya] oˀyaˀ ‘female genitals, vagina’
[ajahǫhsgwa, ajęhǫhsgwa] ajahǫhs-
[ˀdatra] ga̱ ˀdá:traˀ ‘quiver’
gwá:gǫ: ‘in a whisper’, sajęhǫhs-
gwaęˀ ‘whisper!’ [di(tra)] odi: ‘tea’, odiˀtragáˀǫh
‘Good Tea’ (name of a dog)
[anahaotra] anaháotraˀ ‘hat’
[ˀdǫdra] oˀdǫ́:draˀ ‘fat, gristle, rind’
[anhęhę] onhę́hęˀ ‘urine, pee’
[ˀdrehda] ga̱ ˀdréhdaˀ ‘car, truck, ve-
[aoˀtra] odáoˀtraˀ, adáoˀtraˀ ‘friend-
hicle’
ship’ (also refers to a ceremonial
friend) [ˀdrohsra] oˀdróhsraˀ ‘fat, pig rinds’
[atga:, atgai] otga:ˀ ‘noise’ [ędehsra] ędéhsraˀ ‘sexual arousal’
[atgahnyehtra] atgáhnye̱htraˀ [ęhniˀda] ęhníˀda:ˀ ‘month, moon’
‘sports, games’ [ˀęna] oˀę́:naˀ ‘spear’
[atganǫnihsra] otganǫníhsraˀ [ęˀnhotra] ęˀnhó:traˀ ‘ball’
‘wealth, richness’ [ęˀnihsga:] ęˀníhsga:ˀ, węˀníhsga:ˀ
[atgǫhsgwaˀtra] atgǫ́hsgwa̱ ˀtraˀ ‘wheel, circle, hoop’
‘window’ [ęˀnyotra] ęˀnyó:traˀ ‘mittens’

666
 A.1 Basic nouns ending in ⌊-aˀ⌋ nsf, ⌊-tr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf or ⌊-hsr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf

[ętsga:] gętsga:ˀ ‘mattress, sleeping [gǫˀtra] ogǫ́ˀtraˀ ‘pound’ (measure-

mat’ ment)
[ga:] ó:ga:ˀ ‘a price (on something)’ [gǫhstwęˀę:, gǫhstǫˀ] ogǫ́hstwęˀę:ˀ
[ˀga:] oˀga:ˀ ‘parable, tale, story, leg- ‘beard’, ahatgǫ̱hstǫˀęht ‘he shaved’
end’ satgǫ́hstwęˀęht ‘shave!’
[gaˀd] ogáˀdaˀ, ogaˀdaˀshǫ́:ˀǫh [graheˀda] gra̱ hédaˀgeh ‘on the tree’
‘pants, underpants’ [gwęniˀda] ogwę́ni ̱ˀdaˀ ‘pennies’
[gaˀda] gagáˀdaˀ ‘white oak’ [gwęnoˀda] otgwę́no̱ˀdaˀ ‘gizzard’
[gaha] ogáhaˀ ‘eye’ [gwiya] ogwí:yaˀ ‘limb, twig,
[gahdra] ogáhdraˀ ‘tear(s)’ (in one’s branch’
eye) [gwiyoˀd] gagwíyoˀdaˀ ‘corn husk
[gahehda] ogáhehdaˀ ‘eyelash, the fringe around a wooden mask’
stem of a berry, the eye of the corn [hada] ga̱ há:daˀ ‘forest, bush’
kernel’ [haˀda] oháˀdaˀ ‘quill, plume,
[gahgwaosa] ogahgwáohsaˀ ‘eye- feather, voice, throat, larynx,
brow’ esophagus’
[gahgwiyoˀda] ogahgwiyóˀdaˀ ‘corn [haha] oháhaˀ ‘road’
husk mask with a wooden face’ [haˀkda] oháˀkdaˀ ‘soot’
[gahihsd] gagáhihsdaˀ ‘eye glasses’ [hanǫhsa] ohánǫ̱hsaˀ ‘temple’ (body
[gahoˀja] ogáhoˀjaˀ ‘grass’ part)
[ganyęˀda] ogányę̱ˀdaˀ ‘cadaver, [heˀa:] ohéˀa:ˀ ‘corn husk’
dead body’ [hęda] ohę́:daˀ ‘the field’ (of Iroquois
[gawehsa] gagáwe̱hsaˀ ‘paddle, origin only, pertaining to the Dish
shovel’ Game, see §D.18)
[geˀa:] ogéˀa:ˀ ‘hair, a rag’ [hehda] ohéhdaˀ ‘dirt, earth, ground,
land’
[gehda] gagéhdaˀ ‘tie, scarf’
[hęhda:] ohę́hda:ˀ ‘fur’
[gihę] gi:hę́:gǫ: ‘in the stream,
creeks, river’ [hehna, hrehna] ga̱ héhnaˀ, ohéh-
naˀ ‘cargo, bundle, load’,
[goˀa:] otgóˀa:ˀ ‘wampum’
khrehnęhę:wiˀ ‘I am carrying a
[gǫˀda] ogǫ́daˀ ‘bridge of one’s nose’ bundle’
[gǫˀdra] gagǫ́ˀdraˀ, ogǫ́ˀdraˀ ‘pillow, [hehsa] ohéhsaˀ ‘decayed tree, log,
cushion, cotton batting, q-tips’ wood, board’
[gǫhsa] gagǫ́hsaˀ ‘a mask’ [hęna] Ga̱ hę́nagǫ: ‘Hamilton (liter-
[gǫhsa] ogǫ́hsaˀ ‘face’ ally, in the bay)’

667
A Noun dictionary

[henaˀtra] ohéna̱ ˀtraˀ ‘blade’ [hnyǫˀǫhsra] ga̱ hnyǫ́ˀǫhsraˀ ‘iron,

[hetgaˀa:] ohétgaˀa:ˀ ‘rear end, pos- steel, a bar’
terior’ [hǫda] ohǫ́:daˀ ‘bush, whip’
[hetsa] ohé:tsaˀ ‘(raw) sausage, [hodra] ohó:draˀ ‘basswood’
bologna, wieners’ [hǫga:] ga̱ hǫ́:ga:ˀ ‘elm’
[heya] ohé:yaˀ ‘one corn stalk’ [hoˀgwa] ohóˀgwaˀ ‘lower back (on
[hiˀkda] ohíˀkdaˀ ‘thorn, thistle’ sides), bum cheeks’
[hiˀya] ohíˀyaˀ ‘the body’s trunk, [hohsgra] ohóhsgraˀ ‘slippery elm’
form’ [hǫhsra] gahǫ́hsraˀ ‘box’
[hna] ohnaˀ ‘grease, oil’ [hohwa:] ohóhwa:ˀ ‘pelt’
[hnawa] Ga̱ hnáwagǫ: ‘Warren, PA’ [hǫjihsda] ga̱ hǫ́ˀji ̱hsdaˀ, ohǫji ̱hsdaˀ
(literally, ‘in the rapids’) ‘motor, engine’
[hneˀdra] ohnéˀdrageh ‘on the [hǫnaˀda] ohǫ́na̱ ˀdaˀ, hǫ́na̱ ˀdaˀ
ground’ ‘potato’
[hnega] ohné:gaˀ ‘liquid, alcohol’ [hotra] ga̱ hó:traˀ ‘package’
[hnya] Howahnyayę:ni: ‘He Laid [hǫwa] ga̱ hǫ́:waˀ ‘boat’
Down A Stick For Him’ (Onondaga [howeˀda] ga̱ hówe̱ˀdaˀ ‘tube, cylin-
Chief Title), gahnyaˀ ‘stick’ der’
[hnya] ohnyaˀ ‘the neck, the throat’ [hsaheˀda] ohsáheˀdaˀ ‘beans’
[hnya:] ohnya:ˀ ‘nutmeat’ [hsda:] ohsda:ˀ ‘rain’
[hnyahsga:] ęhnyáhsga:ˀ ‘button’ [hsdagwa] gahsdá:gwaˀ, ohsdá:gwaˀ
‘dirty clothes’
[hnyaˀsa] ohnyáˀsaˀ ‘neck, throat’
[hsdaoˀgwa] osdáoˀgwaˀ ‘necklace’
[hnyędahsa] ga̱ hnyę́da̱ hsaˀ, ohnyę́-
da̱ hsaˀ ‘beak’ [hsdawęˀdra] ga̱ hsdáwę̱ˀdraˀ ‘rattle,
horn rattle’
[hnye:ha] ohnyé:haˀ ‘flint corn
soup’ [hsdowa] gahsdó:waˀ ‘headdress’
[hnyoˀgwa] ohnyóˀgwaˀ ‘nut’ [hsęhę] ohsę́hęˀ ‘frost’

[hnyǫgwidra] ohnyǫ́gwidraˀ [hsęna] ga̱ hsę́:naˀ ‘name’

‘grapes’ [hsgęˀdra] ohsgę́ˀdraˀ ‘rust’
[hnyǫhgwihsd] ohnyǫ́hgwi ̱hsdaˀ [hsgeha] ohsgéhaˀ ‘louse’
‘braided corn’ [hsgoha] ohsgóhaˀ ‘branch’
[hnyǫhsa] ohnyǫ́hsaˀ ‘squash, [hsgwa:] ga̱ hsgwa:ˀ ‘stone, rock,
melon’ boulder, bullet’

668
 A.1 Basic nouns ending in ⌊-aˀ⌋ nsf, ⌊-tr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf or ⌊-hsr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf

[hsgwaęˀda] ohsgwáęˀdaˀ, sgwáęˀdaˀ [idǫhgwa] odǫ́hgwaˀ ‘flame, fever’

‘coltsfoot’ [idręhda, widręhda] gáidrę̱hdaˀ,
[hsgwęsa] ohsgwę́hsaˀ ‘spleen’ owídrę̱hdaˀ ‘sleep, a dream’
[hsgwiˀdra] ohsgwíˀdraˀ ‘wrinkles, [igyohgwa] gęgyóhgwaˀ ‘crowd, the
prunes’ public’
[hsgyęˀda:] ohsgyę́ˀda:ˀ ‘bone, bare [Cihsda] gáihsdaˀ ‘tin, metal’
bones’ [ihsda:, ihsdai] ohsdá:ˀ, ohsdáiˀ ‘fish
[hsgyǫˀwa] ohsgyǫ́ˀwaˀ ‘blue beech’ scale’
[hsheˀa] ohshéˀaˀ ‘dough’ [ijǫˀda] ojǫ́ˀdaˀ ‘fish’
[itseˀda] gatséˀdaˀ, gętséˀdaˀ ‘bottle,
[hsiya] ohsí:yaˀ ‘thread, string, cord’
jar’
[hsǫwahda] ga̱ hsǫ́wa̱ hdaˀ ‘nails,
[itsgra] otsgraˀ ‘saliva, spit, sputum’
wire, needle’
[jaohoˀgwa] ojáhoˀgwaˀ ‘ankle’
[hstǫdra] ohstǫ́:draˀ ‘straw’
[jaǫsa] ojáǫsaˀ ‘leaves of corn’
[hswęˀda] ohswę́ˀdaˀ ‘coal’
[ję] gajęˀ ‘dish, plate, bowl’
[hswęhda] ga̱ hswę́hdaˀ ‘wampum [jiˀa:] ojíˀa:ˀ ‘curtains, lace’
belt’
[jiˀdrǫwahda] ojiˀdrǫwáhdaˀ ‘the
[hsweˀna, hswaˀna] ohswéˀnaˀ ‘up- brain’
per back’, sehswaˀne:t ‘you are sup-
[jiˀgwa] gajíˀgwaˀ, ojíˀgwaˀ ‘naked-
porting, backing them’
ness, nudity’
[hwahda] ohwahdaˀ ‘maple’ [jigwęda] oji:gwę́:daˀ ‘gonorrhea’
[hwajiya] ga̱ hwa:jí:yaˀ ‘family’ [jihaya] gajíhayaˀ ‘the devil’, ‘Tak-
[hwęhda:] ohwę́hda: ‘corn ears’ ing out the Cork’ (forbidden dance)
[hwęˀga:] ohwę́ˀga:ˀ ‘wood chips, [jihgwa] ojíhgwaˀ ‘porridge, mush’
splints’ [jihnyaˀda] ojíhnya̱ ˀdaˀ ‘tendon, lig-
[hwęˀsda] ohwę́hsdaˀ ‘foam’ ament, birth cord, vein’
[hwihsda] ohwíhsdaˀ ‘money’ [jihoha:] gajíhoha:ˀ, ojihoha:ˀ
‘straight pin, pin, brooch, safety
[hyadǫhsra] ga̱ hyádǫ̱hsraˀ ‘paper’
pin’
[iˀda] oˀdaˀ ‘feces’
[jihsa] Gajíhsaˀ ‘Husk Face, False
[iˀda:] oˀda:ˀ ‘clay, mud, mortar’ Face’
[iˀdaihęhdra] oˀdaihęhdraˀ ‘sweat’ [jihsda] gajíhsdaˀ ‘lamp’
[idehsra] gędéhsraˀ ‘sexuality’ [jihsdanohgwa] ojihsdanóhgwaˀ
[idęǫhsra] gędę́ǫhsraˀ ‘pity, mercy, ‘decimal point, point, dot’
compassion’ [jihsgwa] ojíhsgwaˀ ‘mush’

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A Noun dictionary

[jihsǫda:] ojihsǫ́:da:ˀ ‘cluster of stars, [nahaǫgwę(tra)] ganaháǫgwęˀ

star’ ‘seeds, seed corn’, dędwanahaǫgwętraęˀ
[jihwa, jihy] gajíhwaˀ ‘hammer’, ‘Seed Ceremony’
gajihyowa:nęh ‘sledgehammer, big [nahda] ganáhdaˀ ‘comb’
hammer’ [nahgwa] ganáhgwaˀ ‘bass drum’
[jihwęda] ojihwę́:daˀ ‘bell’ [ˀnahgwa] ga̱ ˀnáhgwaˀ ‘marriage’
[jija] ojíˀjaˀ ‘petal’ [nahsgwa] ganáhsgwaˀ ‘tame ani-
[jikeˀda] ojíkeˀdaˀ ‘salt’ mal, pet, domestic animal’
[jinǫhgra] ojínǫ̱hgraˀ ‘nasal mucus’ [naiˀda] ganáiˀdaˀ ‘peacock, bride,
boastfulness’
[jiˀnǫwa] ojiˀnǫ́:waˀ ‘bug, insect,
worm’ [naˀja] ganáˀjaˀ ‘pail’
[naˀjohsgwa] ganáˀjo̱hsgwaˀ ‘cup’
[jiˀohda, jiˀehda] ojíˀohdaˀ, ojíˀehdaˀ
‘fingernails, toenails, animal nails, [naˀjowiˀtra] ganaˀjowíˀtraˀ ‘water
claws’ drum’
[jis] ó:ji:s ‘cheese’ (loanword from [nakda] ganá:kdaˀ ‘bed’
English) [naˀsgwa] onáˀsgwaˀ ‘mattress’
[jisgoˀgwa:] ojíˀohsgwa:ˀ ‘hip’ [naˀtra] adę́na̱ ˀtraˀ ‘lunch, gro-
[jitgwa:] ojí:tgwa:ˀ ‘yellow, bile’ ceries’

[ˀka:] ga̱ ˀka:ˀ ‘slip, skirt’ [nawa] ganáwagǫ: ‘in the pond,
swamp’
[kda] okdaˀ ‘nutshell’
[nawada] onáwadaˀ ‘clay, plaster,
[kdeha] okdéhaˀ ‘root, edible roots’ white-wash’
(pepper roots, turnips, carrots)
[neda] ganédagǫ: ‘Lower End, in the
[kjina] okjí:naˀ ‘stump, knots in a valley’
tree’
[neˀda] onę́ˀdaˀ ‘evergreen, conifer’
[ksaˀda] agéksaˀdaˀ ‘my child’ [neˀda:] onéˀda: ‘roe’
[kwa] gakwaˀ ‘food’ [negręda] onégrędaˀ ‘morel mush-
[nada] ganá:daˀ ‘town, community’ room’
[naˀda:] onáˀda:ˀ ‘bread’ [negwa] oné:gwaˀ ‘peas’
[naˀga] onáˀga:ˀ ‘horns, antlers’ [nęhę:] onę́hę:ˀ ‘corn’
[naˀgwa] onáˀgwaˀ ‘lungs’ [ˀnehsa] oˀnéhsaˀ ‘sand’
[naˀgwiya] onaˀgwí:yaˀ ‘cotton bat- [nehsda:] ganéhsda:ˀ ‘board’
ting’ [nehshęhę] ganéhshęhęˀ ‘dogfish’

670
 A.1 Basic nouns ending in ⌊-aˀ⌋ nsf, ⌊-tr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf or ⌊-hsr-aˀ⌋ nmlz-nsf

[nehwa] ganéhwaˀ ‘leather, hide’ [nǫhgwatra] onǫ́hgwatraˀ ‘medicines’

[nęnoga:] onę:nóga:ˀ ‘hickory wood, [nǫhgwę] onǫ́hgwęˀ ‘corn cob’
stick’ [ˀnoksa] oˀnó:ksaˀ ‘bass (fish), oys-
[nęnyoˀgwa] onę́nyo̱ˀgwaˀ ‘pills’ ters, shellfish, sea shells’
[ˀnhahgya, ˀnhahda] oˀnháhgyaˀ, [nǫhkwahsra] ganǫ́hkwahsraˀ
onháhdaˀ ‘large lumber logs, tim- ‘love’
ber’ [nohǫkdehsra] ganohǫkdéhsraˀ
[nheˀda] ganhéˀdaˀ ‘porcupine’ ‘sickness, an ache’
[nhehsa] ganhéhsaˀ ‘harness, rib- [nohotsgęˀę] onohotsgę́ˀęˀ ‘beech’
bon, laces’ [nǫhsa] ganǫ́hsaˀ ‘house’
[nhehsra] ganhéhsraˀ ‘to take some- [ˀnohsda] ga̱ ˀnóhsdaˀ ‘naked, bare’,
one’s part, advocacy’ ‘hairless or plucked carcass’
[ˀnhęhtsa, ˀnhwęhtsa] oˀnhę́htsaˀ, [nǫnheˀdra] onǫ́nhe̱ˀdraˀ ‘soother,
oˀnhwę́htsaˀ ‘tail of an animal’ pacifier, nipple’
[nhoha] ganhóhaˀ ‘door’ [nǫnya] ganǫ́:nyaˀ ‘dance’
[ˀnhǫhsa] oˀnhǫ́hsaˀ ‘eggs’ [nǫnya] onǫ́:nyaˀ ‘husk’
[niga:hęhsra] onigá:hęhsraˀ ‘mate- [ˀnoshęhsra] ga̱ ˀnóhshęhsraˀ ‘jeal-
rial, cloth’ ousy’
[ˀnigǫha] ga̱ ˀnígǫ̱haˀ ‘the mind’ [nowa] ganó:waˀ ‘guitar, any string
instrument’
[ˀnihsda:] oˀníhsda:ˀ ‘stem, hull of
berries’ [nowęˀda] onówę̱ˀdaˀ ‘lie’
[nǫda] Onǫ́da̱ ˀgeh ‘on the hill, [nrahda] onráhdaˀ ‘leaf’
Onondaga town’ [nrahdǫdahsra] onrahdǫdáhsraˀ
[nǫda, neda] onǫ́dagǫ: ‘valley’, ‘poplar’
ganédagǫ: ‘in, under the valley’ [nrahsra] onráhsraˀ ‘mushroom’
[nǫgęˀda] onǫ́gę̱ˀdaˀ ‘catfish’ [nreˀa] ganréˀaˀ ‘Eagle Feathers’ (for
making friends, the one who asks
[nǫˀgwa] onǫ́ˀgwaˀ ‘milk’
for the friendship holds the feath-
[noˀja] onóˀjaˀ ‘teeth’ ers)
[ˀnǫh] ga̱ ˀnǫh ‘arrow’ [nregęˀda] onrégę̱ˀdaˀ ‘tripe, animal
[nohaˀt] onóhaˀtaˀ ‘soap’ stomach’
[ˀnǫhda] oˀnǫ́hdaˀ ‘bur’ [nręhę] onrę́hęˀ ‘tapeworm’
[ˀnǫhsa] oˀnǫ́hsaˀ ‘onions’ [nyada:] ganyadá:ˀgeh ‘at the lake’
[ˀnohsda, ˀnesda] oˀnó:sdaˀ, [nyaˀgwa] onyáˀgwaˀ ‘vomit, vomi-
oˀné:sdaˀ ‘nudity’ tus’

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A Noun dictionary

[nyah] onyáhaˀ ‘native mush dish [rǫhya] gáǫhya̱ ˀgeh ‘in the heavens,
made with corn’ in the sky’
[nyęda] onyę́:daˀ ‘stem’ [sehda] oséhdaˀ ‘willow, nape of
[nyoda] ganyó:daˀ ‘spoon, canoe, neck’
birch bark canoe’ [sgwiˀya, sgweˀya] osgwiˀyaˀ, osg-
wéˀyaˀ ‘buds’
[ˀnyǫhsa] oˀnyǫ́hsaˀ ‘nose’
[shaihsda] osháihsdaˀ ‘snake’
[ǫgweˀda] gáǫgwe̱ˀdaˀ ‘person, hu-
man’ [shasdęhsra] ga̱ hsháhsdę̱hsraˀ,
ohshahsdę̱hsraˀ ‘power, strength,
[ˀǫhgwa:] oˀǫ́hgwa:ˀ ‘sod, moss’
energy’
[ˀǫhsa] oˀǫ́hsaˀ ‘vines’ [teˀtra] otéˀtraˀ ‘flour, powder’
[ohsra] go̱hsréhneh ‘winter time’, [tgęhetsa] gatgę́hetsaˀ ‘handle’
niyohsrage: ‘years’
[tgiˀtra] gatgíˀtraˀ ‘junk’
[ǫhwęja] ohwę́jageh ‘on earth’
[tgoˀda] otgóˀdaˀ ‘sumac’
[ˀǫwa] gaˀǫ́:waˀ ‘bowl, butter dish, [tgwęˀda] gatgwę́ˀdaˀ ‘wallet, purse,
trough’ pocketbook, suitcase’
[ra(h)gwa:] gá:gwa:ˀ ‘celestial [tgwęhjiˀa] otgwę́hji ̱ˀa:ˀ ‘red’
orb’ (i.e. the sun, the moon),
[tragwęˀda] otragwę́ˀdaˀ ‘flint
ętga:hgwi:tgęˀ ‘the sun will rise’
(stone)’
[rahǫhsra] gá:hǫhsraˀ ‘cradleboard’
[tręˀda] otrę́ˀdaˀ ‘housefly, fly’
[ratsgęˀda] gá:tsgę̱ˀdaˀ ‘rope’ [tsada] otsá:daˀ ‘mist, steam, fog,
[ręna] gáęnaˀ ‘song’ gas, water vapour’
[rihwa] oíhwaˀ ‘message, word, af- [tsahda] otsáhdaˀ ‘gall bladder’
fair, business’ [tsehsda] otséhsdaˀ ‘syrup, honey,
[rihwahsra] gáihwa̱ hsaˀ ‘an agree- gum, nectar’
ment’ [tsenę] gatsé:nęˀ ‘one animal or pet’
[rihwaneˀaksra] gaihwanéˀaksraˀ [tsgęˀęda] otsgę́ˀę:ˀ ‘peach pit’
‘sin’ [tsgoˀd] otsgóˀdaˀ ‘balsam fir’
[rihwiyohsdęhsra] gaihwiyóhsdę̱h- [tsinǫhgęˀda] otsinǫ̱hgę́ˀdaˀ ‘charm
sraˀ ‘religion, the Christian faith’ society, charm’
[risra] gáisraˀ ‘leggings’ [twęhsa] otwę́hsaˀ ‘liver’
[rǫda] gáǫdaˀ ‘log’ [wa:] ó:wa:ˀ ‘air, wind, a moth’
[rǫhnya] aǫhnyagǫ:, ǫhnya:gǫ: ‘in [ˀwaha] oˀwáhǫh ‘meat’, oˀwahi:yo:
the river flats’ ‘good, tender meat’

672
 A.2 Body part nouns

[ˀwahsha:] ga̱ ˀwáhsha:ˀ ‘earrings’ [yaˀdagenhahsra] gayaˀdagénhah-

[ˀwahsda] ga̱ ˀwáhsdaˀ, oˀwahsdaˀ sraˀ ‘helpfulness’
‘clothespin’ [yaˀdowehdahsra] gayaˀdowéhda̱ h-
[wajihsda] owáji ̱hsdaˀ ‘peelings, sraˀ ‘the ability to think, thinking
bark of a tree’ skills’
[waˀwihsda] owáˀwi ̱hsdaˀ ‘peeling’ [yahgwa] oyáhgwaˀ ‘pants’
[waya] owa:yaˀ ‘fin of a fish, wings’ [yana] oyá:naˀ ‘tire, its track, any-
thing that leaves tracks’
[węna] owę́:naˀ ‘word, voice,
speech’ [yanehsra] gayáne̱hsraˀ ‘rights,
laws, code’
[węˀyǫhga:, węˀyuhga:] awę́ˀyǫ̱hga:ˀ,
[yę:] ó:yę:ˀ ‘beads’
awę́ˀyuhga:ˀ ‘thumb’
[yęda] oyę́:daˀ ‘wood, firewood’
[węyǫhsa, węnyahsa] awę́yǫ̱hsaˀ
‘heart’, agaęsawęnyahsha:ˀ ‘they [yęˀgwa] oyę́ˀgwaˀ
gave you a heart operation’ ‘tobacco, cigarettes’
[widra] owi:draˀ ‘ice’ [yęhsa:] oyę́hsa:ˀ ‘bandage’
[wiya] owí:yaˀ ‘young or offspring [yęhsra] oyę́hsraˀ ‘blankets’
(i.e. of an animal), baby’ [yęnawahsra] gayęnawáhsraˀ ‘help’
[ya] ó:yaˀ ‘other, another’ [yǫˀda] oyǫ́ˀdaˀ ‘dead body, cadaver’
[ya:] gaya:ˀ ‘bag, mattress, tick, [ˀyohgwa] ga̱ ˀyóhgwaˀ ‘Avocet blue
pouch’ (i.e. a mattress bag into stocking (bird)’
which straw is stuffed) [ˀyohgwa] oˀyóhgwaˀ ‘skirt, tail,
[yada] oyá:daˀ ‘basement, track, feather’
ditch, rut, furrow’ [ˀyotsa] oˀyó:tsaˀ ‘chin’
[yaˀda] gayáˀdaˀ ‘doll’ [yǫwa] oyǫ́:waˀ ‘guts, intestines’

A.2 Body part nouns

Body part nouns begin with an a-series pronominal prefix, and end with ⌊-aˀgeh⌋
‘on’ (see §5.2).

[ahǫhda] sa̱ hǫ́hda̱ ˀgeh ‘on your ears’ [ahyagwiya] swa̱ hyagwiyáˀgeh ‘on
[ahǫhda] ohǫ́hdagǫ: ‘inner ear’ your toes’

[ˀahsa] seˀáhsa̱ ˀgeh ‘on your chest’ [awęˀnahsa, awęˀnohsa] swęˀnóh-

[ahsiˀda] sa̱ hsíˀda̱ ˀgeh ‘on your foot’ sa̱ ˀgeh ‘on your tongue’

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A Noun dictionary

[gaha] segáha̱ ˀgeh ‘on your eyes’ [hsgwa:, hsgo] hahsgwáˀgeh ‘his tes-
[gahehda] segahehdáˀgeh ‘on your ticles’
eyelashes’ [hsina] se̱hsína̱ ˀgeh ‘on your leg’
[gahgwaosa] segahgwáosa̱ ˀgeh ‘on [hsnaˀda] se̱hsnáˀda̱ ˀgeh ‘on your
your eyebrow’ calf (of leg), on your outer thighs’
[geˀa:] sagéˀa̱ ˀgeh ‘on your hair’ [hsǫhga:] se̱hsǫhgá:ˀgeh ‘on your up-
[gęˀsda] segę́ˀsda̱ ˀgeh ‘on your hair- per lip’
line, upper brow, forehead’ [hsohgwa] se̱hsǫ́hgwa̱ ˀgeh ‘on your
lip’
[gǫhsa] segǫ́hsa̱ ˀgeh ‘on your face’
[hshǫ, hsha] se̱hshǫ́hneh ‘on your
[gǫhstǫˀa] gegǫhstǫˀáˀgeh ‘on my
lower back’ ęgéhshadaˀ ‘I will fall
whiskers, my facial hair’
on my back’
[gǫˀda] gegǫ́ˀda̱ ˀgeh ‘on the bridge of
[hsdoˀdra] ohsdóˀdra̱ ˀgeh ‘on its
my nose’
feathers’
[goˀnya] egóˀnya̱ ˀgeh ‘on her sep-
[hsˀohda] se̱hsóhda̱ ˀgeh ‘on your
tum’
hand’
[hana] shanáˀgeh ‘on your groin,
[hsweˀna] se̱hswéˀna̱ ˀgeh ‘on your
crotch’
upper back’
[hanǫhsa] hahanǫ̱hsáˀgeh ‘on his [hyohsa, hyuhsa] kyohsáˀgeh, kyuh-
temple’ sáˀgeh ‘on my elbow’
[haˀda] ga̱ háˀda̱ ˀgeh ‘on its throat’ [ihna] gi ̱hnáˀgeh ‘on my skin’
[hdega:] se̱hdegá:ˀgeh ‘on your ribs’ [ˀnyǫhsa] se̱ˀnyǫ́hsa̱ ˀgeh ‘on your
[hetgaˀa(:)] se̱hetga̱ ˀáˀgeh ‘on your nose’
anus’ [jaohoˀgwa] sejaohóˀgwa̱ ˀgeh ‘on
[hnaˀtsa] sna̱ ˀtsáˀgeh ‘on your but- your ankle’
tocks’ [jisgoˀgwa] sejihsgogwáˀgeh ‘on
[hnęsa] swa̱ hnę́hsa̱ ˀgeh ‘on your your hip’
shoulders’ [jiˀohda, jiˀehda] gejiˀohdáˀgeh ‘on
[hnyaˀsa] se̱hnyáˀsa̱ ˀgeh ‘on your my nail’, degaji̱ˀéhe:s ‘claw’
neck (front of the neck)’ [kseˀda] sekséˀda̱ ˀgeh ‘on your belly’
[hnyędahsa] ga̱ hnyęda̱ hsáˀgeh ‘on [nętsa] snętsaˀgeh ‘on your arm’
its beak’ [ˀnhǫhda] se̱ˀnhǫ́hdagǫ: ‘your under-
[hoˀa] shoˀáˀgeh ‘on your lap’ arm, armpit’
[hǫˀgwa] shǫˀgwáˀgeh ‘on your [ˀnhǫhsga:] ge̱ˀnhǫhsgá:ˀgeh ‘on my
Adam’s apple, front of your neck’ inner thigh’

674
 A.3 Body part nouns (detached or unpossessed)

[nǫha] gonǫ́ha̱ ˀgeh ‘on her wig’ [sehda] seséhdagǫ: ‘on the nape of
[nǫnheˀdra] sa̱ ˀnǫnheˀdráˀgeh ‘on your neck’
your nipples’ [węˀyǫhga:, węˀyǫhga:] gwęˀyǫhgá:ˀgeh,
[nǫˀa:, nǫha] sanǫˀá:ˀgeh ‘on your gwęˀyuhgá:ˀgeh ‘on my thumb’
head’ [yagwahda] eyagwa̱ hdáˀgeh ‘on her
[nǫˀgwa] snǫ̱ˀgwáˀgeh ‘on your palm’
breast’
[yaˀda] sya̱ ˀdáˀgeh ‘on your body’
[noˀja] sno̱ˀjáˀgeh ‘on your teeth’
[yaˀga:] gya̱ ˀgá:ˀgeh ‘on my waist’
[nra] hanráˀgeh ‘on his penis, phal-
lus’ [yoˀgwa] syo̱ˀgwáˀgeh ‘on your
cheeks’
[nyęda] senyę́da̱ ˀgeh ‘on your shin’
[ǫtsa] sǫtsáˀgeh ‘on your knee’ [yǫhda] syǫ̱hdáˀgeh ‘on your gum’
[rada] sradáˀgeh ‘on your heel’ [ˀyohgwa] ga̱ ˀyóhgwa̱ ˀgeh ‘on its
[ragwahda] sragwáhdagǫ: ‘the sole tail (pertaining to birds)’
of your foot’ [yoˀtsa] syo̱ˀtsáˀgeh ‘on your chin’

A.3 Body part nouns (detached or unpossessed)

The following are examples of body part nouns inflected as basic nouns (see
§22.1.2).

[ˀahsa] oˀáhsˀaˀ ‘chest’ [hetgaˀa:] ohétgaˀa:ˀ ‘rear end, pos-

[ahsiˀda, ęhsa] ohsiˀdaˀ ‘feet’, terior’
desęhsó:we:k ‘put your shoes on’ [hiˀya] ohíˀyaˀ ‘the body’s trunk,
[ahyagwiya] ohya:gwí:yaˀ ‘toe(s)’ form’
[hnaˀtsa] ohnáˀtsaˀ ‘buttock, ass’
[awęˀnohsa] awę́ˀno̱hsaˀ ‘tongue’
[hnęsa] ohnę́hsaˀ ‘shoulder’
[aˀya] oˀyaˀ ‘female genitals, vagina’
[hnya] ohnyaˀ ‘the neck, the throat’
[gaha] ogáhaˀ ‘eye’
[hnyaˀsa] ohnyáˀsaˀ ‘neck, throat’
[gǫˀda] ogǫ́ˀdaˀ ‘bridge of one’s
[hnyaˀsa] ohnyáˀsa̱ ˀgǫ: ‘in the
nose’
throat’
[gǫhsa] ogǫ́hsaˀ ‘face’
[hoˀgwa] ohóˀgwaˀ ‘lower back (on
[gwęnoˀda] otgwę́no̱ˀdaˀ ‘gizzard’ sides), bum cheeks’
[hana] ohá:naˀ ‘groin, crotch’ [hsgwęsa] ohsgwę́hsaˀ ‘spleen’
[hdega:] ohdéga:ˀ ‘ribs’ [hsina] ohsí:naˀ ‘leg’

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[hsˀohda] ohsóhdaˀ ‘hand, paw’ [nhǫtsa] onhǫ́:tsaˀ ‘knee’

[hsohgwa] ohsóhgwaˀ ‘lips’ [nǫˀa:] onǫ́ˀa:ˀ ‘head’
[hsweˀna] ohswéˀnaˀ ‘upper back’ [noˀja] onóˀjaˀ ‘teeth’
[ˀnyǫhsa] oˀnyǫ́hsaˀ ‘nose’ [nra] onraˀ ‘phallus’
[jaohoˀgwa] ojáhoˀgwaˀ ‘ankle’ [ˀnya] oˀnyaˀ ‘fingers’
[jiˀdrǫwahda] ojiˀdrǫwáhdaˀ ‘the [ǫtsa] ǫtsaˀ ‘knee’
brain’ [ragwahda] ogwáhdaˀ, á:gwa̱ hdaˀ,
[jihnyaˀda] ojíhnya̱ ˀdaˀ ‘tendon, lig- ‘sole, ball of foot’
ament, birth cord, vein’ [sgihyotsa] sgihyóˀtsaˀ ‘jowls’
[jiˀohda, jiˀehda] ojíˀehdaˀ, ojíˀohdaˀ [twaihsra] twáihsraˀ ‘heart’
‘fingernails, toenails, animal nails, [twęhsa] otwę́hsaˀ ‘liver’
claws’
[węˀyǫhga:] awę́ˀyǫ̱hga:ˀ, awę́ˀyuhga:ˀ
[jisgoˀgwa] ojíˀohsgwa:ˀ ‘hip’ ‘thumb’
[kseˀda] okséˀdaˀ ‘belly’ [węyǫhsa] awę́yǫ̱hsaˀ ‘heart’
[naˀgwa] onáˀgwaˀ ‘lungs’ [yaˀda] oyáˀdaˀ ‘body’
[nętsa] onę́:tsaˀ ‘arm’ [yaˀga:] oyáˀga:ˀ ‘waist’
[ˀnhǫhda] onhǫ́hdaˀ ‘armpit’ [yoˀtsa] oˀyó:tsaˀ ‘chin’

A.4 List of agentive stative nouns

Agentive stative nouns are listed below (see §5.5).

gagá:we: ‘the act of rowing’ wagyésa̱hsdǫh ‘sales, bargains’

gagánya̱ˀgǫh ‘payment’ wagyǫ: ‘something thrown away,
wadę́nhaˀǫh ‘it is chartered, hired’ discards’
wadeˀnyędę́hsdǫh ‘the act of mea-
suring’ watwihsdǫ́:ni: ‘profit’
wagyenawáhdǫh ‘a reserved or watwihsdǫnyáˀdǫh ‘profit, invest-
booked venue’ ment’

A.5 List of stative nouns

Stative nouns end with the ⌊ǫ-:-ˀ⌋ stat-nmlz-nsf combination (see §5.5). Some
examples are listed below.

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adahyáohǫ:ˀ ‘Gathering of the Fruit Ganéhǫ:ˀ ‘Drum Dance’

ceremony’ ga̱ˀnigǫ̱hahniyá:dǫ:ˀ ‘the act of
adatrewáhdǫ:ˀ ‘repentance, punish- counselling’
ment’ ganihaǫ́ˀ otgóˀa:ˀ ‘strung wampum’
adówadǫ:ˀ ‘the hunt’
ganohsohdá:nǫ:ˀ ‘AIDS, disease’
adoˀjinéhdǫ:ˀ ‘skating’
gáohǫ:ˀ ‘the act of gathering’
adrihwa̱hséhdǫ:ˀ ‘a secret’
gawęnitgę́ˀǫ:ˀ ‘a speech’
adwagyáǫnyǫ:ˀ ‘haunted appari-
tion’ gayaˀdowéhdǫ:ˀ ‘the idea of think-
ing’
atǫ:dę́ˀǫ:ˀ ‘the act of hearing’
dewáˀaǫˀ ‘lacrosse, web’ ga̱ˀno:gę́:yǫ:ˀ ‘Grinding the Arrow
(forbidden ceremony)’
ga̱hé:yǫ:ˀ ‘death’
gędahswahę́hdrǫ:ˀ ‘a scolding’
ga̱hní:nǫˀ ‘something that is bought’
gahsgyáǫnyǫ:ˀ ‘words of encourage- ǫgyaˀditgę́hsǫ:ˀ ‘nightmares’
ment’ onǫhsodáiyǫ:ˀ ‘sickness, illness’
gahsǫ:ˀ ‘All Eaten Up’ (restricted cer- sawadriẖ watwa̱hdáhnǫ:ˀ ‘natural
emony for charms) disasters’
ga̱hwíhsdanǫ:ˀ ‘gold, expensive tigaya̱ˀdo:ní: wadǫ́nya̱hnǫ:ˀ ‘a
things’ robot’ (literally, ‘it moves’)
gaihwáehsdǫ:ˀ ‘a report’ wadewayę́hsdǫ:ˀ ‘the process of
gaihwané:gę:ˀ ‘a prayer, to pray’ learning’

⌊+iyo:⌋ versus ⌊+iyoˀ⌋

Several verbs functioning as “nouns” end with ⌊+iyoˀ⌋ instead of expected ⌊+iyo:⌋
(1).

(1) a. oswęˀgáiyoˀ, swęˀgaiyoˀ

(o)-hswęˀg-a-iyoˀ
(3s.p)-noun-joinerA-beautiful.stat
‘hawk’
b. Ganyadáiyoˀ
ga-nyadá-iyoˀ
3s.a-lake-beautiful.stat
‘Ontario, Lake Ontario’

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c. Sganyadáiyoˀ
s-ga-nyadá-iyoˀ
rep-3s.a-lake-beautiful.stat
‘Handsome Lake’

A.6 Atypical nouns

Atypical nouns (described in §5.7) are listed in this section.

dago:s, dagu:s ‘cat’ (loanword from gwidóˀgwidoˀ ‘black breasted wood-

Dutch Der Pœs pecker’
daksháeˀdohs ‘chicken’ gwíhsgwihs ‘pig’
dihsdihs ‘house woodpecker’ gwiyę́ˀgwiyę:ˀ ‘high soaring hawk’
diˀdi:ˀ ‘blue jay’ gwiyó:gęˀ ‘barn swallow’ (possibly
⌊gwiy-ó:gę:⌋ twig-together.stat)
dó:dihs ‘salamander’
gyó:gyo:ˀ ‘Baltimore oriole’
dó:gę:t ‘guinea hen’
hehshai: ‘fox’ (possibly ⌊hehsa-i:ˀ⌋
dogriyaˀgǫˀ ‘buffalo’ (possibly in- decayed.tree-coloured.stat)
cludes ⌊iyaˀg.ǫh⌋ cut.across-stat)
hihi: ‘great horned owl’
drę́:na: ‘skunk’ (possibly, ⌊drę:n-a:⌋
hnyagwaiˀ ‘bear’ (possibly
smell-hold.stat)
⌊hnyagwa-i:ˀ⌋ noun-be.stuck.on.-
duwísduwi:ˀ ‘killdeer’ something.stat)
gáˀga:ˀ ‘crow, raven’ hǫ́:ga:k ‘goose’ (possibly ends with
giẖ ę:k ‘river, stream, creek’ (possibly ⌊-k⌋ modz)
ends with [-k] modz) jidę́:ˀęh ‘bird’ (includes ⌊-ˀęh⌋ dim)
gǫ́:deh ‘eel’ jíhnyo̱ˀgęˀ ‘chipmunk’ (⌊ji-hny-
gra̱he:t ‘tree’ (possibly ends with ⌊t⌋ oˀgęˀ⌋ ji-stick-together.stat)
stand.stat) jihsda: ‘grasshopper’ (possibly re-
lated to ⌊ga-jihsd-aˀ⌋ ‘lamp, light’)
gwáoh ‘screech owl’
jihsgę: ‘a ghost’ (possibly ⌊jihs-gę:⌋
gwáˀda: ‘flying squirrel’
light-see.stat)
gwaˀyǫˀ ‘rabbit’
jihsgogoˀ, jihsguguˀ ‘robin’
gwé:sęˀ ‘partridge’ jihsǫ́:dahk ‘strawberry’ (possibly ⌊ji-
gwę̱ˀdihs ‘night hawk’ hsǫda-hk⌋ ji-night.stat-former)
gwę́ˀgo̱hnyęˀ ‘whip-poor-will’ jikjí:ye:ˀ ‘chickadee’

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jinhǫ́hgwa̱hęh ‘ants’ (possibly ⌊ji- nagányaˀgǫˀ ‘beaver’

nhǫ́hgwa-hęh⌋ ji-noun-mid.stat) nawę́ˀdaˀ ‘sugar’ (⌊nawęˀd-aˀ⌋
jinó:wę: ‘mouse’ (possibly ⌊ji- no.prefix.sugar-nsf)
nó:wę:⌋ ji-lie(dissemble).stat) nǫhsodáiyǫ: ‘mud puppies, dogfish’
jinǫ́hsanǫh ‘cricket’ (possibly ⌊ji- sá:no:ˀ ‘raccoon’
nǫ́hsa-nǫh⌋ ji-house-guard.hab)
sáˀsaˀ ‘mockingbird, chatterbox’
jinǫhya̱háe: ‘garter snake’ (pos-
sibly ⌊ji-nǫhy-ohae⌋ ji-noun- sgwá:yęh ‘otter’ (possibly ⌊sgwa-
wash.stat) yęh⌋ frog-verb.stat)
jinyóhgwa:k ‘wild walnut’ (possibly sgwagwáǫdǫˀ ‘toad’ (possi-
⌊ji-nyóˀgwa:-k⌋ ji-nut-eat) bly ⌊sgwagwá+ǫd-ǫˀ⌋ frog-
rooted.stat-distr)
jiˀáoyę: ‘spider’ (possibly related to
⌊o-jiˀa:-ˀ⌋ ‘lace’) sgwáˀahdaˀ ‘frog’ (possibly
⌊sgwáˀahd-aˀ⌋ frog-nsf or ⌊sgwáˀ-
jiˀdana:wę: ‘butterfly’ (possibly ⌊ji-
ahdaˀ⌋ frog-be.full.of.food.stat)
ˀda-na:wę:⌋ ji-noun-wet.stat)
jiˀdrǫ́:wę: ‘sea shell’ só:wa:s ‘dog’
jiˀnhǫwę́:se: ‘hummingbird’ sohǫ:t ‘turkey’ (possibly ends with
⌊ǫ:t⌋ attached.stat)
jiˀnǫ̱hdó:yaˀ ‘bed bug’
teáǫ:t ‘muskrat’ (possibly includes
jiˀo: ‘a crab’ (possibly ⌊jiˀ-o:⌋ noun-
⌊ǫ:t⌋ attached.stat)
submerged.stat)
jǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ ‘bluebird’ téhtǫˀ ‘ground hog, woodchuck, go-
pher’
jogrihs ‘blackbird’
teojiˀ ‘iron wood (tree), red oak’
jo̱hwę́ˀsdagaˀ ‘seagull’ (possi-
bly ⌊ji-hwęˀsda-gaˀ⌋ ji-foam- tgwiyó:gęˀ ‘channel catfish’ (pos-
like.the.taste.of.stat) sibly, ⌊t-gwiy-ó:gę:⌋ srf-twig-
together.stat)
joní:tsgrǫ:t ‘squirrel’ (possibly
⌊j-o-nítsgr-ǫ:t⌋ rep-3s.p-saliva- tsahgó:wa:ˀ ‘pigeon’ (possibly in-
attached.stat) cludes ⌊-go:wah⌋ aug)
jǫˀdáeya:ˀ ‘raspberries’ tsaˀgę́:daˀ ‘corn tassel’ (⌊tsaˀgę́:d-aˀ⌋
jǫ́ˀdagaˀ ‘mink’ (possibly ⌊jǫˀda-gaˀ⌋ no.prefix.corn.tassel-nsf)
fish-like.the.taste.of.stat) twę́:twę:t ‘duck’
kdagǫˀ ‘grey squirrel, black squirrel’ yahgęhdaˀ ‘morel, black type
(possibly related to ohíˀkdaˀ ‘thorn, of mushroom’ (⌊yahgęhd-aˀ⌋
thistle’, as in ⌊kd-agǫ:⌋ thorn-∈) no.prefix.morel-nsf)

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A.7 Frequently-incorporated nouns

The following are lists of words containing frequently-incorporated nouns. (For
noun incorporation, see §14.) The examples in this section are not alphabetized.

A.7.1 ⌊yaˀda⌋ ‘body’

sya̱ˀdáˀgeh ‘on your body’ sagyaˀdǫ̱háe ‘wash your body’

sgayáˀda:t ‘one (living thing)’ sagyaˀdanę́:da:k ‘cling to it! Put
gayaˀdowéhda̱hsraˀ ‘the ability to your body next to something!)’
think, thinking skill’ sayaˀdanę́dagǫh ‘you are stuck to
gaę niyéya̱ˀda:ˀ? ‘which person?’ something’
hadágya̱ˀda:s ‘he has a high opinion goyaˀdanędagǫ́htaˀ ‘gravity’ (liter-
of himself, he is self-centred’ ally, ‘it keeps you down, holds you
agyáˀdahsdeˀ ‘I am heavy’ in place’)
hoyáˀdadeht ‘he is rough, agile, fleet ętseya̱ˀdodáihsiˀ ‘you will rescue
of foot, nimble, quick-moving’ someone’
detniya̱ˀda:dó:gę: ‘between you and ęhagya̱ˀdó:dęˀ ‘he will stand his
me (our bodies)’ body up, walk on his hands’
dǫgyáˀda:gǫˀ ‘I lody weight’ (liter- deyoya̱ˀdóhde: ‘it is brain-wracking’
ally, ‘I lost part of my body’) tsaˀdegaeya̱ˀdóˀdę: ‘they are simi-
ęyęsayáˀdagoˀ ‘they’ll choose you to lar’, ‘they look the same’
do something’ dęsyaˀdó:weht ‘you will think about
gyaˀdá:grahs ‘my body smells’ it, consider it’
agyaˀdagę̱hé:yoˀ ‘I am physically deyeya̱ˀdówe̱htaˀ ‘she is a thinker, a
weak’ seer’
ǫgyáˀdagwe:s ‘she gets bound up, hoyáˀdatgiˀ ‘he is dirty, has dirty
constipated’ ways’
gya̱ˀdahsnó:weˀ ‘I am slow’ desaya̱ˀdę́:dǫh ‘you will shake your
hęsaya̱ˀdǫ́:di: ‘pounce on it!’ body’
ęhsheya̱ˀdǫ́go̱hdęˀ ‘you will go right ęhsheya̱ˀdę́dǫnyaˀt ‘you will tease
over her, go right past her, deceive someone’
her’ ękeya̱ˀdęˀnigǫ́haeˀ ‘I will babysit’

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 A.7 Frequently-incorporated nouns

A.7.2 ⌊węna⌋ ‘word’

owę́:naˀ ‘word’ sawę́na̱ˀehs ‘stutter!’

ęhsawęnáhǫ:k ‘your words will gawęnanóhstaˀ ‘screech owl’ (liter-
come back on you’ ally, ‘it makes its voice cold’)
gawęnitgę́ˀǫ:ˀ ‘a speech’ ęhsadwęná:yęht ‘you will jeer, jest,
hawę:ní:yo: ‘the devil’ throw words at someone’

A.7.3 ⌊(r)ęna⌋ ‘song’

gáęnaˀ ‘song’ honadręnáęˀ ‘they (Christians) are

wadrę́:no:t ‘it is singing/purring’ praying’
ęhsadręnatǫdá:taˀ ‘you’ll go listen shǫgwaęnáwiẖ sǫˀ ‘he has given us
to the songs’ (said as an invitation) songs’

A.7.4 ⌊rihwa⌋ ‘message’

oíhwaˀ ‘a message’ dęhsrihwagé:nhaˀ ‘you will argue,

oíhwa̱ˀgeh ‘the reason for some- debate, protest’
thing’ dęgaiẖ wagǫ́:dǫ:ˀ ‘it will smother it-
awadriẖ wáhdǫˀ ‘it died out, faded self, die out slowly on its own, pe-
away (an idea)’ ter out’ (i.e. a language)
agaiẖ wáhdǫˀ ‘it became extinct, ta:gaihwagǫ́:dǫ:ˀ ‘it won’t die out’
died out’ oihwagę́hyatgeh ‘to the edge of the
adrihwa̱hséhdǫ:ˀ ‘a secret’ world’ (i.e. in the last days)
ęhsníhwa̱hseht ‘you two will have a haˀdehoíhwagęˀ ‘he has lots of busi-
secret’ ness/different ideas/many ideas’
awadadríhwadǫˀt ‘suicide’ (literally hoihwagę́:nyaˀt ‘he is an instigator,
‘someone did away with them- complainer’
selves’) odrihwagwáihsǫ: ‘righteousness’
ęhsadriẖ wa:dó:gęhs ‘you will right godrihwagwáihsǫ: ‘she is a righ-
a wrong’ teous person’
gaihwadó:gęˀ ‘it is the main idea’ ęhsrihwagwáihsiˀ ‘you will be a wit-
dęhsrihwadrá:goˀ ‘you will answer, ness’
reply’ ahsadadrihwagwé:nyaˀs ‘you are a
ętríhwaek ‘you will force’ success’

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saihwagwé:nyǫ: ‘you are able to per- gaihwanéˀaksraˀ ‘sin’

form’ (i.e. run, dance, orate, etc.) ęhsrihwanéˀaksrǫ:ˀ ‘you will swear,
ahadadrihwagwé:nyęˀ ‘he had use profane language’
earned it for himself’ gaihwanénǫgyeˀs ‘rumours’
haihwagwę:ní:yoˀ ‘he is the leader’ desrihwanǫ́hweˀs ‘you disapprove’
hędwaiẖ wagyę̱hę́:toˀ ‘we will par- dędwadadrihwanǫhkwaˀ ‘we will
take’ show respect for one another’
ęhsadriẖ wátga̱hǫ:ˀ ‘you will over-
hęhsadriẖ wá:nyeht ‘you will send a
see, supervise’
message’
ęhsrihwahní:ya:t ‘you will affirm it
ęhsrihwáohe:k ‘you will gather
or agree’
ideas, news’
ęhsríhwahsˀa:ˀ ‘you will plan an
deyoihwá:teˀ ‘it is clear’ (i.e. he sings
idea, promise’
clearly)
ęhsrihwahsrǫ́:niˀ ‘you will come to
dęhsríhwateˀt ‘you will explain’
an arrangement’
ęjijadrihwahsrǫ́:niˀ ‘you will recon- hodrihwatgáha:ˀ ‘he is a supervisor,
cile’ overseer’
hoíhwi:s ‘he has a long speech’ hodrihwatgíhdǫh ‘he is talking
dirty’
ęhsríhwiẖ sa:k ‘you will investigate,
inquire’ oíhwatgiˀ ‘dirty language’
ętríhwinyǫˀt ‘you will report’ oihwatgí:nyǫˀ ‘a scandal’
ęhsheiẖ wáˀehs ‘you will blame dęgaihwaędáˀdreˀ ‘every idea will
someone’ always come together’ (referring to
ętríhwahe:k ‘you will make it hap- harmony)
pen, demand something’ dehsaihwáędahs ‘you decide’
ętríhwaˀe:k ‘you will insist’ dęgaihwáędaˀ ‘they will come to an
oíhǫ:t ‘it is good for something’ agreement’
ęjadriẖ wahsrǫ́:niˀ ‘you two will dęsadriẖ wáędǫhk, dęhsadrih-
come to an agreement’ wáędǫh ‘you will gossip’
niyoiẖ ú:ˀuh ‘it is of little impor- ęgǫiẖ wę́hdęˀ ‘I will confide in you’
tance’ ęhsríhwaęˀ ‘you will submit an idea’
niyagoihú:ˀuh ‘she has a small ętríhwawaˀs ‘you will back up the
mind’ idea’ (i.e. reinforce it)
ęhsríhwane:k ‘you will hope, pray’ ęhehsriẖ wá:waˀs ‘you will back up
gaihwané:gę: ‘hope, prayerful hope’ his ideas’

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A.7.5 ⌊ˀnigǫha⌋ ‘mind’

ga̱ˀnigǫ̱haˀ ‘the mind’ desaˀnigǫhadó:gęh ‘you cannot de-

knigǫ́ha:ˀ ‘I am expecting some- cide which way to go, you are
thing, watching for something’ flighty’
ęhsheˀnigǫ́haˀdęˀ ‘you will cheat,
sa̱ˀnígǫ̱ha:t ‘you are smart’
betray her’
desaˀnigǫ́ha:t ‘you are stupid’ (liter-
ęhsheˀnigǫ́haˀe:k ‘you will offend
ally, ‘you are not smart’)
someone’
ęhsaˀnigǫ́hahdǫˀ ‘you will faint’ (lit- ęhsęˀnigǫhahní:ya:t ‘you will en-
erally, ‘you will lose your mind’) dure’
dęhsnigǫ̱há:haˀ ‘you will annoy’ oˀnigǫ̱hǫ́hsde:ˀ ‘satisfaction’
aknigǫ̱hágahe: ‘my mind got beat’ gaǫˀnigǫ́hǫˀktaˀ ‘they are giving up
go̱ˀnigǫ̱hagé:tgęˀs ‘she is sobbing’ (in spirit)’
deyago̱ˀnigǫhá:gǫ:t ‘she cannot be go̱ˀnigǫ̱ha:ní:dęˀ ‘she is humble’
swayed, she is uncompromising, dewaknigǫhá:nih ‘it bothers me’
distinguished’ dęhsheˀnigǫ́hnyaˀk ‘you will dis-
dęhseˀnigǫhagę́:niˀ ‘you will bribe’ courage someone’

dęshago̱ˀniˀgǫ̱ha:gę́:niˀ ‘he will ęhseˀnigǫhodá:goˀ ‘you will per-

overcome their mind, intimidate suade her, overcome her mind’
them’ ędweˀnigǫhó:dęˀ ‘we will come up
with an idea’ (i.e. plan something)
ęhsheˀnigǫhagwé:niˀ ‘you will out-
think her’ agyǫˀnigǫhó:goˀ ‘her mind is scat-
tered’
de̱haˀnigǫ́hahaˀ ‘he is a nuisance’
ęhsęˀnigǫ́ho̱ˀdrǫ:ˀ ‘you will worry,
ga̱ˀnigǫ̱hí:yo: ‘harmony, of good despair’, ‘you’ll be desperate’
mind’
tsęh nisaˀnigǫ́hoˀdę: ‘your attitude,
dedisa̱ˀnigǫhí:yo: ‘you are grumpy, thoughts, mood’
grouchy, not happy’ ahęˀnigǫ́hoˀkdęˀ ‘he gave up (his
ędisa̱ˀnigǫ̱hí:yoh ‘your mind will be- will to live)’
come adjusted’ ętsęˀnigǫ́hoˀne:k ‘you will revolt,
ęhsaˀnigǫhí:yoh ‘you will be satis- remove yourself’ (bodily and in
fied’ spirit)
ęhsaˀnigǫhí:yohs ‘your mind will ęhsaˀnigǫ́hęh ‘you will forget’
adjust’ (i.e. become comfortable) desaˀnigǫ́hęhdǫh ‘you will be sad’

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A Noun dictionary

dęwaknigǫ́haęˀ ‘it will bother me’ dwaknigǫ̱hę́ˀǫh ‘I am in sorrow,

ęhsheˀnigǫ́hęˀdęˀ ‘you will make mourning’ (literally, ‘my mind has
someone feel better, comfort some- dropped’)
one’

A.8 Instrumental nouns ending in ⌊-(h)kwaˀ⌋

Instrumental nouns (described in §5.4.1) are listed below. Verb stems (and any
incorporated noun stems) are also included for each example. The words are not
alphabetized.

otgahnye̱dáhkwaˀ ‘playground’ deyǫdatnǫhǫnyǫ́ˀda̱hkwaˀ ‘Friend-

⌊gahnye⌋ play ship Dance’ (a social dance, a
ǫdahǫhsiyo̱hsdáhkwaˀ ‘hearing aid’ welcoming dance) ⌊nǫhǫnyǫˀd⌋
⌊ahǫhs-iyohsd⌋ ear-make.better cause.to.greet
dwasáwa̱hkwaˀ ‘prefix’ ⌊ahsaw⌋ be- hadihahsę́da̱hkwaˀ ‘courthouse’
gin/start ⌊hahshęd⌋ ‘cause.to.counsel’
ǫhshę́da̱hkwaˀ ‘doorstep’ ⌊ashęd⌋ deyeyędáhkwaˀ ‘betting instru-
step ment’ ⌊yęd⌋ bet
onihnadókda̱hkwaˀ ‘nerves, sensa-
ǫdawę̱ˀdáhkwaˀ ‘bathing suit, some-
tions’ ⌊ęnihnadog⌋ perceive/feel
thing used for swimming’ ⌊awęˀd⌋
cause.to.swim ǫtnęhęhsdáhkwaˀ ‘yoke’ ⌊nęhęhsd⌋
cause.to.stand.in.line
degadidę́hsda̱hkwaˀ ‘stable’ ⌊dęhs⌋
stop.something eniyǫdáhkwaˀ ‘hook’ ⌊niyǫd⌋ ‘hang’
ǫtgahiˀ̱ dáhkwaˀ ‘toy’ ⌊gahiˀd⌋ ǫdega̱ˀdáhkwaˀ ‘fire-making tool,
play.with.something matches’ ⌊adegaˀd⌋ cause.to.burn.up
ehyádǫ̱hkwaˀ ‘pencil’ ⌊hyadǫ⌋ write egahędáhkwaˀ ‘drill’ ⌊gahęd⌋
drill/make.a.hole
ǫdǫhgo̱hdáhkwaˀ ‘path’ ⌊ǫgohd⌋
deyowęnyéˀda̱hkwaˀ ‘ladle’
surpass
⌊awęnyeˀd⌋ cause.to.stir/mix
deyǫdogęhda̱hkwaˀ ‘trail’ ⌊ǫgohd⌋
eyę́twahkwaˀ ‘planting tool’ ⌊yętw,
surpass
yęto⌋ plant
eyáhkwaˀ ‘containers’ ⌊ya⌋ spread
hadiyę̱hdáhkwaˀ ‘Pitch Hole’
wadráhkwaˀ ‘container’ ⌊ra⌋ spread ⌊yęhd⌋ knock.down/strike.down/hit
ǫdriyo̱hdáhkwaˀ ‘weapon’ ⌊riyohd⌋
cause.to.kill

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 A.8 Instrumental nouns ending in ⌊-(h)kwaˀ⌋

ǫdeˀnyędę́hsda̱hkwaˀ ‘ruler, ęhdáhkwaˀ ‘path, hallway’ ⌊ęhd⌋

measuring tape’ ⌊ˀnyędęhsd⌋ run
used.for.measuring.something ahgwęnyáęda̱hkwaˀ ‘closet’
gyǫdeˀnyędę́hsda̱hkwaˀ ‘pattern’ ⌊ahgwęnya+ę⌋ clothes-lie.on.the.ground
⌊ˀnyędęhsd⌋ used.for.measuring.somethingdeyǫhsiˀ̱ dáhahkwaˀ ‘foot stool’
hadihahshę́ˀda̱hkwaˀ ‘court, ⌊ahsiˀda+hah⌋ foot-support
council chamber’ ⌊hahshęˀd⌋ akyę́da̱hkwaˀ, agyę́da̱hkwaˀ ‘chair’
cause.to.counsel ⌊yęd⌋ lie.down
ǫdadęnhódǫ̱hkwaˀ ‘jail, prison (lit- deyo̱tna̱hsǫ́da̱hkwaˀ ‘zipper’
erally, place where someone is ⌊ˀnahs+ǫd⌋ tongue-attached
locked up)’ ⌊nhodǫ⌋ lock egahehdę́hda̱hkwaˀ ‘lyed corn bas-
Gye̱hahshędáhkwaˀ ‘This word is ket (for lying)’ ⌊gahehda+ęhd⌋
used locally to refer to Ohsweken, eye.(of.a.corn.kernel)-knock.down
Ont.’ (literally, ‘counselling place)’ ǫtgǫˀtraniyǫdáhkwaˀ ‘scale’ (one
⌊hahshęd⌋ cause.to.counsel that uses weights to balance)
deyǫtgá:hǫhkwaˀ ‘rocking chair’ ⌊gǫˀtra-niyǫd⌋ weight-hang
⌊ga:hǫ⌋ rock ǫtahsrǫdáhkwaˀ ‘flashlight, torch’
⌊hahsra+ǫd⌋ flash.attached
ǫtgaędáhkwaˀ ‘the item to be
pawned’ ⌊gaędahgw⌋ pawn ehnega̱ˀdaiháˀda̱hkwaˀ ‘tea kettle’
⌊hnega-ˀdaihaˀd⌋ water-heat.up
gadiˀdre̱hdáhkwaˀ ‘vehicular
gadihnegahe̱ˀdáhkwaˀ ‘animal
pathways, roads’ ⌊iˀdrehd⌋
watering place, watering hole,
cause.to.drive
trough’ ⌊hnega-hreˀd⌋ water-
Ekdǫ́ˀda̱hkwaˀ ‘Small Green place.something
Corn Ceremony’ (This word
ehnyóda̱hkwaˀ ‘pincushion’
refers to looking at how the
⌊hnya+od-⌋ stick-stand
plants are progressing.) ⌊kdǫ⌋
taste/examine/look.closely.at deyehǫnaˀda̱híhda̱hkwaˀ ‘potato
masher’ ⌊hǫnaˀda-hriˀd⌋ potato-
eya:nędákda̱hkwaˀ ‘glue or scotch break.up
tape’ ⌊ya:nędag⌋ stick.to.something
dehǫwadihstodáhkwaˀ ‘handcuffs’
odehyojihdęhda̱hkwaˀ ‘slide’ ⌊hsd-oda:⌋ tool-hook.on
⌊hyojihdęhd⌋ cause.to.play
dehadihsta:téˀda̱hkwaˀ ‘wax for
onǫhdǫnyǫ́hkwaˀ ‘brain, mind, sticks’ ⌊hsda:-ateˀd⌋ drop.of.liquid-
thinker’ ⌊ęnǫhdǫnyǫ⌋ think brighten
wadǫnye̱ˀdáhkwaˀ ‘gill’ ⌊adǫnyeˀd⌋ ehsiháǫkwaˀ ‘blind (for window)’
cause.to.breathe ⌊hsiya-rǫ⌋ string-bead

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A Noun dictionary

esǫwa̱hdóda̱hkwaˀ ‘something used ejihsdęhęwiẖ dáhkwaˀ ‘lantern,

for holding pins’ ⌊hsǫwahda+od⌋ torch, flashlight’ ⌊jihsda-hawihd⌋
pin-stand light-cause.to.hold
deyestǫdraˀehsdáhkwaˀ ‘pitch- ejinǫwahedaniyóda̱hkwaˀ ‘fish
fork’ ⌊hstǫdra+ˀehsd⌋ hay- hook’ ⌊jiˀnǫwaheˀda-niyǫd⌋ insect-
hit.with.something hang
hadihstǫdraędáhkwaˀ ‘barn, (liter- eksohaihǫdáhkwaˀ ‘kitchen sink
ally, where they put the hay)’ or dish pan’ ⌊ksa-ohaehǫd⌋ dish-
⌊hstǫdra+ęd⌋ hay.lay cause.to.clean
ǫdehsˀohdóhahkwaˀ ‘thimble’ eksaędahkwaˀ ‘something into
⌊hsˀohda-oh⌋ finger-submerge which dishes are put’ ⌊ksa+ęd⌋
ehwęˀga:gwahdáhkwaˀ ‘chisel’ dish-store
⌊hwęˀga:-hgwahd⌋ chip-pick.off enohaehǫˀdáhkwaˀ ‘something that
deyǫtwę̱ˀgaǫdáhkwaˀ ‘snowshoes’ is used for laundering’ ⌊nohaehǫˀd⌋
⌊hwęˀga:+ǫd⌋ splint-attached cause.to.clean
ehwihsdáęda̱hkwaˀ ‘bank’ ⌊hwihsda+ęd⌋ ǫtnahdodáhkwaˀ ‘hair combs’
money-put.on.the.ground ⌊nahda+od⌋ comb.stand
ǫdrihsdáęda̱hkwaˀ ‘trap’ ⌊hrihsda+ęd⌋ ǫtnaˀdáǫda̱hkwaˀ ‘bread pan’
metal-put.on.the.ground ⌊naˀda:+ǫd⌋ bread-attached
ǫkyadǫ̱hsráhahkwaˀ ‘desk’ enaˀda:nawę́hda̱hkwaˀ ‘bread
⌊hyadǫhsra+hah⌋ paper-support steamer’ ⌊naˀda:+nawęhd⌋ bread-
deyehyadǫhsráęda̱hkwaˀ ‘cards make.wet
(playing cards), bingo’ ⌊hyadǫhsra+ęd⌋ ganagáeda̱hkwaˀ, ganagáida̱hk-
paper-bet waˀ ‘whistle’ ⌊naˀga-gae/gai⌋ horn-
deyehnahíhda̱hkwaˀ ‘cut-out table’ make.a.rattling.or.grinding.noise
⌊hna-hrihd⌋ material-cut.up hęnatnaˀjohgwaniyǫdáhkwaˀ ‘jock
ǫnihnodáhkwaˀ ‘apron’ ⌊ni.hna+od⌋ strap’ ⌊naˀjohsgwa-niyǫd⌋ cup-
material-stand hang
gajęˀęhawiˀdáhkwaˀ ‘tray’ ⌊jęˀa- wadeˀnhehsóda̱hkwaˀ ‘harness (for
hawiˀd⌋ dish-cause.to.hold an animal)’ ⌊ˀnhehsa+od⌋ harness-
deyǫdejihohaˀda̱hkwaˀ ‘brooch’ stand
⌊jihohaˀd⌋ cause.to.pin eˀdróda̱hkwaˀ ‘diaper bag’ ⌊ˀda+od⌋
ejihsdoˀa:sdáhkwaˀ ‘matches’ (old feces-stand
word; literally, someone torches enǫhgwatraędáhkwaˀ ‘medicine
the fire) ⌊jihsda-oˀa:hsd⌋ light- cabinet’ ⌊nǫhgwatra+ęd⌋ medicine-
cause.to.torch store

686
 A.8 Instrumental nouns ending in ⌊-(h)kwaˀ⌋

ganǫhsanóhsda̱hkwaˀ ‘air con- ogyaodahkwaˀ ‘tent’ ⌊ya:+od⌋ bag-

ditioner’ ⌊nǫhsa+nohsd⌋ house- stand
cool.down deyǫgyanǫ́da̱hkwaˀ ‘skiing’
ǫtnǫhsodáhkwaˀ ‘umbrella’ ⌊yana+ǫd⌋ track-attached
⌊nǫhsa+od⌋ house-stand ǫgyaˀdanohsda̱hkwáˀgeh ‘park’
enowaniyǫdáhkwa ‘lock’ ⌊nowa- ⌊yaˀda-nohsd⌋ body-cool.down
niyǫd⌋ rounded.back-hang deyǫde̱ˀdratgęnyáda̱hkwaˀ ‘tar-
ǫtnǫhaháhkwaˀ ‘wig’ ⌊nǫha+hah⌋ get’ ⌊ˀdra-atgęnyad⌋ quiver-
head-support cause.to.compete
enǫˀge̱háˀda̱hkwaˀ ‘nursing bottle’ ǫdeˀdre̱hdaędáhkwaˀ ‘parking lot
⌊nǫˀgwa+geh⌋ milk-suck or garage’ ⌊ˀdrehda+ęd⌋ vehicle-
ǫtnoˀjo̱haeˀdáhkwaˀ ‘toothpaste’ put.down
⌊noˀja-ohaeˀd⌋ tooth-clean.up ǫdeˀdre̱hdę́hda̱hkwaˀ ‘sled or
ǫdenyatsóda̱hkwaˀ ‘bobby pin, bar- sleigh’ ⌊ˀdrehda+ęhd⌋ vehicle-hit
rette’ ⌊nyatsa+od⌋ braid-stand ǫdeˀkáǫda̱hkwaˀ ‘breech cloth’
gęnadręnóda̱hkwaˀ ‘kingfisher ⌊ˀka:+ǫd⌋ breech.cloth-attached
(bird)’ ⌊ręna+od⌋ song-stand eˀníkǫhkwaˀ ‘something used for
ǫdręnáęda̱hkwaˀ ‘church’ ⌊ręna+ęd⌋ sewing’ ⌊ˀnikǫ⌋ sew
song-put.down ǫdeˀsgǫdáhkwaˀ ‘barbecue equip-
deyǫdetsgęˀiˀdréhda̱hkwaˀ ‘Indian ment’ ⌊ˀsg+ǫd-⌋ roast-attached
bone dice’ ⌊tsgęˀęda-iˀdrehd⌋ pit- ǫtwahǫdáhkwaˀ ‘roasting pan’
drive ⌊ˀwaha+ǫd⌋ meat-attached
hagya:géhda̱hkwaˀ ‘man’s knap- oˀwahsdǫdáhkwaˀ ‘little sticks
sack’ ⌊ya:-gehd⌋ that they make for a funeral’
bag-have.around.one’s.neck ⌊ˀwahsda+ǫd⌋ pin-attached

687
Appendix B: Verb dictionary
B.1 Single-aspect verbs
B.1.1 Verbs taking a-series personal prefixes, stative aspect only

[adatgowanęh] ‘self-important’, [gahǫˀji:] ‘have a black eye’, with

‘rash’, ‘unwise’, with ⌊refl⌋ ⌊du⌋
wadatgowá:nęh ‘it is rash, unwise, desega̱ hǫ́ˀji: ‘you have a black eye’
self-important, egotistical’ [geˀa:ˀ] ‘ragged, bedraggled’
[ahdihęh] ‘different’, with ⌊du⌋ gegéˀa:ˀ ‘I am raggedy’
desáhdihęh ‘you are different’ [gęhjih] ‘old (living thing)’
[d] ‘standing’ egę́hjih ‘she is old, an old woman’
gá:di:t ‘they are standing’ [gohgowah] ‘royalty, queen, king’
with ⌊inc n⌋ joháha:t ‘one road’ (e)gohgó:wah ‘queen, the Queen’
with ⌊inc n⌋ sga̱ hǫ́hsra:t ‘one box, [gǫhsdǫˀęˀod, gǫhstwęˀod] ‘beard’,
one thousand’ with ⌊du⌋
[+dagyeˀ] ‘standing along, continu- dehagǫhstwę́ˀo:t ‘he has a beard’
ing on’ [gowanęh] ‘big, pregnant’
with ⌊inc n⌋ oyádagyeˀ ‘a gulley’ egówanęh ‘she is big, pregnant’
with ⌊inc n⌋ gahsyádagyeˀ ‘a passing hagówanęh ‘he is big’
herd’ [gowanęhgowah] ‘really big’
[dręniyo:] ‘smell nice’ egowanęhgó:wah ‘she is really big’
gedrę:ní:yo: ‘I smell nice’ [hiˀyagaęheˀ] ‘bent over’
[ˀdriyo:] ‘be a good shot’, with haˀhiˀyagáęheˀ ‘his body trunk is
(⌊part⌋) crooked’, ‘he is bent over’
haˀdrí:yo: ‘he is a good, accurate [hnęye:s] ‘tall’
shot’ ehnę́:ye:s ‘she is tall’
[gahagaęheˀ] ‘cross-eyed’ [hnyahdod] ‘lift one’s head’
egahgáęheˀ ‘she is cross eyed’ ehnyáhdo:t ‘she has got her head up’
[gahgwegǫh] ‘blind’, with ⌊du⌋ (said of a child who is learning to lift
dehaga̱ hgwé:gǫh ‘he is blind’ its head by itself)
B Verb dictionary

[hnyǫˀǫh] ‘white’ hadídagrǫˀ ‘they are lying around’

ga̱ hnyǫ́ˀǫh ‘it is white’ [ihnatę:] ‘dry skin’
[hretgęsˀah] ‘unattractive’ se̱hná:tę:, si ̱hná:tę: ‘you have dry
hahe:tgę́:sˀah ‘he is unattractive’ skin’
[hsęnowanęh] ‘important, famous, [itsgod] ‘sitting’
prominent person’ etsgo:t ‘she is sitting’
hahsęnowá:nęh ‘he is an important [itsgodǫˀ] ‘sitting’ (several people or
person’, ‘he is famous, prominent’, animals)
(literally, ‘he has made a name for gadi:tsgó:dǫˀ ‘they are sitting’
himself’) [itsgwahe:ˀ] ‘sit on something’
[hsgwaowanęˀs] ‘well-endowed’, gitsgwáhe:ˀ ‘I am perched up on
with ⌊du⌋ something’, ‘I am sitting on some-
dehahsgwáowanęˀs ‘he has big rocks’ thing’
(i.e. he is well-endowed) [iˀdawęnyeˀ] ‘shit-disturber’, with
[hsgwiˀdrahe:ˀ] ‘wrinkly’, with ⌊du⌋
⌊rep⌋ deyeˀdawę́:nyeˀ ‘she is a shit-
sgahsgwíˀdra̱ he:ˀ tsǫ: ‘you are pruny, disturber’
wrinkly’ tsǫ: ‘just’ [iˀdrǫ] ‘live, dwell, be at home’
[hshad] ‘lie on one’s back’ hadíˀdrǫˀ ‘they are at home’
gehsha:t ‘I am lying on my back’ [iˀdrǫd] ‘live’, ‘dwell’, ‘be at home’,
[hshaǫd] ‘tied up’ ‘reside’, ‘be placed’, ‘be situated’
ge̱hsháǫt ‘I am tied up’ hadiˀdrǫ́:dǫˀ ‘how they are placed’
[hsiha:ˀ] ‘stand in a bunch or group, [iˀgę:] ‘light-skinned, white’
congregate’ haˀgę: ‘he is light-skinned’
gáehsi ̱ha:ˀ ‘they are standing in a [jaǫ:] ‘both’, with ⌊du⌋
group or clump’ degaejáǫ: ‘both of them’
ojihsǫdáhsi ̱ha:ˀ ‘stars showing’, ‘a [jinah] ‘strong, brave, male’
group of stars’ hají:nah ‘he is masculine, brave’, ‘his
[hsrǫhę:] ‘angry, cross’ genitals’
ehsrǫ́hę: ‘she is habitually cross, can- [nagreˀ] ‘live somewhere’
tankerous’ gáenagreˀ ‘where they live’ (an area)
[idage:ˀ] ‘lying prostrate’ [nahsgwes] ‘jump far’, with ⌊du⌋
sidá:ge:ˀ ‘you are lying down, pros- dehána̱ hsgwe:s ‘he jumps far hori-
trate’ zontally’
[idagrǫˀ] ‘several things lying pros- [nahsgwesǫˀs] ‘jump high’, with
trate’ ⌊du⌋

690
 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

de̱hana̱ hsgwé:sǫˀs ‘he jumps high’ [rihwagwęniyoˀ] ‘reside’, ‘dwell’

[nai] ‘proud, boastful’ grihwagwęní:yoˀ ‘where I reside,
enai ‘she is proud in a boastful man- dwell’ (literally, ‘where I am the
ner’ boss’)
[+negę:] ‘side by side’ [wayęhǫhsdǫh] ‘right-handed’
with ⌊inc n⌋ Tayędané:gęˀ ‘De- hawayę̱hǫ́hsdǫh ‘he is right-handed’
seronto’ (literally, ‘firewood side-by- [yaˀdadogę:] ‘between people, liv-
side’) ing things’, with ⌊du⌋
[nhodǫnyǫˀ] ‘locked up’ detniya̱ ˀda:dó:gę: ‘between you and
gadinhodǫ́:nyǫˀ ‘they are locked up’ me’, ‘between our bodies’
[ˀnigǫhahsnoweˀ] ‘be mentally [yahshe:] ‘two living things’, with
quick’ ⌊du⌋
haˀnigǫ̱hahsnó:weˀ ‘he is a quick de̱hadiyáhshe: ‘two males’, ‘they are
thinker’ two’
[ˀnigǫhayei] ‘crazy, not right in the [yaˀtgaǫˀ] ‘active’, ‘quick to move’
head’, with ⌊neg⌋ hayáˀtgaǫˀ ‘he is quick to move’, ‘he
tehaˀnigǫhayéiˀ ‘he is not right in the is active, always moving around’
mind’
[yehwad] ‘early riser’
[ˀnigǫhowanęh] ‘broad-minded,
sye̱hwa:t ‘you are an early riser’
wise, thinkers’
snigǫhowá:nęh ‘you have a broad [waihǫh] ‘be good at something’
mind’ sewáihǫh ‘you are good at some-
[ˀnyǫgri:] ‘have a stuffed-up nose’, thing’
with ⌊du⌋ [yahsǫh] ‘be named’
degéˀnyǫgri: ‘my nose is stuffed up’ hayá:sǫh ‘his name is’

B.1.2 Verbs taking a-series personal prefixes, habitual aspect only

[adagyaˀda:ˀs] ‘be self-centred, opin- [adata:ˀ] ‘be conceited, snobbish’,

ionated, snobbish’, with ⌊refl⌋ with ⌊refl⌋
hadagyˀada:s ‘he has a high opinion hadá:ta:ˀ ‘he is conceited’
of himself, he is self-centred, he is [adatgǫnyǫhsd] ‘be stuck up, snob-
bold’ bish’, with ⌊refl⌋
[adahǫdǫhsgǫ:] ‘be inquisitive’, wadatgǫnyǫ́hstaˀ ‘she (literally, it) is
with ⌊srf⌋ stuck up’
sadahǫhdǫ́hsgǫ: ‘you are inquisitive’ [adatnigǫha:ˀ] ‘be wary, cautious’,

691
B Verb dictionary

with ⌊refl⌋ changing’)

wadatnigǫ́ha:ˀ ‘it is wary, cautious’ [atgwadǫ] ‘weave, zig-zag about’,
[adęgǫnyǫhsd] ‘be loyal, respectful’, with ⌊srf⌋
with ⌊srf⌋ hatgwá:dǫh ‘he is zig-zagging’
hadęgǫnyǫ́hstaˀ ‘he is loyal’ (to the
[atwajiyǫnih] ‘barren’, with ⌊neg⌋
cause), ‘he is respectful’
tęˀ deyǫtwaji:yǫ́:nih ‘she is barren’
[adeksaˀdǫni] ‘be childish’, with
⌊srf⌋ [atwęnaga:dad] ‘interpreter’
ǫdeksaˀdǫ́:nih ‘she is childish’ hadęwęnagá:da:s ‘he is an inter-
[adih] ‘go in a direction’, with ⌊cis⌋ preter’
tgáęgwadih ‘they are going in a di- [e:hah] ‘proud’
rection’ igé:hah ‘I am gloating, boastful’
[adǫh] ‘say’ [ę:hęh] ‘speak carelessly’, with
ǫ́:dǫh ‘she says’ (also see the full ⌊transl,rep⌋
paradigm on page 777) hehshawęhę́h gwáˀe:ˀ ‘he is speak-
[adǫwihsriyaˀgs] ‘be out of breath, ing without thinking again as usual’
dying’, with ⌊srf⌋ ⌊gwáˀ-e:ˀ⌋ ‘really-again’
hadǫwi ̱hsri:yaˀs ‘he is out of breath’,
[haˀdatęhs] ‘be thirsty’
‘he is dying’
shaˀdá:tęhs ‘you are thirsty’
[adǫwihsroˀkd] ‘be out of breath’,
with ⌊srf⌋ [hyadǫhsraędiˀ] ‘be smart, edu-
hadǫwi ̱hsróˀktaˀ ‘he is out of breath’ cated’ (book-educated)
syadǫ̱hsráędiˀ ‘you are smart’ (book-
[adwęnadeni, adwęnadeny] ‘be
educated)
near puberty’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
dehadwęnádęnyǫhs ‘he is reaching [nǫwęhdraˀ] ‘be cantankerous’
puberty’, (literally, ‘his voice is enǫ́wę̱hdraˀ ‘she is cantankerous’

B.1.3 Verbs taking p-series personal prefixes, stative aspect only

[adagaideˀ] ‘well, healthy, fine’, sadéhsˀǫh? ‘Are you ready?’ (this

with ⌊srf⌋ might be an Onondaga word)
agadagáideˀ ‘I am well, fine, healthy’ [adehsrǫnihsˀǫh] ‘ready’, with ⌊srf⌋
[adagaideˀ] ‘feel sick’, with agade̱hsrǫ́ni ̱hsˀǫh ‘I am ready’
⌊neg,srf⌋ [adeˀka:ˀ] ‘hen-pecked’, with ⌊srf⌋
tęˀ desadagáideˀ ‘you feel sick’ hodéˀka:ˀ ‘he is hen-pecked’
[adehsˀǫh] ‘ready’, with ⌊srf⌋ [adenǫhahe:ˀ] ‘happy’, with ⌊srf⌋

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

hodonǫ̱háhe:ˀ ‘he is happy’ agyaˀdadáihę: ‘I am hot’

[adetsę:] ‘glutton’, with ⌊srf⌋ [agyaˀdanegaǫ, agyaˀdanega:] ‘her-
hodé:tsę: ‘he is a glutton’ nia’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
[adiˀgrǫˀ] ‘shy’ dewagagyaˀdanégaǫ ‘I have a hernia’
godíˀgrǫˀ ‘she is shy’ [agyanaˀǫh] ‘possessed, addicted’,
[adǫnhi:ˀ] ‘enjoy life’, with ⌊srf⌋ with ⌊srf⌋
agádǫnhi: ‘I am alive’, ‘I am born’, ‘I hogyána̱ ˀǫh ‘he is possessed, ad-
am full of life’ dicted’ (with gambling, women, etc.)
[adǫnhoˀg] ‘premature, mentally [agyaod] ‘have a tent up’, with ⌊srf⌋
challenged’, with ⌊cis,srf⌋ hogyáot ‘he has put up a tent’
todǫ́:nhoˀk ‘he is mentally chal- [agyę] ‘quiet’, with ⌊contr,du,srf⌋
lenged’, ‘he was born premature’ taˀdésagyę: ‘you are quiet’
[adǫtgadeˀ] ‘happy’, with ⌊srf⌋ [agyesaˀgeh] ‘generous’, with ⌊srf⌋
odǫ́tgadeˀ ‘it is fun, a good feeling’ gogyésa̱ ˀgeh ‘she is generous, gener-
[adǫtgadeˀ] ‘unhappy’, with ous to a fault’
⌊neg,srf⌋ [agyesahsdǫ:] ‘extravagant, waste-
de̱ˀagadǫ́tgadeˀ, dewagadǫ́tgadǫˀ ‘I ful’, with ⌊srf⌋
am not happy’ gogyéhsa̱ hsdǫ: ‘she is extravagant,
[adrihodahǫh] ‘confused’, with wasteful’
⌊du,srf⌋ [ahgahę:] ‘jealous’
dewagadrihodáhǫh ‘I am confused or go̱hgáhę: ‘she is jealous’
mixed up’, ‘something is blocking [ahsdęhyai] ‘be an older woman’
my thinking’ gohsdę́hyai ‘she is an older woman’
[adrihodahse:ˀ] ‘confused’, with [ahsę:] ‘fat’
⌊du,srf⌋ agáhsę: ‘I am fat’
dewagadrihodáhse:ˀ ‘I am confused’, with ⌊inc n⌋ ogǫ́hsa̱ hsę: ‘it has a fat
‘I cannot make up my mind’ face’
[adrihowi:] ‘slow, slow-moving, [ahshę:] ‘slow-moving’
clumsy’, with ⌊srf⌋ agáhshę: ‘I am slow to act’
hodrihó:wi: ‘he is clumsy’ with ⌊inc n⌋ ohnyáhshę: ‘slow beat’
[adrihwagwaihshǫ] ‘believable, [aknigǫhnyaˀgǫh] ‘grieve, be
credible, righteous, fair, honest, no- broken-hearted’, with ⌊du⌋
ble’, with ⌊srf⌋ dewaknigǫ́hnya̱ ˀgǫh ‘I am broken-
godrihwagwáihshǫh ‘she is fair, righ- hearted, grieving’
teous’ [anhęhod] ‘pee all the time’
[agyaˀdadaihę:] ‘be hot’ (person) gonhę́ho:t ‘she pees all the time’

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[asdę:ˀęh] ‘be old’ (living thing) [atnǫhahe:ˀ] ‘wearing a wig’

hohsdę́:ˀęh ‘he is old’, ‘he is an old gonǫ́hahe:ˀ ‘she has a wig on’
man’ [atowinyǫˀse:] ‘have a cold’, with
[atetgędǫni:] ‘moody, be in a bad ⌊srf⌋
mood’, with ⌊srf⌋ gotowinyǫ́ˀse: ‘she has a cold’
hotehtgędǫ́:ni: ‘he is in a funny or [atsahnihd] ‘industrious, tireless, ac-
odd mood’, ‘he is moody’ tive, ambitious, diligent, zealous’,
[atgehd] ‘have something around with ⌊srf⌋
one’s neck’, with ⌊srf⌋ gotsáhniht ‘she is a good worker,
satgéhdǫh ‘you have it around your tireless, active, industrious,etc.’
neck’ [awęh] ‘have, own’
[atgeˀi:ˀ] ‘have tangled hair’, with agá:węh ‘it is mine’
⌊du,srf⌋ [ˀdai:ˀ] ‘dirty’, with ⌊du⌋
dewagatgéˀi:ˀ ‘my hair is tangled’ de̱hóˀdaiˀ ‘he got dirty’ (covered
[atgeˀogw] ‘have messy hair’, ‘scat- with manure)
tered clothes, rags’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ [ędagę:] ‘be cowardly, timid, weak,
desatgeˀó:gwęh ‘you have rumpled wimpy’
hair, ruffled hair’ gowę́dagę:, agawędá:gę: ‘she is a
[atgǫˀ] ‘have evil or dangerous wimp, timid’
power, have bad medicine, be a [ęhsoweksǫ] ‘be shod, have shoes
witch, warlock, be sacred’ on’, with ⌊du⌋
gotgǫˀ ‘she is a witch’ de̱honę̱hsóweksǫˀ ‘they have their
with ⌊inc n⌋ odrę́natgǫˀ ‘sacred shoes on’
songs’
[e:ˀǫ:] ‘will, decide’
[atnegad] ‘crooked, not level, tipsy’, hawé:ˀǫ: ‘he has willed’
with ⌊neg,srf⌋
[ęnowę:] ‘be a liar’, with ⌊srf⌋
disa:tné:ga:t ‘you are not level, you
sęnó:wę: ‘you are a liar’
are tipsy’
[ę:sǫ] ‘be shod, have shoes on’, with
[atnigǫhadogę:] ‘undecided, indeci-
⌊du⌋
sive’, with ⌊neg⌋
de̱ho:wę́:sǫ: ‘he has the shoes on’
desaˀnigǫhadó:gę: ‘you cannot decide
which way to go, you are flighty’ [gahagwaǫd] ‘have a sty’
agega̱ hágwaǫt ‘I have a sty’
[atnigǫhadogę:] ‘immature’, with
⌊neg,srf⌋ [gahehdaę] ‘dandruff’
desatnigǫhadó:gęh ‘you are imma- sagahehdáęˀ ‘you have dandruff’
ture in mind’ [geˀod] ‘bald’, with ⌊neg⌋

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

tęˀ de̱hóge̱ˀo:t ‘he has no hair’, ‘he is deyójitsgri: ‘it has curly hair’
bald’ [jiyoˀ] ‘crippled, lame’
[geˀǫd] ‘be raggedy, hairy’, with gojí:yoˀ ‘she is crippled’
⌊du⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ go̱hsinají:yoˀ ‘she has a
dewagegéˀǫ:t ‘I am raggedy’ bad leg’
[gǫhsahniyǫh] ‘two-faced, brazen’ [nhraˀtęˀ] ‘grey hair’
sagǫhsa̱ hní:yǫh ‘you are two-faced’ gonhraˀtęˀ ‘she has grey hair’
[gwaǫd] ‘have an abcess, bump, [ˀnigǫhad] ‘smart’
bulge’ sa̱ ˀnígǫ̱ha:t ‘you are smart, brilliant’
agégwaǫ:t ‘I have an abscess, boil’
[ˀnigǫhad] ‘stupid, foolish, igno-
[haˀdiyo:] ‘be a good singer’ rant’, with ⌊neg⌋
go̱haˀdí:yo: ‘she is a good singer, she de̱hoˀnigǫ́ha:t ‘he is ignorant, un-
has a good voice’ thinkingly foolish’
[hsgyęnaˀgyaˀgǫh] ‘pale’, with ⌊du⌋ [ˀnigǫhagǫd] ‘uncompromising, un-
dewage̱hsgęnagyáˀgǫh ‘I am pale’ bending’, with ⌊neg⌋
[hsgyǫˀwatę, hsgyęˀwatę] ‘thin, deyago̱ˀnigǫ̱há:gǫ:t ‘she cannot be
skinny’ swayed’, ‘she is uncompromising,
hohsgyę́ˀwatę:, hohsgyǫ́ˀwatę: ‘he is distinguished’
skinny’ [ˀnigǫhahniyǫh] ‘have a strong
[iˀdaihęhdrod] ‘sweating’ mind’
hoˀdaihę́hdro:t ‘he is sweating’ aknigǫ̱hahní:yǫh ‘I have a strong
[idaǫ:] ‘lucky, fortunate’ mind’
sędáǫ ‘you are chosen, special, fortu- [ˀnigǫhanidęhd] ‘humble’
nate’ go̱ˀnigǫ̱ha:ní:dęht ‘she is gentle, nice,
[idęhd] ‘poor, pitiful, poverty- humble’
stricken’ [ˀnigǫhęhdǫh] ‘sad’, with ⌊du⌋
agí:dęht ‘I am poor, poverty-stricken, desaˀnigǫ́hęhdǫh ‘you are sad’
in poverty’
[ˀnigǫhiyo:] ‘satisfied, peaceful,
[ijǫd] ‘filthy’, with ⌊du⌋ good mind, content, harmonious’,
dewágejǫ:t, dewágijǫ:t ‘I am filthy’ with ⌊cis⌋
[itsgrod] ‘drool’ dwaknigǫhí:yo: ‘I am satisfied, peace-
sętsgro:t ‘you are drooling’ ful’
[jinaˀdǫ:] ‘handsome’ (males only) [ˀnigǫhiyo:] ‘grumpy, grouchy, un-
hojína̱ ˀdǫ: ‘he is a handsome man’ happy’, with ⌊neg,cis⌋
[jitsgri:ˀ] ‘have curly hair’, with dedisa̱ ˀnigǫ̱hí:yo: ‘you are grumpy,
⌊du⌋ grouchy, not happy’

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[ˀnigǫhowanęh] ‘broad-minded, dewage̱ˀnyǫ́hswahaˀt ‘I am mis-

wise, thinker’ chievous, nosy’
hodiˀnigǫhowá:nęˀs ‘they are wise, [ǫgweˀdahetgęˀ] ‘cruel’
have the capacity for thinking’ agǫgwe̱ˀdáhetgęˀ ‘she is a cruel,
[ˀnigǫhoˀdę:] ‘think a certain way’, mean person’
with ⌊part⌋ [ǫhęˀjih] ‘private’
tsęh nisaˀnigǫ́hoˀdę: ‘your attitude, gonǫ́hęˀjih ‘they are private people’
mood’ [ohsriyaˀgǫh] ‘be a certain age’,
[niˀǫh] ‘stingy, greedy, cheap’ with ⌊part⌋
goníˀǫh ‘she is stingy’ do: nisohsriyáˀgǫh ‘how old are you’
[nǫdanhęh] ‘guilty’ [ǫnheˀ] ‘alive’
gonǫ́danhęh ‘she is guilty’ agǫ́:nheˀ ‘she is alive’
[nǫdanhęh] ‘innocent’, with ⌊neg⌋ [ǫnhehgw] ‘live on, sustained by’
de̱honǫdánhęh ‘he is innocent’ agǫ́nhehgǫh ‘someone lives on it’,
‘she is sustained by it’
[nǫhaˀkdǫ:] ‘hang one’s head’, with
[ǫnyahnǫˀ] ‘include, designate’
⌊du⌋
háǫnya̱ hnǫˀ ‘he has included or des-
deyonǫ̱há:kdǫ: ‘it is hanging its head’
ignated’
(in sadness or shame)
[rihǫd] ‘agent, faithkeeper’, with
[nǫhgęd] ‘fair haired, light hair’
⌊srf⌋
gonǫ́hgę:t ‘she is fair haired, she has hodríhǫ:t ‘he is a faithkeeper, an
light hair’ agent’
[nǫhsdeˀ] ‘value something’ [rihoˀdahǫh] ‘disagree’, with ⌊du⌋
aknǫ́hsdeˀ ‘I value it’ dewagrihóˀda̱ hǫh ‘I am not in com-
[nǫˀned] ‘behind, next in line’, with plete agreement’
⌊rep⌋ [rihoˀdeˀ] ‘be working’
shonǫ́ˀne:t ‘he is behind him, he is hoíhoˀdeˀ ‘he is working’
next in line’ [rihogaˀd] ‘speak with sharp words’
[nǫnyatgiˀ] ‘dance badly, dance hoíhogaˀt ‘he speaks sharp words’
poorly’ [rihsdowanęh] ‘loud, noisy’
gonǫ́nyatgiˀ ‘she does not dance very agrihsdowá:nęh ‘I am loud and noisy’
well’
[rihu:ˀuh] ‘sensitive, small-minded’,
[noˀsęh] ‘lazy’ with ⌊part⌋
aknǫ́ˀseh ‘I am lazy’ niwagri ̱hú:ˀuh ‘I am sensitive’
[ˀnyǫhswahaˀd] ‘nosy, mis- [rihwadogę:] ‘reliable’
chievous’, with ⌊du⌋ hoihwadó:gę: ‘he is a reliable person’

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

[rihwadogę:] ‘traitor’, with ⌊neg⌋ hoyaˀda:dani: ‘he is reliable, depend-

dehoi ̱hwa:dó:gę: ‘he is a traitor’ able’
[rihwaęˀ] ‘innocent’, with sgahoˀdęˀ [yaˀdadehd] ‘active, agile, nimble’,
‘nothing’ and neg with ⌊srf⌋
sgahoˀdęˀ dehoihwáęˀ ‘he is inno- agyáˀdadeht ‘I am nimble, active or
cent’ energetic’
[rihwagaˀdeˀ] ‘chatterbox’, [yaˀdahsdeˀ] ‘heavy (of body)’
‘talkative’ godiya̱ ˀdáhsdeˀ ‘they are heavy’
goihwagáˀdeˀ ‘she is a chatterbox’
[yaˀdahshę:] ‘late, slow (person)’
[rihwage:] ‘quick-witted’, with agyáˀda̱ hshę: ‘I am slow’
⌊transl,du⌋
[yaˀdanawę:] ‘be all wet (body)’
haˀdehoíhwage: ‘he is quick-witted’,
‘he has lots of business, different agyaˀdaná:wę: ‘I am all wet’
ideas, many ideas’, ‘he is into every- [yę, +ę] ‘have, own something’
thing’ hodí:yęˀ ‘they have’
[rihwagęnyaˀd] ‘instigator’ with ⌊inc n⌋ sanáhsgwaęˀ ‘you have
hoihwagę́:nyaˀt ‘he is an instigator’ a pet’
[rihwaneˀag] ‘without sin’, with [yę, +ę] ‘lack’, with ⌊neg⌋
⌊neg⌋ tęˀ dewá:gyęˀ ‘it is not mine’, ‘I do not
dehoi:hwanéˀagǫh ‘he is sinless’ have’
[węnadehd] ‘harsh-speaking’ [yę:] ‘be quiet, still’, with
sawę́nadeht ‘you are a harsh- ⌊contr,du,srf⌋
speaking person, you are smark- taˀdésagyę: ‘you are quiet’
alecky’ [yędeˀǫh] ‘good at something’
[wiyad] ‘pregnant’ sayę́de̱ˀǫh ‘you are really good at
gowí:ya:t ‘she is pregnant, has a baby something’
in her’ with ⌊inc n⌋ sakwayędéˀǫ: ‘you are a
[yanotgę:] ‘slow moving person’ good cook’
hoya:nó:tgę: ‘he is a slow runner, [yǫgyeˀni:] ‘have the giggles, smile
walker, he has a slow gait’ a lot’
[yaˀda:dani:] ‘reliable, dependable’ hoyǫ:gyę́:ni: ‘he is a smiler, a giggler’

B.1.4 Verbs taking p-series personal prefixes, habitual aspect only

[adatsęhs] ‘be tired’, with ⌊srf⌋ [adawęnyaˀseh] ‘be confused’, with

agádatsęhs ‘I am tired’ ⌊du,srf⌋

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B Verb dictionary

dewagadawęnyáˀseh ‘I am confused [ęhę:, ęhęw] ‘outspoken’, with

and doubtful’, (literally, ‘my think- ⌊transl,rep⌋
ing is going around in circles’) hejagonę́hęh ‘they are outspoken’
[adędǫnyaˀdahsgǫ:] ‘be happy-go- [hneganyohs] ‘have a hangover’
lucky’, ‘be a joker’, ‘be obnoxious’, hohnéganyohs ‘he has a hangover’
with ⌊srf⌋ [naˀgow] ‘lack a spirit, be ominous’,
hodędǫnyáˀda̱ hsgǫ: ‘he is a joker, or with ⌊neg,(rep)⌋
happy-go-lucky’, ‘he is obnoxious’ o:nę́h dejagonaˀgó:wahs ‘she is omi-
[adǫgweˀdagǫnyǫhsd] ‘be choosy, nous’
discrimating’, with ⌊srf⌋ [neˀdraˀdanih] ‘be nauseous, nause-
hodǫgwe̱ˀdágǫnyǫhs ‘he is choosy ated’
about who he associates with’, ‘he akneˀdra̱ ˀdá:nih ‘I am nauseated,
discriminates’ nauseous’
[adǫhsweˀdanih] ‘be hungry’, with [ˀnigǫhaę, ˀnigǫhanih] ‘un-
⌊srf⌋ concerned, indifferent’, with
agadǫ̱hswéˀdanih ‘I am hungry’ ⌊contr,du⌋
[adoˀkdę, adoˀkdani] ‘dissatisfied’, taˀdehoˀnigǫhá:nih ‘he is uncon-
with ⌊cis,srf⌋ cerned, indifferent’
dwagado̱ˀkdá:nih ‘I am dissatisfied’ [ˀnigǫhaędaˀs] ‘understand’
[ahsawˀe] ‘have asthma’, with ⌊du⌋ hoˀnigǫ̱háędaˀs ‘he understands’
deyagoˀáhsawˀehs ‘she has asthma’ [ˀnigǫhaędaˀs] ‘misunderstand’,
[ahsǫwadenyeˀs, atsǫwadenyeˀs] with ⌊neg⌋
‘be dizzy’ tęˀ de̱hoˀnigǫháędaˀs ‘he does not un-
agahsǫwádenyeˀs, agatsǫwádenyeˀs ‘I derstand’
am dizzy’ [nǫhǫkdanih] ‘be sick’
[atgǫnyǫhsd] ‘be clean, discriminat- aknǫhǫkdá:nih ‘I am sick’
ing’, ‘have high standards’, with [nǫhyaniˀs] ‘be frugal, stingy’, with
⌊srf⌋ ⌊du⌋
gotgǫ́:nyohs ‘she has high standards’ deyagonǫ́hyaniˀs ‘she is frugal’
[atǫdad] ‘disobedient’, with ⌊neg⌋ [ǫhę] ‘be alone’
desa:tǫ́:da:s ‘you are disobedient’ gáǫhęˀ, gáǫhaˀ ‘she’ (emphatic pro-
[atowahsd] ‘cold (person)’, with noun), literally, ‘she is alone’
⌊srf⌋ [ǫwihsheyohs] ‘be breathless, out of
agatowáhstaˀ ‘I am cold’ breath’, with ⌊du⌋
[ˀdaihaˀseh] ‘too hot’ haǫwihshé:yohs ‘he is out of breath’,
hoˀdaiháˀseh ‘he is too hot’ ‘his breath is ebbing away’

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

[rihwahtsęnyahsgǫ:] ‘find fault’ de̱howayę́nheˀsgǫ: ‘he has difficulty

saihwatsę́nya̱ hsgǫ: ‘you find faults’ learning’
[rǫhgwanih] ‘be itchy’ [u:ˀuh] ‘small’, with ⌊part⌋
agrǫ́hgwanih ‘I am itchy’ niwú:ˀuh ‘it is small’
with ⌊inc n⌋ niyokde̱hu:ˀuh ‘small
[wayęnheˀsgǫ:] ‘be clever, edu- root’
cated’ with ⌊inc n⌋ nigaˀdre̱hdú:ˀuh ‘small
howayęnhéˀsgǫ: ‘he is a fast learner, car’
a quick study’ [yaˀdanǫhwa(g)s] ‘be sore, have an
[wayęnheˀsgǫ:] ‘slow learner’, with aching body’
⌊neg⌋ agyaˀdanǫ́hwa:s ‘I am sore’, ‘I ache’

B.1.5 Verbs taking a-series neuter prefixes, stative aspect only

[a:ˀ] ‘hold, contain’ with ⌊inc n⌋ niwadrawíhsdadę:s

í:ga:ˀ ‘it contains’ ‘paper-thin slices’ (i.e. of pie)
with ⌊inc n⌋ do: ni:yǫ́: ga̱ hna:ˀ ‘how [adęs] ‘thin’, with ⌊neg⌋
much gas is in there’ tęˀ degá:dę:s ‘it is not thick’
[adagwęhdę:] ‘flat, dented’, with [adewayęsdǫh] ‘tidy, neat’, with
⌊srf⌋ ⌊cis,srf⌋
dewadagwę́hdę:, deyodagwę́hdę: ‘it is dwadewayę:sdǫ́h gagéhǫˀ ‘it is tidy,
flat’ neatly placed’
[+aˀ] ‘be small’, with ⌊part⌋ [+adih] ‘the other side of ⌊inc n⌋’,
with ⌊inc n⌋ gaoˀ niwakyędáhkwaˀ ‘a with ⌊rep⌋
smaller chair’ with ⌊inc n⌋ jo̱háhadih, swa̱ háhadih
‘the other side of the road’
[+a:ˀah] ‘be small’, with ⌊part⌋
with ⌊inc n⌋ niganǫhsá:ˀah ‘small [adihǫh] ‘leaning’
house’ wadíhǫh ‘it is leaning against some-
atypical word do̱hgá:ˀah ‘a few’ thing’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ hǫwadíhǫh ‘leaning
[aˀs] ‘be the same size’, with boat’
⌊coin,du⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ ohahadíhǫh ‘the Milky
tsaˀdé:waˀs ‘they are the same size’ way’
[adęhi:ˀ] ‘stacked’, with ⌊srf⌋ [adragwaęˀ] ‘limp’, with ⌊srf⌋
wadę́hi:ˀ ‘it is stacked’ wadrágwaęˀ ‘it is limp’
[adęs] ‘thick’ [adreˀ] ‘to be a certain distance
gá:dę:s ‘it is thick, dense’ apart’, with ⌊part,du⌋

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B Verb dictionary

naˀdegęná:dréˀ ‘they are a certain with ⌊inc n⌋ gayǫwawéˀda̱ hǫh ‘hot

distance apart’ (as in, jo̱hsiˀdatsǫ́ˀ dog’, ‘weiners’ (on a bun)
naˀdegęná:dreˀ ‘they are one foot with ⌊inc n⌋ gaęnawéˀda̱ hǫh ‘in-
apart’) serted song’
[adręnagaˀǫh] ‘sweet-smelling’ [deˀ] ‘be the same height’, with
gadręnagáˀǫh ‘it smells good, sweet, ⌊coin,du,cis⌋
appetizing’ tsaˀdétgadeˀ ‘the same height’
[agyesęh] ‘easy’, with ⌊srf⌋ [dęhda:ˀ] ‘lying spread out on the
wagyé:sęh ‘it is easy’ ground’
[+a:hǫh, +aihǫh, +hǫh] ‘span a dis- gadę́hda:ˀ ‘it is lying spread out on
tance, cover a span, lean against’, the floor or the ground’
with ⌊du⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ owidradę́hda:ˀ ‘ice
degáhǫh ‘marsh crane’ (literally, ‘it patch’
leans’ (referring to its legs), ‘a bar’, with ⌊inc n⌋ gayęhsradę́hda:ˀ ‘blan-
‘a barrier’, ket lying spread out on the ground’
with ⌊inc n⌋ degaǫdáhǫh ‘beam’ [d-sǫˀ] ‘one each, one by one, one at
a time’’, with ⌊rep⌋
[ahsahǫh, ahsohǫh] ‘coloured,
sgatsǫ́ˀ ‘one by one’, ‘one at a time’,
dyed’
‘one each’
wa̱ hsáhǫh, wa̱ hsóhǫh ‘it is dyed,
coloured’ [dęs] ‘thick, dense’
gá:dę:s ‘it is thick, dense’
[ahsohǫd] ‘coloured, dyed’
with ⌊inc n⌋ owídradę:s ‘glacier’
wa̱ hsóhǫ:t ‘it is dyed’
with ⌊inc n⌋ nigíhnadę:s ‘how thick
[a:kˀah] ‘near’ my skin is’
i:wá:kˀah ‘near’, ‘nearby’
[ędo:ˀ] ‘difficult’
[aˀs] ‘be a certain size’, with ⌊part⌋ wę́:do:ˀ ‘it is difficult’
shęh ní:waˀs ‘sizes’, ‘how big they [ˀęhod] ‘piled up’
are’ degáˀęho:t ‘it is piled up’
[aˀs] ‘be the same size’, with with ⌊inc n⌋ gahsdęhó:dǫˀ ‘moun-
⌊coin,du⌋ tains, pile of boulders’
tsaˀdé:waˀs ‘they are (literally, it is) [gaęheˀ] ‘slanted, crossed’
the same size’ gagáęheˀ ‘it is slanted’
[aˀse:ˀ] ‘doubled up’, with ⌊du⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ wahsgwagáęheˀ
degáya̱ ˀse:ˀ ‘doubled up’ ‘slanted roof’
with ⌊inc n⌋ degahęnáˀtra̱ ˀse:ˀ ‘scis- [gę:, iˀgę:] ‘light-coloured, white’
sors’ gę́ˀgę:, gá:gę: ‘it is white’, ‘it is light-
[+aweˀdahǫh] ‘inserted’ skinned’, ‘it is light-coloured’

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

with ⌊inc n⌋ onę́hęgę: ‘white corn’ ga̱ hné:ga:t ‘it is watery’

[gęˀdo:ˀ] ‘stuck on something’ [hǫh] ‘span a distance’, ‘cover’
gagę́ˀdo:ˀ ‘it is stuck under some- gá:hǫh ‘it is covered’, ‘it has been
thing but it is removable’ (i.e. a piece spread on’
of gum under a table), ‘it is stuck on with ⌊inc n⌋ degaǫdáhǫh ‘a beam’
something else’ (i.e. a wall) [hsiyǫni:] ‘fringed’
[gęˀdo:ˀaęˀ] ‘attached’ ga̱ hsi:yǫ́:ni: ‘it is fringed’
gagęˀdó:ˀaęˀ ‘it is attached to some- [hsrǫnyaˀd] ‘made from something’
thing’ ga̱ hsrǫ́nya̱ ˀdǫh ‘it is made from’
[gehǫˀ] ‘lie about’ [hwęˀga-ˀo:] ‘notched’, with
gagéhǫˀ ‘things are lying about’ ⌊hwęˀga-/n⌋
with ⌊inc n⌋ wahyáge̱hǫˀ ‘fruit lying with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ hwę́ˀga̱ ˀo: ‘it is
around on the ground’ notched’
with ⌊inc n⌋ gawidragéhǫˀ ‘scattered with ⌊inc n⌋ gáǫda̱ ˀo: ‘notched tree’
ice’
[iyaˀksǫˀ] ‘cut off, broken’, with
[gǫd] ‘necessity, duty’, with ⌊cis⌋ ⌊du⌋
tgá:gǫ:t ‘a compelling must’ degáya̱ ˀksǫˀ ‘it is broken’
[gǫd] ‘be last’, with ⌊transl,rep⌋ [nagreˀ] ‘rare’, with ⌊neg,rep⌋
hesgá:gǫ:t ‘the last’ dehsgánagreˀ ‘it is rare’
[gowanęhah] ‘fairly big’ [niyǫd] ‘hanging’
gowa:nę́:hah ‘it is fairly big’ ganí:yǫ:t ‘it is hanging’
[he:ˀ] ‘sitting on top of something’ with ⌊inc n⌋ gayęhsraní:yǫ:t ‘a hang-
ga̱ he:ˀ ‘it is sitting up on top of some- ing blanket’
thing’, ‘it is sitting here’ with ⌊inc n⌋ ganowaní:yǫt ‘hanging
with ⌊inc n⌋ odaˀęnáhe:ˀ ‘street car’ lock’
with ⌊inc n⌋ gakwáhe:ˀ ‘tea meet- [nǫ:ˀ] ‘costly, dear, expensive’
ings’, ‘supper’ ganǫ:ˀ ‘it is expensive, dear, pre-
[he:tgę] ‘evil, bad, ugly’ cious’
wa̱ hé:tgęh ‘evil (in mind)’, ‘bad’ nigá:nǫ:ˀ ‘how much it costs’
ga̱ hé:tgęˀ ‘it is ugly’ with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ hwíhsdanǫ:ˀ ‘gold’,
ehé:tgęˀ ‘she is ugly or unruly’ ‘expensive items’
with ⌊inc n⌋ oksaˀda̱ hé:tgęˀ ‘spoiled [ˀnǫhd] ‘be in something’
child’ ga̱ ˀnǫht ‘it (usually an animal) is in
with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ ˀdręna̱ hé:tgęˀ ‘it something’
smells bad’ [nyatsǫni] ‘braided’
[hnegad] ‘watery’ ganya:tsǫ́:ni: ‘it is braided’

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[ǫ:] ‘number of, amount of’, with [ǫsˀǫˀs] ‘several long objects’ (non-
⌊part⌋ incorporating)
ní:yǫ: ‘a certain amount’ ǫ́:sǫhs ‘lengthy objects’
nigę́:nǫ: ‘how many of them’ (ani- [shahsdeˀ] ‘strong, tough, powerful’
mals) gahshá:sdeˀ ‘it is strong, tough, pow-
nigá:gǫ: ‘how many of them’ (people, erful’
females or mixed) with ⌊inc n⌋ gawaˀshá:sdeˀ ‘strong
[ǫ:] ‘equal number of things’, with wind’
⌊coin,du⌋ [shahsdeˀ] ‘weak’, with ⌊neg⌋
tsaˀdé:yǫ: ‘of equal number or tęˀ degáhshahsdeˀ ‘no, it is not
amount’ strong’
[ǫ:] ‘many different things’, with [uˀdrugye:ˀah] ‘narrow’, with
⌊transl,du⌋ ⌊part⌋
haˀdé:yǫ: ‘many different things’ niwuˀdrugyé:ˀah ‘it is narrow’
[ǫ:hah] ‘few, little’, with ⌊part⌋ [wad] ‘inflated’
niyǫ́:hah ‘few, a little bit’ gá:wa:t ‘it is inflated’
[yahshe:] ‘two (living things)’, with
[Cǫnyǫˀ] ‘be in someplace’, ‘be in-
⌊du⌋
cluded, inside’
de̱hadiyáhshe: ‘two males’
gáǫnyǫˀ ‘it included some’, ‘it is in
there’ [yahshe-sǫˀ] ‘two each’, two’ at a
time’, with ⌊du⌋
[ǫ:s] ‘long’ (non-incorporating) degadiyáhshesǫˀ ‘two things each, at
í:yǫ:s ‘it is long’ a time’
[ǫ:s] ‘short’ (non-incorporating), [yei, yi:] ‘right, correct’, with ⌊cis⌋
with ⌊neg⌋ tgayéi, tgayí: ‘it is right, correct’
tęˀ de̱ˀyǫ:s ‘it is not long’ [yei, yi:] ‘bad, false, wrong’, with
[ǫ:sˀah] ‘longish’ (non-incorporating), ⌊neg,cis⌋
with ⌊part⌋ tęˀ detga:yéiˀ, tęˀ detga:yí:ˀ ‘it is bad,
niyǫ́:sˀah ‘just a little bit long’ false, wrong’

B.1.6 Verbs taking a-series neuter prefixes, habitual aspect only

[adagwęniyoˀ] ‘be wild’ dewagyáǫnyotaˀ ‘it is haunted’

wadagwęní:yoˀ ‘wild animal’ [atsǫnyǫs] ‘omen’, with ⌊srf⌋
[agyaǫnyothaˀ] ‘be haunted’, with watsǫ́:nyǫ:s ‘omen’
⌊du⌋ [grahs] ‘stink’

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

gagrahs ‘it stinks’ tary, flattering’

[ha:, haǫ] ‘hold, include’ [ines] ‘extinct’, with ⌊neg,rep⌋
hab eha:ˀ ‘she is holding something dehsgę́:ne:s ‘it is extinct’
right now’ [yaǫda:] ‘be similar’, with ⌊du,rep⌋
hab nigáha:ˀ ‘how much it holds’ desgayáǫda:ˀ ‘it is an imitation of
[hsęniyohstaˀ] ‘complimentary’ something’, ‘it is similar’, ‘it is al-
gǫwahsęníyo̱hstaˀ ‘it is complimen- most the same’

B.1.7 Verbs taking p-series neuter prefixes, or varying between p- and

a-series neuter prefixes, stative aspect only

[ad+N+ǫni:] ‘plentiful’, with ⌊srf⌋ deyodogę́ˀǫh ‘it is in between’, ‘a duel

odahyǫ́:ni: ‘plentiful fruit’ between two people’
[ad+N+ǫni:] ‘little, few’, with [adręnagaˀǫh] ‘smell good’, with
⌊neg,srf⌋ ⌊srf⌋
deˀoda̱ hyǫ́:ni: ‘not much fruit on the with ⌊inc n⌋ gadręnagáˀǫh ‘it smells
trees’ good, sweet, appetizing’
[ad+N+ǫnyahnǫˀ] ‘growing’, with [adrǫhyogewęh] ‘clear sky’
⌊srf⌋ odrǫhyogé:węh ‘clear sky’
otǫdǫnyáhnǫˀ ‘growing bushes, [agahdeh] ‘raw’
saplings’ ogáhdeh ‘it is raw’
[adehsdahsǫ:] ‘worn out’, with ⌊srf⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ oˀwahagáhdeh ‘raw
odéhsda̱ hsǫ: ‘it is worn out’ meat’
[adehsgyęˀdiyaˀg] ‘fractured bone’, [+age:] ‘to be an amount of ⌊inc n⌋’,
with ⌊du,srf⌋ with ⌊part⌋
deyodehsgyęˀdiyáˀgǫh ‘fractured with ⌊inc n⌋ niyóhsrage: ‘years’
bone’ with ⌊inc n⌋ niga:yá:ge: ‘an amount
[adęnǫhyanihd] ‘terrible, over- of bags’
whelming’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ [age:] ‘two ⌊inc n⌋’, with ⌊du⌋
deyodęnǫ̱hyaníhdǫh ‘it is over- with ⌊inc n⌋ deyoˀnhǫ̱hsá:ge: ‘two
whelming, terrible’ eggs’
[+adih] ‘the other side of ⌊inc n⌋’, with ⌊inc n⌋ dewahda̱ hgwá:ge: ‘two
with ⌊rep⌋ shoes’
with ⌊inc n⌋ jo̱háhadih, swa̱ háhadih [+age:] ‘three or more ⌊inc n⌋’, with
‘the other side of the road’ numeral, part
[adogęˀǫh] ‘duel, between’, with with ⌊inc n⌋ ahsę́h niganǫ̱hsá:ge:
⌊du,srf⌋ ‘three houses’

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[+age:] ‘be two of the same kind of ohdrǫhk ‘it is frightening, fierce,
⌊inc n⌋’, with ⌊coin,du⌋ scary’, ‘danger’
with ⌊inc n⌋ tsaˀdeyoyę́hsrage: ‘they [ahǫgaˀd] ‘clearly-heard sound’
are two of the same kind of blanket’ ohǫ́:gaˀt ‘a clear sound’
[+age:] ‘every, many, a variety of [ahsde:] ‘evaporated, empty, dried
⌊inc n⌋’, with ⌊transl,du⌋ out’
with ⌊inc n⌋ haˀdewę̱hníhsrage: ‘ev- ohsde: ‘it is empty, evaporated’
ery day’, ‘many days’ [ahsdeˀ] ‘heavy’
[+age-hagyeˀ] ‘two ⌊inc n⌋ at a ohsdeˀ ‘it is heavy’
time’, with ⌊du⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ oíhwahsdeˀ ‘mental bur-
with ⌊inc n⌋ degaˀdre̱hdage̱há:gyeˀ den’, ‘preoccupation’
‘two cars at at time’ with ⌊inc n⌋ gaihoˀdę́ˀsrahsdeˀ, oi-
[agyanaˀdahnǫˀ, agyęnaˀdahnǫˀ] hoˀdę́hsra̱ hsdeˀ ‘heavy or hard work’
‘patterned fabric’, with ⌊srf⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ tsęh niyogǫtrá:sdeˀ
ogyanadáhnǫˀ, ogyęnadáhnǫˀ ‘pat- ‘weight, pounds, poundage’ tsęh
terned material’, ‘calico’, ‘printed ‘that’
fabric’ [ahsęhsde:ˀ] ‘regretful’
[agyanǫhg] ‘strange, bizarre’, with osę́hsde:ˀ ‘it is regretful’
⌊srf⌋ [ahsganaˀd] ‘tempting’
ogyá:nǫhk ‘it is strange, bizarre’ ohsgá:naˀt ‘it is enticing, alluring, at-
tractive, tempting’
[ahd] ‘resemble, be like’, with
⌊part⌋ and preceded by a particle [ahsganehd] ‘tempt’
such as dęˀ ‘what’, neˀ ‘the’ osgá:neht ‘it is enticing, alluring, at-
ní:yoht ‘what it is like’ tractive, tempting’
[ahd] ‘same’, with ⌊coin,du⌋ [ahshę:] ‘slow-moving’
tsaˀdé:yoht ‘they are the same’ ohshę: ‘it is slow-moving’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ohnyáhshę: ‘a slow beat’
[ahd] ‘similar’, with to:hah ‘almost’
and ⌊coin,du⌋ [ahshed] ‘same number of things’,
with ⌊coin,du⌋
to:hah tsaˀdé:yoht ‘it is similar’
tsaˀdeyohshé:dęh ‘it is the same num-
[ahd] ‘suddenly’, with to ‘then, ber (of)’
there’ and ⌊transl⌋
[+a:kˀah] ‘short’, with ⌊part⌋ or
to: hé:yoht ‘suddenly’
⌊du⌋
[ahdahd] ‘filling’ with ⌊inc n⌋ deyenętsa:kˀah ‘her arm
ohdaht ‘it is filling’ is short’
[ahdrǫhg] ‘dangerous, frightening, with ⌊inc n⌋ nihoge̱ˀa:kˀah ‘he has
scary’ short hair’

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

with ⌊inc n⌋ niyo:há:kˀah ‘it is short [atweˀnǫni] ‘round’, with ⌊du,srf⌋

in height (vertically)’ deyotweˀnǫ́:ni: ‘it is round’
with ⌊inc n⌋ niyohnodá:kˀah ‘it is [+d] ‘one ⌊inc n⌋’, with ⌊rep⌋
shallow’ with ⌊inc n⌋ sganǫ́hsa:t ‘one house’
with ⌊inc n⌋ nigaˀdre̱hdá:kˀah ‘short [+d] ‘be the same kind of ⌊inc n⌋’,
car’ with ⌊coin⌋
[ahd] ‘be the same, similar’, with with ⌊inc n⌋ tsaˀgaˀdre̱hdá:t ‘the
⌊coin,du⌋ same kind of car’
tsaˀdé:yoht ‘they are the same, simi- [dagwasęh, adedagwasęh, +ag-
lar’ wasęh] ‘bruise’, with ⌊srf⌋ / da
[ase:] ‘new’ odagwasęh, odedagwá:sęh ‘it is
á:se:ˀ ‘it is fresh, new’ bruised’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ohǫna̱ ˀdá:se: ‘new with ⌊inc n⌋ odahyagwá:sęh ‘bruised
potato’ fruit, fruit with brown spots’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ ˀdréhdase: ‘new car’ [ˀdaihę:] ‘hot’
[ataˀkdǫnyǫgwęh] ‘winding roads’, oˀdáihę: ‘it is hot, spicy’
with ⌊du,srf⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ ohnegadáihę: ‘hot wa-
deyotahaˀkdǫnyǫ́:gwęh ‘winding ter’
roads’ with ⌊inc n⌋ wę̱hnihsradáihę: ‘it’s a
[atedę:] ‘past day’ hot day’
té:dę:ˀ ‘yesterday’ [+deˀ] ‘existing object’
[atgaˀdeˀ] ‘many (objects, animals), with ⌊inc n⌋ ohá:deˀ ‘an existing
lots, often’, with ⌊srf⌋,(⌊part⌋) road’
niyonatgáˀdeˀ ‘there are so many’ with ⌊inc n⌋ węhníhsradeˀ ‘this day’
otgáˀdeˀ ‘often’, ‘many’, ‘lots’ [deˀ] ‘same height’, with
onátga̱ ˀdeˀ ‘lots of them (animals, ob- ⌊coin,du,cis⌋
jects)’, ‘many’ tsaˀdétgadeˀ ‘the same height’
[atga:nǫni] ‘rich’, with ⌊srf⌋ [+deˀ] ‘a different or odd ⌊inc n⌋’,
ǫtga:nǫ́:ni: ‘it is precious’ with ⌊contr⌋
[atgrihsrǫˀ] ‘several wrinkled with ⌊inc n⌋ tiganǫ̱hsá:deˀ ‘it is a dif-
items’, with ⌊srf⌋ ferent house from the others’
otgríhsrǫˀ ‘wrinkled clothes’, ‘it is [+deˀ] ‘two different ⌊inc n⌋’, with
wrinkled up’ ⌊coin,du⌋
[atoweˀ] ‘cold’ with ⌊inc n⌋ taˀdega̱ ˀdrehdadéˀ ‘two
otó:weˀ ‘it is cold’ (weather) different cars’
with ⌊inc n⌋ oniˀdahtó:weˀ ‘it is a [+adeˀah] ‘a different or odd ⌊inc n⌋’,
shitty cold’ with ⌊contr⌋

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B Verb dictionary

with ⌊inc n⌋ tiganǫ̱hsa:dé:ˀah ‘not a [ęˀnigǫhawęnyaˀd] ‘entertaining’,

normal house compared to the oth- with ⌊du,srf⌋
ers’ deyoˀnigǫhawę́:nyaˀt ‘it is entertain-
[+dehd] ‘bold, bright, strong, harsh’ ing’
with ⌊inc n⌋ odrę́nadeht ‘strong [+e:s] ‘long, deep’
odour, smell’ with ⌊inc n⌋ oyá:de:s ‘deep hole’
with ⌊inc n⌋ owę́nadeht ‘harsh with ⌊inc n⌋ gatgę́hetse:s ‘ladle, long-
words’ handled spoon, dipper’
[+ˀę:ˀ] ‘coloured’ [+e:sˀah] ‘somewhat short in length’
with ⌊inc n⌋ swę́ˀda̱ ˀę:ˀ ‘black’ with ⌊inc n⌋ nigęhné:sˀah ‘a short
with ⌊inc n⌋ onráhda̱ ˀę:ˀ ‘green’ length of cloth’
with ⌊inc n⌋ aǫ́hyaęˀ, ǫhyaęˀ ‘blue’ [+e:sǫˀs] ‘several long objects’
with ⌊inc n⌋ onrahdé:sǫˀs ‘long
[+d-sǫˀ] ‘each, per ⌊inc n⌋’, or ‘one
leaves’
⌊inc n⌋ at a time’, with ⌊rep⌋
with ⌊inc n⌋ ganǫhsé:sǫˀs ‘long-
with ⌊inc n⌋ sga̱ ˀdréhdatsǫˀ ‘each houses’
car’, ‘one car at a time’
[etˀah] ‘pretend’
with ⌊inc n⌋ jo̱hsˀdatsǫ́ˀ ‘a one foot
a:wé:tˀah ‘implied’, ‘pretend’
distance’, ‘one foot apart’
[+gaˀdeˀ, atgaˀdeˀ] ‘many’, with
[+ęˀ] ‘lying on the ground’
⌊neg⌋, means ‘few’
with ⌊inc n⌋ oˀgráęˀ ‘there is snow otgáˀdeˀ ‘often’, ‘many’, ‘lots’
on the ground’ with ⌊inc n⌋ de̱yode̱ˀdrehdagáˀdeˀ
with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ hę́daęˀ ‘meadow’, ‘not many cars’
‘pasture’, ‘field’
[+gaˀdeˀ] ‘often’, ‘many’, ‘lots’
[+ędǫˀ] ‘several objects lying on the odeˀdre̱hdága̱ ˀdeˀ ‘a lot of cars’
ground’ [+gaˀdeˀ] ‘to have many ⌊inc n⌋’,
with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ hędáędǫˀ ‘meadows’ with ⌊part⌋,p-series prefix
[+ędǫnyǫˀ] ‘many objects lying on with ⌊inc n⌋ honahsgwagáˀdeˀ ‘he
the ground’ has many pets’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ hadáędǫnyǫˀ ‘forests’ [gahaędahd] ‘fuzzy, out of focus,
[+ęhę:] ‘direction of, -ward, etc.’, opaque,unclear’, with ⌊contr,du⌋
with ⌊part⌋,⌊cis⌋ / ⌊transl⌋,⌊inc taˀdeyogaháędaht ‘it is fuzzy, out of
n⌋ focus, opaque, unclear’
nigyowáęhę: ‘the direction of the [gahdeh] ‘raw’
wind’ ogáhdeh ‘it is raw’
with ⌊inc n⌋ heyohnegę́hę:ˀ ‘down- with ⌊inc n⌋ oˀwahagáhdeh ‘raw
stream’ meat’

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

[gaˀǫh] ‘taste good’ gwé:gǫh, agwé:gǫh, ogwé:gǫh ‘every-

stat ogáˀǫh ‘it tastes good’ thing’, ‘all’
[gaˀǫhsraęˀ] ‘tasteless’, with ⌊neg⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ wę̱hnihsragwé:gǫh ‘all
deˀoga̱ ˀǫ́hsraęˀ ‘it is tasteless’ day’
with ⌊inc n⌋ onęhęgwé:gǫh ‘whole
[gaˀǫhsriyo:] ‘taste good’
corn’, ‘all of the corn’
ogaˀǫhsrí:yo: ‘it tastes good’
[haˀgędreˀ] ‘crusty snow’
[+gayǫh] ‘old (object, not person)’
oháˀgędreˀ ‘crusty snow’
ogá:yǫh ‘it is old’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ohǫna̱ ˀda:gá:yǫh ‘old [hahęhdahnǫh] ‘stripes’
potato’ ohahęhdáhnǫh ‘striped, patterned’
with ⌊inc n⌋ gaęnagá:yǫh ‘old song’ [ha:kˀah] ‘short in height’, with
[+ˀgęd] ‘visible’, ‘white’ ⌊part⌋
ó:gęˀt ‘it is visible’ niyo:há:kˀah ‘it is short in height’
with ⌊inc n⌋ onę́hęgę:t ‘white corn’ [hateˀ] ‘bright’, with ⌊du⌋
with ⌊inc n⌋ wahsíiˀdagę:t ‘white deyóhateˀ ‘it is bright (i.e. sunlight)’
foot’ [hęˀdǫ] ‘hang over’
[gęˀd] ‘transparent’, with ⌊transl⌋ ohę́ˀdǫh ‘it is hanging over’ (an edge,
heyó:gęˀt ‘it is transparent’ a chair)
[gedraˀ] ‘unripe, raw, green’ [+hęh] ‘mid’
ogé:draˀ ‘it is green’ (not ripe), ‘raw with ⌊inc n⌋ gáǫhya̱ hęh ‘noon’, ‘mid
fruit’ sky’
[gęhęˀd] ‘disgusting, boring’ [+hęh] ‘mid, half way’, with
ogę́hęˀt ‘it is boring, disgusting’ ⌊coin,du⌋
[+gęhyad] ‘edge, end, just above’ with ⌊inc n⌋ tsaˀdewę̱hníhsra̱ hęh
with ⌊inc n⌋ oihwagę́hya:t ‘it is al- ‘half a day’
most to the end’ with ⌊inc n⌋ tsaˀdeganǫ́hsa̱ hęh ‘in
with ⌊inc n⌋ ohnegagę́hya:t ‘just the middle of the house’
above the water’ [hęhdaęˀ] ‘furry’
[gǫd] ‘always’, with ⌊cis,srf⌋ ohę́hdaęˀ ‘it is furry’
gyótgǫ:t ‘always’ [hęhjihwęh] ‘really dried out’
[+griˀ] ‘juice, liquid’ ohę́hji ̱hwęh ‘it is really dried out’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ohyá:griˀ ‘juice, fruit [hnaˀgę:] ‘behind’
juice’ ohnáˀgę:ˀ, náˀgę:ˀ ‘behind’
with ⌊inc n⌋ oˀdá:griˀ ‘muddy water’ [hnaˀgęjih] ‘back then, past (in the
[+gwegǫh] ‘all, everything’ past), late’

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ohnáˀgęjih ‘way back in the past, ohsóhgwadeht ‘vibrant colours, flo-

back then’ rescent, neon’
[hnaˀgǫh] ‘below, underneath, un- [hwihsdanaˀgo:ˀ] ‘spendthrift’
der’ (o)hwihsdanáˀgo:ˀ ‘big spender,
ohnáˀgǫh ‘under’ spendthrift’
[hnai:ˀ] ‘oily’, ‘greasy’, ‘fatty’, ‘rich’ [hyoˀtiyehd] ‘sharp’
ohnáiˀ ‘it is oily, greasy’ ohyuˀtí:yeht, ohyoˀtí:yeht ‘it is sharp’
[hniyǫh] ‘hard’ [+i:ˀ] ‘stuck on something’
ohní:yǫh ‘it is hard’ with ⌊inc n⌋ oˀnéhsaiˀ ‘it is sandy’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ohnega̱ hní:yǫh ‘hard with ⌊inc n⌋ ohéhdaiˀ ‘earth is stuck
water’ to it’
with ⌊inc n⌋ oˀwahahní:yǫh ‘tough with ⌊inc n⌋ ohíkdaiˀ ‘thorn bush’
meat’ [+i:yo:] ‘nice, good’
[hnoda:kˀah] ‘shallow’, with ⌊part⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ ohǫna̱ ˀdí:yo: ‘nice
niyohnodá:kˀah ‘it is shallow’ potato’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ganahsgwí:yo: ‘nice pet’
[hnyahshę:] ‘slow beat’
[jihnyowaǫd] ‘spotty’
ohnyáhshę: ‘slow beat’
ojihnyowáǫt ‘it is spotty’
[hsdateh] ‘shiny, smooth, silver’,
[jikeˀdawehd] ‘salty’
with ⌊du⌋
ojikeˀdá:weht ‘it is salty’
deyóhsdateh ‘it is shiny, smooth’
(like silver), ‘silver’ [jiwagę:] ‘sour, bitter, salty’
ojíwagę: ‘it is sour, salty, bitter’
[hsgędrahe:ˀ] ‘rust’ with ⌊inc n⌋ ohyajiwá:gę: ‘crabap-
ohsgę́ˀdra̱ he:ˀ ‘it is rusting, rusty’ ples’, ‘tart, sour fruit’
[hsgyęˀdanhǫd] ‘false teeth’ [+nahnǫh] ‘full of something’, ‘filled
ohsgyę́ˀdanhǫ:t ‘false teeth’, (liter- up’
ally, ‘a mouth full of bones’) with ⌊inc n⌋ nigáhna̱ hnǫh ‘it is full
[+hsnoweˀ] ‘fast, quick’ of gas’
ohsnó:weˀ ‘it is fast, quick’ [naˀkwad] ‘maddening’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ohnyahsnóweˀ ‘a fast onáˀkwa:t ‘it is irritating, madden-
beat’ ing’
with ⌊inc n⌋ gakwahsnó:weˀ ‘fast [naˀno:ˀ, +no:ˀ] ‘cold’, with n / naˀ
food cooker’ with ⌊inc n⌋ onáˀno:ˀ ‘it is cold, cool’
[hsogwadagǫh] ‘dark colours’ with ⌊inc n⌋ ohnégano: ‘cold water’
ohsohgwadá:gǫh ‘dark colour’ [+nawę:] ‘wet, moist’, with n / naˀ
[hsohgwadehd] ‘bold, bright with ⌊inc n⌋ onáˀnawę: ‘it is wet,
colours’ melted, moist’

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

with ⌊inc n⌋ ohehdaná:wę: ‘wet, onǫ́ˀshesde:ˀ ‘it is boring, tiring’

moist dirt, earth’ [nowęhd] ‘absurd, unbelievable’
[nehagwahd] ‘amazing, awesome’ onó:węht ‘it is absurd, unbelievable’
onéhagwaht ‘it is amazing, awe- [+ˀo:] ‘notched’
some’ with ⌊inc n⌋ gáǫda̱ ˀo: ‘notched tree’
[nenǫˀ] ‘warm weather, mild [+ǫ:] ‘resemble’
weather’ with ⌊inc n⌋ oˀgrǫ: ‘it looks like
oné:nǫˀ ‘it is mild, warm’, ‘a warm or snow’
hot day’
[o:ˀ, weˀ] ‘distance, amount’, with
[+nha:ˀ] ‘sticking out’, with ⌊du,cis⌋ ⌊part⌋
with ⌊inc n⌋ detganǫ̱hsá:nha:ˀ ‘it is a niyó:weˀ ‘how far (in distance)’
house sticking out’
[+od] ‘standing or rooted object’
[+no:ˀ] ‘cold, cool’ with ⌊inc n⌋ odóˀdo:t ‘swells
with ⌊inc n⌋ ohnégano: ‘cold water’ (waves)’
with ⌊inc n⌋ owá:no: ‘a cold wind’ with ⌊inc n⌋ ganǫ́hso:t ‘(standing)
[+nǫhd] ‘spooky’ house’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ǫyganǫhsá:nǫht ‘their [+od] ‘at the ⌊inc n⌋’, with shęh ‘that’
weird, odd, spooky house’ ⌊cis⌋
[nǫhgwijaˀ] ‘wet, saturated’ with ⌊inc n⌋ shęh tganǫ́hso:t ‘at the
onǫ́hgwijaˀ ‘it is soaking wet, satu- house’
rated’ [ǫd] ‘attached object’
[nǫhǫkdeˀ] ‘painful’ aǫ:t ‘it is attached’, ‘it is sticking out’
onǫ́hǫkdeˀ ‘it is painful’ with ⌊inc n⌋ odáˀaǫt ‘a web’
[nǫhǫkdenyǫˀ] ‘painful all over’ [ǫd] ‘a number of attached objects’,
onohǫkdé:nyǫˀ ‘there is pain all over’ with numeral ⌊part⌋
[nǫhyanihd] ‘terrible, overwhelm- ahsę́h niwęˀni ̱hsgáǫt ‘it has three
ing’, with ⌊du⌋ wheels’
deyonǫ̱hyá:niht ‘it is terrible, frugal, [ǫd] ‘protrude’, with ⌊cis⌋
cheap’ heyáǫt ‘it protrudes’
[nǫˀne:ˀ] ‘sacred, holy, forbidden’ [+oˀdę:] ‘a type of’, with ⌊part⌋
onǫ́ˀne:ˀ ‘it is forbidden, sacred, holy’ with ⌊inc n⌋ niyoga̱ ˀǫ́hsroˀdę: ‘how it
with ⌊inc n⌋ oihwanǫ́ˀne:ˀ ‘forbidden tastes’
idea’ with ⌊inc n⌋ nigaęnóˀdę: ‘a type of
[ˀnoshaˀd] ‘enviable’ song’
oˀnó:shaˀt ‘it is jealous, envious’ [oˀdę:] ‘look similar’, ‘be similar’,
[nǫˀshehsde:ˀ] ‘boring’ with ⌊coin,du⌋

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with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊yaˀda⌋ ‘body’ tsaˀde- [rihowanęh] ‘important, special,

gaeya̱ ˀdóˀdę: ‘they are a group of peo- commendable, glorious’, with
ple that are similar, look the same’ (⌊cis⌋)
[+oˀdraˀǫh] ‘converging items, gyoihowá:nęh ‘the most important’
items that come together’, with [rihwiyoˀ] ‘certain’
⌊du⌋ oihwí:yoˀ ‘it is certain, for sure’
with ⌊inc n⌋ deyonatahoˀdráˀǫh ‘con- [tˀah] ‘unusual’, with ⌊contr⌋
verging roads’ tiyó:tˀah ‘it is queer, unusual, odd’
[oˀgaˀd] ‘rough’ [+teˀ] ‘bright, clear’, with ⌊du⌋
áoˀgaˀt ‘it is rough’ with ⌊inc n⌋ deyóhateˀ ‘it is bright’
with ⌊inc n⌋ oháhoˀgaˀt ‘rough road’ (i.e. sunlight)
with ⌊inc n⌋ deyowidrá:teh ‘it is
[ogę:] ‘middle’, with ⌊du⌋
glassy, icy’, ‘a glass tumbler’
deyó:gę: ‘between, in the middle’
with refl+ detniyada:do:gę́: ‘be- [+tę:, hę:] ‘dry’
tween us’ ohę: ‘it is dry’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ohéhdatę: ‘dry dirt’
[ǫgohdǫh] ‘exceptional, above av-
with ⌊inc n⌋ onaˀdá:tę: ‘crackers’
erage, too much’, with trehs ‘too
[tgę:] ‘spoiled, rotten’
much’
otgę: ‘it is rotten, decayed’, ‘spoilage’
(trehs) áǫgo̱hdǫh ‘exceptional, above
with ⌊inc n⌋ oˀwáhatgę: ‘spoiled
average, too much’
meat’
[ǫhgwad] ‘itchy’
[tgiˀ] ‘dirty, soiled, filthy, ugly, bad’
áǫhgwa:t ‘it is itchy’
otgiˀ ‘it is dirty, ugly, soiled’
[+ohsgǫˀ] ‘cleared’, with ⌊du⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ ohgwę́nyatgiˀ ‘dirty or
ohéhdǫhsgǫˀ ‘barren land’ ugly clothes’
[+owanęh] ‘big’ with ⌊inc n⌋ oˀdréhdatgiˀ ‘ugly car’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ohnyǫhsowá:nęh ‘pump- [tsadęˀǫh] ‘damp’
kin’ otsádę̱ˀǫh ‘it is damp’
with ⌊inc n⌋ gahsgwaowá:nęh ‘boul- [tsahniˀg] ‘frighten, scare’
der’ otsáhnihk ‘it is frightening, scary’
[ǫˀwesah(d), ǫˀwesęh(d)] ‘enjoy- [tsesdaę:ˀ] ‘sticky’
able’ otséhsdaęˀ ‘it is sticky’
aǫˀwé:sęh(t), aǫˀwésah(t) ‘it is enjoy- [tsihshęˀǫh] ‘numb’
able’, ‘a good feeling’ otsíhshę̱ˀǫh ‘it is numb’
[ǫˀwesah(d), ǫˀwesęh(d)] ‘unpleas- [węnaˀsęhd] ‘harsh words, put-
ant’, with ⌊neg⌋ downs’, with ⌊cis⌋
de̱ˀaǫwé:saht ‘it is unpleasant’ owę́na̱ hsęht ‘harsh words’

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

[widrateh] ‘glassy, icy, glass tum- with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ ˀdrehdaya:nó:weˀ

bler’, with ⌊du⌋ ‘train’, ‘fast car’
deyowidrá:teh ‘it is glassy, icy’, ‘a [yanreˀ] ‘good, nice, beautiful’
glass tumbler’
oyá:nreˀ ‘it is nice, good, beautiful’
[wih] ‘undercooked’, with ⌊du⌋
deyó:wi:h ‘it is undercooked’ [yaǫˀdatgę:] ‘decomposed corpse’
oyaǫˀdá:tgę: ‘a state of decomposi-
[wihjih] ‘overcooked’
tion’
owíhjih ‘it is overcooked’
[yaˀdǫh] ‘direction’ [yędehd] ‘recognizable, plain to be
(tsęh) niyóya̱ ˀdǫh ‘a direction’ seen, conspicuous’
[yaˀdowehde:ˀ] ‘contemplation’, oyę́:deht ‘it is recognizable or plain
with ⌊du⌋ to be seen, conspicuous’
deyoya̱ ˀdówe̱hde:ˀ ‘to weigh the con- [yǫgyaˀd] ‘laugh’, ‘amusing, laugh-
sequences’, ‘it is brain-wracking’ able’
[+yanoweˀ] ‘fast’ oyǫ́:gyaˀt ‘it is amusing, laughable’

B.1.8 Verbs taking p-series neuter prefixes, habitual aspect only

[ahyojihs] ‘sour, bitter, salty’, with prestigious seat or place’, with

⌊du⌋ ⌊srf⌋
deyóhyojihs ‘it is bitter, salty, sour’ otnakdagǫ́:nyǫhs ‘important, presti-
[atnakdagǫnyǫhs] ‘an important or gious seat or place’

B.1.9 Conjugation of the irregular verb ⌊+e:s⌋, ⌊+i:s⌋, ⌊ǫ:s⌋ ‘long’

The verb meaning ‘to be long’ has several forms: it is ⌊ǫ:s⌋ when it has no incorpo-
rated noun (1). It most often takes the form of ⌊+e:s⌋ when it has an incorporated
noun (2). However, with some incorporated nouns, the form is ⌊+i:s⌋ instead of
⌊+e:s⌋ (3).

(1) ⌊ǫ:s⌋ ‛long’

a. í:yǫ:s
í:-y-ǫ:s
proth-3s.a-long.stat
‛it is long’

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B Verb dictionary

b. tęˀ de̱ˀyǫ:s
tęˀ de̱ˀ-y-ǫ:s
not neg-3s.a-long.stat
‛it is not long’
c. niyǫ́:sˀah
ni-y-ǫ́:s-ˀah
part-3s.a-long.stat-dim
‛just a little bit long’
d. ǫ́:sǫˀs
ǫ́:s-ǫˀs
no.prefix-long.stat-pl
‛lengthy objects’

(2) ⌊+e:s⌋ ‛long’

a. onóˀje:s
o-nóˀj-e:s
3s.p-tooth-long.stat
‛fang’
b. ganǫ́hse:s
ga-nǫ́hs-e:s
3s.a-house-long.stat
‛longhouse’
c. ganǫhsé:sǫˀs
ga-nǫhs-é:s-ǫˀs
3s.a-house-long.stat-pl
‛longhouses’
d. hogéˀe:s
ho-géˀ-e:s
3s.m.p-hair-long.stat
‛he has long hair’

(3) ⌊+i:s⌋ ‛long’

a. gáęni:s
gá-ęn-i:s
3s.a-song-long.stat
‛long song’

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 B.1 Single-aspect verbs

b. ohsdi:s
o-hsd-is
3s.p-tool-long.stat
‛trade cloth’
c. oshái:s
o-sh-á-i:s
3s.p-string-long.stat
‛long string, rope’
d. oháhi:s
o-háh-i:s
3s.p-road-long.stat
‛long row, road’

B.1.10 Conjugation of ⌊+od⌋ ‘stand’, ⌊ǫd⌋ ‘attached, put in’

The verbs ⌊+od⌋ ‘stand’ and ⌊ǫd⌋ ‘attached, put in’ are often part of fixed nv
expressions (§9.2). The following examples illustrate how these verbs are conju-
gated, using fixed nv expressions as examples.

(4) ⌊+od⌋ ‘stand’

a. habitual ⌊+ot-haˀ⌋ stand-hab
wadrę́notaˀ
wa-d-ręn-ot-haˀ
3s.a-srf-song-stand-hab
‘stereo, radio’
b. habitual past ⌊+ot-ha-hk⌋ stand.hab-former
hadręnotahk
ha-d-ręn-ot-ha-hk
3s.m.a-srf-song-stand-hab-former
‘he used to be a singer, used to sing’
c. indefinite habitual ⌊a:-…ot-ha-hk⌋ indef-…stand.hab-former
a:gadręnota:k
a:-g-ad-ręn-ot-ha-:k
indef-1s.a-srf-sont-stand-hab-modz
‘I would be a singer’

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B Verb dictionary

d. punctual ⌊+od-ęˀ⌋ stand-punc

a:sejáodęˀ
a:-s-e-ja-od-ęˀ
indef-2s.a-joinerE-smoke-stand-punc
‘you would smoke’
e. stative ⌊o:t⌋ stand.stat
gona:drę́:no:t
gon-a:d-rę́:n-o:t
3ns.fi.p-srf-song-stand.stat
‘they are singing’
f. stative past ⌊+od-a-ˀk⌋ stand-joinerA-former
gonadręnó:daˀk
gon-ad-ręn-ó:d-a-ˀk
3ns.fi.p-srf-song-stand.stative-joinerA-former
‘they did sing’
g. stative progressive ⌊+od-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ stand-joinerA-prog-go-stat
honadręnódagyeˀ
hon-ad-ręn-ód-a-gy-e-ˀ
3ns.m.p-srf-song-stand-joinerA-prog-go-stat
‘they are singing a song as they travel’

(5) ⌊ǫd⌋ ‘attached, put in’

a. habitual ⌊ǫt-haˀ⌋ attached-hab
Hahsdawędrǫ:taˀ
ha-hsdawędr-ǫt-haˀ
3s.m.a-rattle-attach-hab
‘Attaching Rattles’ (Mohawk Chief Title)
b. punctual ⌊ǫd-ęˀ⌋ attached-punc
ęhsade̱ˀsgǫ́:dęˀ
ę-hs-ad-e̱-ˀsg-ǫ́:d-ęˀ
future-2s.a-srf-joinerE-roast-put.in-punc
‘you will roast’
c. stative ⌊ǫ:t⌋ attached.stat
wadéˀsgǫ:t
wa-d-é-ˀsg-ǫ:t
3s.a-srf-joinerE-roast-attached.stat
‘it is roasting, frying’

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

d. stative past ⌊ǫd-a-ˀk⌋ attached-joinerA-former

gotnaˀdáǫdaˀk
go-t-naˀdá-ǫd-a-ˀk
3s.fi.p-srf-bread-put.in-joinerA-former
‘she made bread’

B.2 Three-aspect verbs

B.2.1 Three-aspect verbs taking neuter prefixes, changing from a- to
p-series

[aˀawayǫdi, aˀawayǫgy] ‘drizzle’ stat odedagwá:sdǫh ‘it is bruised’

stat oˀawayǫ́:gyǫ: ‘it is drizzling’, [adagwęhdę:] ‘become dented, be
‘misty rain, fine rain’ flat’, with ⌊du,srf⌋, (also see
[ad+N+owę] ‘split in two from ⌊ahdagwa:s⌋ ‘dent’ §B.2.1
within’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ punc adwadagwę́hdę: ‘it became
punc adwa:dó:wę:ˀ ‘it split’ dented’
stat deyo:dó:węˀ ‘it is split in two’ stat deyodagwę́hdę:, dewadagwęhdę:
[adadǫni, adadǫny] ‘emerge spon- ‘it is flat’
taneously, do spontaneously’, with with ⌊inc n⌋ deyotsgę̱ˀę́gę̱hdę: ‘flat
⌊contr+,refl⌋ pits’
punc tęwadadǫ́:niˀ ‘it will emerge or [adahsǫdragw] ‘unjoin, come apart’,
appear unintentionally’, ‘it will do it with ⌊du,srf⌋
by itself’ hab dewada̱ hsǫ́dragwahs ‘it comes
[adaˀgradenyǫ:] ‘snow flurry’, with apart’
⌊srf⌋ punc dęgęnadahsǫdrá:goˀ ‘they will
stat odaˀgradé:nyǫ: ‘there are snow be unjoined (i.e. a train, chain), they
flurries’ will come apart’
[adaˀgrahd] ‘float, resurface, sur- stat deyoda̱ hsǫ́dragwęh ‘it is dis-
face’, with ⌊srf⌋ jointed’
hab wadáˀgra̱ htaˀ ‘it resurfaces con- [adahsogw] ‘fade, lose colour’, with
tinually’ ⌊srf⌋
punc dǫdawadáˀgrahk ‘it resurfaced’ punc ęwada̱ hsó:goˀ ‘it loses its
stat odáˀgra̱ hdǫh ‘it is floating’ colour’ (i.e. old paint)
[adagwasd] ‘get bruised’, with ⌊srf⌋, stat odáhsogwęh ‘it is faded’
n/da [adaˀyodę] ‘become erect’, with
punc ęwádagwa:s ‘it will get bruised’ ⌊srf⌋

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B Verb dictionary

punc ęwada̱ ˀyó:dęˀ ‘it will be erect’ hab wadrá:tsǫhs ‘it gets torn all the
(poised to strike) time’
[adehsda:denyǫ] ‘sprinkle’ stat odrá:tsǫh ‘it is torn’
stat odesdá:denyǫ: ‘it is sprinkling’ [adrihgwagwenǫni:] ‘full moon’,
[adehsiyogw] ‘fray’, with ⌊(du),srf⌋ with ⌊du⌋
punc awade̱hsi:yó:goˀ ‘it frayed’ punc adwadri ̱hgwagwenǫ́:ni: ‘there
stat deyoda̱ hsi:yó:gwęh ‘it is frayed’ was a full moon’
[adehstoˀdręhd] ‘moult, pluck’, with stat deyodri ̱hwagwenǫ́:ni: ‘there is a
⌊srf⌋ full moon’
punc awadehstóˀdręht ‘it moulted’ [adrihgwahdǫˀ] ‘eclipse’, with ⌊srf⌋
[adęnhaˀ] ‘order, charter, hire some- punc awadri ̱hgwáhdǫˀ ‘an eclipse’
thing’, with ⌊srf⌋ (literally, ‘the moon got lost’)
stat wadę́nhaˀǫh ‘it is chartered, [adrihwahdędi, adrihwahdęgy]
hired’ ‘start a ceremony’, with ⌊srf⌋
[adetgihd] ‘weather, bad weather, punc ęwadri ̱hwahdę́:diˀ ‘the cere-
stormy weather, turn ugly, storm’ mony will start’
punc awádetgiht ‘it was bad stat odrihwa̱ hdę́:gyǫ: ‘the cere-
weather, stormy’ mony’
stat odétgi ̱hdǫh ‘it is storming right [adrihwahdǫ] ‘die out (ideas)’, with
now’ ⌊srf⌋
[adewa:dahgw, wa:dahgw] ‘deflate’, punc awadri ̱hwáhdǫˀ ‘it died out,
with ⌊(srf)⌋ faded away’ (an idea)
punc awadewa:dáhgoˀ ‘it deflated’ [adwęnod] ‘bay, howl’, with ⌊srf⌋
stat gawa:dáhgwęh ‘it is deflated’ punc awadwęnó:dęˀ ‘it did bay,
[adǫda:d] ‘contain something’, with howl’
⌊(srf)⌋ stat odwę́:no:t ‘it is baying, howling’
hab wadǫ:dá:taˀ ‘it contains some- [agyaˀdawihsy] ‘shed skin’ (said of
thing’, ‘a container’ a snake), with ⌊srf⌋
[adoˀkd] ‘be lacking, not enough’, punc awagya̱ ˀdáwi ̱hsiˀ ‘it shed its
with ⌊cis,srf⌋ skin’ (a snake)
hab dawádo̱ˀkdahs ‘it lacks’, ‘it is not [-ahdagwa:s] ‘dent’
enough’ hab wahdagwá:sahs (Sasse & Keye
punc dawádo̱ˀkdęˀ ‘it lacked’, ‘it was 1998)
not enough’ punc ęwáhdagwa:s (Sasse & Keye
stat gyodóˀkda̱ ˀǫh ‘it is lacking’ 1998)
[adratsǫ] ‘get torn, ripped’, with stat ohdagwá:sęh (Sasse & Keye
⌊srf⌋ 1998)

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[ahdęˀgw] ‘swell’ [aˀsęˀ, +ęˀ] ‘fall off, drop, reduce, fall

hab wa̱ hdę́ˀgwahs ‘it swells up’ in’, with ⌊transl n/aˀs⌋
punc awáhdę̱ˀgoh ‘it swelled up’ with ⌊inc n⌋ hab hewáˀsęˀs ‘it falls
stat ohdę́ˀgwęh ‘it is swollen’ in’ (all the time)
[a:hgwitgęˀ] ‘sun rise’, with ⌊(cis)⌋ with ⌊inc n⌋ punc hęwáˀsęˀ ‘it will
hab tgá:hgwitgęˀs ‘east’ (direction), fall in’
‘the sun rises there’ with ⌊inc n⌋ stat heyóˀsę̱ˀǫh ‘it has
punc ętgá:hgwitgęˀ ‘the sun will rise’ fallen in’
stat deyogwitgęˀǫh, gya:hgwítgę̱ˀǫh with ⌊inc n⌋ heyohnegęˀǫh ‘falling
‘the sun, moon has risen’ water’

[ahsdehsd] ‘evaporate, dry up, boil [aˀsęˀ, +ęˀ] ‘fall, drop, reduce’, with
dry, go dry’ ⌊cis n/aˀs⌋
hab wahsdéhstaˀ ‘it is evaporating’, with ⌊inc n⌋ hab dwasęˀs ‘it falls, it
‘it evaporates’ is a dropper’
punc ęwá:hsdehs ‘it will go dry, evap- with ⌊inc n⌋ punc dawáˀsęˀ ‘it
orate’ dropped, reduced’
stat ohsdéhsdǫh ‘it has evaporated, with ⌊inc n⌋ stat gyosę́ˀǫh ‘it has
all dried up’ fallen off something’
with ⌊inc n⌋ gyohnégę̱ˀǫh ‘falling wa-
[ahsha:gwani:] ‘remember’
ter’
stat ohsha:gwá:ni: ‘rememberance’,
‘to remember’ [ataędǫnyǫh] ‘shimmer, twinkle’,
with ⌊du,srf⌋
[ahstwaˀ] ‘shrink’
hab dewatáędǫnyǫh ‘it is twinkling’,
hab wahstwahs ‘it shrinks’ ‘it is shimmering’
punc ęwáhstwaˀ ‘it will shrink’ (i.e. punc adwatáędǫnyǫh ‘it shimmered’
wool)
stat ohstwáˀǫh ‘it has shrunk’ [atehgyaˀg] ‘erode’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab watéhgyaˀs ‘it (ground) is erod-
[ahstwahd] ‘shrink up’
ing’
hab wahstwáhtaˀ ‘it shrinks’ (i.e.
punc ęwáhtehgyaˀk ‘it will erode’
wool)
punc awáhstwaht ‘it shrank’ [atetgęhd] ‘go bad’, with ⌊cis,srf⌋
punc dawátehtgęht ‘it went bad’
[ahyai] ‘ripen’
hab wa̱ hyáis ‘a musk melon’, ‘a can- [atgręgręhdǫh] ‘dreary, grey sky’,
taloupe’, (literally, ‘fruit is beginning with ⌊du,srf⌋
to ripen’) stat deyotgręgrę́hdǫh ‘the sky is
punc ęwáhyaiˀ ‘it will ripen’ dreary, grey’
stat ohyáih ‘ripe fruit’ [atnegęˀgw] ‘high tide’, with ⌊cis⌋

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B Verb dictionary

punc ędwatnegę́ˀgoˀ ‘it will be high punc awátsihsˀa:ˀ ‘it did mature’ (as
tide’ in plants), ‘it completed its life-cycle’
stat gyotnégę̱ˀgwęh ‘high tide’ stat otsíhsˀǫh ‘it is done for the sea-
[atnegęˀgwahd] ‘tidal wave’, with son’, ‘it has gone full cycle’, ‘it is
⌊cis⌋ mature’, ‘they (plants) have finished
punc dawatnegę́ˀgwaht ‘tidal wave’ out’
[atno] ‘pollution’, with ⌊srf⌋ [atsihsę:] ‘ripe’
punc ęwá:tno:ˀ ‘there will be pollu- punc awátsihsę:ˀ ‘it ripened for har-
tion’ vesting’
stat otsíhshę: ‘it is at a mature state’
[atǫgai] ‘stiff, stiffen up’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab watǫ́gais ‘it stiffens up all the [atsotwahs] ‘jump, hop’, with
time’ ⌊du,srf⌋
punc awatǫgái ‘it did stiffen up’ hab dewátsotwahs ‘fleas’, (literally,
stat otǫ́gai ‘it is stiff’, ‘rigor mortis’ ‘it jumps, hops’)
[atsˀ] ‘use up, wear out, dissipate’ [atwadased] ‘encircle something
hab watsˀáhs (Sasse & Keye 1998) (the calendar year)’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
punc awá:tsˀa:ˀ ‘it is worn out, all punc dęwatwada:sé:dahk ‘it will en-
gone, burnt up’, ‘it went down to circle it’ (speaking of the calendar
nothing’ year)
stat haˀwádatsˀǫh ‘it is empty, burnt [+dase] ‘whirl, swirl around’ (fluid,
up, used up’ air), with ⌊du⌋
[atsaˀged, atsaˀkd] ‘bend, be flexi- hab degawá:dasehs ‘tornado’
ble’, with ⌊du,srf n/hs⌋ punc atgahnegádase:ˀ ‘hydrologic
hab dewátsaˀkdǫhs ‘it bends all the cycle, water cycle’
time’, ‘it is flexible’ stat ohnawadá:se: ‘whirlpool’
punc dęwátsaˀge:t ‘it will bend’ [ˀdrehdahetgęˀ] ‘break down’ (said
stat deyótsaˀkdǫ: ‘it is bent’, ‘a curve, of vehicles)
a bend’ punc ǫgeˀdre̱hdáhetgęˀ ‘my car
with ⌊inc n⌋ deyotahá:kdǫ: ‘curve in broke down’
the road’ stat odrehda̱ hétgę̱ˀǫh ‘a car is bro-
[atsˀahd] ‘used up, all gone’, with ken down’
⌊transl⌋ [ędajihs] ‘twilight’
stat heyótsˀahdǫh ‘it is all gone’ hab wędá:jihs ‘dusk, twilight’
with ⌊inc n⌋ haˀwatnegátsˀaht ‘wa- [ęnihoˀg] ‘lightning’, with ⌊du⌋
ter is all gone’ hab dewę́ni ̱hoks, dewę́ni ̱hoˀs ‘it is
[atsihsˀ] ‘ripen’ lightning’
hab watsíhsˀahs (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc adwę́ni ̱hoˀk ‘lightning struck’

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[ęhnihsriyohs] ‘improve, get nice’ punc agahsdáędaˀ ‘it stopped rain-

(weather) ing’
punc sawęhni ̱hsrí:yohs ‘it became a [hsdaowanahd] ‘rain hard’
nice day again’ punc agasdáowanaht ‘it rained hard’
[ęnǫwaę] ‘sink’
[hsdaowanęh] ‘rain hard’
hab węnǫwáęhęˀ ‘it sinks’ (all the
stat gahsdaowá:nęh ‘it is raining
time)
hard’
punc awęnowáęˀ ‘it sank’
stat onáwaęˀ ‘it has sunk in liquid’ [hsgęˀdrǫd] ‘rusting, mouldy’
punc awahsgę̱ˀdrǫ́:dę:ˀ ‘it got
[ga:hgwę] ‘sunset’, with ⌊transl⌋
mouldy’, ‘it got rusty’
hab hegáhgwęˀs ‘to the setting sun,
the direction of the sunset, west’ [+ihęh] ‘shake’
punc haˀgáhgwęˀ ‘sunset’, ‘the sun with ⌊inc n⌋ punc agyǫhwęjáihęh
went down’ ‘earthquake’, (literally, ‘the land
[gęnhǫdi, gęnhǫgy] ‘summer’, with shook’)
⌊du⌋ [ihnodǫ] ‘flood’
punc dęyogęnhǫ́:diˀ ‘it will be sum- punc awęhnó:dǫ:ˀ ‘flood’, ‘it flooded’
mer’ stat ohnó:dǫˀ ‘it is flooded’
[gowanheˀ] ‘become big’ [jiˀdaga:, jiˀdagai] ‘whining, crying
punc agagowá:nheˀ ‘it became big’ sound’, with ⌊du⌋
[hehdagahatw] ‘plough’ hab degajiˀdá:ga: ‘a whiner, cryer’
hab ga̱ hehdagáhatwahs ‘plow’ punc atgajiˀdágai ‘(there was) whin-
stat ga̱ hehdagáhatwęh ‘ploughed ing, crying, repetitive complaining’
field’ [jihsdaˀdr] ‘go with the fire’
[hnegagyęhętw] ‘low tide’, with punc ęseji ̱hsdáˀdraˀ ‘you will go with
⌊du,cis⌋ the fire’ (refers to the Gaihwi:yo:
punc dętgahnegagyę̱hę:toˀ ‘it will be convention)
low tide’ stat hodiji ̱hsdáˀdrǫ: ‘they have gone
[hnegahe:ˀ] ‘high tide’, with ⌊cis⌋ to the fire’ (refers to the Gaihwi:yo:
punc ętgahnegáhe:k ‘it will be high convention)
tide’ [ˀnhęhtsędǫh] ‘wag one’s tail’, with
[hretgęˀ] ‘go bad, spoil’ (said of ⌊du⌋
ideas) stat deyoˀnhęhtsę́dǫ̱hǫh ‘it is wag-
punc ęwáhetgęˀ ‘it (an idea) will ging its tail’
spoil, go bad’ [ˀnǫ:] ‘removed’, with ⌊cis⌋
[hsdaędaˀ] ‘stop raining’ stat gyonǫ: ‘it has been removed’

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B Verb dictionary

[nǫˀa:ga:, nǫˀa:gai] ‘noise made by hab gawaęhę́:wiˀ ‘hurricane’

banging head’, with ⌊du,rep⌋ [waˀnęda:ˀg] ‘stick to, cling to’
punc dęhsganǫˀa:gái ‘there will be hab owaˀnę́:da:s ‘it sticks to it’, ‘it ad-
heads banging’ heres to it’
stat desganǫˀá:ga: ‘a head banging’ punc aˀowa̱ ˀnę́:da:ˀk, aˀowaˀnę:da:ˀ
[nǫnhe] ‘fill up’ ‘it is stuck’
hab ganǫ́:nheˀs ‘it fills up all the stat owaˀnędá:gǫh ‘it is stuck on
time’ something’
punc agánǫnheˀ ‘it filled up’ [wa:nohsd] ‘become cold, cool’
[ǫhwęjaihęh] ‘earthquake’ (weather)
punc agyǫhwęjáihęh ‘earthquake’, punc sagawá:nohs ‘it became cooler’
(literally, ‘the land shook’) stat owa:nóhsdǫh ‘it got cold
[rihsdiˀdr] ‘survey’ (weather)’
hab hadíhsdi ̱ˀdrehs ‘they are survey- [wędęnawę:] ‘become a wet day’
ing the land’, ‘surveyors’ punc awędęnáwę: ‘it got wet’, ‘the
stat gaíhsdi ̱ˀdrǫ: ‘it has been sur- day got wet’
veyed’
[yagęhdahgw] ‘come out suddenly’,
[rihwahdǫˀ] ‘die out, become ex-
with ⌊cis⌋
tinct’
punc dagayagę́hdahk ‘it came out’
punc agaihwáhdǫˀ ‘it became ex-
(suddenly)
tinct, died out’ (old word, said of
ideas) [yędaˀ] ‘settle’, with ⌊transl,cis⌋
stat oíhwahdǫˀǫh ‘it is extinct’ punc hatgayę́:daˀ ‘it is settled’
[rihwędaˀ] ‘wear out’ [yędehte] ‘emerge unintentionally’
punc agaihwę́:daˀ ‘it wore out’ (i.e. punc aˀǫyędéhteˀ ‘it emerged unin-
clothing) tentionally’
[+tęhsd] ‘dry up, evaporate’ [yesh] ‘be too bad’
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ sagaga̱ hóˀjatęhs punc agayeshaˀ ‘it is too bad’
‘the grass dried up’ [weodę] ‘become mouldy’
[waęhęwiˀ] ‘hurricane’ punc agawéodęˀ ‘it got mouldy’

List of three-aspect weather verbs

The thematic category of weather verbs is listed in this section for convenience.
They are three-aspect verbs taking neuter prefixes.

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

agahsdáędaˀ ‘it stopped raining’ ohjíˀgreˀ ‘it is cloudy’

agasdaowá:naht ‘it rained hard’ onaˀnawę́ˀǫh ‘it has thawed, melted’
awáyǫgyǫ: ‘it is drizzling’, ‘misty onáˀno:ˀ ‘it is cold, cool’
rain’, ‘fine rain’ oné:nǫˀ ‘it is mild, warm’, ‘a warm or
awędęnáwę: ‘it got wet’, ‘the day got hot day’
wet’ aǫgo̱hdǫ́h oné:nǫˀ ‘it is exception-
degawá:dasehs ‘tornado’ ally hot’ (weather)
dewadewayędáǫhaˀ ‘it is thunder- onǫnyáędagyeˀ sadaǫgyǫ: ‘freezing
ing’ rain’
dewęniẖ óˀksǫh ‘lightening’ onǫ́nyaęˀ ‘it is frozen’
deyotgręgrę́hdǫh ‘the sky is dreary, onyęˀgwadá:se: ‘drifting snow’
grey’ osdáǫ: ‘it looks like rain’
deyotsadáęˀ ‘it is foggy’ osdáǫgyǫ: ‘it is raining’
deyoyęgwáę:ˀ ‘it is a smoky or hazy otó:weˀ ‘it is cold’
day’ otsádę̱ˀǫh ‘it is damp’
ęyohsdáǫdiˀ ‘it is going to rain’ owa:dáihę: ‘warm wind’
ęyoˀgrǫ́:diˀ ‘it will snow’ owá:deˀ ‘windy’, ‘wind’, ‘it is a
gahsdaowá:nęh ‘it is raining hard’ breeze’
gawa:shá:sdeˀ ‘strong winds’ owá:nǫ: ‘cold wind’
gawaęhę́:wiˀ ‘hurricane’ owa:nóhsdǫh ‘it got cold’ (weather)
gawaowá:nęh ‘big wind’ owídrǫgyǫ: ‘it is hailing’, ‘sleet’
odaˀgradé:nyǫ: ‘there are snow flur- oˀáwayeˀ ‘dew’
ries’ oˀawayǫ́:gyǫ: ‘it is drizzling’
odę́haǫt ‘sunshine’ oˀdáihę: ‘a hot day’
odesdá:denyǫ: ‘it is sprinkling’ oˀgrǫ: ‘it looks like snow’
odrǫ́hyo:t ‘rainbow’ oˀgrǫ́:gyǫ: ‘it is snowing’
ogahgwędǫ́:gyǫ: ‘it is snowing snow oˀgrowanáhdǫh ‘it is snowing hard’
pellets’ wę̱hnihsrí:yo: ‘it is a nice day’

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B Verb dictionary

B.2.2 Three-aspect verbs taking p-series neuter prefixes

[adeg] ‘burn up’ hab ohsgę́ˀdraę:s (Sasse & Keye 1998)

hab odé:kaˀ ‘fire’, ‘it is burning’ punc ęyohsgęˀdráę: ‘it will get rusty’
punc ęyó:de:k ‘it will burn’ stat ohsgę́ˀdraeˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
stat odé:gęh ‘it is burnt’ [ka] ‘leak’
[aˀgrǫdi, aˀgrǫgy] ‘snow’ hab okahs ‘it leaks’
punc ęyoˀgrǫ́:diˀ ‘it will snow’ punc ęyó:kaˀ ‘it will leak’
stat oˀgrǫ́:gyǫ: ‘it is snowing’ [nihsheˀ] ‘a length of time, duration’
[aˀgrowanahd] ‘snow hard’ punc tsaˀóni ̱hsheˀ ‘a long time, for
stat oˀgrowanáhdǫh ‘it is snowing that length of time, while, during the
hard’ time that’
[ęh, ęˀ] ‘happen’, with ⌊part⌋ [nyahęh, nyahęˀ] ‘boil’
hab niyá:węhs ‘how it happens’ hab onyáhęhs ‘it is boiling’
punc nęyá:węh ‘it will happen’ punc ęgyǫ́nya̱ hęh ‘it will boil’
stat niyáwę̱ˀǫh ‘how it did happen’ stat onyáhę̱ˀǫh ‘it has boiled’
[hę] ‘be day’ [ǫhwęhsdaga:] ‘make a wheezing
punc ęyó:hęˀ ‘it will be tomorrow’ noise’
[hsdagwaę] ‘dirty, soiled’ stat ohwę́hsdaga: ‘it is wheezing’
punc aˀohsdagwáę: ‘it got dirty or [tgęh, tgęˀ] ‘become rotten’
soiled’ hab otgę́hs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
stat ohsdágwaę: ‘it is soiled, dirty, punc aˀó:tgęh ‘it became spoiled, rot-
stained’ ten’
[hsdaǫdi, hsdaǫgy] ‘rain’ stat otgę́ˀǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc ęyohsdáǫdiˀ ‘it is going to rain’ [tsihsdęh, tsihsdęˀ] ‘get numb’
stat osdáǫgyǫ: ‘it is raining’ punc aˀótsihsdęh ‘it got numb’
[hsgęˀdraę] ‘get rusty’ stat otsíhsdę̱ˀǫh ‘it is numb’

B.2.3 Three-aspect verbs taking personal prefixes, changing from a-

to p-series
A-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[adadahsha:gwę, adadahsha:gwani] remind yourself, make yourself re-

‘make oneself remember , remind member’
onself’, with ⌊cis,refl⌋
[adadehsnye] ‘groom oneself, pre-
punc ętsadadahshá:gwęˀ ‘you will pare oneself mentally, look af-

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

ter oneself, tidy oneself up’, with punc awadadwę́:deht ‘it (a pet) for-
⌊du,refl⌋ feited its life’
imp desadadéhsnyeh ‘tidy up!’ [adadwiyahdǫˀd] ‘have an abortion’,
‘groom yourself!’ with ⌊refl⌋
[adadrihǫnyanih, adadrihǫnyę] hab ǫdadwiyáhdǫtaˀ ‘abortion’
‘read’, with ⌊refl⌋ punc agadadwíya̱ hdǫˀt ‘I had an
hab ǫdadri ̱hǫ́nyanih ‘she is reading’ abortion’
stat wadadri ̱hǫ́nyani: ‘reading mate- stat agadadwiya̱ hdǫ́ˀdǫh ‘I did have
rial’ an abortion’
imp sadadri ̱hó:nyęh ‘read!’ [adaˀgehod] ‘have, get an erection’,
[adadrihwagwenyaˀs] ‘be a success’ with ⌊srf⌋
punc ahsadadrihwagwé:nyaˀs ‘you punc ęhadage̱hó:dęˀ ‘he will get an
are a success’ erection’
[adadrihwagwenyęˀs] ‘achieve stat sadáˀge̱ho:t ‘you have an erec-
something’ tion’
punc ęsadadrihwagwé:nyęˀs ‘you [adagyaˀdahgwaˀd] ‘do push ups’,
will achieve’ with ⌊du,refl⌋
[adadrihwahdǫˀd] ‘commit suidice’, hab degaǫdagya̱ ˀdáhgwa̱ ˀtaˀ ‘they
with ⌊refl⌋ are doing push ups’
punc awadadríhwa̱ hdǫˀt ‘suicide’, punc dęgaǫdagya̱ ˀdáhgwaˀt ‘they
(literally, ‘someone did away with will do push ups’
themselves’) [adagyenaw, adagyenaǫ, adagyena:]
[adadriyo] ‘kill oneself, commit sui- ‘wrestle’, with ⌊du,refl⌋
cide’, with ⌊refl⌋ hab de̱hęnada:gyé:nahs ‘wrestlers’,
punc awadadrí:yoˀ ‘it killed itself’, ‘they are wrestling’
‘suicide’ punc ęhsadagyé:na:ˀ ‘you will wres-
[adadrohegę] ‘accumulate for one- tle’
self’, with ⌊refl⌋ imp desadagyé:na: ‘you wrestle!’
punc ęhsadadrohé:gęˀ ‘you will accu- [adahgahsdǫ, adahgahsd] ‘endure’,
mulate (things, ideas, etc.) for your- with ⌊srf⌋
self’ hab sadáhgahstaˀ ‘you do endure’
[adadwędehd, adadwędehd] ‘forfeit punc ęsada̱ hgáhsdǫˀ ‘you will tough
one’s life, give up one’s life’, with it out, endure’
⌊srf⌋/⌊refl⌋ imp sadáhga̱ hsdǫ: ‘you endure!’, ‘go
hab sadwę́dehtaˀ ‘you forfeit things and cook in the cookhouse!’
all the time’ [adahgwaę] ‘store something’, with
punc asa:dwę́:deht ‘you forfeited’ ⌊srf⌋

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B Verb dictionary

hab sadahgwáęhęˀ ‘you store things punc ętsáˀsęht ‘you will bring it
all the time’ down’
punc asada̱ hgwáęˀ ‘you did store it’ stat toˀsę́hdǫh ‘he has handed down’
imp sadáhgwaęˀ ‘store it, hold on to [adaˀsęhd] ‘swoop down’, with
it temporarily!’ ⌊cis,srf⌋
[adahihsd] ‘prevent’, with ⌊srf⌋ punc dawáda̱ ˀsęht ‘it swooped
hab gadáhihstaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) down’
punc ęgadahíhsdę ‘I will prevent’ [adatgǫhe] ‘box’, with ⌊du,refl⌋
stat agadahíhsdǫh (Sasse & Keye hab de̱hęnadátgǫ̱he:s ‘boxers’, ‘they
1998) are boxing’
[adahnyo] ‘fish’ [adatrewahd] ‘apologize, repent’,
hab gadáhnyoh, gadáhnyo̱haˀ (Sasse with ⌊rep,refl⌋
& Keye 1998) hab tsadatrewáhtaˀ ‘you are repent-
punc ęgáda̱ hnyo:ˀ ‘I will fish’ ing right now’, ‘you repent all the
stat agáda̱ hnyoˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) time’
[adahǫdǫ:] ‘ask around, enquire, ask punc sa̱ hęnada:tré:waht ‘they re-
for something’, with ⌊srf⌋ pented’
hab gaǫdahǫ́dǫ̱haˀ ‘they are asking stat satréwa̱ hdǫh ‘you have been
right now’ punished’
punc ęgadahǫ́:dǫ:ˀ ‘I will ask around’ [adatsˀ] ‘argue’, with ⌊du,refl⌋
imp sadahǫ́:dǫ: ‘ask!’, ‘enquire!’ hab dehęnadá:tsˀahs (Sasse & Keye
punc, with (inc n) agakwa̱ hǫ́:dǫ:ˀ ‘it 1998)
asked for food’ punc dęhsa:dá:tsˀa:ˀ ‘you will quar-
[adahǫhsiyohsd] ‘listen to someone, rel’
obey’, with ⌊srf⌋ stat dewa:dá:tsˀǫh ‘a quarrel, an ar-
punc ęjihswadahǫhsí:yohs ‘you all gument’
will listen again’ [adawę] ‘swim’, with ⌊srf⌋
stat agada̱ hǫhsí:yohs ‘I listen’ hab hęnádawęhs ‘they are swim-
[adahsehd] ‘hide oneself, some- ming’
thing’, with ⌊srf⌋ punc a:yǫdá:wę:ˀ ‘she might swim’
hab gadáhse̱htaˀ ‘I hide’ stat hodá:węh ‘he did swim’
punc ęgęnadáhseht ‘they will hide’ imp haˀsádawę: ‘you swim over
stat agadahséhdǫh ‘I am hiding there’
now’ [adaˀwęhęd] ‘go over’ (a fence, etc.),
[adaˀsęhd] ‘bring down, hand with ⌊du,srf⌋
down, discriminate against’, with punc dęwada̱ ˀwę́hę:t ‘it will go over
⌊cis,srf⌋ the fence’

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

stat deyoda̱ ˀwę́hęhdǫh ‘it went over punc ęhsadęgáhnyeˀ ‘you will com-
the fence’, ‘it is going over the fence’ fort, rock a child’, ‘you are babysit-
ting’
[adeˀdaǫni] ‘get dirty, muddy’, with
⌊srf⌋ [adeˀgw, adeˀgo] ‘run away, flee’,
punc ęgade̱ˀdáǫniˀ ‘I am going to get with ⌊srf⌋
muddy’ hab gadéˀgwahs ‘I run away’
punc ęgęnadéˀgoˀ ‘they will flee or
[adeˀdǫ] ‘give birth, be due’, with run away’
⌊srf⌋ stat agáde̱ˀgwęh ‘I am running
hab ǫdéˀdǫ̱haˀ ‘child-bearing’, ‘she is away’
giving birth right now’
[adęhę:g] ‘sun-tan’, ‘get a tan’, with
punc ęyǫ́de̱ˀdǫ:ˀ ‘when she will be
⌊srf⌋
due’
punc esádę̱hę:k ‘you got a tan’
purp ǫdéˀdǫ̱hneˀ ‘she is about to give stat sadę́hę:k ‘you are getting a sun
birth’ tan’
[adeˀdrawi, adeˀdrǫ] ‘allow, let go’, [adehęh, adehęˀ] ‘feel bad, embar-
with ⌊srf⌋ rassed, ashamed’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab gadéˀdrawihs (Sasse & Keye hab gadéhęhs ‘I am embarrassed,
1998) ashamed’
punc ęgáde̱ˀdrǫˀ ‘I will allow, let do’ punc ęgáde̱hęh ‘I will be embar-
stat agade̱ˀdrá:wi: (Sasse & Keye rassed’
1998) stat hodéhęˀǫh ‘he is embarrassed
right now’
[adeˀdrehdaę] ‘park one’s vehicle’,
with ⌊cis,srf⌋ [adehęˀǫhsd] ‘widow, widower’,
stat gyǫgyadedréhdaęˀ ‘we all with ⌊srf⌋
parked our car over there’ punc aˀǫde̱hę́ˀǫhs ‘she became a
widow’
[adegaˀd] ‘burn something up, start stat hodehęˀǫ́hsdǫh ‘he is a wid-
a fire’ ower’
hab ǫdéga̱ ˀtaˀ ‘someone burns up
[adęhninǫ] ‘sell, buy’
something’
hab ǫdęhní:nǫh ‘store’, ‘storekeeper’
punc ęga:dé:gaˀt ‘I will start a fire’ punc aˀehní:nǫˀ ‘she purchased’
stat agadegaˀdǫ́ge: ‘I have a big fire stat ga̱ hní:nǫˀ ‘something that is
going’ bought’
[adęgahnyeˀ] ‘comfort a child, imp tęˀ ta:kní:nǫh ‘I should not or will
babysit’, with ⌊srf⌋ not buy it’
hab gadę́ga̱ hnyeh ‘I am babysitting’ [adęhnyeha:] ‘win a bet’, with ⌊srf⌋

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B Verb dictionary

punc agęnadę́hnye̱ha:ˀ ‘they won a [adęhwihsdanihahdani, adęhwihs-

bet’ danihahdę] ‘lend money’, with
[adęhod] ‘stack things, put one ⌊srf⌋
thing on top of another’, with hab sadęhwi ̱hsdani ̱háhdanih ‘you
⌊du,srf⌋ lend money’, ‘a lender’
punc dęsadę̱hó:dęˀ ‘you will stack [adejahoˀgwagahatw] ‘twist one’s
things, put one thing on top of the ankle’, with ⌊srf⌋
other’ punc agadejahoˀgwaga̱ há:toˀ ‘I
[adehsdaogwahd] ‘sprinkle water’, twisted my ankle’
with ⌊srf⌋ [adejęhęnedahgw] ‘prepare a fire’,
hab degadesdaogwáhtaˀ (Sasse & with ⌊srf⌋
Keye 1998) punc ęsadejęhęné:dahk ‘you will pre-
punc degadesdáogwaht (Sasse & pare your fire’
Keye 1998)
[adejęhiyohsd] ‘make a good fire’,
stat dewagadesdáogwa̱ hdǫh (Sasse
with ⌊srf⌋
& Keye 1998)
imp sadeję̱hí:yohs ‘make a good fire’
[adehsgyǫˀwataˀd] ‘diet, lose
[adejęhǫni] ‘start a fire’, with ⌊srf⌋
weight’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc ęgadejęhǫ́:niˀ ‘I will start a fire’
hab ǫdehsgyǫ̱ˀwátaˀtaˀ ‘someone
(old word)
loses weight, diets’
imp sadeję̱hǫ́:nih ‘make a fire’
punc agaǫdehsgyǫ̱ˀwá:taˀt ‘they di-
eted’ [adejinǫdagragw] ‘pick one’s nose’,
[adehsnowad] ‘hurry up’, with with ⌊srf⌋
⌊du,srf⌋ hab ǫdejinǫdagrá:gwahs ‘she is pick-
imp desade̱hsnó:wa:t ‘hurry up!’ ing her nose’
[adehstǫwihsd] ‘hurt oneself’, with [adejiˀohgyaˀg] ‘cut one’s nails’
⌊srf⌋ hab gadeji ̱ˀóhgyaˀs ‘I am cutting my
hab sadehstǫwí:staˀ ‘you hurt your- nails’
self all the time’ punc ęgadejíˀohgyaˀk ‘I am going to
cut my nails’
[adehswahd] ‘smell something on
purpose, sniff something’, with [adekǫni] ‘eat’, with ⌊srf⌋
⌊srf⌋ hab gaǫdekǫ́:nih ‘they eat’
punc ęwádehswaht ‘it will smell it’ punc agęnade:kǫ́:niˀ ‘they ate’
imp sadé:swaht ‘you smell it, sniff it!’ stat hode:kǫ́:ni: ‘he is eating’
[adehswahdahnǫ] ‘sniff something’, imp sade:kǫ́:nih ‘you eat’
with ⌊srf⌋ [adekǫnige:] ‘feast’, with ⌊srf⌋
imp sadehswa̱ hdáhnǫ: ‘you sniff!’ punc ęhsadekǫ́nige: ‘you will feast’

726
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[adekwahę] ‘serve a meal’, with hab gadęnǫhgáǫs (Sasse & Keye

⌊srf⌋ 1998)
punc agaǫdékwa̱ hęˀ ‘they put on a punc ęgadęnǫ́hga:ˀ (Sasse & Keye
meal’ 1998)
[adęnaˀd] ‘take a lunch’, with ⌊srf⌋ stat agadęnǫ́hgaǫ (Sasse & Keye
punc ęga:dę́:naˀt ‘I will take a lunch’ 1998)
stat agadęnáˀdǫh ‘I have taken a [adęnǫhǫnyǫ] ‘give thanks’, with
lunch’ ⌊du,srf⌋
[adęˀnahga:ˀw] ‘stick one’s tongue punc dędwadęnǫ́hǫnyǫ:ˀ ‘we all will
out’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ give thanks’
hab degadęˀnáhga:ˀs (Sasse & Keye [adęnǫˀnyad] ‘mourn’, with ⌊srf⌋
1998) hab gadę́nǫ̱ˀnya:s (Sasse & Keye
punc dęgadęˀnáhga:ˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
1998)
punc ęhsadęnǫ́ˀnya:t ‘you will
stat dewagadęˀnahgá:ˀwęh (Sasse &
mourn’
Keye 1998)
stat agadęnǫ́ˀnyadǫh (Sasse & Keye
[adęnhaˀ] ‘hire, command, order’, 1998)
with ⌊srf⌋
[adęnowęhd] ‘deny’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab hęnádęnhaˀs ‘they hire it’
punc ęsádęnhaˀ ‘you will order hab gadęnowę́htaˀ ‘I am in denial’, ‘I
something, hire something’ am denying’
punc agadęnó:węht ‘I denied’
[adęnidęhd] ‘plead’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab sadęnidę́htaˀ ‘you plead all the [adenyaˀgwahd] ‘vomit (make one-
time’ self vomit’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc ęhsadęní:dęht ‘you will plead’ hab gadenya̱ ˀgwáhtaˀ ‘I make my-
stat gonadęnídę̱hdǫh ‘they are self vomit’
pleading’ punc agadenyáˀgwaht ‘I made my-
[adęnihahsd] ‘lend’ self throw up’
hab ǫníhahstaˀ ‘someone lends’ imp sadénya̱ ˀgwaht ‘make yourself
vomit!’
[adenǫhahe:ˀ] ‘happy’
hab gadǫnhahé:haˀ (Sasse & Keye [adęnyo] ‘kill someone’
1998) stat hodę́:nyo: ‘he has killed some-
punc ęgadǫnháhęˀ ‘I will become one’
happy’ [adęˀnigǫha:] ‘take care of some-
stat hodonǫ̱háhe:ˀ ‘he is happy’ thing, monitor’, with ⌊srf⌋
[adęnǫhgaǫ, adęnǫhga:] ‘cut one’s hab gadęˀnihǫ́hahaˀ (Sasse & Keye
hair’ 1998)

727
B Verb dictionary

punc ęgadę̱ˀnigǫ̱háęˀ (Sasse & Keye [adeˀsgǫd] ‘roast, fry something’,

1998) with ⌊srf⌋
stat agadę̱ˀnígǫ̱ha:ˀ (Sasse & Keye punc ęhsade̱ˀsgǫ́:dęˀ ‘you will roast’
1998) stat wadéˀsgǫ:t ‘it is roasting, fry-
[adęˀnigǫhahniyaˀd, ˀnigǫhah- ing’
niyaˀd] ‘endure’, with ⌊(srf)⌋ imp sadeˀsgǫ́:dęh ‘you fry it, roast it!’
punc ęhsaˀnigǫhahní:yaˀt ‘you will [adeˀsgoh] ‘immerse, baptize, go
endure’ (literally, ‘you will toughen into water’, with ⌊srf⌋
or strengthen your mind’) hab gadéˀsgohs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
imp sadęˀnigǫhahní:yaˀt ‘keep your punc ęhsáde̱ˀsgoh ‘you will go into
mind strong’ the water’
stat agade̱ˀsgóhǫh (Sasse & Keye
[adeˀnyędę] ‘try something, attempt
1998)
something, sample something’,
with ⌊srf⌋ [adeshahsdǫh] ‘use one’s strength’,
hab gadeˀnyę́:dęhs ‘I try all the time’ with ⌊srf⌋
punc a:gadeˀnyę́:dęˀ ‘I might try or hab gadeshahsdǫ́haˀ ‘I use my
attempt’ strength’
punc ęhsadesháhsdǫh ‘you will use
imp sadeˀnyę́:dęh ‘sample, try it!’
your strength’
[adeˀnyędęhsd] ‘measure some-
[adeteˀtra:] ‘powder oneself’, with
thing’, with ⌊srf⌋
⌊srf⌋
stat wadeˀnyędę́hsdǫh ‘the act of
hab gadéteˀtra:s ‘I am powdering
measuring’
myself’
[adeˀnyędęhsd] ‘copy, compare’, punc ęgadetéˀtra: ‘I am going to pow-
with ⌊cis,srf⌋ der myself’
punc ętsade̱ˀnyę́:dęhs ‘you will copy, [adętsˀ] ‘earn, deserve’, with
use as a model or pattern’ ⌊du,srf⌋
imp dahsade̱ˀnyę́:dęhs ‘copy! com- hab desádętsˀahs ‘your salary, what
pare!’ you make’
[adęˀnyod] ‘celebrate, party’, with punc dęhsádętsˀa:ˀ ‘you will earn
⌊srf⌋ money’
hab sadę́ˀnyotaˀ ‘you celebrate all stat desádętsˀǫh ‘you’ve earned or
the time’, ‘you are celebrating’ deserve it’, ‘you’ve paid your dues’
punc ęhsadę̱ˀnyó:dęˀ ‘you will cele- [adetsaˀd] ‘struggle, squirm, fren-
brate’ zied, revolt’, with ⌊srf⌋
stat wadę́ˀnyo:t ‘a celebration, hab sadétsaˀtaˀ ‘you struggle all the
party’ time’

728
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc ęhsádetsaˀt ‘you will struggle, punc ęga:dǫ́:dęˀ ‘I will sing male
squirm to get loose, revolt’ chant’
stat sadétsaˀdǫh ‘you are going stat agá:dǫ:t (Sasse & Keye 1998)
along struggling’ [adodahsy] ‘appear unintention-
[adetsęhsd] ‘be a glutton, gobble, ally’, with ⌊srf⌋
gorge oneself’, with ⌊srf⌋ hab gadódahsǫhs (Sasse & Keye
punc ęhsádetsęhs ‘you will be a glut- 1998)
ton’, ‘you will gobble, gorge your- punc ęgadodáhsiˀ ‘I will appear’
self’ stat agadodáhsǫ: (Sasse & Keye
[adewayęhsd] ‘learn’, with ⌊srf⌋ 1998)
hab ǫdewayę́hstaˀ ‘she is a novice, [adodaisy] ‘escape, get loose’, with
learner, beginner’ ⌊srf⌋
punc ęhsadewáyęhs ‘you will learn’
punc ahadodáisiˀ ‘he got loose, es-
stat sadewayę́hsdǫh ‘you are learn-
caped’
ing’
[adodaisy] ‘comb one’s hair’, with
[adidręhdahoˀdrǫ] ‘stay awake’,
⌊du,srf⌋
with ⌊srf⌋
hab degadodáishǫhs ‘I am combing
stat agadidręhda̱ hóˀdrǫ: ‘I had to
my hair’
stay awake’
punc dęgadodáisiˀ ‘I am going to
[adiyǫd] ‘stretch something’, with comb my hair’
⌊du,srf⌋
stat-prog dewagadodaihsǫ̱hǫ́:gyeˀ ‘I
hab dewadiyǫ́:taˀ ‘it stretches’ (a
am going along combing my hair’
word for ‘rubber band’), ‘balloon’,
imp desadodáisiˀ ‘you comb your
‘elastic’
hair’
punc atoga̱ hadiyǫ́:dęˀ (Sasse & Keye
1998) [adǫgohd] ‘pass by, go past’, with
⌊srf⌋
[adǫd] ‘sing Adǫ:waˀ, eat together’,
with ⌊du,srf⌋ hab hadǫ́go̱htaˀ ‘he goes past all the
hab deya:gwá:dǫ:s (Sasse & Keye time’
1998) punc aha:dǫ́:goht ‘he went past’
punc dęya:gwá:dǫ:t (Sasse & Keye stat hodǫ́go̱hdǫh ‘he has gone past’
1998) [adogw] ‘scatter’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
stat deyǫgwadǫ́:dǫh (Sasse & Keye hab and ⌊inc n⌋ dewadejíhsdogwahs
1998) ‘a burst of flames’
[adǫd] ‘sing Adǫ:waˀ, eat together’, punc adwa:dó:goˀ ‘it scattered’
with ⌊srf⌋ stat deyódogwęh ‘disorder’, ‘chaos’,
hab gadǫ́:taˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) (literally, ‘it is scattered’)

729
B Verb dictionary

[adogwahd] ‘scatter something, dis- punc a:sadǫhwí:daˀt ‘you will swing’

tribute something, spread some- stat sadǫhwidáˀdǫh ‘you are swing-
thing out’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ ing’
hab degadogwáhtaˀ ‘I scatter some- imp sadǫhwí:daˀt ‘you swing!’
thing’ [adoˀjinehd] ‘skate’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
stat desadogwáhdǫh ‘you have dis- hab degaǫdoˀjinéhtaˀ ‘they figure-
tributed it’ skate’
punc and ⌊inc n⌋ dęsatnehsó:gwaht [adoˀkd] ‘end something’
‘you will distribute sand’ hab gadóˀktaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[adǫgweˀdahshedahs] ‘census’, punc ęgádo̱ˀkdęˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
with ⌊srf⌋ stat (agadoˀkdáˀǫh) (Sasse & Keye
hab hęnadǫgweˀda̱ hshé:dahs ‘a cen- 1998)
sus’, (literally, ‘they count people’) [adǫˀneg] ‘remove oneself’, with
[adǫgweˀdiyohsd] ‘compose one- ⌊cis,srf⌋
self’, ‘make oneself presentable’, punc ętsádǫ̱ˀne:k ‘you will remove
with ⌊srf⌋ yourself’
punc agadǫgweˀdí:yohs ‘I made my- [adǫˀneg] ‘move away, go away,
self nice’ (put on my public face or shrink’, with ⌊srf⌋
facade) hab dwadǫ́ˀne:s ‘it moves away all
[adohda:, adohdah] ‘tidy something, the time’, ‘it shrinks’
clean something, neaten things up’, punc ęwádǫ̱ˀne:k ‘it (animal) will
with ⌊du,srf⌋ move away’
hab degaǫdóhda:s ‘they tidy up’, stat agadǫ̱ˀné:gǫh (Sasse & Keye
‘they are maids, housecleaners’ 1998)
punc dęsádo̱hda:ˀ ‘you will tidy it up imp sadǫ́ˀne:k ‘get away, move
or clean it’ away!’
stat deyodo̱hdáhǫh ‘it is tidy, neat’ [adǫnhed] ‘become alive again’, ‘be
imp desádo̱hda: ‘clean up!’ born’, with ⌊srf⌋
[adǫhsweˀdę] ‘short of breath’, with punc sagádǫnhe:t ‘I am alive again’
⌊srf⌋ stat sadǫ:nhé:dǫh ‘you were born’
hab hadǫ́hswe̱ˀtaˀ ‘he is short of [adǫnyahnǫ] ‘move’, with ⌊srf⌋
breath’ hab sadónyahnǫh ‘you move all the
punc ahadǫ̱hswéˀdęˀ ‘he will be time’
short of breath’ punc ęsadonyáhnǫ:ˀ ‘you will make
[adǫhwidaˀd] ‘swing’, with ⌊srf⌋ yourself move’
hab sadǫhwidáˀtaˀ ‘you swing’ (all [adǫnyeˀd] ‘cause to breathe’, with
the time), ‘you are a swinger’ ⌊srf⌋

730
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

hab wadǫ́nye̱ˀtaˀ ‘how it breathes’, hab gadowi ̱hshę́hęˀ ‘I rest all the
‘its a breather’, ‘the gill’ time’
[adǫtgadǫ] ‘have a good time, enjoy punc aˀǫdowíhshę:ˀ ‘she rested’
oneself, have fun’, with ⌊srf⌋ [adǫwihsręhd, adǫihsręhd]
hab gadǫtgá:dǫhaˀ (Sasse & Keye ‘breathe’, with ⌊srf⌋
1998) punc ęyǫdowíhsręht ‘she will
punc ęhswadǫtgá:dǫ:ˀ ‘you all will breathe’
have a good time’ stat godowi ̱hsrę́hdǫh ‘she is breath-
stat ǫgwadǫtgá:dǫˀ ‘we all are hav- ing’
ing fun’ [aˀdraˀ, +oˀdraˀ] ‘meet’, with ⌊du⌋
[adǫtsod] ‘pray on one’s knees’, hab degáǫdraˀs ‘they meet all the
with ⌊du,srf⌋ time’
hab de̱hęnadǫ́tsotaˀ ‘they pray on punc atgáǫdraˀ ‘they met’
their knees’ stat de̱honadráˀǫh ‘they are meeting
punc dęyǫdǫtsó:dęˀ ‘she will become right now’
Christian’, ‘she will kneel in prayer’ stat with ⌊inc n⌋ de̱honatahoˀdráˀǫh
‘converging roads’
[adǫtw] ‘burn something’
hab wadǫ́:twahs ‘what it burns’ (for [adranegaǫ, adranega:] ‘explode’,
fuel) with ⌊du,srf⌋
disl punc and ⌊inc n⌋ ęsyęˀgǫtwáh- hab dewadranégaǫs ‘it is exploding’
saˀ ‘you will go burn tobacco’ [adręnaę] ‘pray’ (said of Christians),
[adowad] ‘hunt’, with ⌊srf⌋ with ⌊srf⌋
hab hadó:wa:s ‘he is a hunter’ hab tęnadręnáęhaˀ ‘they are pray-
ing’
punc ęha:dó:wa:t ‘he will hunt’
stat honadręnáęˀ ‘they (Christians)
stat agadowá:dǫh (Sasse & Keye
are praying’
1998)
[adręnawęˀdoh] ‘put sugar in liq-
[adowi, adǫny] ‘drive’, with ⌊srf⌋
uid’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab gadó:wih, gadó:wihs, gadó:nyeˀs
hab degadręnáwęˀdohs (Sasse &
‘I drive all the time’
Keye 1998)
stat aga:dó:wi: ‘I did the driving’
punc dęgadręnáwęˀdoh (Sasse &
imp haˀsa:dó:wih ‘drive it over Keye 1998)
there!’, ‘herd the animals!’
stat dewagadręnawę́ˀdo̱hǫh (Sasse &
[adowi, adǫny] ‘breathe’, with ⌊srf⌋ Keye 1998)
hab ǫdǫ́:nyeˀs ‘she is breathing’ [adręnod] ‘sing, make music’, with
imp sadǫ́:wih ‘breathe!’ ⌊srf⌋
[adowihshę] ‘rest’, with ⌊srf⌋ hab gęnadręnó:taˀ ‘they are singers’

731
B Verb dictionary

punc a:gadrę:nó:ta:k ‘I would be a [adrihwagyaǫ] ‘have an accident’,

singer’ with ⌊srf⌋
stat godrę́:no:t ‘she is singing’ hab wadrihwagyáǫs ‘continuous ac-
[adręnǫni] ‘compose a song’, with cidents’
⌊srf⌋ punc aˀagodrihwagyáǫˀ ‘she had an
hab gaǫdręnǫ́:nih ‘they are com- accident’
posers’ [adrihwahdęgyaˀd] ‘do a ceremony’,
punc ahadręnǫ́:niˀ ‘he made a song’ with ⌊cis,srf⌋
stat gonadręnǫ́:ni: ‘they composed a punc edwadri ̱hwahdę́:gyaˀt ‘we all
song’ did the ceremony’
imp sadrę:nǫ́:nih ‘you make a song’ [adrihwahę] ‘commit a crime, do
[adrihoˀdad] ‘work’, with ⌊srf⌋ wrong’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
hab hęnadri ̱hóˀda:s ‘they work’, punc atadri ̱hwáhęˀ ‘he went afoul of
‘they are workers’ the law’, ‘he did something wrong’’
punc ęgaǫdríhoˀda:t ‘they are going [adrihwahsdihsd] ‘take care of an
to work’ event, look after an event’, with
imp sadríhoˀda:t ‘you work’ ⌊srf⌋
[adrihsdanega:, adrihsdanegaǫ] hab hadrihwa̱ hsdíhstaˀ ‘he takes
‘scream’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ care of the event all the time’, ‘he
hab dehsadri ̱hsdanegáǫhs ‘you are pays attention to what is going on’
bursting out screaming or crying punc ęhadri ̱hwáhsdihs ‘he will take
right now’ care of the event’
punc dęhsadri ̱hsda:né:ga:ˀ ‘you will stat hodrihwahsdíhsdǫh ‘a chair-
burst out screaming, crying’, ‘you man’, (literally, ‘he looks after the
will make a loud outburst’ message’), ‘he is taking care of this
imp desadri ̱hsda:né:ga:ˀ ‘scream!’ (lit- event’
erally, ‘split your voice’) [adrihwahsehd] ‘hide a secret’, with
[adrihwadogęhsd] ‘right a wrong’, ⌊srf⌋
with ⌊srf⌋ punc ahęnadríhwa̱ hseht ‘they hid
punc ęhsadri ̱hwa:dó:gęhs ‘you will their idea’, ‘they schemed’
right a wrong’ stat odrihwaséhdǫh ‘it is secret’
[adrihwaędǫhkw] ‘gossip’, with [adrihwahsrǫni] ‘reconcile’, with
⌊du,srf⌋ ⌊rep,srf⌋
hab deyǫdri ̱hwaędǫ́hkwaˀ ‘a female punc ęjijadrihwahsrǫ́:niˀ ‘you two
gossiper’ will reconcile’
punc dęsadri ̱hwáędǫhk ‘you will gos- [adrihwanyehd] ‘send a message’,
sip’ with ⌊transl,srf⌋

732
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc hęswadri ̱hwányeht ‘you all will hab gęnádro̱he:s ‘they are flocking’
send a message’ punc ędwádro̱he:k ‘we all will gather
[adrihwaǫni] ‘heal’, with ⌊srf⌋ together’
punc ęhswadri ̱hwáǫniˀ ‘you will [adrǫhyaˀd] ‘unwilling, stubborn,
heal’ balk at a suggestion’, with ⌊srf⌋
[adrihwatgaha:, adrihwatgahǫ:] punc ahadrǫ̱hyáˀdahk ‘he balked at
‘oversee, supervise’, with ⌊srf⌋ the suggestion’
hab hodrihwatgáha:ˀ ‘he is a super- stat godrǫ́hyaˀt ‘she is unwilling,
visor, overseer’ stubborn’
punc ęhsadri ̱hwátga̱ hǫ:ˀ ‘you will [adwahd, atwahd] ‘miss something’,
oversee, supervise’ with (inc n+)
[adrihwatgihd] ‘talk dirty’, with hab gadwáhtaˀ ‘I miss it always’
⌊srf⌋ punc and ⌊inc n⌋ sagęˀnhoˀtrá:twaht
stat hodrihwatgíhdǫh ‘he is talking ‘I missed the ball’
dirty’ stat agádwa̱ hdǫh ‘I have or did miss
it’
[adrihwatsˀ, rihwatsˀ] ‘earn some-
thing, fulfill something’, with [adwędehd] forfeit, with ⌊srf⌋
⌊du,(srf)⌋ hab sadwę́de̱htaˀ ‘you forfeit things
punc atadri ̱hwa:tsˀa:ˀ ‘he earned it’, all the time’
‘he fulfilled it’ stat keyadwędéhdǫh (Sasse & Keye
stat dehodí:hwa̱ htsˀa:ˀ ‘they are 1998)
earning, fulfilling it’ [adwęnaga:dad] ‘interpret’
[adriˀsda:, adriˀsdaę] ‘join in’ punc ęgadwęna:gá:da:t ‘I will inter-
hab gadríˀsdahaˀ (Sasse & Keye pret’
1998) [adwęnayęhd] ‘jeer, jest, lambaste
punc ęgadri ̱ˀsdáęˀ ‘I will join in’ someone, denigrate someone’, with
stat agádri ̱ˀsda:ˀ (Sasse & Keye ⌊srf⌋
1998) punc ęhsadwęná:yęht ‘you will jeer,
[adriyo] ‘go to war, fight’, with ⌊srf⌋ jest, throw words at someone’
hab gadrí:yohs (Sasse & Keye 1998) [adwęnǫda:] ‘speak’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc ęga:drí:yoˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc a:gadwę:nǫ́:dahk ‘I should use
stat wadrí:yo: ‘war, fight’ that language’
[adrǫgw, adrǫgo] ‘keep something’ [adwęnǫdi, adwęnǫgy] ‘throw
punc ęsa:drǫ́:goˀ ‘you will keep’ one’s voice’, with ⌊transl,srf⌋
[adroheg] ‘gather together, con- punc hęsadwęnǫ́:diˀ ‘you will throw
gregate, flock together’, with your voice’ (as a ventriloquist)
⌊(cis),srf⌋ [adwiyanǫ] ‘babysit’, with ⌊srf⌋

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B Verb dictionary

hab sadwíyanǫh ‘you babysit all stat agaˀgę̱hóhǫh (Sasse & Keye
the time’, ‘you are babysitting right 1998)
now’ [agyaˀdadih] ‘lean against some-
punc ęgadwiyá:nǫ:ˀ ‘I will babysit’ thing’, with ⌊srf⌋
[adwiyaǫgw, adwiyaǫgo] ‘adopt a punc ęsagya̱ ˀdá:dih ‘you will lean
baby’ against something’
hab sadwiyáǫgwahs ‘you adopt ba- [agyaˀdagwaihsy] ‘straighten up
bies’ one’s body’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc ęhsadwiyáǫgoˀ ‘you will adopt hab gagyaˀdagwáihsyǫhs, gagyaˀdag-
a baby’ wáihsǫhs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
stat agadwiyáǫgwęh ‘I have punc egagya̱ ˀdagwáihsyiˀ, ęgagya̱ ˀdag-
adopted a baby’ wáihsiˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[adwiyǫdi, adwiyǫgy] ‘abandon stat agagya̱ ˀdagwáihsyǫ:, agagya̱ ˀdag-
one’s child’, with ⌊srf⌋ wáihsǫ: (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc ęhsadwiyǫ́:diˀ ‘you will aban- [agyaˀdahniyaˀd] ‘strong in body’,
don your baby, child’ with ⌊srf⌋
stat wadwíyǫgyǫ: ‘abandoned child’ punc ędwagya̱ ˀdahní:yaˀt ‘we all
will be strong in body’
[aˀehsd] ‘poke something’, with
⌊du⌋ [agyaˀdawiˀd] ‘dress, put on
clothes’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab deswáˀehstaˀ ‘you all are pok-
hab sagyaˀdawíˀtaˀ ‘you are always
ing’
putting it on’
stat dewaga̱ ˀéhsdǫh (Sasse & Keye
punc ęsagya̱ ˀdá:wi:t ‘you will put on
1998)
clothes’
[aˀęnaę] ‘play snowsnake’, with stat sagyaˀdawíˀdǫh ‘you have on
⌊du⌋ clothing’
hab de̱hęna̱ ˀęnáęhęˀ ‘they are snows- [agyaˀdǫdi, agyaˀdǫgy] ‘pounce’,
nake players’ with ⌊transl,srf⌋
punc da:yagwaˀęnáęˀ ‘we all would punc hęsagya̱ ˀdǫ́:diˀ ‘you will
play snowsnake’ pounce on it!’
[aˀęnaˀehsd] ‘spear something’, [agyaˀdohae] ‘bathe’, with ⌊srf⌋
with ⌊du⌋ hab hagyaˀdo̱háe ‘he is bathing’
punc dęhsaˀęnáˀehs ‘you will spear punc ęwagyˀado̱háe ‘it is going to
something’ give me a bath’
[aˀgęhoh] ‘load a firearm’ imp sagyaˀdo̱háe ‘you take a bath’
hab gaˀgę́hohs (Sasse & Keye 1998) [agyę] ‘sit’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc ęgáˀgę̱hoh ‘I will load a firearm’ punc ęhswá:gyę:ˀ ‘you all will sit’

734
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

imp sagyę: ‘you sit down!’ hab sagyéhsa̱ htaˀ ‘you are wasteful’
[agyęhd] ‘begin, be the first’, with punc ęhsa:gyé:saht ‘you will waste’
⌊cis,srf⌋ [agyǫˀse:] ‘visit’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab tgagyę́:htaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc ęgagyǫ̱ˀséhaˀ ‘I am going to go
punc etgá:gyę:ht (Sasse & Keye 1998) and visit’
stat gyogyę́hdǫh ‘the first one, the stat hogyǫˀsé: tsǫ: ‘he is a live-in’ tsǫ:
beginning’ ‘just’
[agyęhętw, agyęhęto] ‘pull’, with [ahdędi, ahdęgy] ‘leave, go away’
⌊cis,srf⌋ hab gahdę́:gyeˀs, gahdę́:gyǫhs (Sasse
hab tgagyę́hętwahs ‘I am a puller’ & Keye 1998)
punc ętgagyę̱hę́:toˀ ‘I will pull’
punc ęgahdę́:diˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[agyęhętw, agyęhęto] ‘retract’, with stat agáhdęgyǫ: (Sasse & Keye 1998)
⌊transl,srf⌋
[ahdędi, ahdęgy] ‘originate from,
hab tgagyę́hętwahs ‘I am a puller’
come from’, with ⌊cis⌋
punc ętgagyę̱hę́:toˀ ‘I will pull’
stat dwagáhdęgyo: ‘I come from’
stat hehswagyęhę́:twęh ‘you re-
tracted’ [ahdędi, ahdęgy] ‘go home’, with
[agyęhsaǫ] ‘bandage oneself’, with ⌊rep⌋
⌊srf⌋ hab sga̱ hdę́:gyeˀs ‘I go home all the
imp sagyę́hsaǫ ‘bandage yourself!’ time’
punc ęhsgahdę́:diˀ ‘I will go home’
[agyęnaˀtaˀ, agyanaˀtaˀ] ‘act, mark
stat-prog sa̱ hohdęhgyǫ́hǫgyeˀ ‘he is
something’, with ⌊srf⌋
on his way home’
hab ǫgyána̱ ˀtaˀ ‘actress’
punc ęgyá:naˀt ‘I will mark some- imp sasahdę́:dih ‘go home!’
thing’ [ahdęˀgw, +ęgw] ‘swell up’, with
stat ogyána̱ ˀdǫh ‘it is marked’ ⌊srf,n/ahd⌋
[agyenawahd] ‘cling to something, with ⌊inc n⌋ hab wa̱ hdę́ˀgwahs ‘it
hang on, book a venue’, with ⌊srf⌋ swells up’
punc ęhsagyená:waht ‘you will re- with ⌊inc n⌋ punc ęwáhdę̱ˀgoˀ ‘it will
tain or book a venue’, ‘hold onto, swell up’
cling to something’ with ⌊inc n⌋ stat ohdę́ˀgwęh ‘it is
stat ogyenawáhdǫh ‘an area’ (liter- swollen’
ally, ‘something is clinging to some- with ⌊inc n⌋ punc ęhagya̱ ˀdę́ˀgoˀ ‘his
thing’) body will swell up’
imp sagyénawaht ‘cling to it! hang [ahdeni, ahdeny] ‘shape-shift, un-
on!’ dergo a magical transformation’,
[agyesahd] ‘waste’, with ⌊srf⌋ with ⌊du⌋

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B Verb dictionary

hab deyǫ́hdenyǫhs ‘she undergoes [ahja:, ahjaę] ‘push away’, with

a magical transformation’ (generally ⌊transl,du⌋
for an evil purpose) hab haˀdegahjá:haˀ (Sasse & Keye
stat deyohdenyǫ́hǫgyeˀ ‘it is chang- 1998)
ing as it goes’ (i.e. a shape-shifter) punc haˀdęgahjáęˀ ‘I will push away’
[ahdǫ] ‘disappear’ stat haˀdewagáhja:ˀ ‘I am pushing’
hab wa̱ hdǫhs ‘it disappears’ [ahjiˀdohag] ‘pinch something,
punc ęhsáhdǫˀ ‘you will disappear’ squeeze something’, with ⌊du⌋
[ahdǫ:] ‘lose something’ imp desahji ̱ˀdóha:k ‘you pinch,
punc esáhdǫ:ˀ ‘you lost it’ squeeze it!’
[ahdo:] ‘dive, submerge’ [ahjiyo] ‘scratch, dig in one’s nails’,
hab hahdo:s ‘he dives’, ‘he is a diver’ with ⌊du⌋
punc ęsáhdo:ˀ ‘you will submerge hab degahjí:yohs, degahjiyóhaˀ ‘I am
something’ scratching’
stat aháhdo: ‘he dived, he dove’ punc dęwaga̱ hjí:yo:ˀ ‘it will scratch
imp sa̱ hdo: ‘you dive’ me’ (i.e. a twig or thorn)
stat dewagahjí:yoˀ ‘I am digging in
[ahdǫˀd] ‘lose something’ my nails’, ‘I am scratching’
punc ęhsáhdǫˀt ‘you will lose it’ imp desahjí:yo: ‘you scratch!’
[ahdog] ‘grow, mature’ [ahjiyohsrǫ] ‘scratch forcefully’,
hab ǫhdó:gahs ‘she is prepubescent, with ⌊du⌋
she is maturing, she is reaching pu- imp desahjiyóhsrǫ: ‘you really
berty’ scratch!’
punc ęhsáhdo:k ‘you will grow’
[ahjohae] ‘wash one’s hands’
imp sa̱ hdo:k ‘grow!’ (unusual form)
hab ǫjóhaes, ǫjóhae ‘she is washing
[ahgaodǫnyǫ] ‘tap trees’ her hands’
punc ęyagwa̱ hgaodǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ ‘we all punc ęgahjo̱háeˀ ‘I am going to wash
will tap trees’ my hands’
[ahged] ‘stop in’ imp sajóhae ‘you wash your hands’
punc ęgáhge:t ‘I will stop in’ [ahǫg] ‘hear, understand a lan-
[ahged] ‘come back’, with ⌊du,cis⌋ guage’
punc dǫdasahge:t ‘you should come hab sa̱ hǫ́:kaˀ ‘you understand the
back’ language’
[ahged] ‘return, regress’, with ⌊rep⌋ punc ęgáǫhǫ:k ‘they will understand
hab swa̱ hgé:dahs ‘you return, a language’
regress’ stat agahǫ́:gęh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
imp sasáhge:t ‘return!’ [ahsaˀg] ‘cough’

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

hab ga̱ hsáˀkaˀ ‘I have a cough or I punc ęgáhseht ‘I will hide some-
am coughing’ thing’
punc ęsáhsaˀk ‘I will cough’ stat agáhse̱hdǫh ‘I am hiding some-
stat agáhsa̱ ˀgǫh ‘I am coughing’ thing’
[ahsaw, ahsawę, ahsa:] ‘begin, start’, [ahsganye] ‘shuffle’
with ⌊cis⌋ hab past ǫhsgánye̱hahk ‘she used to
hab dedwahsawé:haˀ ‘to restart’ shuffle’
punc ędyagwa̱ hsá:węˀ ‘we all will be- punc ęyǫ́hsganye:ˀ ‘she will shuffle’
gin or start’ stat gohsgá:nye:ˀ ‘she has shuffled’
stat tohsa:ˀ ‘he has begun’ imp desáhsganye: ‘you shuffle!’
imp dehsáhsawęh ‘you begin! you [ahsgyaǫ] ‘walk fast’
start!’ hab hahsgyáǫhaˀ ‘he walks quickly’,
[ahsaw, ahsawę, ahsa:] ‘restart, re- ‘he gives someone encouragement’
sume’, with ⌊du,cis⌋ punc ęhsáhsgyaǫˀ ‘you will walk
hab dedwahsawé:haˀ ‘to restart’ fast!’, ‘you will encourage’
punc dǫdahahsá:węˀ ‘he restarted’ stat-prog hohsgyáǫgyeˀ ‘he is going
stat degyóhsa:ˀ ‘it has resumed’ along walking quickly’
imp dǫdahsa̱ hsá:węh ‘you should [ahsha:nye] ‘rub, scrub’, with ⌊du⌋
start again!’ hab degahshá:nyehs (Sasse & Keye
[ahsdaha, ahsdaę] ‘cry’ 1998)
hab gahsdá:haˀ ‘I am crying’ punc dęgahshá:nye:ˀ ‘I will rub,
punc ęgáhsdaęˀ ‘I will cry, weep’ scrub’
stat agasdáęˀǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) stat dewagahshá:nyeˀ (Sasse & Keye
[ahsdahaˀge:] ‘sob’ 1998)
hab ǫhstáhaˀge: ‘someone is sob- [ahshed] ‘count’
bing’ hab hęnahshé:dahs ‘they count
[ahsdi:sd] ‘pay attention, bother things’
with’ punc ędwáhshe:t ‘we all will count’
hab dehsgahsdí:staˀ ‘I no longer pay stat tsaˀdeyohshé:dęh ‘it is the same
attention’ number of’
punc ęsá:sdi:s ‘you will pay atten- imp jidwáhshe:t ‘let us all count
tion’ again’
stat sa̱ hsdí:sdǫh ‘you are paying at- [ahshędaˀ] ‘step on something’
tention’ (right now) punc ęhsahshę́:daˀ ‘you will step on
imp sa̱ hsdi:s ‘pay attention!’ something’
[ahsehd] ‘hide something’ [ahshędaˀ] ‘stagger’, with
hab gahséhtaˀ ‘I do hide something’ ⌊transl,rep⌋

737
B Verb dictionary

stat hehshohshędáˀǫh tsǫ: ‘he is stag- together all the time’, ‘you do puz-
gering’ tsǫ: ‘just’ zles’
[ahshętw] ‘cry’, with ⌊du⌋ punc dęhsahsǫ́:dręˀ ‘you will join
hab degáhsęhtwahs ‘I am crying’ two things together’
stat deyoda̱ hsǫ́:dre:ˀ ‘it is joined’
punc agyǫ́hsę̱htoˀ ‘she cried’
imp desáhsǫdręh ‘you join it!’
stat o:nę́h ‘now’ ní: ‘I’ dewa-
gahshę́htwęh ‘I’ve already cried’ [ahsǫdrę, ahsǫdre:] ‘resume, add
on’, with ⌊transl,cis⌋
[ahsiˀdaga:] ‘stamp one’s feet’, with
punc hętsáhsǫdręˀ ‘you will resume,
⌊du⌋
add on’
stat deyohsi ̱ˀdá:ga: ‘to stamp one’s
feet’ (literally, ‘it stamped its feet’) [ahsoh] ‘paint’
hab gahsohs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[ahsigyaˀg] ‘stumble, trip, stub punc ęgáhsoh ‘I will paint’
one’s toe’, with ⌊cis⌋ stat agáhsohǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
hab desahsigyáˀksgǫ: ‘you are al-
[ahswahd] ‘extinguish, put out’
ways stumbling, tripping, stubbing
hab hęnáˀswahtaˀ ‘they are firemen’
your toe’, ‘you are a klutz’
imp sa̱ hswaht ‘put the light out’
punc ędihsa̱ hsíˀgyaˀk ‘you will stum-
ble, stub your toe’ [ahswęˀda:] ‘blacken’
hab gahswę́ˀda:s (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[ahsnęhd, a:snęhd] ‘get down, de- punc ęgáhswę̱ˀda: ‘I will blacken
scend, dismount’, with ⌊(srf)⌋ something’
hab ga(h)snę́htaˀ (Sasse & Keye stat agahswę̱ˀdáhǫh,
1998) agahswę̱ˀdá:hǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc ęsá:snęht ‘you will get down’
[ahtgaˀw] ‘release, let go, give up’
stat sahsnęhdǫ̱hǫ́:gyeˀ ‘you are get- hab sahtgaˀs ‘you forfeit, you let go
ting down from there right now’ of things all the time’
imp sahsnęht ‘get down from there!’ punc ahǫwęnáhtga:ˀ, ahǫwanahtga:ˀ
[ahsǫdǫni] ‘mark the night, desig- ‘they released him, them’
nate a time’ stat agáhtgaˀ ‘I gave it up’ (right
punc ęhsahsǫdǫ́:niˀ ‘you will mark now)
the night’ (i.e. set a time) [ahtgaˀw] ‘replace’, with ⌊du,cis⌋
stat wa̱ hsǫ:dǫ́:ni: ‘the night is stat dedwatga̱ ˀwęh ‘to replace’ (liter-
marked’ (i.e. a time has been des- ally, ‘it has been re-given’)
ignated) [ajęhǫhsgwaę] ‘whisper’
[ahsǫdrę, ahsǫdre:] ‘join together’, punc ęhsaję̱hǫ́hsgwaęˀ ‘you will
with ⌊du⌋ whisper’
hab desahsǫdré:haˀ ‘you join things imp sajęhǫhsgwáęˀ ‘whisper!’

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[akyadǫ] ‘have a reading, have one’s punc ętsáˀsęht ‘you will bring it
fortune told’, with ⌊srf⌋ down’
punc ęgákyadǫ:ˀ ‘I will have a read- [aˀshenawag] ‘winnow, shake out,
ing, I will have my fortune told’ shift’
[akyohsgwin, akyohsgwi:] ‘crawl’, hab gaˀshénawa:s (Sasse & Keye
with ⌊du,srf⌋ 1998)
punc agyǫ́kyo̱hsgwi:ˀ ‘she did crawl’ punc ęgaˀshená:wa:k ‘I will sift’
(i.e. learned how to crawl) stat agaˀshenáwagǫh (Sasse & Keye
imp desákyo̱hsgwi: ‘you crawl!’ 1998)
[anaˀsgwahgw] ‘jump’, with ⌊du⌋ [aˀsweg] ‘deaf’, with ⌊du⌋
hab deyǫna̱ ˀsgwáhkwaˀ ‘she is jump- hab degáˀswe:s ‘I am getting deaf’
ing’ punc dęgáˀswe:k ‘I will be deaf’
punc dęyǫ́na̱ ˀsgwahk ‘she will jump’ stat deyǫˀswé:gǫh ‘she is deaf’
stat desęna̱ ˀsgwáhgwęh ‘you have [atadad] ‘rise up’, with ⌊srf⌋
jumped’, ‘you are jumping?’ hab watá:da:s ‘it rises up’
[anaˀsgwahgw] ‘sky-dive’, with punc ęwa:tá:da:t ‘it will rise up’
⌊du,cis⌋ stat-prog otadadǫ́hǫgyeˀ ‘it is going
hab detęnahsgwahkwaˀ ‘they are along rising up’
sky-diving’, ‘paratroopers’ [atahahgw] ‘walk’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
[aǫ, ęǫ] ‘race’, with ⌊du⌋ hab de̱hęnatahahkwáˀ ga̱ hnyǫˀǫh-
hab degęnáǫhaˀ ‘they are racers’ sráˀgeh ‘they are ironworkers’, (lit-
punc atę́:nęǫˀ ‘they raced’ erally, de̱hęnatahahkwáˀ ‘they walk
on the iron’) ga̱ hnyǫˀǫhsráˀge ‘on the
stat dewa:gę́ǫˀ, dewa:gáǫˀ (Sasse &
iron’
Keye 1998)
punc dęgátahahk ‘I will walk’
[aǫˀdad] ‘blow’
[atahahgw] ‘stray, go off the road,
hab gáǫˀda:s ‘I blow’
turn into one’s driveway’, with
punc hęhsáǫˀda:t ‘you will blow’
⌊srf⌋
stat agaǫˀdá:dǫh ‘I am blowing
punc ęhsatahá:goˀ ‘you will stray, go
now’, ‘I have blown’
off the road, turn into your drive-
[aˀsęhd] ‘drop something’ way’
hab gaˀsę́htaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) [atahitˀa:] ‘take the heavenly road,
punc ęgáˀsęht ‘I will drop some- come to a concensus’, with ⌊srf⌋
thing’ punc ahęnatáhiˀta:ˀ ‘they came to
stat agáˀsę̱hdǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) a consensus’, ‘they followed their
[aˀsęhd] ‘hand something down, idea’, ‘now they are ready to go’ (re-
bring something down’, with ⌊cis⌋ ferring to the Confederacy Council)

739
B Verb dictionary

[atahsrǫd] ‘night-fish’, with ⌊srf⌋ [atgahatw, atgahato] ‘roll over, turn

punc ahęnatahsrǫ́:dęˀ ‘they carried a over’
torch, lantern, flashlight’ hab gegáhatwahs (Sasse & Keye
[atędihsˀ] ‘finish a field’, with ⌊srf⌋ 1998)
punc ęgega̱ há:toˀ ‘I’ll plough, turn
hab dwatę́di ̱hsˀahs ‘we are finishing
up’
the field’
punc edwatędíhsˀa:ˀ ‘we all finished [atgahatw, atgahato] ‘roll over, turn
the field’ (said after threshing the over’, with ⌊srf⌋
wheat, etc.) hab watgáhadǫhs ‘it rolls’
stat ǫgwatędíhsˀǫh ‘we finished the [atgahatw, atgahato] ‘roll over, turn
field’ over’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc awade̱ˀdrehdagáhatoˀ ‘a vehi-
[atędǫni] ‘tend (a garden), garden’,
cle turned over’
with ⌊srf⌋
imp satgáhatoh ‘you roll over!’
punc ęhsatędǫ́:niˀ ‘you will make
your garden’ [atgahawęnye:ˀ] ‘blurred vision’,
with ⌊du,srf⌋
[atga:dahgw] ‘hollow out, take out
punc atgatga̱ háwęnye:ˀ ‘I had
wood chips’
blurred vision’
punc ęhsatgá:da̱ hgoˀ ‘you will hol-
[atgahdǫnyǫ] ‘look around’, with
low out’ (a canoe, a wooden bowl,
⌊du,srf⌋
etc.), ‘you will take out the chips’
hab desatga̱ hdǫ́:nyǫhs ‘you are look-
[atgaęhęgw] ‘double back’, with ing around’
⌊rep,srf⌋
[atgahdrǫni] ‘stare at, examine
punc ǫsagatgaęhę́:goˀ ‘I should turn
closely’, with ⌊srf⌋
around and go back the way I came’
hab satgahdrǫ́:nihs ‘you are staring
[atgahadeni, atgahadeny] ‘turn one- at it’, ‘examining it closely’
self around’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ [atgahgweg] ‘close one’ eyes’, with
punc dęhsatga̱ ha:dé:niˀ ‘you will ⌊du,srf⌋
turn yourself around’ punc dęsátga̱ hgwe:k ‘you will close
stat dewagatgahadé:nyǫ: (Sasse & your eyes’
Keye 1998)
[atgahiˀd] ‘play with something’,
imp desatga̱ ha:dé:nih ‘you turn with ⌊srf⌋
around!’ hab ǫtgáhiˀtaˀ ‘what she plays with’,
[atgahadenyǫgwahǫ:] ‘twirl ‘a toy’
around’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ punc awátga̱ hiˀt ‘it played with it’
imp desatga̱ hadenyǫ́gwa̱ hǫ: ‘you stat gotgáhiˀdǫh ‘she is playing with
twirl!’ it now’

740
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[atgahiyohsd] ‘examine closely, hab deyǫ́tganyahs ‘she is desper-

peer at something’, with ⌊srf⌋ ate, desperately wanting something’,
punc ęsatga̱ hí:yohs ‘you will look ‘she will settle for just anyone’ (refer-
closely at something, peer at some- ring to looking for mate)
thing’ [atgęh] ‘get up, awaken’, with ⌊srf⌋
stat agatgahíyohsdǫh ‘I am staring hab gatgę́hęhs ‘I get up all the time’
at it, examining it closely’ punc agá:tgęh ‘I got up’
[atgahnye] ‘play’, with ⌊srf⌋ stat agátgę̱hǫh ‘I am up now’
punc ęgátga̱ hnye:ˀ ‘I will play’ imp satgęh ‘you get up’
stat hotgáhnyeˀ ‘he is playing’ [atgęhjihd, atgęhjihsd] ‘age, get
imp satgáhnyeˀ ‘play!’ old’, with ⌊srf⌋
[atgahǫ:, atgaha:, atgahaǫ] ‘watch, hab hatgę́hji ̱htaˀ ‘he is getting old’
pay attention’ stat otgęhjihsdǫ́hǫgyeˀ ‘it is getting
hab satgáhǫhaˀ ‘you are paying at- old or aging’
tention, watching right now’ [atgehǫ] ‘sell’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc agátga̱ hǫ:ˀ ‘I paid attention’ hab hatgéhǫhaˀ ‘he is an auctioneer’,
imp satgáhǫ: ‘pay attention!’ (literally, ‘he is a seller’)
[atgahǫdi, atgahǫgy] ‘roll one’s punc ęgátgehǫ:ˀ ‘I will have for sale’
eyes, snub someone’, with ⌊srf⌋ stat honátge̱hǫˀ ‘they are selling
punc ęhsatga̱ hǫ́:diˀ ‘you will roll something’
your eyes (in disgust)’, ‘you will [atgęihsd] ‘move over, be moveable’,
snub someone’ with ⌊srf⌋
[atgahǫnyǫ] ‘flirt, make eyes at hab watgę́ihstaˀ ‘it is portable’
someone’, with ⌊srf⌋ punc ęga:tgę́ihs ‘I will move over’
punc ęhsatga̱ hǫ́:nyǫˀ ‘you will flirt, (Sasse & Keye 1998)
bat your eyes’ stat agatgę́isdǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[atgahtw] ‘look at’, with ⌊srf⌋ [atgęni, atgęny] ‘compete’, with
hab satgáhtwahs ‘you look all the ⌊du,srf⌋
time’ hab dę̱hęnatgę́:nyǫhs ‘a fair’, ‘they
punc hętsátga̱ htoˀ ‘you will look compete’
back’ stat de̱honatgę́:nyǫ: ‘they compete’
stat sgá:t heyótga̱ htwęh ‘one mile’ [atgęnihsˀ] ‘we will counsel, have a
(literally, ‘how far it is seen’) meeting’, with ⌊srf⌋
imp satgáhtoh ‘you look!’ hab swatgę́nihsˀahs ‘you have meet-
[atganyahs, atganyǫhs] ‘want ings all the time’
something desperately’, with punc ęhswatgęníhsˀa:ˀ ‘you all will
⌊du,srf⌋ have a meeting’

741
B Verb dictionary

stat swatgę́nihsˀǫh ‘you are having [atgri] ‘pull back, flinch, shrink’,
a meeting right now’ with ⌊cis,srf⌋
[atgǫhsagri] ‘smirk, wrinkle up punc dawá:tgri:k ‘it pulled back,
one’s face’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ flinched, shrank’
imp desatgǫ̱hsá:gri: ‘you wrinkle up stat totgri: ‘he is a wimp’, ‘he pulls
your face, smirk!’ back’
[atgǫhsohae] ‘wash one’s face’, with [atgw] ‘dance’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
⌊srf⌋ hab de̱hę́natkwaˀ ‘they dance’
stat with ⌊inc n⌋ agatgǫ̱hsóhaeˀ ‘I punc dę̱hę́:na:t ‘they will dance’
did wash my face’ stat dewá:tgwęh ‘(the act of) danc-
imp with ⌊inc n⌋ satgǫhso̱háe ‘wash ing’
your face’ [atgweni, atgweny] ‘do to the best
[atgǫhstǫˀęhd, atgǫhstwęˀęhd] of one’s ability’, with ⌊part,srf⌋
‘shave’, with ⌊srf⌋ punc naˀga:tgwé:niˀ ‘the best I could
hab hatgǫhstǫˀę́htaˀ ‘he is shaving’ do’
punc ahatgǫ̱hstǫ́ˀęht ‘he shaved’ [atgweni, atgweny] ‘win a competi-
stat agatgǫhstǫ́ˀęhdǫˀ ‘I have tion, succeed’, with ⌊srf⌋
shaved’ punc ehswa:tgwé:niˀ ‘you all won a
imp satgǫ́hstǫˀęht, satgǫ́hstwęˀęht competition’
‘you shave’ [atgwenige:] ‘win big’, with ⌊srf⌋
[atgoˀjonyahnǫ] ‘apply makeup’, punc ahęnatgwénige: ‘the big win,
with ⌊srf⌋ victory’ (literally, ‘they won big’)
imp satgóˀjonyahnǫ: ‘beautify your- [atgwęnyadeni, atgwęnyadeny]
self, apply make-up!’ ‘change one’s clothes’, with ⌊srf⌋
[atgǫˀtraniyǫdę] ‘weigh oneself’, punc ęhsatgwęnya:dé:niˀ ‘you will
with ⌊srf⌋ change your clothes’
punc agaǫtgǫˀtrani:yǫ́:dęˀ ‘they [atgwiˀaˀe] ‘wink’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
weighed themselves’ imp desatgwiˀáˀek ‘you wink!’
[atgǫwaˀdǫni] ‘tan a hide’, with [atnadaę] ‘camp, inhabit’, with ⌊srf⌋
⌊srf⌋ punc ęsatnadáęˀ ‘you will inhabit’
punc ęsatgǫwaˀdǫ́:niˀ ‘you will tan a [atnadinyǫˀd] ‘move into a
hide’ dwelling’, with ⌊srf⌋
[atgręgręhd] ‘frown’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ stat watnadinyǫ́ˀdǫh ‘it has moved
punc agyǫ́tgręgręht ‘she frowned’ in’
stat deyagotgrę́grę̱hdǫh ‘she is [atnahsgǫni] ‘tame an animal’,
frowning’ ‘raise a pet’, with ⌊srf⌋
imp desátgręgręht ‘you frown!’ punc ahatna̱ hsgǫ́:niˀ ‘he raised a pet’

742
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

stat watnahsgǫ́:ni: ‘it has been made punc dę̱hswatnętsáˀdrǫ:ˀ ‘you all will
into a pet’ cross your arms’
[atnahsgǫni] ‘tease domestic ani- stat deswatnętsáˀdrǫˀ ‘you all have
mals’, with ⌊cis,srf⌋ your arms crossed’
hab tęnatna̱ hsgǫ́:nih ‘they are teas- [atnętsiyaˀg] ‘break one’s arm’, with
ing the animal(s)’ ⌊du,srf⌋
[atnahsgǫni] ‘get comfortable in punc dęgatnętsí:yaˀk ‘I will break my
one’s bed’, with ⌊srf⌋ arm’
punc ęsatna̱ hsgǫ́:niˀ ‘you will get [atnǫˀaędǫh] ‘nod one’s head, shake
comfortable in bed’ one’s head’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
[atnakdiyohsd] ‘make oneself com- imp desatnǫ̱ˀáędǫh ‘you nod, shake
fortable’, with ⌊srf⌋ your head’
punc agatnakdí:yohs ‘I made myself [atnǫˀa:nh] ‘tie up around one’s
comfortable’ head, have a burden strap’, with
[atnasǫ] ‘oil oneself’, with ⌊srf⌋ ⌊du,srf⌋
hab hatná:sǫˀ ‘he is oiling himself’ punc dęsatnoˀá:nhaˀ ‘you will have a
punc ahátnasǫ:ˀ ‘he did oil himself’ burden strap’
imp satná:sǫ: ‘oil yourself!’ [atˀnǫhda:] ‘embark, get into a vehi-
[atnaˀtsędǫ] ‘shake one’s behind’, cle’, with ⌊srf⌋
with ⌊du,srf⌋ hab gatˀnǫ́hda:s ‘I get into a vehicle’
punc dęhsatna̱ ˀtsę́:dǫˀ ‘you will punc ęgátˀnǫhda:ˀ ‘I will embark, get
shake your behind’ in a vehicle’
[atnegoni] ‘ferment something’, stat agatˀnǫhdáhǫh, agatˀnǫhdá:hǫh
with ⌊srf⌋ ‘I embarked, got into a vehicle’
punc ęhsatnegǫ́:niˀ ‘you will ferment [atˀnǫhdahgw] ‘disembark, get out
something’ of a vehicle’, with ⌊srf⌋
[atnęhsędǫh] ‘shrug’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ punc ęgatˀnǫhdáhgoˀ ‘I will disem-
punc atatnę̱hsę́:dǫh ‘he shrugged’ bark, get out of a vehicle’
[atnętsadahgw] ‘dislocate one’s [atnǫhgaǫ, atnǫhga:] ‘cut hair’, with
shoulder, arm’, with ⌊srf⌋ ⌊srf⌋
punc asatnętsáda̱ hgoˀ ‘your arm hab gatnǫ́hgaǫs ‘I always cut my
came out of its socket’ hair’, ‘I am cutting my hair’
punc aˀǫtnętsáda̱ hgoˀ ‘she dislo- punc ęgátnǫ̱hga:ˀ ‘I am going to cut
cated her arm’ my hair’
[atnętsaˀdrǫ] ‘cross one’s arms’, stat agatnǫ̱hgáǫˀ ‘I did get my hair
with ⌊du,srf⌋ cut’

743
B Verb dictionary

[atnǫhsahsnyeˀ] ‘clean up the punc ahęnatǫwanę́:da:k ‘they

house’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ docked a boat’
hab degatnǫ̱hsáhsnyeh ‘I am clean- [atǫwis] ‘sing seed songs, be a
ing up the house’ woman’
punc dęgatnǫ̱hsáhsnyeˀ ‘I will clean hab gatǫ:wí:sahs ‘I sing seed songs’,
up the house’ ‘I am a woman’
[atnǫhwetsod] ‘do hand-stands, punc ęgaǫtǫ́:wi:s ‘they will sing the
turn oneself upside-down’, with seed songs’ (which are also used as
⌊du,srf⌋ lullabies)
punc dęsatnǫ̱hwe:tsó:dǫˀ ‘you will do stat agatǫwí:sęh ‘I am singing seed
a hand stand, turn yourself upside songs’
down’ [atǫyo] ‘come by boat’, with
[atnoˀjaga:] ‘grind one’s teeth’, with ⌊cis,srf⌋
⌊du,srf⌋ punc ętgaǫtǫ́:yo:ˀ ‘they will come by
imp desatno̱ˀjá:ga: ‘you grind your boat’
teeth!’ [atrehnagehsy] ‘deliver a message’,
[atnoˀjodagw] ‘pull teeth’, with with ⌊srf⌋
⌊srf⌋ punc haˀgatrehnage̱hsíˀ ‘I spread out
punc agatno̱ˀjódagoˀ ‘I had my tooth the message’ (ceremonial language)
pulled’ [atrehnǫni] ‘pack’, with ⌊srf⌋
[atǫ:] ‘lie down’, with ⌊srf⌋ imp satrehnǫ́:nih ‘you pack!’
punc ęgá:tǫ:ˀ ‘I will lie down’ [atrǫni, atrǫny] ‘dress’, with ⌊srf⌋
imp sá:tǫ: ‘you lie down!’ imp satrǫ́:nih ‘get dressed’
[atǫdad] ‘listen to something, obey’ [atrǫniyahsi] ‘undress’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab ǫtǫ́:da:s ‘she is obedient’ punc ęsatrǫnyáhsiˀ ‘you will take
punc ęga:tǫ́:da:t ‘I will consent’ your clothes off’
[atǫdahsrǫni] ‘prune trees’, with stat agatrǫnyáhsi ̱hǫh ‘I finished un-
⌊srf⌋ dressing’, ‘I got fully undressed’
punc ahęnatǫda̱ hsrǫ́:niˀ ‘they [atrǫnyaˀd] ‘wear something’, with
pruned the trees’ ⌊srf⌋
[atohgwaǫni] ‘hill plants’ punc ęsa:trǫ́:nyaˀt ‘you will wear
punc ęhęnatohgwáǫnyǫˀ ‘they will something’
make planting hills’ [atrowi, atrǫny] ‘recount, retell’,
stat watohgwáǫnyǫˀ ‘planting hills’ with ⌊cis,srf⌋
[atǫwanędag] ‘dock a boat’, with punc ętsa:tró:wiˀ ‘you will recount,
⌊srf⌋ retell’

744
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[atsadǫ] ‘bury an object’, with ⌊srf⌋ hab deyótsga̱ ˀhǫˀ ‘it is chewing’, ‘it
punc ęgátsadǫ:ˀ ‘I will bury some- is a chewer’ (i.e. a cow)
thing over there’ punc dęgátsga̱ ˀhǫ:ˀ ‘I will chew’
stat agátsadǫˀ ‘I buried it’ stat dewagatsgáˀhǫ: ‘I am chewing
[atsadǫgw] ‘unearth, unbury an ob- right now’
ject’, with ⌊cis,srf⌋ imp desátsga̱ ˀhǫ: ‘you chew!’
punc ętsatsadǫ́:goˀ ‘you will unearth [atsgęnaˀgyaˀg] ‘get pale’, with
it’ ⌊du,srf⌋
[atsaˀged, atsaˀkd] ‘bend, be flexi- hab degatsgęnáˀgyaˀs (Sasse & Keye
ble’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ 1998)
[atsaˀged, atsaˀkd] ‘bend forwards’, punc dęgatsgęnáˀgyaˀk (Sasse &
with ⌊du,srf⌋ Keye 1998)
imp desátsaˀge:t ‘you bend for- stat dewagatsgęna̱ ˀgyáˀgǫh (Sasse &
wards!’ Keye 1998)
[atsaˀged, atsaˀkd] ‘bend back- [atshohih] ‘bite something’, with
wards’, with ohnaˀgę:ˀ ‘behind’ ⌊srf⌋
⌊transl,du,srf⌋ hab ǫtsóhihs ‘she bites it’
imp ohnaˀgę́:ˀ haˀdesatsáˀge:t ‘you punc ęyǫ́tsohih ‘she will bite it’
bend backward!’ stat gotsóhihǫh ‘I have bit it’
[atsaide] ‘beg, freeload’, with imp dasátsohih ‘you bite!’
⌊du,srf⌋ [atsinaˀdrǫ, atsinaˀdrę, atnętsaˀ-
hab desatsáideˀs ‘you are a drǫ, atnętsaˀdrę] ‘cross one’s legs,
freeloader’ arms’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
punc dęgatsáide:ˀ (Sasse & Keye punc deswatsináˀdrǫˀ ‘you all have
1998) your legs crossed’
stat dewagatsáide:ˀ ‘I did freeload’ stat deswatnętsáˀdrǫˀ ‘you all have
imp desatsáide: ‘you beg!’ your arms crossed’
[atsęhd] ‘tired, sleepy’ imp desatnętsáˀdręˀ ‘you put your
hab with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ ˀnigǫ̱hátsę̱htaˀ ‘a arms together’
tired mind’ [atwadase] ‘go around’
punc agáǫtsęht ‘they were tired or hab gatwa:dá:sehs (Sasse & Keye
sleepy’ 1998)
stat agátsę̱ hdǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc ęgatwadá:seˀ (Sasse & Keye
[atsęnǫniˀ] ‘become happy, glad’, 1998)
with ⌊srf⌋ stat agatwadá:se: (Sasse & Keye
punc agatsęnǫ́:niˀ ‘I got happy’ 1998)
[atsgaˀhǫ] ‘chew’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ imp satwádaseh (Sasse & Keye 1998)

745
B Verb dictionary

[atweˀnǫnihsd] ‘make something hab sá:wa:s ‘you are a winnower,

round’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ shaker, sifter’
imp desatwe̱ˀnǫ́:nihs ‘you make it punc ęhsaˀgę̱hę́:wa:k ‘you will win-
round’ now the chaff’ (corn or beans)
[atwidra:, adwidra:] ‘put butter on’ stat sawá:gǫh ‘I am sifting right
hab degátwidra:s, gadwí:dra:s (Sasse now’
& Keye 1998) [awaksǫ] ‘winnow, shake out, sift’
punc dęga:twí:dra:, ęga:dwí:dra: stat sawá:ksǫh ‘you are winnowing,
(Sasse & Keye 1998) shaking, sifting right now’
stat dewagatwidrá:hǫh, agad- [awęhęd] ‘lift, carry up to’
widrá:hǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) hab with ⌊inc n⌋ ganaˀjawę́hę:s
[atwihsdaę] ‘reserve money, econo- ‘grain auger’
mize, set money aside’, with ⌊srf⌋ punc ęgáwę̱hę:t ‘I will lift, carry up
stat satwíhsdaęˀ ‘you will reserve to’
money’ stat agawę̱hę́:dǫh (Sasse & Keye
[atwihsdanihahsd] ‘lend money’, 1998)
with ⌊srf⌋ [awęnye] ‘stir, mix’, with ⌊du⌋
hab satwihsdaníhahs ‘you lend hab degáwęnyeh ‘I stir all the time’
money’ punc dęgáwęnye:ˀ ‘I will stir’
[atwihsdaniˀǫhsd] ‘economize’, stat dewagawę́:nyeˀ ‘I am stirring’
with ⌊srf⌋ imp dehsáwęnye:ˀ ‘beat, mix, stir!’
hab satwihsdaníˀǫhs ‘you econo- [aˀwętw, aˀwędaˀ] ‘kill several’
mize’ hab gadáˀwętwahs (Sasse & Keye
punc ęhsatwi ̱hsdáni ̱ˀǫhs ‘you will 1998)
economize’ punc ęgada̱ ˀwę́:toˀ ‘I will kill several’
[atwihsdęˀda:] ‘waste money’, with stat honaˀwędáˀǫh ‘they are dead,
⌊srf⌋ killed off’ (Dead People)
hab satwíhsdę̱ˀda:s ‘you burn your [awiˀd] ‘insert’
money’ hab hesáwi ̱ˀtaˀ ‘you insert some-
punc agatwi ̱hsdę́ˀda:ˀ ‘I wasted my thing all the time’
money’ punc ęgá:wiˀt ‘I will insert’
[awag] ‘winnow, shake out, sift’ stat agáwi ̱ˀdǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)

746
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

D-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[daˀ] ‘stand up’, with ⌊du⌋ [dahsd, dęhsd] ‘stop something, pre-
hab dekdaˀs ‘I stop here (when- vent something, stand up some-
ever...)’ thing’, with ⌊du⌋
punc dękdaˀ ‘I will stand up, stop’ punc dęhsdahs ‘you will prevent,
imp dehsdaˀ ‘stand up, stop!’ stop it’, ‘stand it up’
[+dad] ‘create’ imp dehsdahs ‘stop it!’
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ tsaˀhǫhwęjá:da:t [ˀdaihęhdrahiˀ] ‘sweat profusely,
‘when he made the earth’ perspire’, with ⌊du⌋
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ hǫhwęjadá:dǫh punc ętseˀdaihęhdráhiˀ ‘you will
‘he has created the earth’ sweat profusely, perspire’
[dagwaihsahd] ‘go straight’, with [ˀdaǫni] ‘get muddy’
⌊transl,n/d⌋ punc agaˀdáǫniˀ ‘it got muddy’
punc hęhsadagwáihsaht ‘you will go
[dę] ‘fly, take off’, with ⌊du⌋
straight’
hab degá:dęhs ‘it flies, goes up in the
[dagwaihsy] ‘straighten something’, air’
with ⌊n/da⌋ punc atá:dęˀ ‘he took off (from the
hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ hadinehsda:gwáihsǫhs ground)’
‘they are straightening out the stat dewá:kdę: (Sasse & Keye 1998)
board’
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊da⌋: ęhsdagwáih- [dęhda:, dęhdaę] ‘lie spread out on
siˀ ‘you will straighten’ the ground’
hab kdęhdá:haˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[dahgw] ‘take out’
punc ękdę́hdaęˀ ‘I will lay down,
hab wa̱ he:tgę́ˀ gadáhgwahs
spread out’ (e.g. something on floor)
‘spring tonic for males’ (literally,
stat akdę́hda:ˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
‘the.ugly.stuff it.takes.out’)
punc ękdáhgoˀ ‘I will take out’ [deni, deny] ‘empty something’
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ gahsgwá:da̱ hgwęh punc aha:dé:niˀ ‘he emptied some-
‘a neutered animal’, ‘a gelding’ (liter- thing’
ally, ‘its stones have been removed’) stat gadé:nyǫ: ‘it is empty’
imp, with ⌊inc n⌋ sa̱ ˀgęhędáhgoh ‘re- [deni, deny] ‘change something’,
move the ashes out of it’ with ⌊du⌋
[dahsd, dęhsd] ‘string something hab dekdé:nyeˀs, dekdé:nyǫhs (Sasse
up’ & Keye 1998)
hab ikda:s ‘I am stringing it or drap- punc dękdé:niˀ ‘I will change some-
ing it’ thing’

747
B Verb dictionary

stat dewákdenyǫ: (Sasse & Keye imp, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊d⌋: dehstóha:k
1998) ‘squeeze!’
[diyǫd] ‘stretch’, with ⌊du⌋ [doheg] ‘pack down’
hab dewadiyǫ́:taˀ ‘it stretches’ (a
hab kdohe:s (Sasse & Keye 1998)
word for ‘rubber band’), ‘balloon’,
‘elastic’ punc ękdóhe:k (Sasse & Keye 1998)
stat deyagodí:yǫ:t ‘she is stretching stat akdohé:gǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
it’ [ˀdraihaˀd] ‘rush something’, with
[dogęhsd] ‘arrange things’ ⌊du⌋
punc ęhsdó:gęhs ‘you will arrange stat deyoˀdráihaˀt ‘hurried or im-
things’ (flowers, etc.) mediate attention, urgent matter, ur-
[dogęhsd] ‘adjust something’, with gency’, ‘a rush’
⌊cis⌋ imp dehseˀdráihaˀt ‘you rush some-
punc ętsa:dó:gęhs ‘you will adjust’ thing, hurry something up’
[doha:g, +oha:g] ‘squeeze, press,
[ˀdre, ˀdrǫ] ‘drag it’
hold something down’, with
⌊du,n/d⌋ hab ge̱ˀdreˀs, ge̱ˀdreˀ ‘I drag it, I am
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊d⌋: dęhstóha:k dragging it’
‘you will squeeze it’ punc ęgéˀdre:ˀ ‘I will drag it’
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊d⌋: dewak- stat agéˀdrǫ: ‘I dragged it’, ‘I am
do̱há:gǫh ‘I am squeezing it’ dragging it’

E and Ę-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[+ˀe] ‘hit, pound, tap something’, stat tsiwáge̱hdǫh ‘I did it on pur-

with ⌊n⌋/hwa pose’
hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ ganája̱ ˀehs ‘grain [ehd] ‘do unintentionally’, with (tęˀ)
threshing machine’ ‘not’ ⌊contr,du⌋
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊hwa⌋ ęhswáˀe:k stat tęˀ taˀdehawéhdǫ: ‘he did not
‘you will pound, tap’ mean it’
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊hwa⌋ hohwáˀe: [ęhdad, węhdad] ‘run’, with ⌊du⌋
‘he is tapping’ hab degaǫwę́hda:s ‘they run’
[ehd] ‘do on purpose, go on pur- punc da:gáǫwę̱hda:t ‘they might
pose’, with ⌊coin⌋ run’
hab tsigéhtaˀ ‘I do it on purpose all stat dewagę̱hdá:dǫh ‘I have run’
the time’ [ehdahgw] ‘escort someone, go to-
punc tsaˀgeht ‘I did it on purpose’ gether’

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc ęhsnéhdahk ‘you will escort [ęhsoweksy] ‘take off one’s shoes’,
someone, you will go together’ with ⌊du⌋
[ehdahgw] ‘believe’, with ⌊cis⌋ imp desęhsowé:ksih ‘take your shoes
hab tgehdáhkwaˀ ‘I believe’ off’
punc ętgéhdahk ‘I will believe’ [ęnadaę] ‘camp’, with ⌊srf⌋
stat tawéda̱ hgǫh ‘he believes’ punc ęhsęnadáęˀ ‘you will camp’
[ehdahgw] ‘come or go by vehicle’, [ęnadinyǫˀd] ‘move into a dwelling’,
with ⌊transl/cis⌋ with ⌊srf⌋
hab hegéhda̱ hkwaˀ ‘I come or go by hab gęnadinyǫ́ˀtaˀ ‘I am moving into
vehicle’ a dwelling’
[ęhdatǫ, węhdatǫ] ‘run all over’, stat gonęnadínyǫ̱ˀdǫh ‘they have
with ⌊du⌋ moved in’
punc dęgęnę̱hdá:tǫ:ˀ ‘they will run [ęnagrad] ‘be born, settle someplace
all over’ new’, with ⌊srf⌋
[ęhsga:ˀ] ‘take off fast (making a rat- hab ǫná:gra:s ‘the birthing’
tling noise)’, with ⌊cis,n⌋ punc ęgę́nagra:t ‘I will be born, go
punc awę́hsga:ˀ ‘it took off fast’ (i.e. and settle someplace new’
a car, a dog) stat agęnagrá:dǫh ‘I was born’
[ęhsga:ˀ] ‘spin out (making a noise)’, [ęnętsaǫnyǫ:] ‘wave one’s arms’,
with ⌊rep⌋ with ⌊du,srf⌋
punc sawę́hsga:ˀ ‘it spun out’ punc atgęnętsáǫnyǫ:ˀ ‘I waved my
[ęhsiˀdagędrahgw] ‘earth’, with arms’
⌊du⌋ imp desęnętsáǫnyǫ: ‘wave your arms
stat deyǫgwę̱hsiˀdagę́dra̱ hgwęh (goodbye)!’
‘earth’ (‘where we put our feet’) [ęneˀwaǫ, aneˀwaǫ] ‘surprised, star-
[ęhsiˀdohae] ‘wash one’s feet’, with tled’, with ⌊srf⌋
⌊srf⌋ hab gęnéˀwaǫs ‘I get surprised’
punc ahęhsi ̱ˀdóhaeˀ ‘he did wash his punc agéne̱ˀwa:ˀ ‘I was surprised’
feet’ stat onéˀwaǫ ‘something unex-
imp sę̱hsiˀdo̱háe ‘wash your feet’ pected, surprising’
[ęhsotsy] ‘take off one’s shoes’, with [ęˀnho:] ‘play ball’
⌊du⌋ hab degę́ˀnho:s (Sasse & Keye 1998)
imp desęhsó:tsih ‘take your shoes off’ punc dęgę́ˀnho:k ‘I will play ball’
[ęhsoweg] ‘put on one’s shoes’, with stat dewágę̱ˀnho: (Sasse & Keye
⌊du⌋ 1998)
punc desęhsó:we:k ‘put your shoes [ęniˀdagew, ęniˀdage:] ‘wipe one’s
on’ behind’, with ⌊srf⌋

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B Verb dictionary

punc ęgęnidá:ge:ˀ ‘I will wipe myself [ęˀnigǫhoˀneg] ‘revolt’, with

clean of fecal matter’ ⌊cis,srf⌋
[ęnidagr, anidagr] ‘lie down’, with punc ętsęˀnigǫ́ho̱ˀne:k ‘you will re-
⌊srf⌋ volt, remove yourself (bodily and in
punc ęsęnidá:gręˀ ‘you will lie down’ spirit)’
imp sęnídagręh ‘you lie down!’ [ęnigyohgwagęny] ‘vote, cast lots’,
[ęniˀdeni, ęniˀdeny] ‘fart’, with with ⌊du,srf⌋
⌊srf⌋ punc dęhsęnigyohgwagę́:niˀ ‘you
hab ǫníˀdenyǫhs ‘she farts’ will vote, cast lots’
punc ęyǫni ̱ˀdé:niˀ ‘she will fart’ [ęniha] ‘borrow, rent’, with ⌊srf⌋
stat agęni ̱ˀdé:nyǫ: ‘I have farted’ hab sęnihahsgǫ: ‘you are a habitual
borrower’
[ęˀnigǫha:, ęˀnigǫhaę] ‘impatient’,
with ⌊du,srf⌋ punc ęhsę́ni ̱haˀ ‘you will borrow,
rent’
hab degęˀnigǫ́hahaˀ (Sasse & Keye
1998) [ęnihę:, anihę:] ‘quit, stop, prevent’,
punc dęgęˀnigǫ́haęˀ ‘I will get impa- with ⌊srf⌋
tient to go’ hab gęníhęhaˀ, ganíhęhaˀ ‘I always
stat dewagę̱ˀnígǫ̱ha:ˀ (Sasse & Keye quit’
1998) punc a:hęníhę:ˀ ‘he would stop (him-
self)’
[ęˀnigǫhod] ‘plan something, sug-
stat agę́ni ̱hęˀ ‘I stopped or quit’
gest something, present an idea’,
with ⌊cis,srf⌋ imp sęníhę: ‘you quit!’
punc ętsęˀnigǫ:hó:dęˀ ‘you will sug- [ęnihnadog] ‘perceive, feel’, with
gest, present an idea’ ⌊srf⌋
[ęˀnigǫhogw] ‘broken-hearted’, hab sęnihnadó:kaˀ ‘you are perceiv-
with ⌊du,srf⌋ ing something right now’
hab degęˀnigǫ́hogwahs ‘I am broken- punc ęhsęni ̱hná:do:k ‘you will per-
hearted’, (literally, ‘my mind is scat- ceive something’
tered’) stat agęni ̱hna:dó:gęh, agani ̱hna:dó:gęh
punc agyǫˀnigǫ:hó:goˀ ‘her mind is (Sasse & Keye 1998)
scattered’ [ęnihsgyage, anihsgyage] ‘urinate,
[ęˀnigǫhoˀkd] ‘give up’, with ⌊srf⌋ pee’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab gaǫˀnigǫ́hǫˀktaˀ ‘they are giving hab gaǫnihsgyá:gehs ‘they urinate’
up (in spirit)’ punc agaǫníhsgyageˀ ‘they urinated’
punc ahęˀnigǫ́hoˀkdęˀ ‘he gave up stat agęnihsgyá:ge: ‘I am urinating’
(his will to live)’ [ęniˀjǫhsgwaę:] ‘squat’, with ⌊srf⌋

750
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

hab sęnijǫ̱hsgwáęhęˀ ‘you squat all hab-prog tigęnenǫ́:gyeˀs ‘they are

the time’ roaming about’
punc ęsęnijǫ́hsgwaęˀ ‘you will squat’ [ęnohgra:ˀ] ‘cause an allergic reac-
imp sęniˀjǫ̱hsgwáę ‘squat!’ tion, give someone a rash’, with
[ęnitsgodǫnyǫ] ‘sit ups’, with ⌊srf⌋ ⌊srf⌋
hab gaǫnitsgó:taˀ ‘they do sit ups’ hab gowę́no̱hgra:ˀs ‘poison ivy’, ‘any
punc ęgaǫnitsgodǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ ‘they will plant that causes a skin infection’
do sit ups’ punc ęhsawęnóhgra:ˀ ‘it will give
[ęnitsgrǫdi, ęnitsgrǫgy] ‘spit’, with you an allergic reaction’
⌊srf⌋ stat agęno̱hgrá:ˀǫh (Sasse & Keye
imp sęni:tsgrǫ́:dih ‘you spit!’ 1998)
[ęniyaˀgyaˀg, ęniyaˀgyaˀg] ‘burp, [ęnǫhwed, anǫhwed] ‘stay
belch’, with ⌊srf⌋ overnight’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab degęniyáˀgyaˀs, deganiyáˀgyaˀs hab gęnǫ́wetaˀ, ganǫ́wetaˀ (Sasse &
‘I burp, belch’ Keye 1998)
punc atgęninyáˀgyaˀk ‘I burped, punc ęgę́nǫ̱hwe:t ęgánǫ̱hwe:t ‘I will
belched’ stay overnight’
stat dewagęniya̱ ˀgyáˀgǫh ‘I am burp- stat agęnǫhwé:dǫh, aganǫhwé:dǫh
ing, belching’ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[enǫ] ‘originate from someplace, [ęnǫhwehstaˀ] ‘bedroom’ (literally,
come from someplace’, with ‘place to stay overnight’), with
⌊part,cis⌋ ⌊srf⌋
hab nita:wé:nǫh ‘a male stranger’, hab onǫ́hwehstaˀ ‘bedroom’
‘he is that age’ (literally, ‘where he [ęnoˀsgwi, onoˀsgwi] ‘sweep’, with
comes from’) ⌊du,srf⌋
stat nigya:wé:nǫ: ‘where it came hab degóno̱ˀsgwihs ‘I am sweeping’
from’ punc dęgę́no̱ˀsgwiˀ ‘I will sweep’
[enǫ] ‘go to some unspecified place’, stat dewagęnóˀsgwi: ‘I have swept’
with ⌊contr⌋ imp desę́no̱ˀsgwih ‘sweep!’
stat tiyo:né:nǫ: ‘where they have [ęˀnowaę] ‘squat’, with ⌊srf⌋
gone’ punc ęsęˀnǫwáęˀ ‘you will squat,
[enǫ-gy-e] ‘move forward’, with hunch down’ (as for Gayędowa:nęh
ohę́:dǫ: ‘ahead’ ⌊transl⌋ Peach Pit Game)
stat-prog ohę:dǫ́: heˀsénǫgyeˀ ‘you [ęnǫwaęd] ‘sink something’, with
are moving forward’ ⌊srf⌋
[enǫ-gy-e] ‘roam about randomly’, punc agęnǫwáędahk ‘I made it sink’
with ⌊contr⌋ [ęnowęhd] ‘tell a lie’, with ⌊srf⌋

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B Verb dictionary

punc agę:nó:węht ‘I lied’ clap!’

[ęˀnya:] ‘govern, watch, look after’, [ę:sętw] ‘kick something’
with ⌊du⌋ hab gę́:sętwahs ‘I am kicking’
hab dehsę́ˀnya:ˀ ‘you are looking af- punc ęgę:hsę́:toˀ ‘I will kick it’
ter it right now’ stat agę:sę́:twęh ‘I did kick it’
punc atsę́ˀnya:ˀ ‘you looked after it’ imp sę:sę́:toh ‘kick it!’
[ęnyahaˀd] ‘boil something’, with [ęˀtsigahgyaˀg] ‘cartwheel’, with
⌊srf⌋ ⌊du,srf⌋
imp sęnyáhaˀt ‘boil it!’ hab desęˀtsihgáhgyaˀks ‘you do
[ęˀnyaˀwe, ęˀnyaˀo] ‘clap’, with cartwheels’
⌊du,srf⌋ punc dęsęˀtsigáhgyaˀk ‘you will do a
imp desę́ˀnya̱ ˀwe:k, desę́ˀnya̱ ˀo:k ‘you cartwheel’

G-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[g] ‘eat’ imp desega̱ ha:dé:nih ‘turn it on!’ (in-

hab í:ge:s ‘I eat’ volves movement)
punc ę́:ge:k ‘I will eat’ [gahdrǫni] ‘stare’
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ agáhyagǫh ‘I am hab sagahdrǫ́:nihs ‘you are staring at
eating fruit’ it’
[+gadad] ‘raise up something’ imp sagahdrǫ́:ni: ‘you are nosy, al-
hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ wadahsgwagá:da:s ways looking)’, ‘gape’, ‘stare!’
‘lift bridge’
[gahęd] ‘drill, hole’
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ędwaęnágada:t
hab gagáhętaˀ ‘a drill bit’
‘we all will raise the song’
punc ahadigahę́:dęˀ ‘they made a
[ga:dǫ] ‘tell a story’
hole’
hab gegá:dǫhs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
stat ogáhę:t ‘it has a hole in it, an
punc ęge:gá:dǫ:ˀ ‘I will tell a story’
opening’, ‘a hole’
stat age:gá:dǫˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
imp segahę́:dęˀ ‘drill!’
imp segá:dǫ: ‘tell a story!’
[ga:gwahd] ‘collect money’ [gahędęhd] ‘hull berries’
hab ega:gwáhtaˀ ‘(someone collects punc ęhsega̱ hę́:dęht ‘you will hull
money)’ berries’
[ga:gweni, ga:gweny] ‘afford’ [gahehgyaˀg] ‘hull berries’
punc ęgega:gwé:niˀ ‘I will afford it’ punc ęsega̱ héhgyaˀk ‘you will hull
[gahadeni, gahadeny] ‘turn some- berries’
thing on’, with ⌊du⌋ [ganęd] ‘lick’

752
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

hab segá:nę:s ‘you are a licker’, ‘you hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ sahnatsagé:dahs
are a brown-noser’ ‘you are scratching your behind’
punc ęhséganę:t ‘you will lick it’ punc ęhsá:tge:t ‘you will scratch
stat-prog saganędǫ́hǫgyeˀ ‘you are (yourself)’
going along licking it’ stat satgé:dǫh ‘you are scratching
imp segá:nę:t ‘you lick!’ yourself’
[ganyaˀg] ‘pay’ [gędr, gęse:] ‘skim off, scrape off’,
hab egá:nyaˀs ‘she pays all the time’ with ⌊du⌋
punc aˀéganyaˀk ‘she paid’ hab degégędrǫhs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
stat gagánya̱ ˀgǫh ‘payment’ punc dęge:gę́:se:ˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[ganyaˀkd] ‘pay with’ stat dewagegę́:drǫ: (Sasse & Keye
hab egánya̱ ˀktaˀ ‘what one pays 1998)
with’, ‘barter’ [gędrǫ] ‘skim, separate’, with ⌊du,n⌋
stat-prog goganya̱ ˀkdǫ́hǫgyeˀ ‘she hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ dewahahágędrǫhs
is paying as the goes along’ ‘road scraper, grader’
[gaˀtsy] ‘take off, remove’ punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ dęsewidrágędrǫ:ˀ
hab gegáˀtsǫhs (Sasse & Keye 1998) ‘you will take the cream off, skim the
punc ęgégaˀtsiˀ ‘I will take off’ milk’
stat agégaˀtsǫ: (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[gęihsd] ‘move, postpone’
[gawe] ‘row, paddle’ hab segę́ihstaˀ ‘you postpone it all
hab segáwe̱haˀk ‘you used to paddle’ the time’, ‘you move it all the time’
punc ęhségawe:ˀ ‘you will row’ punc ędwa:gę́is ‘we all will post-
stat agégaweˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) pone’
[gę] ‘look ahead, forsee’, with stat sagę́ihsdǫh ‘you have post-
ohę:dǫh ‘ahead’ and ⌊transl⌋ poned it’
hab ohę:dǫ́: heha:dí:gęh ‘they look [getsgw] ‘raise to a vertical position,
ahead, tell the future’ give a party’
[ged] ‘grate, scrape, file’ hab segé:tsgwahs ‘you are lifting it to
hab segé:dahs ‘you are scraping a vertical position’, ‘you give parties’
something right now’ punc ęhségetsgoˀ ‘you will lift things
punc ęhsé:ge:t ‘you will grate, scrape, to a vertical position’
file’ stat gyagógetsgwęh ‘she is having a
stat sagé:dǫh ‘you are scraping gathering over there’, ‘she is lifting
something right now’ something into a vertical position’
imp sé:ge:t ‘grate, scrape, file it!’ imp segé:tsgoh ‘you raise something
[ged] ‘scratch oneself’, with ⌊srf⌋ to a vertical position’

753
B Verb dictionary

[gowanahd, gowanęhd] ‘enlarge punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ aˀǫdęnaˀtrag-

something, make something big’ wáhaˀ ‘she went after groceries’
hab gagowanáhtaˀ ‘it makes things [gwatw] ‘hem’, with ⌊du⌋
big’ hab degégwatwahs (Sasse & Keye
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ęsehs- 1998)
go̱haowá:neht ‘branch it out’ (i.e. add punc dęhségwatoˀ ‘you will hem’
particles, etc. to “dress up” speech) stat degágwatwęh ‘hem’
[gri] ‘wrinkle’ [+gweg] ‘close something’
hab gegrihs (Sasse & Keye 1998) hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ ǫgyáˀdagwe:s ‘she
punc ahsé:gri:k ‘you wrinkled, fan- gets bound up, constipated’
folded it, you made it smaller, shrank punc, with srf+inc n dęsátga̱ hgwe:k
it’ ‘you will close your eyes’
imp dahsé:gri:k ‘wrinkle, fan-fold!’ stat, with srf+inc n gogyaˀdagwé:gǫh
‘she is constipated’
[gw] ‘gather, pick, get’
[gweni, gweny] ‘able to do some-
hab hegé:gwahs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
thing, succeed, win’
punc haˀhá:goˀ ‘he went and got it’
hab gegwé:nyeˀs, gegwé:nyǫhs (Sasse
stat agé:gwęh ‘how much I have ob- & Keye 1998)
tained or acquired’ punc ęha:gwé:niˀ ‘he can do it’
[gwah] ‘go after’ stat agégwenyǫ: (Sasse & Keye 1998)

H-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[haˀd] ‘dry out, dry something’ she/someone) will wet their cores,
hab ga̱ háˀtaˀ ‘it dries’ throat’
punc ęhsé:haˀt ‘you will dry some- [he:ˀ] ‘have a birthday’, with
thing’ ⌊transl,rep⌋
stat oháˀdǫh ‘it is dry’ (i.e. fields, punc hęjéhe:ˀ ‘it will be her birthday’
weather), ‘drought’ [hahaha:] ‘go onto a road’
[ha:dad] ‘raise something up, rise punc a:haháha:ˀ ‘he should or might
up’ come onto the road’
hab ká:da:s (Sasse & Keye 1998) [hahshę] ‘counsel’
punc ęká:da:t ‘I will raise something’ hab haháhshęhęˀ ‘he is a counsellor’
stat aka:dá:dǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc ęhahahsę́hę:k ‘he will be a
[haˀdanawęhd] ‘quench one’s counsellor’
thirst’ [haǫ] ‘bead something’, with ⌊du⌋
punc ęyehaˀdánawę:ˀ ‘they (literally, hab deyeháǫhaˀ ‘she is beading’

754
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[hateˀd] ‘brighten up’, with ⌊du⌋ punc atadihę́dohsga:ˀ ‘they were pi-
hab dekáteˀtaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) oneers’
punc dęká:teˀt ‘I will light’ [hehdawęnye] ‘hoe, till’, with ⌊du⌋
stat-prog dętohatéˀdǫ̱hǫk ‘he will hab degahehdáwęnyeh ‘cultivator’
brighten from over there’ punc dęsehehdáwęnye:ˀ ‘you will
[hawi, ha:] ‘carry’ tend or till your garden’
hab hadihá:wiˀs ‘they carry along’ [hehsd] ‘birthday’, with ⌊transl,rep⌋
punc ehá:wiˀ ‘she carried it here or hab hehsháhehs ‘his birthday’
she brought it here’ punc hęjéhehs ‘it will be her birth-
[hawi, ha:] ‘bring something’, with day’
⌊cis⌋ [hęhsd] ‘dry out’
punc ętahá:wiˀ ‘he is going to bring hab ga̱ hę́hstaˀ ‘it is drying out’
something’ punc agá:hęhs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
imp dahsha: ‘bring it here’ stat ohę́hsdǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[hawi, ha:] ‘bring something back’, [hetgęhd] ‘become moody, turn
with ⌊du,cis⌋ bad’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc dętahá:wiˀ ‘he will bring it punc aˀǫ́tetgęht ‘someone turned
back’ funny (moody, etc.)’
[hawi, ha:] ‘bring something with [hgw] ‘lift’, ‘pick up’, with ⌊du⌋
oneself’, with ⌊rep⌋ punc atgehk ‘I picked something up’
punc shahá:wiˀ ‘he brought it with stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ de̱hoyaˀdáhgwęh
him’ ‘it picked him up (bodily)’
[hawihsǫ:ˀ] ‘carry around’ [hgwaˀd] ‘uphold something, raise
punc ęhahawíhsǫ:ˀ ‘he will carry something, lift something’, with
something around’ ⌊du⌋
[hędohsgaˀw] ‘clear fields, land’ hab degáhgwa̱ ˀtaˀ ‘it upholds or
hab hadihędóhsga:ˀs ‘they clear the raises up things’
fields, land’ stat dehóhgwa̱ ˀdǫh ‘he is lifting it
punc ahadi ̱hędohsga:ˀ ‘they cleared up’
the fields, land’ [hnaˀtsaged] ‘scratch one’s behind’
stat hodihędohsgaˀwęh ‘they are hab sahnaˀtsagé:dahs ‘you are
clearing the fields, land’ scratching your behind’
punc hęjéhe:ˀ ‘it will be her birthday’, [hnawaędahgw, hnǫwaędahgw]
(literally, ‘she will come to her birth ‘filter water’
time’) punc ęhsnǫwáęhdahk ‘you will filter
[hędohsga:ˀ] ‘pioneer’, with ⌊du⌋ the water’

755
B Verb dictionary

[hnegadeni, hnegadeny] ‘drain punc aˀǫgwahnyé:nęˀs ‘we all are ex-

something’ periencing the passing of a chief’
imp snega:dé:nih ‘drain it’! (literally, [ˀhoweg, +oweg] ‘cover’
‘change the water!’) hab geˀhó:we:s ‘I am covering some-
[hnegagyęhętw] ‘sip’, with ⌊du⌋ thing’
punc ętsnegagyę́hętoˀ ‘you will sip punc ęhseˀhó:we:k ‘you will cover
through a straw!’ something’
[hnegatsęi, hnegatsęny] ‘divine, stat ageˀhowé:gǫh ‘I did cover some-
witch for water’ thing’
hab hadihnegátsęnyǫhs ‘they divine, imp, with ⌊inc n⌋ segǫˀdró:we:k ‘you
witch for water’ put the pillowcase on’

[hnegayehsd] ‘dilute with water’, [hr] ‘put, place’

with ⌊du⌋ hab kré:haˀ ‘I am setting (it on some-
thing)’
imp dehsnégayehs ‘dilute it with wa-
punc ęhshręˀ ‘you will set it or place
ter!’
it on something’
[hnegeh] ‘drink’ stat hewá:kre:ˀ ‘I put, placed it over
hab ga̱ hnége̱haˀ ‘it is drinking’ there’
punc ęyehnegéhaˀ ‘she will drink it’ imp itręh ‘you place it!’
stat aknége̱hęh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[hręd] ‘lead’
imp snegéhah ‘drink’
punc ęháhę:t ‘he will lead’
[hnegǫgohd] ‘filter liquid, strain liq- stat hahę́:dǫ: ‘he is the front, leader’
uid’, with ⌊du⌋
[hręˀda:] ‘burn something’
punc dęhsne:gǫ́:goht ‘you will filter,
hab krę́ˀda:s ‘I (always) burn some-
strain liquid’
thing’
stat, with ⌊srf⌋ deyotnegǫ́go̱hdǫh
punc ęhsrę́ˀda:ˀ ‘you will burn some-
‘strained water’
thing’
[hni] ‘bark’ stat akrę́ˀda: (Sasse & Keye 1998)
hab ga̱ hnih, ga̱ hnihs ‘it is barking’ [hreg] ‘push’, with ⌊transl⌋
punc ęgéhniˀ ‘I will bark’ hab hekre:s (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[hniyaˀd] ‘tighten’ punc hękre:k (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc ękní:yaˀt ‘I will tighten up’ stat hewa:kré:gǫh (Sasse & Keye
stat ga̱ hníya̱ ˀdǫh ‘it is tight, tight- 1998)
ened’ [hren, hre:] ‘cut something with a
[hnyenęˀs] ‘experience the passing knife’
of a chief’ (literally, ‘a stick falls hab kré:nahs ‘I cut it all the time’
over’) punc ękre:ˀ ‘I will cut it’

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

stat akré:nęh ‘I did cut it’ punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ agataháhsa:ˀ ‘I

[hrenahnǫ] ‘cut something up, finished a road’
shave with a knife’ [hsadę] with ⌊cis⌋ and p prefix,
punc ęhsréna̱ hnǫ:ˀ ‘you will shave means ‘mount a horse, come by
(with a draw knife)’ horseback’, with int prefix, means
[hretgęh] ‘wreck something’ ‘carry on one’s back’
punc ęhsré:tgęh ‘you will wreck it’ punc ęgyago̱hsá:dęˀ ‘she will come
[hretgęhd] ‘damage something, ruin by horseback’
something, wrech something’ [hsadǫ] ‘bury someone, an animal’
punc ęhshé:tgęht ‘you will damage, punc ęgéhsadǫ:ˀ ‘I will bury it (an an-
ruin, wreck something’ imal)’
stat ga̱ hétgę̱hdǫh ‘it is ruined, stat agéhsadǫˀ ‘I buried it (an ani-
wrecked (by someone)’ mal)’
[hriˀ, hiˀ] ‘break up’, with ⌊du⌋ [hsˀahd] ‘finish, use up’, with ⌊cis⌋
hab degáhiˀs ‘it breaks, it is break- hab hegéhsˀahtaˀ (Sasse & Keye
able’ 1998)
punc dęgáhiˀ ‘it will break (into
punc hęgéhsˀaht ‘I will use up’
small pieces)’
stat hewagehsˀáhdǫh (Sasse & Keye
stat deyóhiˀǫh ‘it is broken’
1998)
[hrih] ‘pour, spill’, with ⌊transl⌋
[hsd] ‘use, wear’
hab hekrihs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc hękrih ‘I will pour’ hab ehstaˀ ‘she uses or people use’
stat hewákri ̱hǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc ę́:yehs ‘she will use (some-
thing)’
[hrihd] ‘break something into
stat-prog go̱hsdǫ́hǫgyeˀ ‘she is ar-
smaller pieces, grind up some-
riving wearing that’
thing’, with ⌊du⌋
punc dęhsriht ‘you will break some- imp ihsehs ‘use it!’
thing’ [hsda:teˀd] ‘shine something’, with
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ degahehdáhihdǫh ⌊du⌋
‘land that is disced or worked’ punc dęgehsdá:teˀt ‘I am going to
imp dehsriht ‘grind!’ shine it’
[hrǫhwę] ‘bar something, put up a stat dęgahsdá:teˀdǫh ‘it is shined,
barrier’, with ⌊du⌋ waxed, polished’
punc dęhsrǫ́hwęˀ ‘you will bar some- [hsdihsd] ‘care for, look after, be in
thing, put up a barrier’ charge of’
[+hsˀ, +ihsˀ] ‘finish, use up’, with punc ęhá:sdi:s ‘he is will be chosen
⌊srf⌋ to look after the event or ceremony’

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B Verb dictionary

stat gohsdíhsdǫh ‘she is a director, [hsihaǫ] ‘block up’

principle, head, etc.’ hab gehsiháǫhaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[hsęnǫni] ‘store, put away’ punc ęgehsiháǫˀ ‘I will block up’
punc asehsęnǫ́:niˀ ‘you did store it’ stat agehsiháǫˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
stat ga̱ hsę:nǫ́:ni: ‘stored items’ [hsiyaǫnyahnǫ] ‘fluid dancer’
imp se̱hsę:nǫ́:nih ‘store it!’ ‘put it punc ahahsiyaǫnyáhnǫ:ˀ ‘he is a
away!’ fluid dancer’
[hsęnǫni] ‘preserve something’, [hsnotsy] ‘peel bark’
with ⌊srf,n⌋ hab gehsnó:tsǫhs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
imp, with ⌊inc n⌋ sadahya̱ hsę:nǫ́:nih punc ęgéhsnotsiˀ ‘I will peel bark’
‘you preserve fruit!’ stat agéhsnotsǫ: (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[hsęnowanheˀ] ‘become important, [hsrǫni] ‘fix, create, make’
famous’ hab shahsrǫ́:nihs ‘repairman’
punc ahsehsęnówanheˀ ‘you became punc ęhsehsrǫ́:niˀ ‘you will create,
famous’ (literally, ‘your name got make something’
big’) imp sasęhni ̱hsgahsrǫ́:nih ‘fix the
[hsgwadahgw] ‘neuter an animal, wheel’
geld an animal’ [hsrǫnyahnǫ] ‘make several things,
punc ęhǫwa̱ hsgwa:dáhgoˀ ‘they will prepare several things’
geld, neuter, fix him’, (literally, ‘they hab aknihsrǫnyáhnǫh ‘we two are
will remove his testicles’) making several things’
stat gahsgwá:da̱ hgwęh ‘a neutered punc ęyagwadehsrǫnyáhnǫ:ˀ ‘we all
animal, a gelding’ will prepare things’
[hshadaˀ] ‘fall on one’s back’ [hstoˀdręhd] ‘pluck feathers’
hab gehshá:daˀs (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc ęséhstoˀdręht ‘you will pluck
punc ęgéhshadaˀ ‘I will fall on my feathers’
back’ imp sehstóˀdręht ‘pluck!’
stat agehshadáˀǫh (Sasse & Keye [hstǫwihsd] ‘hurt oneself’
1998) punc ęjisahstǫ́:wi:s ‘you will rehurt
[hshaˀged, hshaˀkd] ‘bend, fold in yourself’
two’, with ⌊du⌋ [hta:, htaę] ‘talk,speak’
punc dęséhsage:t ‘you will fold it hab ge̱htá:haˀ ‘I talk’
once, bend it’ punc ęgehtaęˀ ‘I will talk, speak’
[hsheˀagwęhdęhstaˀ] ‘rolling pin’, stat go̱hta:ˀ ‘she is speaking’
with ⌊du,srf⌋ stat agéhtaęˀ ‘I did talk’
hab deyehsheˀagwę̱hdę́hstaˀ ‘rolling stat agéhta:ˀk ‘I did talk’
pin’ [hta:gw] ‘discuss’, with ⌊du⌋

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc dędwahtá:goˀ ‘we all will dis- punc dęhswíhsda̱ hiht ‘you will make
cuss’ change’
[hwaˀe] ‘tap’ [hyadǫ] ‘write’
stat hohwáˀe: ‘he is tapping’ hab ehyádǫ̱haˀ, ehyá:dǫh ‘she is
[hwanh] ‘tie onto’ a secretary, stenographer, court
hab kwanhahs (Sasse & Keye 1998) recorder, transcriber’
punc ękwá:nhaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc ękyá:dǫ:ˀ ‘I will write’
stat akwá:nhęh (Sasse & Keye 1998) stat akyá:dǫˀ ‘I have written’

[hwędahd] ‘clear, make a clearing’, [hyohsgwęhda:] ‘fall forward’, with

with ⌊du⌋ ⌊du⌋
hab dekyóhsgwęhda:ˀs (Sasse & Keye
punc dęhsehwę́:daht ‘you will make
1998)
a clearing’
punc dękyóhsgwęhda:ˀ ‘I will fall for-
[hweˀnǫni] ‘wrap something’ ward’
imp sweˀnǫ́:nih ‘wrap it!’ stat dewakyo̱hsgwęhdá:ˀǫh (Sasse &
[hwęˀsdǫni] ‘whip (eggs, etc.)’ Keye 1998)
punc ęhswęˀsdǫ́:niˀ ‘you will whip [hyoˀtiyǫ, hyuˀtiyǫ] ‘sharpen’
(e.g. a meringue)’ hab kyoˀtíyǫhaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[hwihsdahihd] ‘make change’, with punc ękyoˀtí:yǫ:ˀ ‘I will sharpen’
⌊du⌋ stat akyoˀtí:yǫˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)

I-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[i, ę] ‘say’ stat agidagráˀǫh ‘I have fallen’

punc aˀá:gęˀ ‘she did say’ [idǫhgwahswahd] ‘extinguish a
stat á:gę: ‘(that’s what) I did say’ flame, dim the lights’
Also see the full paradigm on page punc ęhsidǫ̱hgwáhstwaht ‘you will
777. dim the lights’
[i:, ę:, e:] ‘think, hope, want’ stat gędǫhgwa̱ hstwáhdǫh ‘the flame
hab ihe: ‘he wants, thinks’ is turned down’
punc ehswe:ˀ ‘you all thought’ [iˀdre] ‘drag something, ride along
Also see the full paradigm on page in a vehicle, drive’
778. hab ǫkníˀdreˀ ‘we two are riding
[idagraˀ] ‘fall down’ along in (something)’
hab edá:graˀs ‘she is forever falling punc agéˀdre:ˀ ‘I dragged it’
(i.e. an old person)’ stat agéˀdrǫ: ‘I am dragging, I
punc ęyédagraˀ ‘she will fall down’ dragged’

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B Verb dictionary

imp desáˀdre: ‘drive over here’ stat agihnanę́dakdǫh (Sasse & Keye
[iˀdrehd] ‘move oneself’ 1998)
hab gadréhtaˀ ‘it moves itself, it [ihsag] ‘seek, look for’
rides’ hab gi ̱hsa:s ‘I am looking for it’
punc ęgíhsa:k ‘I will seek or look for
[iˀdrǫd] ‘live, dwell, be at home, re-
it’
side, be placed, be situated’
stat agíhsagǫh ‘I am looking for it’
punc ęhsniˀdrǫ́:daˀk ‘you two will
imp si ̱hsa:k ‘look for it’
stay home’
[ihsag] ‘look for a mate’, with ⌊du⌋
[iˀdrǫdaˀ] ‘land’, with ⌊du⌋
hab dedwáde̱hsa:s ‘we are looking
hab degęˀdrǫ́:daˀs ‘it lands there all
for mates’
the time’
punc dęgęˀdrǫ́:daˀ ‘it will land’ [ihsdęhd, sdęhd] ‘scale fish’
punc ęséhsdęht ‘you will take the
stat de̱hoˀdrǫdáˀǫh ‘he has landed’
scales off (the fish)’
[ihey, ihe:] ‘die’
[+iyaˀg] ‘cut, break, cross some-
hab hęhé:yǫhs ‘he is dying’
thing’
punc ęgíhe:ˀ ‘I will die’ hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ enéhsdanyaˀs,
stat awe:tˀá:ˀ agihé:yǫ: ‘I am pre- enéhsdaiyaˀs ‘she is sawing a board’
tending I am dead’ awe:tˀá:ˀ ‘it is pre- punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ awátehgyaˀk ‘it
tend’ did erode’
[ihnagęˀdowę] ‘put a patch on’ stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ swáǫgya̱ ˀgǫh ‘you
hab gi ̱hnagęˀdówe̱haˀ (Sasse & Keye all have cut the log’
1998) imp, with ⌊inc n⌋ sadejiˀóhgyaˀk ‘you
punc ęgihnagęˀdó:węˀ (Sasse & Keye cut your nails’
1998) [iyˀag, ˀag] ‘shoot’
stat agihnagę́ˀdo:ˀ (Sasse & Keye hab hadí:yˀa:s ‘they are shooting’
1998) punc ęgáˀa:k ‘I will shoot’
[ihnanędakd] ‘stick a patch on [iyaˀksǫˀ] ‘cut, break into pieces’,
something’ with ⌊transl,du⌋
hab gihnanędá:ktaˀ (Sasse & Keye punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ęsehsgwiyáˀksǫ:ˀ
1998) ‘you will cut the twigs off’
punc ęgihnanę́:da:k ‘I will put a stat haˀdegayáˀksǫˀ ‘it is broken up
patch on (cloth)’ in different ways’

760
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

J-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[jagǫ] ‘persevere, try hard’ imp sejihó:dęh ‘you close it!’

hab gejá:gǫhs ‘I persevere all the [jihsdawęnye] ‘stoke a fire’, with
time’ ⌊du⌋
punc agéjagǫ:ˀ ‘I persevered’ punc dęseji ̱hsdáwęnye:ˀ ‘you will
stat agejagǫ́ˀǫh ‘I do persevere (all poke the fire’
the time)’ imp deseji ̱hsdáwęnye: ‘stoke the fire’
imp sejá:gǫh ‘persevere!’, ‘keep it
up!’ [jihsdod] ‘turn on a light’
hab shęh niyeji ̱hsdó:taˀ ‘the time
[jaodę] ‘smoke (cigarettes, cigars,
when you turn the lights on’
etc.)’
stat gajíhsdo:t ‘the light is on’
punc ęhsejáodęˀ ‘you will smoke’
imp sejihsdó:dęh ‘turn on the light’
[jęhę, jęshǫ] ‘go get water with a
pail, dipper’ [jihsgǫni] ‘mash up something’,
stat hojęśhǫ: ‘he is gone to get water with ⌊du⌋
(with a pail)’ punc dęhseji ̱hsgǫ́:niˀ ‘you will mash
imp seję́hęh ‘you go get water (with it up’
a pail, dipper)’ [jihsgwahihd] ‘mash something up’,
[jiˀdędaˀ] ‘stop crying’ with ⌊du⌋
imp sejiˀdę́:daˀ ‘stop crying!’ punc dęseji ̱hsgwáhiht ‘you will mash
[jihodagw] ‘open something’ something up’
imp sejihodá:goh ‘you open it!’ stat degaji ̱hsgwáhihdǫh ‘it is
[jihodę] ‘close, turn off, plug up’ smashed or mashed’
hab sejihó:dęhs ‘you close it all the [jiˀnǫgew, jiˀnǫge:] ‘blow one’s
time’ nose’
punc ęgejihó:dęˀ ‘I will plug some- hab sajiˀnǫgé:wahs ‘you are blowing
thing up, I will close it’ your nose’

K-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[k] ‘put together’, with ⌊du⌋ match up’, with ⌊du⌋

hab degé:kahs (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc dęhséka̱ hǫˀ ‘you will assemble,
punc dęgé:kaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) put together, match or pair things up
stat degáekęh ‘twin girls, twin boy (puzzle pieces, socks)’
and girl’
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ deyonigyohg-
[kahǫ] ‘assemble, put together, wakáhǫˀ ‘division of many organiza-

761
B Verb dictionary

tions, i.e. Boy Scouts, Lions’ hab hadíkdǫ̱haˀ ‘they examine it’
[kahsi] ‘share, divide’, with ⌊du⌋ punc agé:kdǫ:ˀ ‘I did look closely at
hab degékahsǫhs ‘I divide it’ it’, ‘I have examined it’
punc dęhsékahsiˀ ‘you will share, di- stat agé:kdǫˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
vide’ imp sekdǫ: ‘examine it!’
stat dewagekáhsǫ: ‘I have taken one [kdǫnyǫ] ‘examine fully’
object apart’ punc ęhsékdǫnyǫˀ ‘you will fully ex-
[kahsǫgw] ‘divide something into amine it’
parts’, with ⌊(du)⌋ imp dwakdǫ́:nyǫ: ‘let’s examine’
punc dęhsekahsǫ́:goˀ ‘you will divide [kdotsy] ‘shell something’
it into parts’ punc ęhsékdotsih ‘you will shell
stat hoihwakáhsǫgweh ‘he has di- (eggs, coconuts, etc.)’
vided into parts or duties’ [kǫni] ‘cook something’
[kahsǫgwahǫ] ‘divide into cate- hab gakǫ́:nihs ‘it cooks’
gories’, with ⌊du⌋ punc age:kǫ́:niˀ ‘I cooked a meal’
punc dęsekahsǫ́gwa̱ hǫˀ ‘you will di- stat gokǫ́:ni: ‘she is cooking’
vide them (several objects) up into imp sekǫ́:nih ‘cook’
categories’ [ksohaihǫ] ‘go and wash dishes’
imp desekahsǫ́gwa̱ hǫ: ‘you divide hab geksoháihǫh ‘I am washing
them (several objects) up into cate- dishes’
gories’ imper seksoháihǫ: ‘wash the dishes’
[kdaˀe] ‘shell something’, with ⌊du⌋ [kwędaˀ] ‘finish eating’
imp dehsékda̱ ˀe:k ‘shell (them)! hit punc ęga:kwę́:daˀ ‘it is going to fin-
the shell!’ ish eating’
[kdǫ] ‘examine, look closely at, try stat agekwędáˀǫh ‘I have finished
(e.g., by tasting)’ eating’

N-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[naˀdaig, naˀda:g] ‘bite into bread, [naˀdaiksǫ] ‘bite into bread, snack’
snack’ punc ęjidwanaˀdáiksǫ:ˀ ‘we all will
hab knaˀdáis (Sasse & Keye 1998) snack’, (literally, ‘we all will bite the
punc ęjidwanáˀda:k ‘we all will bread’)
snack’, (literally, ‘we all will eat [naga:, nagai] ‘whistle’
bread’) punc ęsnágaiˀ ‘you will whistle’
stat aknaˀdáigǫh (Sasse & Keye stat haná:ga: ‘he is whistling’
1998) imp snagái: ‘whistle!’

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[nagęhsrǫni] ‘hill plants’ punc ęhsneda:dę̱hdáęˀ ‘you will lay a

imp snagęhsrǫ́:ni:ˀ ‘you make hills to floor’
plant in’ [nęhę:] ‘guard something’, with
[naˀgwanega:] ‘explode in anger’, ⌊du⌋
‘yell out’, with ⌊du⌋ hab de̱hadinę́hęhęˀ ‘they are guards’
punc adisanaˀgwane:ga:ˀ ‘you ex- stat de̱hodinę́hę:ˀ ‘they are guard-
ploded out in anger’ ing something (i.e. strikers)’, ‘secu-
[nahgwaˀe] ‘beat a drum’ rity guards’
punc ahaˀnǫ̱hgwáˀe:k ‘he beat the [nęhęd] ‘guard, stand in a line,
drum (barrel)’ participate in a work-bee’, with
⌊du,(cis)⌋
[nahsǫd] ‘join’, with ⌊du⌋
hab de̱hadinę́hęda:s ‘they are
punc dęhsnahsǫ́:dęˀ ‘you will join’
guards’, ‘they are participants in a
[naˀjod] ‘boil in a pot’ work-bee’
punc ęhsnaˀjó:dęˀ ‘you will boil
[nęhęsrǫni] ‘stand in line’
something in a pot’
stat ganęhęhsrǫ́:ni: ‘a line formed’
stat ganáˀjo:t ‘it is boiled’ imp swanęhęsrǫ́:nih ‘you all stand in
[naˀnawę] ‘thaw, melt’, with n / naˀ line or a formation!’
hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊naˀ⌋ ganáˀnawęˀs [nęhgwi, nǫhgwi] ‘carry something,
‘it melts’ move something, haul something’
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊naˀ⌋ ęhs- hab knęhgwih(s) ‘I carry it all the
gana̱ ˀná:węˀ ‘it will thaw or melt time’
again’ punc ęknę́hgwiˀ ‘I will carry, move,
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊naˀ⌋ onaˀnawę́ˀǫh tote, haul, drag it’
‘it has thawed, melted’ stat aknę́hgwi: ‘I have moved it’
[naˀnawęˀdah] ‘melt something’, imp snęhgwih ‘move it!’
‘liquefy something’ [nęhsgw] ‘steal’
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊naˀ⌋ ganaˀnawę́ˀ- hab knęhsgwahs ‘I am a thief’
da̱ hǫh ‘it has been melted’ punc ęhsnę́hsgoˀ ‘you will steal it’
[naˀnawęhd] ‘wet something, melt stat ganę́hsgwęh ‘stolen property,
something, liquefy something’, plunder’, ‘something robbed’
with n / naˀ [nehwiyaˀg] ‘circumcise’
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊naˀ⌋ punc ęhadinehwí:yaˀk ‘they will cir-
ahanaˀná:węht ‘he wet it’ cumcise it’, (literally, ‘they will cut
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊naˀ⌋ onaˀ- off skin’)
nawę́hdǫh ‘it has been melted’ [nętses] ‘reach out, stretch out one’s
[neda:dęhdaę] ‘lay a floor’ arms’, with ⌊du⌋

763
B Verb dictionary

imper desenętse:s ‘stretch out your hab knigǫ́ha:ˀ ‘I am expecting,

arms’, ‘reach’ watching’
[nętsǫˀneg] ‘remove one’s support’, punc ęknígǫ̱haˀk ‘I will expect it, be
with ⌊du⌋ watching out for something’
punc dagenętsǫ́ˀne:k ‘I withdrew my imp snigǫ́haˀk ‘watch out for your-
arm’ (i.e. withdrew my support) self’
imp desenętsǫ́ˀne:k ‘remove your [ˀnigǫhęˀ] ‘depressed, sad, mourn-
arms’ (i.e. retract them), ‘remove ing’, with ⌊cis⌋
your support’ punc ętsnígǫ̱hęˀ ‘you will be de-
[neyǫ] ‘heal with ointments’ pressed’
hab gané:yǫhs ‘a medical clinic’, ‘a stat dwaknigǫ̱hę́ˀǫh ‘I am in sorrow,
healing place’ mourning’, ‘I am sad’
punc ękné:yǫ:ˀ ‘I will put an oint- [ˀnigǫhgahęy, ˀnigǫgahe:] ‘lose pa-
ment on someone’ tience’
stat akné:yǫˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) hab aknigǫ̱hgáhęhs ‘I am running
[nhodǫ] ‘lock’ out of patience’, ‘I am impatiently
hab genhódǫ̱haˀ ‘I lock something’ waiting’
punc ęge:nhó:dǫ:ˀ ‘I will lock it’ [nihaǫ] ‘string, bead something’
stat age:nhó:dǫˀ ‘I have locked it’
hab eniháǫhaˀ ‘she is stringing or
[nhodǫgw] ‘open’ beading something’
hab genhódǫgwahs ‘I open or un- punc ękníhaǫˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
lock’ stat akníhaǫˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc ęhaihwanhodǫ́:goˀ ‘he will
[ˀnihsdęhd] ‘hull berries’
open the gathering’
punc ęhsníhsdęht ‘you will hull
stat agenhodǫ́:gwęh ‘I have opened
strawberries’
or unlocked it’
imp senho:dǫ́:goh ‘open the door’ [ˀnikǫ] ‘sew’
[nhoha:] ‘close a door’ hab eˀní:kǫhs, ganíkǫ̱haˀ ‘seam-
hab genhóha:s ‘I close the door’ stress’
punc ęgénhoha: ‘I will close the punc á:knikǫ:ˀ ‘I should, might sew’
door’ stat akní:kǫˀ ‘I have sewn’
stat agenhoháhǫh, agenhohá:hǫh ‘I [niyǫd] ‘hang up something’
have closed the door’ hab kniyǫ́:taˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
imp senhóha: ‘close the door’ punc akni:yǫ́:dęˀ ‘I did hang it up’
[nhohaˀe] ‘knock on a door’ stat akní:yǫ:t ‘I hung it up’
imp senhóhaˀe:k ‘knock on the door!’ [niyǫdagw] ‘unhang something’,
[ˀnigǫha:] ‘expect, watch’ with ⌊du⌋

764
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc ętsniyǫdá:goˀ ‘you will unhang hab deganǫnyáęhęˀ ‘it does not
it’ freeze’
[+nǫ] ‘guard’ punc ęganǫnyáęˀ ‘it will freeze’
hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ Hagyęda̱ hkwá:nǫh stat onǫ́nyaęˀ ‘it is frozen’
‘Guardian of the Chair (Title)’, ‘sub- [nǫnyotsy] ‘husk corn’
chief’ punc ęhsnǫ́nyotsiˀ, ęhsnę́nyotsiˀ ‘you
[nǫ:ˀ] ‘fail, cost dearly’ will husk the corn’
punc ęhsá:nǫ:ˀ ‘you will fail’ [nǫwadeni, nǫwadeny] ‘strain
stat ganǫ:ˀ ‘it is expensive, dear, pre- something’
cious’ punc ęhsnǫwadé:niˀ ‘you will strain’
[nǫˀgeh] ‘suck milk’ stat ganǫwadé:nyǫ: ‘it is being
hab knǫˀgé:haˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) strained’
punc ęknǫ́ˀge̱haˀ ‘I will suck (milk)’ [nǫwag] ‘crave something’
stat aknǫ́ˀge̱hęh (Sasse & Keye 1998) hab knǫ́:wa:s ‘I crave something’
[nohae] ‘clean, wash something’, punc ęknǫ́:wa:k ‘I will crave some-
with ⌊n/n⌋ thing’
hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊n⌋ knoháehs stat aknǫ́wagǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
(Sasse & Keye 1998) [nǫwayęhd] ‘bargain, barter, strike
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊n⌋ ęknóhaeˀ a deal’, with ⌊du⌋
(Sasse & Keye 1998) hab dehsnǫwayę́htaˀ ‘you are a bar-
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ ⌊n⌋ aknóhaeˀ gainer’
(Sasse & Keye 1998) punc dęhsnǫ́wayęht ‘you will barter,
[nǫhgwas] ‘pick scattered things bargain, affirm a deal’
from ground’ stat dewaknǫwáyę̱hdǫh (Sasse &
hab knǫhgwá:sahs (Sasse & Keye Keye 1998)
1998) [nrahdęhd] ‘deleaf, pluck leaves’
punc ęknǫ́hgwa:s ‘I will pick scat- punc ęhsénra̱ hdęht ‘you will pick off
tered things from ground’ leaves’
stat aknǫ́hgwasęh (Sasse & Keye [ˀnyagę] ‘escape, run away’
1998) hab geˀnyá:gęˀs ‘I am an escaper’
[nǫnhehd] ‘fill something up’ punc shaˀnyá:gęˀ ‘he escaped’
hab knǫnhéhtaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) stat godiˀnya̱ ˀgę́ˀǫh ‘they ran away’
punc ęhsnǫ́:nheht, ęhsnę́:nheht ‘you [ˀnya:gw] ‘have a hand in it, con-
will fill in’ tribute’, with ⌊du⌋
stat aknǫ́nhehdǫh (Sasse & Keye stat-prog dęyagoˀnya:gwę́hęgyeˀ
1998) ‘she will have a hand in it’
[nǫnyaę] ‘freeze’ [nyęta:, nyęta:h] ‘lock (a door, etc.)’

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B Verb dictionary

hab genyę́ta:s (Sasse & Keye 1998) [ˀnyǫgwaihsdaga:] ‘snore’, with

punc ęgényęta:ˀ ‘I will lock (a door)’ ⌊du⌋
stat agenyętáhǫh, agenyętá:hǫh stat degeˀnyǫgwaihsdá:ga: ‘I am
(Sasse & Keye 1998) snoring’
[nyo] ‘kill’, see ⌊riyo, nyo⌋ §B.2.3

O and Ǫ-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[ǫ:] ‘make something resemble it’ imper, with ⌊inc n⌋ sagęhędá:goh ‘re-
with ⌊rep⌋ move the ashes out of it’
hab sgǫ́:haˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) [ǫdahsd] ‘put something in’
punc ęsgǫ:ˀ ‘I will make it that again’ hab hęnǫ́dahstaˀ ‘they put it in there
stat swagǫ:ˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) all the time’
[oda:] ‘drape, hook on’ [odaihsy] ‘undrape’, with ⌊du⌋
hab goda:s ‘I drape it all the time’ punc ętsodáihsiˀ ‘you will undrape
punc ęgó:da:ˀ ‘I will drape it, hook it something’
on’ [+ǫdi, +ǫgy] ‘throw something’
stat odáhǫh ‘it is draped’ punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ hǫˀgehnyǫ́:diˀ ‘I
imper, with ⌊inc n⌋ senhéhsoda: ‘you threw a stick’
harness (an animal)’ stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ ga̱ hsgwáǫgyǫ:
‘gravel has been put down’
[ǫda:] ‘put in’
hab sǫ́:da:s ‘you put something in’ [odrah] ‘sprinkle’
punc ęhsǫ́:da:ˀ ‘you will put an ob- hab godrahs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
ject in there’ punc ęhę́nodrah ‘they will sprinkle
stat agǫ:dá:hǫh ‘I have put it in’ on something’
stat agódra̱ hǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[ǫdaˀd] ‘shake, shiver, quiver’
[odrahsd] ‘sprinkle deliberately’
hab gǫdáˀtaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
hab hęnódra̱ hstaˀ ‘they sprinkle on’
punc ęgǫ́:daˀt ‘I will shake’ stat honódra̱ hsdǫh ‘they are going
stat agǫ́da̱ ˀdǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) along sprinkling’, ‘they have sprin-
[odagw] ‘remove, detach’ kled’
hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ hadęno̱ˀjódagwahs [ˀog] ‘axe something, chop some-
‘he is a dentist’ thing’
punc ęsódagoˀ ‘you will remove or hab ge̱ˀohs ‘I am a chopper’
detach something’ punc ęhsáˀo:k ‘it will chop you’
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ otnegodá:gwęh stat ageˀó:gǫh ‘I did chop’, ‘I have
‘splashing water’ chopped’

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[ǫgohd] ‘filter, strain, penetrate’, [ǫhwęjahsgęnh] ‘fight over land’,

with ⌊du⌋ with ⌊du⌋
punc dęsǫ́:goht ‘you will penetrate’ hab haǫhwęjáhsgenhahs ‘land re-
imper dehsǫ́:goht ‘filter, strain it!’ searcher’ (literally, ‘he fights for
[ǫgohd] ‘go under something’, with land’)
⌊du,srf,n⌋ stat saǫhwęjáhsgęnhęh ‘you are
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ dęhsadę̱ˀhę́:gǫht fighting over the land right now’
‘you will go under the fence’ [ǫhwęjahsnyeˀ] ‘conserve land’,
[ǫgohd] ‘exaggerate’, with ⌊transl⌋ with ⌊du⌋
punc hęhsó:goht ‘you will exagger- hab deyǫkiyǫhwęjáhsnyeˀ ‘they look
ate, go above and beyond’ after our lands (title, office)’
[oh] ‘dip in liquid’, with ⌊transl⌋ [oˀjiyeˀg] ‘suck, absorb’
hab hé:gohs ‘I am dipping it in all the hab goˀjíyeˀs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
time’ punc ęgoˀjí:ye:k (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc hę́:goh ‘I will put it in, sub- stat agoˀjiyé:gǫh (Sasse & Keye
merge it’ 1998)
stat hewágo̱hǫh ‘I have already [oˀjiyǫ] ‘suck, absorb’
dipped, submerged it’ hab goˀjí:yǫhs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[ohaę, oha:] ‘attach’ punc ęgoˀjí:yǫ:ˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
hab gohá:haˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) stat agoˀjí:yǫˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc ęhsóhaęˀ ‘you will attach some- [oˀkdę, oˀkdani] ‘finish something’,
thing’ with ⌊transl⌋
stat oha:ˀ ‘it is attached (to some-
hab hegóˀktaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
thing)’
punc hęgóˀkdęˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[ohga:] ‘coat with a substance, rub
[ǫˀneg] ‘remove something’
something on’
hab gǫˀnéhs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
hab so̱hga:s ‘you coat something all
punc ęgǫ́ˀne:k (Sasse & Keye 1998)
the time’ (i.e. for a living)
stat agǫˀné:gǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc ęhsóhga:ˀ ‘you will coat some-
thing’ (with a paste, etc.) [ǫˀn.eg] ‘take away, subtract’, with
stat so̱hgá:hǫh ‘you have coated it’ ⌊cis⌋
[ohnyahsy] ‘sort, filter something’ hab tsǫˀnehs ‘you subtract, take
hab degóhnya̱ hsǫhs (Sasse & Keye away all the time’
1998) punc ętsǫ́ˀne:k ‘you will subtract’
punc dęgóhnya̱ hsiˀ ‘I will sort, filter’ stat disǫ́ˀnǫ: ‘you have taken away’
stat dewago̱hnyáhsǫ: (Sasse & Keye imper dahsǫ́ˀne:k ‘subtract!’
1998) [ǫˀneksǫ] ‘remove several things’

767
B Verb dictionary

imper sǫ̱ˀné:ksǫ: ‘you remove several hab tigǫ́:nihs ‘I use something in

things’ place of (something else)’
[ǫnęhd] ‘swallow’, with ⌊transl⌋ [owę] ‘split in two’, with ⌊du⌋
hab hegǫ́nę̱htaˀ ‘I swallow’ hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ degaihó:węhs
punc hęgǫ́:nęht ‘I will swallow’ ‘computer’
stat hewagǫnę́hdǫh ‘I have swal- punc atgó:wę:ˀ ‘I split it open’
lowed’ stat, with ⌊srf⌋ deyo:dó:węˀ ‘it is
imper haˀsǫ́:nęht ‘you swallow!’ split (in two)’
imper desó:wę: ‘halve it!’
[ǫnęhtge:] ‘gulp’, with ⌊transl⌋
[otsy] ‘remove an outer covering,
punc haˀgǫ́nę̱htge: ‘I took a big swal-
shell’
low (gulp)’
hab gotsǫhs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[ǫni, ǫny] ‘make, earn’ punc ęgó:tsiˀ ‘I will strip skin off’
hab gǫ́:nih, gǫ́:nihs ‘I make, earn’ stat agó:tsǫ: (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc agǫ́:niˀ ‘I did make, earn’ punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ęhsékdotsiˀ ‘you
stat agǫ́:ni: (Sasse & Keye 1998) will shell’ (eggs, coconuts, etc.)
imper sǫ́:nih (Sasse & Keye 1998) [+oweksy] ‘uncover something’
[ǫni, ǫny] ‘use in place of something punc, with inc n ęhsnaˀsgowé:ksih
else, replace’, with ⌊contr⌋ ‘you will uncover the bed’

R-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[ra, ya] ‘spread’ wiped’

hab ihsra:s ‘you spread it on all the [ragw] ‘choose, take out, get’
time’ hab gragwahs ‘I am taking it out
punc ęhsra:ˀ ‘you will spread’ right now’, ‘I always take it out’
stat agráhǫh ‘I did spread it already’ punc ęhsrá:goˀ ‘you will choose or
imp i:drah ‘spread it on something!’ take out’
[rad, yad] ‘spread’ stat agrá:gwęh ‘I have picked it out’,
hab eyá:taˀ ‘someone spreads it’ ‘I have chosen that one’
[ragew, rage:] ‘erase something, [ranawęˀdoh] ‘sweeten something’
wipe something’ punc ęhsranawę́ˀdoh ‘you will
hab gragé:wahs ‘I am erasing or wip- sweeten’
ing’ [ranawęˀdoweg] ‘ice or frost some-
punc ęgrá:ge:ˀ ‘I will erase or wipe thing’ (e.g. a cake)
it’ punc ęhsranawę:dó:we:k ‘you will
stat agra:gé:węh ‘I have erased or ice, frost something’ (e.g. a cake)

768
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[raˀnegę] ‘put two things together’ stat agrihsdá:hǫh (Sasse & Keye
hab degraˀné:gęhs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
1998) [rihsdoh] ‘trap’
punc dęgraˀné:gę:ˀ (Sasse & Keye hab gadríhsdohs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
1998) punc ęgádrihsdoh (Sasse & Keye
stat dewagraˀné:gęˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
1998) stat agadri ̱hsdóhǫh (Sasse & Keye
[ratę] ‘climb’ 1998)
hab gratęhs ‘I climb’ [rihsgyaˀksǫ] ‘slice something up’
punc ęhsrá:tęˀ ‘you will climb!’ punc ęhsríhsgya̱ ˀksǫˀ ‘you will slice
stat agrá:tę: ‘I did climb’ something up’
imp dahsrá:tęh, dadrá:tęh ‘climb
[rihwaˀe] ‘demand something, insist
(over here)!’
on something’, with ⌊cis⌋
[rawihsdotsy] ‘peel something’ punc ętríhwa̱ ˀe:k ‘you will demand
hab grawíhsdotsǫhs ‘I peel’ something, insist, force something’
punc ęhsrawi ̱hsdó:tsiˀ ‘you will peel’
[rihwaˀehsd] ‘demand a report, de-
stat agrawi ̱hsdó:tsǫ: ‘I peeled’
mand an account’, with ⌊du⌋
imp srawíhsdotsih ‘peel it!’
punc atgaǫgríhwa̱ ˀehs ‘they wanted
[ręnaganye] ‘chant, sing, yodel’ a report’
hab haęnagá:nyeh ‘he is trilling the
[rihwaędahgw] ‘hold responsibil-
song’
ity’
punc ęhswaęnáganye:ˀ ‘you all will
punc ęgaihwáędahk ‘it will become
sing, yodel, chant’
someone’s responsibility’
[ręnǫda:] ‘record songs’ stat gaihwáęda̱ hgǫh ‘a collective re-
punc ahaęnǫ́:da: ‘he recorded songs sponsibility’
or taped’
[rihwaętwahd] ‘spread the news’,
[rihǫni] ‘incite’ with ⌊du,(rep)⌋
punc ętrihǫ́:niˀ, ęsrihǫ́:niˀ ‘you will hab de̱haihwáętwahs ‘he brings
incite, be the cause of something’ forth the message all the time’
[rihoˀgwad] ‘research, instigate punc dęshaihwáętwaht ‘he will
something’ bring forth a message’
hab háihoˀgwa:s ‘he is researching, stat dehshoihwáętwęh ‘he is bring-
instigating’ ing forth the message right now’
[rihsda:] ‘iron something’ [rihwagenh] ‘argue’, with ⌊du⌋
hab grihsda:s (Sasse & Keye 1998) hab de̱haihwágenhahs ‘he is a
punc ęhsríhsda:ˀ ‘you will iron’ lawyer’

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B Verb dictionary

punc dęhsrihwagé:nhaˀ ‘you will ar- punc ęgrihwa̱ hní:ya:t ‘I will affirm it,
gue, debate, protest’ agree, defend it’
stat deyagodi:hwágenhęh ‘they are [rihwahsˀ, rihwihsˀ] ‘plan, promise,
arguing’ make an agreement’
[rihwagwaihsy] ‘witness’ hab srihwáhsˀahs ‘you promise,
punc ęhsrihwagwáihsiˀ ‘you will be make an agreement all the time’
a witness’ punc ęhsryhwa̱ hsˀa:ˀ ‘you will plan
[rihwagweni, rihwagweny] ‘ac- an idea’, ‘you will promise, make an
complish something, be able to per- agreement’
form’ stat haihwihsˀǫ́hǫgyeˀ ‘he is go-
punc ęhsrihwagwé:niˀ ‘you will ac- ing along making promises, making
complish’ agreements’
stat saihwagwé:nyǫ: ‘you are able to [rihwahsnyeˀ] ‘oppose, disagree’,
perform’ (i.e run, dance, orate, etc.) with ⌊contr,du⌋
[rihwagweniyohsd] ‘sanction, char- hab taˀdegri ̱hwáhsnyeˀ ‘I oppose it’,
ter, give authority to’ ‘I do not agree’
punc ęhsrihwagwe:ní:yohs ‘you will [rihwahsrǫni] ‘make right, be in
sanction, charter, give authority to’ charge, come to an arrangement’
[rihwagyęhętw, rihwagyęhęto] hab hadi:hwahsrǫ́:nih ‘they who are
‘participate, partake’, with in charge’
⌊transl⌋ punc ęhsrihwa̱ hsrǫ́:niˀ ‘you will
hab hedwaihwagyę̱hę́:tohs, hedwaih- come to an arrangement’
wagyę̱hę́:twahs ‘we all partake’, ‘we [rihwahsrǫni] ‘reconcile, ratify, rec-
all pull forth the words or ideas all tify’, with ⌊rep⌋
the time’
punc ęjijadrihwa̱ hsrǫ́:niˀ ‘you two
punc hęjidwaihwagyę́hętoˀ ‘we all
will reconcile’
will bring the idea back again’
stat heyǫgwaihwadíhętwęh, heyǫg- [rihwahwinyǫˀd] (possibly,
waihwagyę́hętwęh ‘we have pulled ⌊rihwinyǫˀd⌋) ‘report on some-
forth the ideas’, ‘we are participating thing’
right now’ punc ętrihwa̱ hwí:nyǫˀt (possibly,
ętríhwinyǫˀt) ‘you will report’
[rihwahę] ‘present an idea’
punc ęhsríhwa̱ hęˀ ‘you will present [rihwaneˀag] ‘sin’
an idea’ hab gri ̱hwáneˀa:s ‘I am a sinner’
[rihwahniyaˀd] ‘harden something, punc ęgrihwanéˀa:k ‘I will sin’
settle something, affirm something, stat agrihwanéˀagǫh ‘I have sinned’
get married’ [rihwaneˀaksrǫ] ‘swear’

770
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc ęhsrihwanéˀaksrǫ:ˀ ‘you will punc hęhaihwę́hę:ˀ ‘he will take the
swear, use profane language’ message’
[rihwaˀneg] ‘pray, hope, wish for, stat hehoihwę́hę: ‘he has taken a
ask for’ message’
hab sri ̱hwáˀnekaˀ ‘you pray’ [rihwiyohsd] ‘convert to Christian-
punc ęhsríhwane:k ‘you will pray’ ity’
stat saihwa̱ ˀné:gęh ‘you are pray- punc ahsrihwí:yohs ‘you became a
ing’, ‘you have prayed’ Christian’, ‘you converted to Chris-
[rihwanhodǫgw] ‘open a gathering’ tianity’
punc ęhaihwanhodǫ́:goˀ ‘he will [riyo, nyo] ‘fight, kill’
open the gathering’
hab grí:yohs, há:nyohs (Sasse & Keye
[rihwanǫhweˀs] ‘disapprove’, with 1998)
⌊neg⌋ hab hanyohs ‘he kills something’
desrihwanǫ́hweˀs ‘you disapprove’ punc ęgrí:yoˀ, ęhá:nyoˀ (Sasse &
[rihwateˀd] ‘explain something’, Keye 1998)
with ⌊du⌋ punc ahá:nyoˀ ‘he killed (an animal)’
hab degaihwatéˀtaˀ ‘dictionary’ stat agrí:yo:, hó:nyo: (Sasse & Keye
punc dęhsríhwateˀt ‘you will ex- 1998)
plain’
[rǫgw] ‘keep’
[rihwayaˀg] ‘denounce something,
punc ęgrǫ́:goˀ ‘I will keep’
disapprove of something’, with
⌊du⌋ [roheg, yoheg] ‘gather, collect bets’
punc dęhsríhwayaˀk ‘you will de- hab gáeyo̱he:s ‘they are gathering’
nounce it, disapprove of it’ punc ęhsróhe:k ‘you will gather’
[rihwayenaw, rihwayenaǫ, rih- stat agrohé:gǫh ‘I have gathered’
wayena:] ‘accept advice’ imp, with ⌊inc n⌋ sa̱ ˀnigǫ̱háohe:k
punc ęhsrihwayé:na:ˀ ‘you will ac- ‘gather your mind’
cept advice, a suggestion, etc.’ [rǫhyagę] ‘be in agony, groan in
[rihwęhd] ‘give someone an impor- agony, labour’
tant message’ hab grǫhyá:gęhs ‘I am always in
punc ętríhwęht ‘you will bring the pain’
idea down’ punc ęgrǫ́hyagęˀ ‘I will be in pain’, ‘I
[rihwęhę] ‘convey a message’, with will labour’
⌊transl⌋ stat agrǫ́hyagę: ‘I am in agony, in
hab hehaihwę́hęhs ‘he always takes pain’
the message’, ‘he is a messenger’ imp sáǫhyagę: ‘you groan!’

771
B Verb dictionary

S and T-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[shaˀkdǫnyǫgw] ‘fold something imp seteht ‘pound! (corn, etc.)’

up’, with ⌊du⌋ [tsahni] ‘frighten, scare’
punc dęseshaˀkdǫ́nyǫgoˀ ‘you will hab getsáhnihs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
fold something up’ punc asétsahniˀk ‘you are afraid’
[+taˀd] ‘dry something out’ stat agetsahníˀǫh (Sasse & Keye
hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ wa̱ hgwęnyatáˀtaˀ 1998)
‘clothes dryer’ [tsęi, tsęny] ‘find’
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ęhsnę́hętaˀt ‘you hab getsę́:nyeˀs, getsę́:nyǫhs ‘I am a
will dry corn’ finder of things’
stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ ganęhętáˀdǫh punc a:yetsę́iˀ ‘she might find it’
‘dried corn’ stat agétsęnyǫ: ‘I have found it’
[teˀd] ‘pound’ [tsgęˀędahgw] ‘deseed, remove
hab getéˀtaˀ ‘I am a pounder’ seeds’
punc ęgéteˀt ‘I will pound’ punc ęhsetsgęˀę́da̱ hgoˀ ‘you will re-
stat agetéˀdǫh ‘I did pound’ move seeds’

W-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[waǫda:] ‘inflate something’ [węnǫhgrodragw] ‘remove weeds’

hab gawáǫda:s ‘pump (air)’ punc ęgwęnǫ̱hgródagoˀ ‘I’ll weed’
stat gawaǫdá:hǫh ‘it is inflated’ [widragędrǫ] ‘skim milk, separate
imp sewáǫda:ˀ ‘you inflate (a tire, bal- cream’, with ⌊du⌋
loon)!’ hab degawidrágędrǫhs ‘cream sepa-
[wayęnędaˀ] ‘complete’ rator’
hab hawayęnę́:daˀs ‘he finishes’ punc dęsewidrágędrǫ:ˀ ‘you will take
punc aˀewayę:nę́:daˀ ‘she finished’ the cream off, skim the milk’
stat gawayęnę́da̱ ˀǫh ‘it is ready, pre- stat degawidrágędrǫ: ‘skimmed
pared’ milk’

Y-stem, three-aspect, personal, changing from a- to p-series

[yaˀda:] ‘draw, take pictures’ [yaˀdagęhey] ‘physically weak in

body, limp’
hab gyaˀdá:haˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc ęgyáˀdaęˀ ‘I will draw, take pic- hab agyaˀdagęhé:yǫhs (Sasse & Keye
tures’ 1998)

772
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc agyaˀdagę́he:ˀ ‘I got limp, hab degyáˀdre̱haˀ, degyaˀdré:haˀ

weak’ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
stat agyaˀdagęhé:yǫ: ‘I am physi- punc dęgyáˀdręˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
cally weak, slow’ stat dewágyaˀse: (Sasse & Keye
[yaˀdahdǫ] ‘get lost’ (said of a per- 1998)
son) [yaˀg] ‘cut’
hab gyaˀdáhdǫhs (Sasse & Keye hab igyaˀs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
1998) punc ęgyaˀk (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc ęgyáˀdahdǫˀ (Sasse & Keye stat agyáˀgǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
1998) [yagę] ‘go out’
stat agyaˀdahdǫ́ˀǫh (Sasse & Keye hab gyá:gęˀs ‘I am going out’
1998) punc ęhsyá:gęˀ ‘you will go out’
[yaˀdahsrǫni, yaˀdahsrǫny] ‘dress stat heyoyagę́ˀǫh ‘that’s where it
something up’ went out’
hab gayaˀda̱ hsrǫ́:nih ‘it dresses it up’ [yaˀgyenę] ‘fall over, pass on, die’
[yaˀdęˀ] ‘fall into’ (person), with punc ahayagyé:nęˀ ‘he fell over’
⌊transl/cis⌋ (refers to passing on)
hab hegyáˀdęˀs (Sasse & Keye 1998) [yahnǫ] ‘touch, pick at, grope’, with
punc ęhtsyáˀdęˀ ‘you will fall into it’ ⌊transl⌋
stat hewagyaˀdę́ˀǫh (Sasse & Keye hab hehsyáhnǫhaˀ ‘you are picking
1998) at something’ (i.e. your food), ‘you
[yaˀdodrǫhgwaǫ] ‘twitch’ are a groper’
hab sayaˀdodrǫhgwáǫhaˀ ‘you are punc hęhsyáhnǫ:ˀ ‘you will grope,
twitching (right now)’ touch, pick at’
[yaˀdodrǫhgwaǫni] ‘shiver’ stat hehsyáhnǫh ‘you are touching
hab sayaˀdodrǫhgwáǫnihsgǫ: ‘you here and there, groping’
are always shivering’ [yaǫ] ‘bead something’, with ⌊du⌋
[yaˀdowehd] ‘think about, consider’, hab desyáǫhaˀ ‘you are beading’
with ⌊du⌋ stat degáyaǫˀ ‘it is beaded’
hab deyeya̱ ˀdówe̱htaˀ ‘she is a [yę] ‘set, put, place something’
thinker (seer)’ hab hayę́hęˀ ‘he puts, places it there
punc dęgyaˀdó:weht ‘I will think (continuously)’
over’ punc ęhsyę:ˀ ‘you will put it there!’
stat dewagya̱ ˀdówe̱hdǫh ‘I have al- stat nigá:yęˀ ‘where it is at, where it
ready thought about it’, ‘I am think- is placed’
ing about it’ imp iję: ‘you put it down’, ‘leave it
[yaˀdrę] ‘put on top’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ alone!’

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B Verb dictionary

[yę] ‘put things side by side, lie side hab gyędrǫhs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
by side’, with ⌊coin,du⌋ punc ęgyę́:se:ˀ ‘I will skin’
punc tsaˀdę́hsyę:ˀ ‘you will put, lay stat agyę́:drǫ: (Sasse & Keye 1998)
them side by side’ [yęˀgwaˀe] ‘tan something, smoke
stat tsaˀdégayęˀ ‘it is lying or setting something’
side by side’ punc ęhsyę́ˀgwaˀe:k ‘you will smoke
[yę] ‘gamble, bet, play a game’, with it’ (meat, etc.), ‘you will tan it’
⌊du⌋ [yęhętw, yęhęto] ‘pull something’,
stat de̱ho:dí:yęˀ, deto:dí:yęˀ ‘they are with ⌊transl/cis⌋
gambling, betting’ punc ętgyę́hętoˀ ‘I will pull it’
[ye:, yę:] ‘do’ [yehsd] ‘mix together’, with ⌊du⌋
hab nigyé:haˀ ‘I do’ punc dęsyehs ‘you will mix them all
punc nę́:gye:ˀ ‘I will do’ together’
stat nigyó:yę: ‘what it is doing’ stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ degahnegáye̱hs-
imp sgęnǫ:ˀǫ́h nęh tsye: ‘you take dǫh ‘water is mixed in it’
your time’ sgęnǫ:ˀǫ́h ‘slowly’ nęh imp, with ⌊inc n⌋ dehsnégayehs ‘di-
‘now’ lute it with water!’
[ye:, yę:] ‘touch’, with ⌊transl⌋ [yenaw, yenaǫ, yena:] ‘catch, re-
hab hehsyé:haˀ ‘you are a toucher’ ceive, accept, hold something’
punc hęhsye:ˀ ‘you will touch’ hab gyé:nahs, gyenáǫhs ‘I catch, re-
stat hehsá:yę: ‘you did touch some- ceive, accept, hold it’
thing’ punc agyé:na:ˀ ‘I caught it’, ‘I re-
[yeh] ‘awake, wake up’ ceived it’
hab igyehs ‘I wake up (all the time)’ stat agye:náǫ:, agyé:na: ‘I have
punc ęhsyeh ‘you will wake up!’ caught it, received it’
stat sá:ye: ‘you are awake’ imp ję́:na: ‘you (s) catch it! (an ani-
imp ijeh ‘wake up!’ mal, etc.)’
[yędaˀ] ‘become, acquire, obtain’ [yenaw, yenaǫ, yena:] ‘grab some-
hab gayę́:daˀs (Sasse & Keye 1998) thing’, with ⌊cis/transl⌋
punc ęsa:yę́:daˀ ‘you will acquire, ob- imp datsę́:na: ‘you grab it!’
tain’ [yenaw, yenaǫ, yena:] ‘work to-
stat oyę́daˀǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) gether’, with ⌊du⌋
[yędei, yędi] ‘know’ punc atadiyé:na:ˀ ‘they did it to-
stat dejidwayę́:di: ‘we all do not gether (i.e. accomplices)’
know any longer’ [yenawaˀkǫ] ‘work together, be
[yędr, yęs] ‘skin something’, also see complicit, be accomplices’, with
⌊yęse⌋ (next column) ⌊du⌋

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

hab degadiyenawáˀkǫˀ ‘they are ac- punc daga:dí:yǫˀ ‘they came in’
complices’ imp dajǫh ‘come in!’
imp dedwayenáwa̱ ˀkǫ: ‘let’s work to- [yǫ] ‘return, come back’, with ⌊rep⌋
gether’ punc shá:yǫˀ ‘he returned’
[yęse] ‘skin something’ stat shó:yǫ: ‘he returned’
hab syę́:sehs ‘you skin animals all [yǫ] ‘go in’, with ⌊transl⌋
the time’ punc haˀgyǫˀ ‘I went in’
punc ęhsyę́:se:ˀ ‘you will skin it’ stat heho:dí:yǫ: ‘they arrived, they
stat sayę́:se: ‘you are skinning it went in there’
right now’ [yǫ] ‘go back inside’, with
[yętw, yęto] ‘plant’ ⌊transl,rep⌋
hab gyę́:twahs ‘I plant it’ punc hǫsahá:yǫˀ ‘he went back in-
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ęknǫhsayę́:toˀ ‘I side’, ‘he arrived back there’
will plant onions’ imp haˀjǫh, haˀsyǫh ‘go in, enter!’
stat tęˀ dehóyętwęh ‘he did not [yǫˀd] ‘bring something, score a
plant’ goal’
imp tęˀ taháyętoh ‘he will not plant’ punc ahá:yǫˀt ‘he scored’, ‘he
[yętwagw, yętwago] ‘harvest’ brought it’
hab hayę́twagwahs ‘he is harvest- [yǫˀd] ‘bring something back’, with
ing’ ⌊rep⌋
punc ahayętwá:goˀ ‘he did harvest’ punc ęhsgáeyǫˀt ‘they will bring it
stat hoyę́twagwęh ‘he harvested it’ back’
[yidahsd] ‘do right’, with ⌊du⌋ [yǫgyaˀd] ‘laugh’
hab de̱hsyí:dahs ‘you do things hab gyǫgyáˀtaˀ ‘I am really laugh-
right’ ing’
[yǫ] ‘arrive’ punc ęhsyǫ́:gyaˀt ‘you will smile!’
hab é:yǫhs ‘she arrives (at the same [yǫgyaˀtge:] ‘guffaw’
time)’ punc ęsyǫ́gya̱ ˀtge: ‘you will laugh
punc aˀé:yǫˀ ‘she arrived’ loudly, guffaw’
stat gó:yǫ: ‘she has arrived’ [yǫwadahgw] ‘eviscerate some-
[yǫ] ‘come in’, with ⌊cis⌋ thing, gut something’
hab itgyǫhs ‘I come in (from the punc ęhsyǫwadáhgoˀ ‘you will gut
same place) all the time’ something’

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B Verb dictionary

Three-aspect irregular verb ⌊i, e, ę, adǫh⌋ ‘say’

Three-aspect irregular verb ⌊i, e, ę, adǫh⌋ ‘say’ takes regular pronominal prefixes,
but is otherwise irregular in that the meaning is conveyed by four separate stems:
the stem ⌊iˀ⌋ and ⌊ęˀ⌋ in the punctual, ⌊ę:⌋ in the stative, and ⌊adǫh⌋ in the habitual.
The complete paradigm is shown in Table B.1, p. 777. All forms are from Sasse &
Keye (1998).

Three-aspect irregular verb ⌊i:, e:⌋ ‘want, think’

The irregular paradigm for the verb meaning ‘to want, think’ is listed in Table B.2,
p. 778. All forms are from Sasse & Keye (1998).

B.2.4 Three-aspect verbs taking only p-series personal prefixes

[adadę] ‘end up with something, re- [adehsręˀdǫni] ‘glare, be grouchy,

main, have leftovers, be leftover’ look angry’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc ǫgadadę:ˀ ‘I remained’, ‘I was stat agade̱hsręˀdǫ́:ni: ‘I am grouchy,
left over’ (glaring)’
punc ǫgadadę:ˀs ‘I ended up with it imper sadehsrę̱ˀdǫ́:ni: ‘glare! (make
(i.e. leftovers)’ yourself look mad)’
[adaˀi:s] ‘have intercourse, mate’, [adęnihsaˀe] ‘corner someone’, with
with ⌊srf⌋ ⌊du⌋
stat onadaˀí:sęh ‘they are mating’ punc atodęníhsa̱ ˀe:k ‘he got cor-
imper sadáˀi:s ‘you have intercourse’ nered, up against the wall with no
[adedręhdatgidę, adedręhdatgi- recourse’
dani] ‘have nightmares, bad [adewa:negaǫ, adewa:nega:] ‘get a
dreams’, with ⌊srf⌋ flat tire’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
hab agadedręhdatgidaníhsgę̱hę:ˀ ‘I punc adyagodewa:né:ga:ˀs ‘she got a
used to have bad dreams’ flat tire’
punc ǫgadedręhdatgí:dęˀ ‘I had a bad stat deyodewa:négaǫ: ‘flat tire’
dream’ [adi, ogy, +ǫdi, +ǫgy] ‘throw some-
[adęhǫgai, adęhǫgany] ‘suffer’, thing’, with ⌊(transl)⌋
with ⌊du,srf⌋ hab hehó:gyeˀs ‘he throws it (all the
hab desadęhǫ́gais ‘you suffer all the time)’, ‘he is a pitcher’
time’ punc ęhsá:diˀ ‘you will get rid of
punc dęhsadęhǫ́gaiˀ ‘you will suffer’ something, abandon it, throw it out’
stat dęsadęhǫ́ganyęh ‘you are suffer- stat hehó:gyǫ: ‘he has thrown it (sta-
ing right now’ tive)’

776
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

Table B.1: Say

factual punctual stative habitual

agíˀ ‘I said’ á:gę: ‘I have said’ ga:dǫh ‘I say’
á:kniˀ, aˀá:kniˀ ‘we two ǫknę: ‘we two have said’ agyá:dǫh ‘we two say’
(not you) said’
ekníˀ, etníˀ ‘you and I gyá:dǫh ‘you and I say’
said’
á:gwęˀ, aˀá:gwęˀ ‘we, ǫ́:gwę ‘we all have said’ agwá:dǫh ‘we, not you,
not you, said’ say’
edwęˀ, etwęˀ ‘we and dwá:dǫh ‘we and you
you said’ say’
asíˀ ‘you (one) said’ í:sę: ‘you (one) have sá:dǫh ‘you (one) say’
said’
esníˀ ‘you two said’ ihsnę: ‘you two have já:dǫh ‘you two say’
said’
eswęˀ ‘you all said’ ihswę: ‘you all have swá:dǫh ‘you all say’
said’
ahęˀ ‘he said’ há:wę: ‘he has said’ há:dǫh ‘he says’
á:gęˀ, aˀá:gęˀ ‘she said’ gá:wę: ‘she has said’ ǫ́:dǫh ‘she, someone
says’
awęˀ ‘it said’ á:wę: ‘it has said’ wá:dǫh ‘it is said’
ahę:niˀ ‘they (males) hó:nę: ‘they (males) hęná:dǫh ‘they (males)
said’ have said’ say’
agá:gęˀ ‘they (fe/males) gó:nę: ‘they (fe/males) gaǫgadǫh ‘they
said’ have said’ (fe/males) say’
agę:niˀ ‘they (animals) ó:nę: ‘they (animals) gęná:dǫh ‘they (animals)
said’ have said’ say’

777
B Verb dictionary

Table B.2: Want, think

stative stative past factual punctual indefinite punctual future punctual

í:wi: gehéhk ahí:ˀ ǫ́:wi:ˀ ‘I should want, ęhi:ˀ

‘I want, think’ ‘I was thinking’ ‘I wanted, thought’ think’ ‘I will want, think’

akné: aknéhehk akne:ˀ á:yakne:ˀ ‘we two (not ęyá:kne:ˀ

‘we two (not you) want, ‘we two (not you) were ‘we two (not you) you) should want, think’ ‘we two (not you) will
think’ thinking’ wanted, thought’ want, think’

ikné: knehehk ekne:ˀ áekne:ˀ ękne:ˀ

‘you and I want, think’ ‘you and I were think- ‘you and I wanted, ‘you and I should want, ‘you and I will want,
ing’ thought’ think’ think’

agwé: agwéhehk agwé:ˀ á:yagwe:ˀ ‘we all (not ęyá:gwe:ˀ

‘we all (not you) want, ‘we all (not you) were ‘we all (not you) wanted, you) should want, think’ ‘we all (not you) will
think’ thinking’ thought’ want, think’

idwé: dwehéhk edwe:ˀ áedwe:ˀ ‘we all (includ- ędwe:ˀ

‘we all (including you) ‘we (all including you) ‘we all (including you) ing you) should want, ‘we all (including you)
want, think’ were thinking’ wanted, thought’ think’ will want, think’

ihsé: sehehk ase:ˀ á:se:ˀ ęhse:ˀ

‘you (s) want, think’ ‘you (s) were thinking’ ‘you (s) wanted, ‘you (s) should want, ‘you (s) will want, think’
thought’ think’

ihsné: snehehk esne:ˀ áesne:ˀ ‘you two should ęhsne:ˀ

‘you two want, think’ ‘you two were thinking’ ‘you two wanted, want, think’ ‘you two will want,
thought’ think’

ihswé: swehehk eswe:ˀ áeswe:ˀ ęhswe:ˀ

‘you all want, think’ ‘you all were thinking’ ‘you all wanted, ‘you all should want, ‘you all will want, think’
thought’ think’

ihé: hehehk ahe:ˀ á:he:ˀ ęhe:ˀ

‘he wants, thinks’ ‘he wants, thinks’ ‘he wanted, thought’ ‘he should want, think’ ‘he will want, think’

í:yę: ęhehk aˀę:ˀ á:yę:ˀ ‘she should want, ę́:yę:ˀ

‘she wants, thinks’ ‘she wants, thinks’ ‘she wanted, thought’ think’ ‘she will want, think’

í:we: wehehk awe:ˀ á:we:ˀ ę́:we:ˀ

‘it wants, thinks’ ‘it wants, thinks’ ‘it wanted, thought’ ‘it should want, think’ ‘it will want, think’

hę́:ne: hęnéhehk ahę́:ne:ˀ a:hę́:ne:ˀ ęhę́:ne:ˀ

‘they (males) want, ‘they (males) were think- ‘they (males) wanted, ‘they (males) should ‘they (males) will want,
think’ ing’ thought’ want, think’ think’

gáę gáęhk agáęˀ á:gaęˀ ęgáęˀ

‘they (females or mixed ‘they (females or mixed ‘they (females or mixed ‘they (females or mixed ‘they (females or mixed
group) want, think’ group) were thinking’ group) wanted, thought’ group) should want, group) will want, think’
think’

gę́:ne: gęnéhehk agę́:ne:ˀ a:gę́:ne:ˀ ęgę́:ne:ˀ

‘they (animals) want, ‘they (animals) were ‘they (animals) wanted, ‘they (animals) should ‘they (animals) will
think’ thinking’ thought’ want, think’ want, think’

imper heˀsá:dih ‘throw it away from [adǫhaǫhǫ] ‘be frantic, horrified’,

me’ with ⌊srf⌋
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ hǫˀge̱hnyǫ́:diˀ ‘I hab dewagadǫháǫhǫhaˀ (Sasse &
threw a stick’ Keye 1998)
[adodahsy] ‘appear unintention- punc dęwagadǫháǫhǫ:ˀ ‘I will be
ally’, with ⌊contrsrf⌋ frantic, horrified’
punc taˀsadodáhsiˀ ‘you appeared stat dewagadǫháǫhǫˀ (Sasse & Keye
unintentionally’ 1998)

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

[adǫhwęjohsd] ‘want something’, [agyaˀdagweg] ‘get constipated’,

with ⌊du,srf⌋ with ⌊srf⌋
punc adwagadǫ́hwęjohs ‘I did want hab ǫgyáˀdagwe:s ‘she gets bound
something’ up, constipated’
[adǫhwęjǫni] ‘want something, punc ęsagya̱ ˀdá:gwe:k ‘you will get
need something’, with ⌊du,srf⌋ constipated’
hab dewagadǫhwęjǫ́:nih ‘I want stat gogyaˀdagwé:gǫh ‘she is consti-
something’ pated’
punc dęhsadǫ̱hwę:jǫ́:niˀ ‘you will [agyaˀdr, agyaˀse] ‘be on top’, with
want something’ ⌊du,srf⌋
[adoˀkdahsd] ‘be dissatisfied with, hab dewagya̱ ˀdré:haˀ (Sasse & Keye
not get enough’, with ⌊cis,srf⌋ 1998)
punc dǫgádoˀktahs ‘I was not satis- punc dęwágya̱ ˀdręˀ (Sasse & Keye
fied (with…)’, ‘I did not get enough’ 1998)
[adǫˀsd] ‘benefit someone’, with stat deyógya̱ ˀse:ˀ (Sasse & Keye
⌊srf⌋ 1998)
hab godǫ́ˀstaˀ ‘it always benefits her’ [agyanǫˀ] ‘dream’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc ęya:gó:dǫˀs ‘it will be for her hab ogyá:nǫˀs ‘it dreams’
benefit’ punc ęyógyanǫˀk ‘it will dream’
[adǫˀse] ‘benefit someone’, with stat hogyánǫ̱ˀdrǫh ‘he is dreaming’
⌊srf⌋ [agyaǫˀ] ‘be tricked, fooled’, with
punc ęyagodǫ́ˀse̱hak ‘it will be hap- ⌊srf⌋
pening for them’ punc ehságyaǫˀ ‘you were tricked,
stat godǫ́ˀse:ˀ ‘it did benefit her’ fooled’
[adraswiyohsd] ‘get lucky’, with [agyaǫnyǫˀ] ‘have a vision’, with
⌊srf⌋ ⌊du,srf⌋
punc ǫgadraswíyo̱hsdęˀ ‘I got lucky’ hab dewagyáǫnyǫh ‘it (a haunted vi-
[adrihwaˀehsd] ‘be accused, sion) is happening right now’
blamed’, with ⌊srf⌋ punc adwagagyáǫnyǫˀs ‘I had a vi-
punc ahodri ̱hwáˀe:s ‘he was accused’ sion’, ‘I got spooked’
[agyaˀdagw] ‘lose weight’, with [ahdaˀ] ‘get full, finish eating’
⌊cis⌋ hab ohdaˀs ‘it gets full’
punc dǫgyáˀdagoˀ ‘I lost weight (lit- punc ęwága̱ hdaˀ ‘I will be full (of
erally, lost part of my body)’ food)’
stat gyagoya̱ ˀdá:gwęh ‘she has lost stat ohdáˀǫh ‘it got full’ (finished
weight’ eating)

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B Verb dictionary

imper sa̱ hdaˀ ‘get full!’ (finish eat- hab satgahatgíhdǫh ‘you are always
ing) giving dirty looks, you are giving
[ahdrǫˀ] ‘be scared, frightened’ dirty looks (right now)’
hab agáhdrǫˀs ‘I am scared, fright- punc asatga̱ há:tgiht ‘you give dirty
ened’ looks’
punc ęwága̱ hdrǫˀk ‘I will be fright- [atganyaˀgę] ‘reimbursed, re-
ened’ funded’, with ⌊rep,srf⌋
stat agáhdrǫ̱ˀǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc ęjisatgánya̱ ˀgęˀ ‘you will be re-
imper sa̱ hdrǫˀk ‘be afraid! (non- imbursed, refunded’
sensical)’
[atiyaˀg] ‘hold a grudge’, with ⌊srf⌋
[ahsęhsd] ‘regret, become jealous’ hab hotíya̱ ˀsgǫ: ‘he is testy’, ‘he has
hab sa̱ hsę́htahk ‘you used to regret a short fuse’
it’ punc ęhsa:tí:yaˀk ‘you will hold a
punc ęwága̱ hsęhs ‘I will get jealous’ grudge’
stat agásę̱hsdǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) stat satíya̱ ˀgǫh ‘you are holding a
[ahsha:, ahshaˀdr] ‘remember, re- grudge right now’
call’, with ⌊transl/rep⌋ [atǫdęh, atǫdęˀ] ‘hear something’
punc ęwága̱ hsha:ˀ ‘I will remember’
hab aga:tǫ́:dęhs ‘I hear it all the time’
stat shohsháˀdrǫh ‘he is remember-
(continually or off-and-on, i.e. the
ing (right now)’
sound of a regular train going by
[ahshędaˀ] ‘step on something, stag- one’s house)
ger’, with ⌊transl,rep⌋ punc ęwagatǫ́:dęh ‘I will hear’
stat heshohshędáˀǫh tsǫ: ‘he is stag- stat agatǫdę́ˀǫh ‘I have heard it be-
gering’ tsǫ: ‘just’ fore’
[ahsihaˀs] ‘choke’, with ⌊du⌋ [atrewahd] ‘be punished’, with
hab desáhsi ̱haˀs ‘you are choking’ ⌊srf⌋
punc atóhsi ̱ha:ˀs ‘he did choke’ hab satréwa̱ htaˀ ‘you are being pun-
[ahsoˀg] ‘limp’ ished right now’
hab go̱hsóˀkaˀ ‘she is limping’ punc ęsa:tré:waht ‘you will be pun-
punc ęwága̱ hsoˀk ‘I will limp’ ished’
[anhęhęhih] ‘dribble, pee’, with stat satréwa̱ hdǫh ‘you have been
⌊cis⌋ punished’
punc daˀagonhę́hęhih ‘she dribbled [atsǫnyǫd] ‘forsake sacred customs’,
(peed)’ with ⌊srf⌋
[atgahatgihd] ‘give dirty looks’, stat ǫgwátsǫˀnyo:t ‘we all turned
with ⌊srf⌋ our backs to the bush’, ‘we all for-

780
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

sook religion, family, etc.’ (high lan- stat, with ⌊inc n⌋ deyoˀnhęhtsę́-
guage) dǫ̱hǫh ‘it is wagging its tail’
[atwajiyǫdi, atwajiǫgy] ‘abandon imper, with ⌊inc n⌋ desaya̱ ˀdę́:dǫh
one’s family’, with ⌊srf⌋ ‘you will shake (your body)’
punc ahotwaji:yǫ́:diˀ ‘he abandoned [ęhsędǫh] ‘stamp one’s feet’, with
his family’ ⌊(du)⌋
stat hotwajiyǫ́:gyǫ: ‘he has aban- stat howę́hsę̱hdǫh ‘he is keeping a
doned the family’, ‘he threw his fam- beat with his feet’
ily aside’ [ęˀnidodaihsę] ‘fart’, with ⌊srf⌋
punc ahoˀnido:dáihsęˀ ‘he farted’
[dǫhgwa:, idǫhgwa:] ‘have, get a
fever’ [ęˀnigǫhaneˀwaǫ, ęˀnigǫhaneˀwa:]
hab akdǫ́hgwa:s (Sasse & Keye 1998) ‘be mentally startled, surprised’,
punc ǫgídǫ̱hgwa: ‘I got a fever’ with ⌊srf⌋
stat akdǫhgwá:hǫh ‘I have a fever’ punc ęsęˀnigǫhanéˀwa: ‘you will be
mentally startled’
with ⌊inc n⌋ gayaˀdadǫ́hgwahs
‘AIDS, HIV’ [ęˀnigǫhgaę] ‘suffer’, with ⌊cis,srf⌋
stat desęˀnigǫ́hgaeˀ ‘you suffer’
[ˀdraihę] ‘hurry’, with ⌊du⌋
[ęˀnigǫhoˀdrǫh] ‘worry’, with ⌊srf⌋
hab deyago̱ˀdráihęhs ‘she is in a
hab sę̱ˀnigǫ̱hóˀdrǫh ‘you are a wor-
hurry’
rier’
punc adyǫkni ̱ˀdráihęˀ ‘we two hur-
punc ęhsęˀnigǫ́hoˀdrǫ:ˀ ‘you will
ried’
worry, despair’, ‘you will be desper-
imper desaˀdráihęh ‘hurry up!’
ate’
[ˀdrahehsd] ‘overdo, exaggerate, be [ęnǫhdǫ] ‘know’
extreme’ hab dyonǫ́hdo̱haˀ, gyonǫ́hdǫ̱haˀ ‘she
hab sa̱ ˀdráhehstaˀ ‘you are always is a bossy woman’
going overboard’, ‘you are excessive’ punc ęwagęnǫ́hdǫ:k ‘I will know’
punc ęwage̱ˀdráhehs ‘I will exagger- stat agę́nǫ̱hdǫˀ ‘I know’
ate’ [ęnǫhdǫnyǫ] ‘think’
stat heyótehsdǫh (possibly, heyoˀ- punc ęhsęnǫ̱hdǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ ‘you will won-
dra̱ héhsdǫh) ‘it is extreme’ der, think’
[ędǫh] ‘shake’, with ⌊du⌋ stat sęnǫ́hdǫnyǫh ‘you are wonder-
hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ deyogyo̱hgwę́:dǫhs ing, thinking’
‘upheaval of a crowd of people (cele- [gaˀ] ‘like the taste of something’
bration, riot)’ hab agé:gaˀs ‘I like the taste of it’
punc dęya:wę́:dǫh ‘it will sway, punc ǫgéˀgaˀ ‘I liked the taste of it’
shake’ stat ogáˀǫh ‘it tastes good’

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B Verb dictionary

[gaę] ‘be willing, consent, agree’ punc ahohetsó:goˀ ‘it tricked him
hab hogáęs ‘he is willing’ (like the frog)’
punc ęwagegáęˀ ‘I will consent, stat shohétsogwęh ‘he was fooled
agree, say okay’ (like the frog)’
stat agegáęˀǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) [hnyęˀsgaˀohsd, hnyaˀsgaˀohsd]
[gaę] ‘unwilling’, with ⌊neg⌋ ‘have hiccups’
hab dewagegáęhs ‘I am always un- hab hohnyáˀsgaohs ‘he is hiccuping,
willing’ hiccoughing’
stat dewagegáę ‘I do not want to do punc ęwagehnyę́ˀsgaˀohs ęwagehnyáˀs-
it’, ‘I am unwilling’ gaˀohs ‘I will have hiccups’
[ga:hdę] ‘cost someone’ stat agehnyęˀsgáˀohsdǫh, agehnyaˀs-
punc ǫge:gá:hdęˀ ‘that’s how much it gáˀohsdǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998)
cost me’ [hsadę] ‘mount a horse, come by
[gahdrahi] ‘cry, shed tears’ horse’
punc ęhsaga̱ hdráhiˀ ‘you will shed punc ęwage̱hsá:dęˀ ‘I will mount a
tears’ horse’
[gahdredǫ] ‘shed tears’ [hsgęna:ˀ] ‘have a stroke’
punc ęsagahdré:dǫ: ‘you will shed punc aho:hsgę́:na:ˀ ‘he had a stroke’
tears’ [hsnagrig] ‘have, get muscle
[gahdrod] ‘drip tears’ cramps’
punc ęhsagahdró:dęˀ ‘you will drip punc ǫgéhsnagri:k ‘I had muscle
tears’ cramps, I got a cramp’
stat sagáhdro:t ‘you are tearing up’ [hsnagri(k)sǫ] ‘have, get muscle
(shedding tear-drops) cramps’
[gahoˀsd] ‘get an eyelash in one’s punc ǫgehsnagríksǫ:ˀ ‘I got cramps’
eye’, with ⌊du⌋ stat ǫgehsnagríhsǫˀ ‘I am all
punc adwagegáhoˀs ‘I got an eyelash cramped up’
in my eye’ [idaˀ] ‘sleep, hibernate’
[hed] ‘yell, scream’, with ⌊du⌋ hab odí:daˀs ‘they sleep, hibernate
hab de̱hóhetaˀ ‘he is hollering’ all the time’
punc atóhe:t ‘he hollered or yelled’ punc ęwa:gí:daˀ ‘I will sleep’
[hetsogw] ‘be tricked, fooled’, with stat agída̱ ˀǫh ‘I was asleep, I am
⌊(rep)⌋ sleeping’
hab tsohétsogwahs ‘it tricks him all [Cidręhda:ˀ] ‘sleepy, tired’1
the time’ hab agídrę̱hda:ˀs ‘I am sleepy’
1
‘C’ means that I of the stem does not delete.

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc ęsaidrę́hda:ˀ ‘you will get punc haˀhoˀnigǫ́haˀehs ‘his mind set-
sleepy’ tled on’
[Cidręhgyenyęˀs] ‘nod off’, ‘fall [ˀnigǫhahdǫ] ‘faint’
asleep’ punc ǫknigǫ̱háhdǫˀ ‘I fainted’
hab sidręhgyé:nyęˀs ‘you are nod- [ˀnigǫhahetgęˀs] ‘sob, cry uncon-
ding off, falling asleep’ trollably’
[Cidręhdiyohsd] ‘sleep well’ hab aknigǫ̱háhetgęˀs ‘I am crying,
punc ęsaidrę̱hdí:yohs ‘you will have uncontrollably’
a nice sleep’ [ˀnigǫhęh, ˀnigǫhęˀ] ‘forget’
[ˀnahgǫd] ‘get or be inflamed’, ‘get hab swaknígǫ̱hęhs (Sasse & Keye
or have a bee sting, hives’ 1998)
punc ęhsaˀnigǫ́hęh ‘you will forget’
punc ęsaˀna̱ hgǫ́:dęˀ ‘you will get a
stat swaknigǫ̱hę́ˀǫh (Sasse & Keye
bee sting’
1998)
stat oˀnáhgǫ:t ‘it (skin) is inflamed’,
‘a bee sting’ [ˀnigǫhgahęy, ˀnigǫgahe:] ‘be ex-
hausted (mentally), lose patience’
[naˀkwęh, naˀkwęˀ] ‘be angry’
punc aknigǫ̱hága̱ he:ˀ ‘my mind got
hab aknáˀkwęhs ‘something makes
beat’, ‘I am mentally exhausted’
me angry’
stat aknigǫ̱haga̱ hé:yǫh ‘I am men-
punc ahóna̱ ˀkwęh ‘he became very tally exhausted’
angry’
[ˀnigǫhiyoh] ‘become satisfied, con-
stat aknáˀkwę̱ˀǫh ‘I am angry’
tent’ ‘adjust’, with ⌊(cis)⌋
[nehagw, nehagwaˀ] ‘surprised’ punc ęhsaˀnigǫhí:yoh ‘you will be
hab aknéhagwahs ‘I am always satisfied’
amazed’ [ˀnigǫhiyohsd] ‘become comfort-
punc ǫknéhagoˀ ‘I was amazed or able in mind, become satisfied, be-
surprised’ come content’
stat aknehagwáˀǫh ‘I am amazed’ punc ęhsaˀnigǫhí:yohs ‘your mind
[nhiˀ] ‘err, make a mistake’ will adjust’ (i.e. become comfortable)
hab ǫgwá:nhiˀs ‘we all make mis- [ˀnigǫhsadǫ] ‘lonesome’
takes’ hab aknigǫ̱hsá:dǫˀs ‘I am lonesome’
punc ęhsá:nhiˀk ‘you will err, make punc ęwaknigǫ́hsadǫˀk ‘I will get
a mistake’ lonesome’
stat agénhiˀǫh ‘I have made a mis- stat oˀnigǫ̱hsá:dǫhk ‘it is lonesome,
take, an error’ mournful’
[ˀnigǫhaˀehsd] ‘have a settled mind’, [nihsgw] ‘be late’
with ⌊transl⌋ punc ęwáknihsgoˀ ‘I will be late’

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B Verb dictionary

stat aknihsgo̱ˀǫ́hǫgyeˀ ‘I am arriving punc ǫˀknǫˀs ‘I am sick of it, bored,

late’ fed up’, ‘I got sick of it’
[nǫ] ‘unable’ [nyag] ‘be married’
hab aknǫ́haˀ ‘I am unable’ hab agé:nya:s ‘I am getting married
punc ęwá:knǫ:ˀ ‘I will be unable’ right now’
stat honǫ́ˀǫh ‘he is unable’ punc ęwágenya:k ‘I will be married’
stat agényagǫh ‘I am married’
[nǫdanhaˀ] ‘be found guilty’
punc ahonǫdá:nhaˀ ‘he was found [ˀnyagę] ‘pass wind, fart’
guilty’ hab agóˀnyagęˀs ‘she passing wind,
farting’
[ˀnodra] ‘have skin sores, be in-
[nyaˀgw, nyaˀgo] ‘vomit’
fected’
hab agénya̱ ˀgwahs ‘I am vomiting’, ‘I
punc ęhsaˀno:dráˀ sehsóhgwa̱ ˀgeh
am a vomiter, I vomit all the time’
‘you will have sores on your lips’
punc ǫgénya̱ ˀgoˀ ‘I vomited’
stat oˀnó:draˀ ‘it is infected’, ‘an in- stat agenya̱ ˀgwáhǫh ‘I am vomiting
fection’ (right now)’
[ˀnodrahsd] ‘have, get a skin infec- [oˀgwad] ‘dig’
tion, rash, allergic reaction’ hab oˀgwa:s ‘it digs’
hab go̱ˀnó:drahs ‘she has open, punc aˀóˀgwa:t ‘it dug’
weeping sores’ stat agóˀgwadǫh (Sasse & Keye
punc aˀago̱ˀnó:drahs ‘she got 1998)
chicken pox, a skin infection, aller- [ǫˀwesahs] ‘have a good time’
gic reactions’, ‘she became infected’ hab agǫ́ˀweshahs ‘I am having a
stat sa̱ ˀnódra̱ hsdǫh ‘it has given you good time, enjoying something’
an infection, an allergic reaction’,
[ǫˀwesę, ǫˀwesgwani] ‘enjoy one-
‘you have already had an allergic re-
self’
action’
hab agǫˀwesgwá:nih ‘I enjoy it’
[nǫhaged] ‘put one’s head down’, punc ęwagǫ̱ˀwé:sęˀ ‘I will enjoy my-
with ⌊du⌋ self’
punc dęhsanǫ̱há:ge:t ‘you will put [ǫwihshęˀǫh] ‘pant, be short of
your head down’ breath’
[nǫhnyaˀg] ‘be, get hurt’ stat gaǫwi ̱hshę́ˀǫh ‘she is panting’
hab aknǫ́hnyaˀs ‘I hurt’ [ra:dog] ‘blister one’s heel’
punc ęwáknǫ̱hyaˀk ‘I will get hurt’ punc ǫgrá:do:k ‘I blistered my heel’
stat honǫ́hnya̱ ˀgǫh ‘he is hurt’ [rihwaędaˀ] ‘decide’, with ⌊du⌋
[nǫˀs] ‘tire of something, get sick of punc atoihwáędaˀs ‘he came to a de-
something’ cision or conclusion’

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 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

imper dehsaihwáędaˀs ‘you decide’ punc aˀodiyáˀdade:k ‘they (animals)

[sw, sho] ‘smell (involuntarily)’ got burned up’
hab agé:swahs ‘I smell it (at the time [yaˀdahdrǫgw] ‘quiver, shudder’
when this is being said)’ punc ęsaya̱ ˀdahdrǫ́:gǫˀ ‘you will
punc ęwágeshoˀ ‘I will smell it (unin- quiver, shudder’
tentionally)’
[yaˀdahshęˀ] ‘be slow, late’
with ⌊inc n⌋ go̱heyǫdá:swahs ‘she
punc ǫgyáˀda̱ hshęˀ ‘I was late’
smells a dead body’
[ˀtsǫhsd] ‘sneeze’, with ⌊du⌋ [yaˀditgęˀs] ‘have nightmares, sleep-
hab desáˀtsǫhstahk ‘you have walk’
sneezed, you were sneezing’ hab goyáˀditgęˀs ‘she is having a
punc dęsáˀtsǫhs ‘you will sneeze’ nightmare’, ‘she is sleepwalking’
[węnaˀd] ‘give up’ [yaˀdǫdi] ‘be abandoned, left out,
hab agewęnáˀtaˀ, agwę́naˀtaˀ ‘I give left behind’
up (all the time)’ punc ǫgyaˀdǫ:diˀ ‘I got left behind,
punc esa:wę́:naˀt ‘you gave up’ left out, abandoned’
stat agewęnáˀdǫh ‘I have given up’ [yaˀdǫdaˀd] ‘shiver, shake’, ‘be ner-
[węnaˀehsd] ‘stutter’ vous’
hab sawęnaˀéhstaˀ ‘you stutter’ hab sayaˀdǫdáˀtaˀ ‘you are nervous,
[węnahǫ] ‘get what’s coming to shaking, shivering’
you’ punc ęsaya̱ ˀdǫ́:daˀt ‘you will shiver,
punc ęhsawęnáhǫk ‘your words will shake’
come back on you’, ‘you will be re- stat agyaˀdǫdáˀdǫh ‘I shiver’
venged, repaid for your words’ [yǫdi, yǫgy] ‘smile’
[wiyageheyaˀs] ‘die’ (said of a baby) hab hoyǫ́:dih ‘he is smiling’
punc agowiyage̱hé:yaˀs ‘her baby punc aho:yǫ́:diˀ ‘he smiled’
died’ stat past hoyǫ́gyǫ̱hne:ˀ ‘he has al-
[yaˀdadeg] ‘burn up (body)’ ready smiled’, ‘he did smile’

B.2.5 Three-aspect verbs taking interactive prefixes

A-stem, three-aspect, interactive

[adadrihwanǫhǫkw] ‘respect, show all will show respect for one an-
respect for one another’, with other’
⌊du,refl⌋
[adahgwaęhęhsd] ‘pawn something
punc dędwadadrihwanǫ́hkwa:k ‘we off on someone’, with ⌊srf⌋

785
B Verb dictionary

punc ahagadahgwáęhęhs ‘he did hab hǫwáde̱ˀsgohs ‘baptism’ (liter-

pawn (to me)’ ally, ‘they baptize them’)
[adaˀsęhd] ‘put someone down, dis- [adewayęnǫni] ‘care for something,
criminate against someone’, with do things carefully’, with ⌊srf⌋
⌊srf⌋ hab sadewayę:nǫ́:nih ‘you care for it
hab hadáˀsę̱htaˀ ‘he puts people / things all the time’
down’, ‘he discriminates’ punc ęhsheyadewayę:nǫ́:niˀ ‘you will
stat sheyada̱ hsę́hdǫh ‘you have al- take care of them, care for them (for
ready put someone down’, ‘you dis- a while)’
criminated against her’ stat hodewayę:nǫ́:ni: ‘he has done it
[adędonyaˀd] ‘joke, make fun of carefully’
someone, tease’, with ⌊srf⌋ [adi, ogy] ‘abandon someone, let
hab hadędǫnyáˀtaˀ ‘he is a joker’ someone go’
punc ęhsheya̱ ˀdę́dǫnyaˀt ‘you will punc ęhshéyadiˀ ‘you will abandon
make fun of it’, ‘something will someone, let them go’
make fun of you’ (evil result) ‘it will [adodahdę, adodahdani] ‘trip some-
mess with your head or mind’ (re- one’, with ⌊du,srf⌋
ferring to reliving your sins before hab desadodáhdanih ‘it trips you all
death), ‘you will joke’ the time’
stat agadędónya̱ ˀdǫh (Sasse & Keye punc dęhsadodáhdęˀ ‘it will trip you’
1998)
[adodaisy] ‘help someone escape’,
[adęnaˀtranǫd] ‘serve food to some- ‘rescue someone’, ‘save someone’
one’, with ⌊srf⌋ punc ęhsheyadodáisiˀ ‘you will help
punc ęgwadęnáˀtranǫ:t ‘we will give her escape’, ‘you will save her’
you food’
[adodaisy] ‘comb someone’s hair’,
[adęnyehd] ‘sentence someone, re- with ⌊du⌋
fer someone’, with ⌊transl,srf⌋ punc dęgǫyodáisiˀ ‘I am going to
punc hęgǫyadę́:nyeht ‘I will refer comb your hair’
you (to someone else)’
[adǫgohdę] ‘deceive, outdo some-
[adęˀnigǫha:] ‘take care of some- one’, with ⌊srf⌋
thing, monitor’, with ⌊srf⌋ punc ęhseyadǫ́go̱hdęˀ ‘you will
hab ǫkiya̱ ˀdęˀnigǫ́ha:ˀ ‘monitors outdo someone’, ‘you will go right
(people)’ (literally, ‘they monitor over her, go right past her’, ‘you will
them’) deceive her’
[adeˀsgoh] ‘immerse, baptize, go [adriyohsdę] ‘make someone fight’,
into water’, with ⌊srf⌋ with ⌊srf⌋

786
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc ęgasheyadriyóhsdęˀ ‘you will punc ęhshagogyaˀdǫ́:dahk ‘he will be

make them fight’ an ambassador’, ‘he will represent
[adrǫhgwę, adrǫhgwani] ‘threaten someone’ (literally, ‘they will put his
someone, scare someone’, with body in’)
⌊srf⌋ [agyesahd] ‘abandon someone’,
hab sheyadrǫ̱hgwá:nih ‘you are with ⌊srf⌋
threatening, scaring someone’ punc ahǫwagyé:saht ‘he abandoned
punc ęhsheyadrǫ́hgwęˀ ‘you will her’, ‘he left her’
threaten, scare someone’ [ahdehnyęhd] ‘knock or flip some-
[adrǫˀwęhsd] ‘abuse someone’, with one over’
⌊srf⌋ hab ga̱ hsheya̱ hdéhnyę̱htaˀ ‘I am go-
hab dehshagodrǫ́ˀwę̱hstaˀ ‘he abuses ing along knocking people over’
someone’ punc ahsheya̱ hdéhnyęht ‘you did flip
punc dękeyadrǫ́ˀwęhs ‘I will abuse someone over’
her’ [ahdogaˀd, ahdogahd] ‘grow some-
stat dekeyadrǫ́ˀwę̱hsdǫh ‘I have thing, raise children’
abused her’ hab ga̱ hsheya̱ hdógataˀ ‘you raise
[adwędehd] ‘release someone’ children’, ‘foster parents’
punc ękeyadwę́:deht ‘I will release punc ęhsahdó:gaˀt ‘you will grow
someone’ something’
stat keyadwędéhdǫh (Sasse & Keye stat ǫgahdogáˀdǫh ‘she raised me’
1998) (i.e. a guardian)
[aˀęna:] ‘curse someone, hex some- [ahdrǫhgwęˀ] ‘frighten someone’
one’ punc ęhsáhdrǫ̱hgwęˀ ‘it will frighten
hab gaˀę́na:s (Sasse & Keye 1998) you’
punc ęhsheya̱ ˀę́:na:ˀ ‘you will curse, [ahǫdǫ] ‘ask someone’
hex someone’ punc ahǫwa̱ hǫ́:dǫ:ˀ ‘they or s/he
stat agaˀęnáhǫh, agaˀęná:hǫh (Sasse asked him, them’
& Keye 1998) imp hehsahǫ́:dǫ: ‘you ask him’
[aˀęnaˀehsd] ‘spear someone or [ahǫgahaˀ] ‘be invited’
something with a stick’, with ⌊du⌋ punc ęhsahǫgáhaˀ ‘you will be in-
punc atǫwa̱ ˀę́na̱ ˀehs ‘he speared him vited or asked to go’
with a stick’ [ahsehd] ‘hide something’, ‘rob
[agyaˀdǫda:] ‘represent someone, someone’
represent an organization’, with hab shagóhse̱htaˀ ‘he is a robber,
⌊srf⌋ stealer’

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B Verb dictionary

punc ahǫwanáhseht ‘they robbed stat disahtga̱ ˀwę́hęgyeˀ ‘you are go-
him, them’ ing along giving things up’
stat ga̱ hséhdǫh ‘robbed, hidden’
[atahahgwaˀdę, atahahgwaˀdani]
[ahsganeg] ‘want, desire, long for ‘corrupt someone’, with ⌊srf⌋
someone, something’ punc ęhsheyatahahgwáˀdęˀ ‘you will
hab gǫhsgá:ne:s, gǫyáhsgane:s ‘I de- corrupt her/them’ (literally, ‘you
sire you’ will take her off the path’) (ceremo-
punc ęhsáhsgane:k ‘you will be nial or high language)
tempted, you will long for some-
thing’ [atgęˀse] ‘watch someone’, with
stat sa̱ hsgáneksǫh ‘you are longing ⌊srf⌋
for something’ hab gáǫtgę̱hseh ‘they are watching
[ahsganekdę] ‘tempt someone’ something going on’
punc ęhsheya̱ hsgánekdęˀ, ęhshehs- punc a:gakeyatgę́ˀse:ˀ ‘I should
gané:kdęˀ ‘you will tempt someone’ watch them’
[ahsgyaǫnyǫ] ‘encourage someone’ [atgowanahdę, atgowanęhdę] ‘rape
hab gakeyahsgyáǫnyǫh ‘I am giving someone’, with ⌊srf⌋
them words of encouragement’ hab shagotgowana̱ hdá:nih ‘he is a
punc ęhsasgyáǫnyǫˀ ‘you will en- rapist’, ‘he is raping someone now’
courage’ punc ahshagotgowanáhdęˀ, ahshagot-
[ahsha:] ‘think of someone’, with gowanę́hdęˀ ‘he raped her’ (literally,
⌊transl⌋ ‘he forced her in a big way’)
punc i:hs agǫ́ya̱ hsha:ˀ ‘I thought of
[atgǫˀtra:] ‘bewitch someone’
you’ i:hs ‘you’
punc ęgǫyatgǫ́ˀtra:ˀ ‘I will bewitch
[ahtgaˀw] ‘release, let go, give up’
you’
hab sahtgaˀwa̱ hsgę́hę:ˀ ‘you used to
let go, you used to give up’ [atgǫˀtra:sd] ‘bewitch someone’
punc ahǫwęnáhtga:ˀ, ahǫwanáhtga:ˀ punc ęgǫyatgǫ́ˀtra:s ‘I will bewitch
‘they released him, them (m)’ you’

D-to-G-stem, three-aspect, interactive

[dogęh] ‘find someone out’

hab kedó:gehs (Sasse & Keye 1998) [+ˀehsd] ‘hit someone’s noun’, with
punc ęke:dó:gęh (Sasse & Keye 1998) ⌊du⌋ and ⌊inc n⌋
stat kedógę̱ˀǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc ateˀdre̱hdáˀehs ‘I hit his car’
[ęˀnigǫhotahsd] ‘suggest to some-

788
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

one, advise someone’, with ⌊cis⌋ or annoyed with someone, some-

punc ętseyęˀnigǫ̱hótahs ‘you will thing’
suggest to her, advise her’ hab gǫgęhęˀdá:nih ‘I am sick of you’
[ęˀnyaˀdad] ‘point out someone’, punc ahsgegę̱hę́ˀdęˀ ‘you got sick of
with ⌊srf⌋ me’, ‘you are bored with me’
punc ęhshę́ˀnya̱ ˀda:t ‘you will point stat agegę̱hę́ˀdanih ‘I am annoyed,
someone out’ sick of it’
[gęhęˀtrǫni] ‘be cruel, mean, abu-
[gahgęny] ‘see with one’s own eyes’
sive’
hab kegáhgęnyǫhs (Sasse & Keye
punc ęhsegę̱hęˀtrǫ́:niˀ ‘you will be
1998)
mean, abusive’
punc ękega̱ hgę́:niˀ (Sasse & Keye
1998) [gǫhe] ‘punch something, hit some-
stat kegáhgęnyǫ: (Sasse & Keye thing with one’s fist’
1998) hab segǫ́he:s ‘you hit it all the time’
punc ahágǫ̱he:k ‘he punched it’
[gahgweg] ‘outsmart, deceive some- stat agegǫhé:gǫh (Sasse & Keye
one’, with ⌊du⌋ 1998)
punc dęhshéga̱ hgwe:k ‘you will pull
[gǫhsohai] ‘wash someone’s face’,
the wool over her eyes, outsmart her,
with ⌊n/n⌋
deceive her’
stat shagogǫ̱hsóhai ‘he is washing
[gai, gany] ‘bite someone’ her face’
punc ęsa:gáiˀ ‘it will bite’ imp segǫhso̱hái ‘you wash its face’
stat agéganyǫ: (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[gǫnyǫhsd] ‘honour someone’
imp dahsge:gái ‘you bite me!’ (take a punc ahshagodígǫnyǫhs ‘they hon-
bite!) oured her’
[gę] ‘see something’ [gowanahd, gowanęhd] ‘have pride
hab gé:gęh, gé:gęhs ‘I see (habitual)’ in someone’
punc ęgé:gęˀ ‘I will see’ hab gahshegowánę̱htaˀ ‘you have
stat agé:gę: ‘I have seen it (stative)’ pride in them’
imp tęˀ ta:gé:gęh ‘I will not or should [gwayǫ] ‘kiss someone’
not see it’ hab gegwáyǫ̱haˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[gęhęnih] ‘abuse, be mean to some- punc ęgégwayǫ:ˀ ‘I will kiss’
one or something’ stat agégwayǫˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
hab shegę́hęnih ‘you are mean to [gweni, gweny] ‘win a competition,
her’ beat someone’
[gęhęˀdę, gęhęˀdanih] ‘be sick of or punc ahǫwadi:gwé:niˀ ‘they won a
bored with someone’, ‘be disgusted competition’

789
B Verb dictionary

H-stem, three-aspect, interactive

[hahahiyaˀkdęˀ, hahahiyaˀkdani] punc ęhéhsnǫdręˀ ‘you will follow

‘escort someone’ him’
punc dęhsheya̱ hahiyáˀkdęˀ ‘you will stat hǫwáhnǫdreˀ ‘someone is fol-
escort her across the road’ lowing him’
[hahs] ‘serve someone’ imp dǫdahehsnǫ́:dręh ‘you follow
hab sheháhseh ‘you serve her/them him back’
all the time’ [hnǫdragehsǫ] ‘follow someone
punc ęhshé:hahs ‘you will serve around’
someone’ punc ęhshenǫdráge̱hsǫ:ˀ ‘you will fol-
[hewahd, hrewahd] ‘punish some- low someone around’
one’ [hnyaˀdrę, hnyaˀdrag] ‘hang some-
punc ęgashehé:waht ‘you will pun- one’
ish them’ hab hǫwadi ̱hnyáˀdręhs ‘they hang
him, them all the time’
[hiyaˀg] ‘hold a grudge’, ‘get some-
punc ahǫwadíhnyadrę:ˀ ‘they
one’s goat’
hanged him, them’
punc aˀesa̱ hí:yaˀk ‘she got your
stat hǫwadi ̱hnyaˀdragǫh ‘they have
goat’
already hanged him (and his neck
[hkw] ‘take from someone’ broke)’
punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ahsagokwáhkwaˀ
[hǫdayęhd] ‘whip someone’
‘he grabbed the food from her’
punc ękehǫdá:yęht ‘I will whip her’
[hkwę, hkwani] ‘remove, take back
[hǫgaǫ, hǫgawi] ‘invite someone’
from someone’
hab kehǫ́gawihs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc shǫwádi ̱hkwęˀ ‘they took it
punc ęhshehǫgáǫˀ ‘you will invite
back from him again’
her/them’
[hnaˀtsaˀe] ‘spank someone’ stat kehǫ́gawi: (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc ęhyahna̱ ˀtsáˀe:k ‘he will spank [hǫnyaˀg] ‘choke someone, strangle
you’ someone’
[hnegodrah] ‘baptize someone’ hab dekǫ́:nyaˀs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
hab hǫwadi ̱hnégodrahs ‘baptism’, punc dęhéhshǫnyaˀk ‘you will stran-
‘christening’ (literally, ‘they sprin- gle him’
kle him, them’) stat dewakǫnyáˀgǫh (Sasse & Keye
stat hǫwatnegódra̱ hǫh ‘they have 1998)
been baptized’ [hrehnagehdad] ‘charge someone
[hnǫdr] ‘follow someone’ with a message’

790
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc ęhehsre̱hnáge̱hda:t ‘you will punc ęhshéhsadęˀ ‘you will carry

put the bundle (load or message) on someone on your back’
him’ [hsętrǫni] ‘make someone fat’
[hren, hre:] ‘cut something with a punc ęhsahsętrǫ́:niˀ ‘it will make you
knife’, with int prefix, means ‘cut fat’
someone’ [hsgweg] ‘shut someone up’
punc ahǫwahe:ˀ ‘he slashed him punc ęhshé:sgwe:k ‘you will shut her
with a sharp instrument’ up’
with ⌊inc n⌋ ęhǫwadiyǫwáhe:ˀ ‘they
[hshatw] ‘lay someone, something
will cut his guts, he’ll have internal
on his, her, its back’
surgery’
hab kehshá:twahs (Sasse & Keye
[hrenaˀtraˀas] ‘stab someone, some- 1998)
thing with a knife’ punc ękéhshatoˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
hab kehena̱ ˀtráˀasahs (Sasse & Keye stat kehshá:twęh (Sasse & Keye
1998) 1998)
stat kehena̱ ˀtráˀasęh (Sasse & Keye
[hsinodahdę, hsinodahdani] ‘bar
1998)
someone’s way’, with ⌊cis⌋
[hrenaˀtraˀehsd] ‘stab with a knife’, punc ętsheya̱ hsinodáhdęˀ ‘you will
with ⌊du⌋ trip someone, bar someone’s way
hab dehsehenaˀtra̱ ˀéhstaˀ ‘you stab it with your leg’
repeatedly’
[hsnyeˀ] ‘care for, look after’, with
punc dęgǫhenáˀtra̱ ˀehs ‘I will stab
⌊du⌋
you’
hab degéhsnyeˀs (Sasse & Keye 1998)
stat-prog dewage̱hena̱ ˀtraˀehsdǫ́hǫ-
punc dęgéhsnyeˀ ‘I will look after’
gyeˀ ‘I am going along stabbing
stat deyago̱hsnyéˀǫh ‘her adopted
things’
daughter’
[hrihsd] ‘bump someone’ hab, with ⌊inc n⌋ de̱haheyǫˀda̱ h-
punc ahéhihs ‘I bumped him (i.e. snyéhaˀ ‘he is a funeral director’ (lit-
with a car)’ erally, he looks after bodies)
[hrǫhwaˀs] ‘wait for someone’ [hstoda:] ‘handcuff someone’, with
punc ęgǫ́hǫhwaˀs ‘you will wait for ⌊du⌋
me’ punc atǫwadihstó:da:ˀ ‘they hand-
imp dahskrǫ́hwaˀs ‘wait for me’ cuffed him, them’
[hrowi] ‘tell someone’ [hswahęh] ‘hate, dislike someone’
punc ahshago̱hó:wiˀ ‘he told her’ hab gǫ̱hswáhęhs ‘I hate you’
imp shehó:wih ‘tell her’ punc ęhséhswa̱ hęh ‘you will hate,
[hsadę] ‘carry on one’s back’ dislike’

791
B Verb dictionary

stat agehswahę́hǫh (Sasse & Keye stat shehswáˀne:t ‘you are support-
1998) ing or backing them’
[hswaˀned] ‘support someone, [hsweˀnaged] ‘scratch someone’s
something’ back’, with ⌊du⌋
hab hadihswa̱ ˀné:taˀ ‘they are advo- imp dahsgehswe̱ˀná:ge:t ‘scratch my
cates, backers, supporters’ back!’
punc ęhsehswa̱ ˀné:dęˀ ‘you will back [htahahsd] ‘talk to someone’
up something (i.e. reinforce it)’ punc ęhshétahahs ‘you talk to her’

I-to-K-stem, three-aspect, interactive

[idagrahdę] ‘trip someone, make stat gędę́ǫˀ ‘to help each other’,
someone fall’ ‘compassion, helpfulness’
punc ęgaǫgidagráhdęˀ ‘they are go- imp dahsgí:dę: ‘pity me’
ing to trip me, make me fall’ [idręhdowi, idręhdony] ‘wake
[iˀdahswahęh.drǫ:] ‘scold someone’ someone up’
hab sheˀdáhswahęhs ‘you scold peo- hab kedrę́hdonyeˀs (Sasse & Keye
ple all the time’ 1998)
hab gakeˀda̱ hswáhęhdrǫh ‘I am go- punc ękedrę̱hdó:wiˀ ‘I will wake
ing along scolding people’ someone up’
punc ahadi ̱ˀdahswa̱ hę́hdrǫ:ˀ ‘they stat kedręhdowíˀǫh (Sasse & Keye
scolded, reprimanded’ 1998)
punc, with ⌊srf⌋ agęni ̱ˀdahswa̱ hę́h- [iˀdrǫ] ‘elect someone’
drǫ:ˀ ‘I got scolded’ punc ahǫwadíˀdrǫˀ ‘they placed or
[iˀdanyo, iˀdanyohsr] ‘beat some- elected him’
one up’ [ihnǫg] ‘call someone’, with
punc ahǫwę̱ˀdá:nyoˀ ‘someone beat ⌊transl/cis⌋
him up, broke his spirit’ hab tagíhnǫ:s ‘he is calling me’
stat hǫwęˀdanyóhsrǫh ‘he is beating punc hęgíhnǫ:k ‘I will call’
him up’ stat hewagi ̱hnǫ́:gǫh ‘I have called it’,
[idę:, idęǫ] ‘pity someone, feel sorry ‘it has called me’
for someone, show compassion for imp haˀsíhnǫ:k ‘call it!’
someone’ [itsgod] ‘elect someone’
hab kedę́ǫhs ‘I feel compassion for punc ahǫwaditsgó:dęˀ ‘they elected
her’ him, them’
punc ęhshé:dę:ˀ ‘you will pity her, [jęˀd] ‘cure someone, practice
show mercy, compassion’ medicine’

792
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

hab skeję́ˀtaˀ ‘you cure me (all the hab hǫwaˀkáowe:s ‘he is hen-
time)’ pecked’
punc ęjísajęˀt ‘it will cure you again’ [kdaˀe] ‘peck something’
stat swagéję̱ˀdǫh ‘it did cure me punc ęhsákda̱ ˀe:k ‘it will peck you’
again’
[kdǫ] ‘test someone’
[jihgwaˀe] ‘punch someone’, with
punc ęgwá:kdǫ:ˀ ‘I will test you all’
⌊(du)⌋
hab dehadijíhgwa̱ ˀehs ‘they punch [kdǫhn] ‘go and see someone’
it’ punc ękékdo̱hnaˀ ‘I am going to see
punc ahaji ̱hgwáˀe:k ‘he punched it’ her’
stat gajíhgwaˀe:ˀ ‘it punches’ [kwanǫd] ‘feed someone’
[ˀkaowe:s] ‘be hen-pecked’ punc ęgékwanǫ:t ‘I will feed it’

N-, O-, Ǫ-stem, three-aspect, interactive

[naˀgyę] ‘imitate, mock, mimic [ˀnigǫhaˀd, ˀnigǫhaˀdani] ‘cheat, be-

something’, with ⌊(cis)⌋ tray someone’
punc ętsnáˀgyę:ˀ ‘you will imitate, hab gasheˀnigǫhaˀdá:nih, gasheˀnigǫ́haˀ-
mock, mimic, something’ taˀ ‘you betray them continually’
punc ędisanáˀgyę:ˀ ‘it will mock, im- punc ęhsheˀnigǫ́haˀt ‘you will cheat
itate you’ someone’
[nętsine] ‘take someone by the arm’, [ˀnigǫhaˀe] ‘offend someone’
with ⌊cis⌋ punc ęhsheˀnigǫ́haˀe:k ‘you will of-
punc ętgǫnę:tsí:neˀ ‘I will take you by fend someone’
the arm’
[ˀnigǫhaę, ˀnigǫha:] ‘bother some-
[neˀwahdę, neˀwa:(h)dę] ‘startle one, annoy someone’, with ⌊du⌋
someone, surprise someone’ hab dehsknigǫ̱há:haˀ ‘you are annoy-
punc ęheyęneˀwá:dęˀ ‘I will startle ing me’
him’ punc dęhsnigǫ̱háęˀ ‘you will be an-
[nhaˀ] ‘hire, command someone’ noying’
hab kenhaˀs ‘I hire her’ stat dewaknigǫ́ha:ˀ (Sasse & Keye
punc ęgáshenhaˀ ‘you will com- 1998)
mand, hire them’ [ˀnigǫhagęni, ˀnigǫhagęny] ‘cor-
stat kenháˀǫh ‘I have hired her’ rupt (someone’s mind), indimidate
[nheˀ] ‘take someone’s part’ someone’, with ⌊du⌋
hab tkenheˀs (Sasse & Keye 1998) hab deshago̱ˀnigǫ̱hágęnyǫhs ‘he in-
punc ętké:nheˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) timidates people all the time’

793
B Verb dictionary

punc dęhsheˀnigǫhagę́:niˀ ‘you will punc ęhshenǫgéhaˀt ‘you will breast-

corrupt (someone’s mind)’ feed’
[ˀnigǫhaˀgweni] ‘out-think some- [ˀnǫhda:] ‘give someone a ride, put
one’ someone in’
punc ęhsheˀnigǫhagwé:niˀ ‘you will punc ęhshéˀnǫ̱hda:ˀ ‘you will put
out-think her’ someone in something, you will give
[ˀnigǫhawęnye] ‘entertain some- someone a ride’
one’, with ⌊du⌋ [nǫhdǫhahsd, nǫhdǫh] ‘force some-
imp desheˀnigǫhawę́:nye:ˀ ‘entertain one, rape someone’, with ⌊cis⌋
her/them!’ hab tgasheyęnǫ́hdǫhahs ‘you force
[ˀnigǫhnyaˀg] ‘discourage some- people all the time’
one’, with ⌊du⌋ punc dahshagonǫ́hdǫ̱hahs ‘he forced
punc dęhsheˀnigǫ́hnyaˀk ‘you will her’
discourage someone’
[nǫhkw] ‘love someone’
[ˀnigǫhodagw] ‘persuade someone, hab kenǫ́hkwaˀ ‘I love her’
best someone, influence someone, punc ęké:nǫ:hk ‘I will love her’
get the better of someone, bribe
someone’ [nǫhnyaˀg] ‘hurt someone, some-
punc ęhseˀnigǫhodá:goˀ ‘you will thing’
persuade her, overcome her mind’ punc ęhshénǫhnyaˀk ‘you will hurt
someone’
[ˀnigǫhoˀdrǫ] ‘console someone’
punc ęhsheˀnigǫ́hoˀdrǫ:ˀ ‘you will [nǫhǫhkw] ‘revere, treat like kin,
console someone’ (literally, ‘you will recognize as kin’, with ⌊du⌋
caress someone’s mind’) hab dekenǫ̱hǫ́hkwaˀ ‘(she who) I re-
[ˀnigǫhǫni] ‘persuade someone, in- vere as’
fluence someone’ punc dęgakenǫ́hǫhkwa:k ‘I will rec-
punc ęhsheˀnigǫhǫ́:niˀ ‘you will in- ognize them as my kin’
fluence, persuade someone’ [nǫhǫnyǫ] ‘thank, greet someone’,
[nǫd] ‘feed someone, an animal’ with ⌊du⌋
hab knǫ́:dęh, knǫ́:dęhs (Sasse & Keye hab dekenǫhǫ́nyǫ̱haˀ ‘I thank some-
1998) one’
punc ęknǫ:t ‘I will give it something punc dękenǫhǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ ‘I will greet,
to eat, feed it’ thank someone’
stat knǫ́:dę: (Sasse & Keye 1998) stat dekenǫhǫ́:nyǫˀ ‘I am thanking
with ⌊inc n⌋ ahshago̱hyá:nǫ:t ‘he someone’
gave her fruit’ [nohsgaˀdę, nohsgaˀdani] ‘tickle
[nǫgehaˀd] ‘breast-feed’ someone’, with ⌊du⌋

794
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc dęsheˀno̱hsgáˀdęˀ ‘you will punc atǫwanyáoha:k ‘someone

tickle her’ squeezed his neck’
[nǫhweˀ] ‘like someone, something’ [ǫgweˀdanęhsgw] ‘kidnap some-
hab kenǫ́hweˀs ‘I like her’ one’
punc ęyénǫ̱hweˀ ‘she will like it’ punc ęhsǫgwe̱ˀdáne̱hsgoˀ ‘you will
stat aknǫ́hwe̱ˀǫh (Sasse & Keye kidnap someone’ (literally, ‘you will
1998) steal a person’)
[nǫhweˀ] ‘dislike’, with ⌊neg⌋
hab dehsnǫ́hweˀs ‘you dislike (it’ [ǫhwad] ‘show someone something,
charge someone’
[nǫhwetsoˀd] ‘turn someone upside
down’, with ⌊du⌋ hab gǫhwá:taˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
punc dęgǫnǫ̱hwétsoˀdęˀ ‘I am going punc ęgǫ́hwadęˀ ‘I will show her
to turn you upside down, upend you! something’ (Sasse & Keye 1998)
(said in anger)’ stat agǫ́hwa:t (Sasse & Keye 1998)
[noˀjanhǫd] ‘put in someone’s false [ǫhwadę, ǫhwadani] ‘show some-
teeth’ one something’, ‘charge some-
imp shenoˀjanhǫ́:dęh ‘put her teeth thing’
in’ hab gǫyǫhwadá:nih ‘I am showing
[ˀnosh, ˀnoshaˀ] ‘be jealous, envi- you something’
ous’, ‘envy someone’ punc ęgǫ́hwadęˀ ‘I will charge’
hab seˀnó:shahs ‘you are envious’ stat agǫhwadá:nih ‘it has shown me
punc ękéˀnoshaˀ ‘I will envy (her)’ something’
stat keˀnósha̱ ˀǫh (Sasse & Keye
1998) [ǫni, ǫny] ‘make, earn for someone’
[ˀnyagęhd] ‘help someone escape’ punc ashagonǫhsǫ́:niˀ ‘he built a
punc ęhshéˀnyagęht ‘you will help house for her’
someone escape’ [ǫnyę] ‘make for someone’
[nyaohag] ‘squeeze someone’s punc, with ⌊inc n⌋ ahǫwadinǫ̱h-
neck’, with ⌊du⌋ sǫ́:nyęˀ ‘they built him a house’

R, S-stem, three-aspect, interactive

[ręnanhodǫgw] ‘take over a song someone’

from someone’ punc ahǫwaihǫ́:dęˀ ‘they delegated
punc ahǫwaęnanho:dǫ́goˀ ‘he took him a duty’
over the song’
stat shǫgwáihǫ:t ‘he has appointed
[rihǫd] ‘appoint someone, delegate us’

795
B Verb dictionary

[rihowanahd] ‘praise, flatter some- agree with someone, back up some-

one’ one’
punc ęhshehowá:naht ‘you will hab hehwáwa̱ ˀseh ‘I agree with him,
praise her, uplift her spirits, flatter support him’
her’ punc ęhehsrihwá:waˀs ‘you will back
[rihwaˀehsd] ‘blame someone’ up his ideas’
punc ahsríhwa̱ ˀehs ‘you are blaming [rihwęhdę] ‘give someone an impor-
something’ tant message’
[rihwaˀehsdę, rihwaˀehsdanih] ‘de- punc ęgǫihwę́hdęˀ ‘I will give you a
mand an audience from someone’ significant message’
punc ęhǫwadi:hwáˀehsdęˀ ‘they will [rǫhyagęˀd] ‘make someone work
unravel his message, demand an au- hard or labour’, ‘make someone
dience from him’ groan with effort’
[rihwahniyaˀd] ‘marry someone’ punc ęhsaǫhyágę̱ˀdahk ‘it is going to
stat shagodi:hwahníya̱ ˀdǫh ‘they make you groan’
got married by the Chiefs’, ‘a mar- [ˀshęnyǫgw, ˀshęny] ‘overpower
riage ceremony’ (usually sanctioned someone’ (physically)
by the Chiefs), (literally, ‘they hard- hab sheˀshę́:nyǫhs ‘you are always
ened them’) overpowering someone’, ‘you are
[rihwanǫhǫkw] ‘care for, respect overpowering someone right now’
someone’s ideas’ punc ęhsheˀshę́:niˀ ‘you will over-
punc a:goihwanǫ́hkwa:k ‘I should power someone’
care for, respect your ideas’ stat sheˀshę́nyǫgwęh ‘you have over-
[rihwawaˀs] ‘support someone, powered someone’ (a long time ago)

T-, W-, Y-stem, three-aspect, interactive

[tragwęˀdaˀe] ‘slap someone on the [wiyanęhsgw] ‘kidnap a child’

cheek’ punc ahawiyánę̱hsgoˀ ‘he stole a
punc ęhsetragwę́ˀda̱ ˀe:k ‘you will child, kidnapped’
slap it (on the cheek)’ stat gawiyanę́hsgwęh ‘a kidnapped
[wayęhsdę, wayęhsdani] ‘train, child’
teach, educate someone’ [yaˀda:] ‘rely on someone’, ‘hold a
punc ęhshewayę́:sdęˀ ‘you will train, small baby or creature in one’s
educate, teach someone’ arms’
stat gawayęhsdá:ni: ‘it has been hab hǫwadiyáˀda:ˀs ‘they rely on
taught’ him, them’

796
 B.2 Three-aspect verbs

punc ękéya̱ ˀda:ˀ ‘I will rely on her’, ‘I [yaˀdinyǫd] ‘re-elect someone’,

will take her up (as in, hold a baby)’ with ⌊transl,rep⌋
[yaˀdadidrǫhgwahǫ] ‘make some- punc hǫsahǫwadiyáˀdinyǫ:t ‘they re-
one twitch’ elected him, them’
punc ahoya̱ ˀdadidrǫgwáhǫ:ˀ ‘it made [yaˀgyenęhd] ‘knock someone
him twitch’ down bodily’
[yaˀdagenh] ‘help someone’ hab keyaˀgyenę́htaˀ (Sasse & Keye
punc a:hyayaˀdagé:nhaˀ ‘he would 1998)
help you’ punc ęhsyaˀgyé:nęht ‘you can knock
it down’
[yaˀdagęny, yaˀdagęni, yaˀtgęny,
yaˀtgęni] ‘beat someone (in a race), stat keyaˀgyenyę́hdǫh (Sasse & Keye
compete with someone’ 1998)
punc ahǫwadiya̱ ˀdágęnye:ˀ ‘they [yahsd] ‘name someone, something’
raked him over the coals’ (literally, stat hodíya̱ hsdǫh ‘they have named
‘they dragged him around’) it’
punc ęhsheya̱ ˀtgę́:niˀ ‘you will beat [yahsǫ] ‘call someone’s name, call
someone (in a race)’ bingo’, with ⌊cis/transl⌋
[yaˀdahdrǫgw] ‘caress someone’ hab tgyahsǫ́haˀ ‘I call them’, ‘I am a
hab hehsyaˀda̱ hdrǫ́:gwahs ‘you are bingo caller’
caressing him now’ punc hęhshéya̱ hsǫ:ˀ ‘you will call
punc ęhehsya̱ ˀdahdrǫ́:gǫˀ ‘you will someone’s name’
caress him’ [yahsǫnyǫ] ‘call someone’s name
stat hehsyaˀda̱ hdrǫ́:gwęh ‘you did over and over’, with ⌊cis/transl⌋
caress him’ hab tseyáhsǫnyǫh ‘you call some-
[yaˀdahen, yaˀdahe:] ‘operate on one’s name all the time’
someone’ (with a scalpel) punc ętseya̱ hsǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ ‘you will be
hab hǫwadiyaˀdahé:neh ‘they oper- calling someone’s name’
ate on him’ [yaǫˀdatren(y)ahnǫ] ‘make an inci-
punc ahǫwadiya̱ ˀdáhe:ˀ ‘they gave sion in a cadaver’, with ⌊du⌋
him an operation’ hab de̱hadiyaǫˀdatręnyáhnǫˀ ‘they
[yaˀdatsęi, yaˀdatsęny] ‘find some- made an incision in a cadaver’
one’ punc atadiyaǫdaˀtrenáhnǫ:ˀ ‘they
punc haˀǫdagyaˀdatsę́iˀ ‘she found made an incision in a cadaver’
her over there’ [yęde:] ‘recognize someone’
[yaˀdiˀdre] ‘drag someone’ punc ęgyę́:de:ˀ ‘I will recognize it’
stat hǫwaya̱ ˀdíˀdre̱hsrǫh ‘someone imp ta:gaesayę́:de: ‘they will not rec-
is going along dragging him’ ognize you’ (i.e. a disguise)

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B Verb dictionary

[yehd] ‘wake up someone’ (literally, ‘they help us’)

hab keyę́htaˀ (Sasse & Keye 1998) punc ęgǫyená:waˀs ‘I will help you’
punc ęhsyeht ‘you will wake up imp sheyéna̱ ˀwaˀs ‘you help her’
something’ [yesahd] ‘condemn, slander, insult
stat keyę́hdǫh (Sasse & Keye 1998) someone’
hab sheyéhsa̱ htaˀ ‘you always insult,
[yenahs] ‘police’
slander someone’
hab shagodiyé:nahs ‘policemen’ (lit-
punc ęhsyé:saht ‘you will condemn,
erally, ‘they help us’)
slander, insult someone’
[yenawaˀs] ‘help someone’ disl stat sheyehsa̱ hdáhnǫh ‘you are
hab ǫkiyenáwa̱ ˀseh ‘they are helpers’ slandering, insulting someone’

B.3 List of e-verbs

The (e-verb) or simple verb of motion ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ only takes a-series prefixes. In
contrast, complex motion verbs with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ take either a, p, or interactive
pronominal prefixes. See (§26.1.) Examples are provided in the following sections.

B.3.1 Simple verb of motion ⌊e⌋ ‘go’ with a-series personal prefixes

[e] ‘go, move, be someplace’ some place’, with ⌊part,du,cis⌋

iheˀs ‘he is here’ naˀdę́:tge:ˀ ‘I will come back over
ęhsne:ˀ ‘you two will go together’ here, return’
í:geˀ ‘I am walking, moving’ [e] ‘go back’, ‘return home’, ‘be
[e] ‘come here or this way, be here’, back’, with ⌊rep⌋
with ⌊cis⌋ ihsgeˀs ‘I have returned home’
dagę́:neˀ ‘they (z) are coming’ ihsgeˀ ‘I am going back’, ‘I am on my
[e] ‘wander’, ‘be on that side’, with ę: way back’, ‘I am back (from where I
‘side’ tsǫ: ‘just’ ⌊cis⌋ came)’
ę tsǫ: itseˀs ‘you wander (all the [e] ‘go over there’, ‘be over there’,
time)’, ‘you are over there’ with ⌊transl⌋
[e] ‘come this way’, ‘be (from) here’, haˀge:ˀ ‘I went there’
with gaǫ ‘somewhere’ ⌊part,cis⌋ [e] ‘go back there’, ‘return there’,
gaoˀ nǫdáhse:ˀ come this way! with ⌊transl,rep⌋
[e] ‘come back’, ‘return to here from hęhsge:ˀ ‘I am going back there’

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 B.3 List of e-verbs

B.3.2 Complex verbs of motion with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, taking a-series

pronominal prefixes

[at-hah-in-e] srf-road-lead-go stat desęna̱ háwęnyeˀ ‘you are crazy

‘walk’ (not right in the mind)’
stat gatahí:neˀ ‘I am walking’ [gy-e] fly/float-go ‘fly, float’
[daks-e] run-go ‘run’ stat gegye:ˀ ‘I came flying’
stat kdakseˀ ‘I am running’ stat gagyeˀ ‘it is flying along’
[hręd-e] lead-go ‘lead’
[daks-enǫ-gy-e] run-originate.from-
stat krę́:deˀ ‘I lead, go in front’
prog-go ‘run about, roam’
hab-prog gadidaksénǫgyeˀ(s) ‘they [ˀnyęd-e] try-go ‘come for a pur-
are running about, roaming’ pose’
stat se̱ˀnyę́:deˀ ‘you came for a pur-
[e-:ˀah] contr…go-dim ‘walk along pose’
any old way’
[od-agy-e] stand-prog-go ‘go along
stat tihé:ˀah ‘he is just walking
doing something’
along’
stat-prog gajiˀdodá:gyeˀ ‘someone
[ehd] ‘do on purpose, go on purpose’ is going along crying’
hab gehtaˀ ‘I usually go’ [rad-e] climb-go ‘climb’
[ę-nah-awęnye] du-…srf-scalp-stir stat srá:deˀ ‘you are climbing’
‘be crazy, go insane’ [yaˀt-gahiy-e]body-agile-go ‘be
punc dęsęna̱ háwęnye:ˀ ‘you will go quick, agile’
insane’ stat gyaˀtgahí:yeˀ ‘I am quick’

⌊ˀdre⌋ ‘to drag’ versus ⌊(i)ˀdre⌋ ‘to drive’

The verbs ⌊ˀdre⌋ ‘to drag’ and ⌊(i)ˀdre⌋ ‘drive’ are similar but take different pronom-
inal prefixes and aspect suffixes. The verb ⌊ˀdre⌋ ‘to drag’ is inflected as a regular
three-aspect verb. It takes a-series prefixes with habitual and punctual forms,
and p prefixes with stative forms (6).

(6) ⌊ˀdre⌋ ‘to drag’

a. habitual
i. ge̱ˀdreˀs
ge̱-ˀdre-ˀs
1s.a-drag-hab
‛I drag it’

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B Verb dictionary

ii. ge̱ˀdreˀ
ge̱-ˀdre-ˀ
1s.a-drag-hab
‛I am dragging it’
b. punctual
i. ęgéˀdre:ˀ
ę-gé-ˀdre:-ˀ
fut-1s.a-drag-punc
‛I will drag it’
ii. agéˀdre:ˀ
a-gé-ˀdre:-ˀ
fac-1s.a-drag-punc
‛I dragged it’
c. stative
i. agéˀdrǫ:
agé-ˀdr-ǫ:
1s.p-drag-stat
‛I dragged it, I am dragging it’

In contrast, the motion verb ⌊(i)ˀdre⌋ ‘to drive, ride along, come by vehicle’ takes
p prefixes with all aspect forms (7).

(7) ⌊(i)ˀdre⌋ ‘drive’, ‘ride along’, ‘come by vehicle’

a. habitual
sa̱ˀdreh
sa̱-ˀdre-h
2s.p-drive-hab
‛you are driving’
b. punctual
i. dędíhsa̱ˀdre:ˀ
dędí-hsa̱-ˀdre:-ˀ
du.fut.cis-2s.p-drive-punc
‛you will drive over here’
ii. ędyagodíˀdre:ˀ
ę-d-yagodí-ˀdre:-ˀ
fut-cis-3ns.fi.p-drive-punc
‛they will come by vehicle’

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 B.3 List of e-verbs

c. short ⌊e-ˀ⌋
agéˀdreˀ
agé-ˀdre-ˀ
1s.p-ride.along-stat
‛I am riding along’
d. no-aspect
desáˀdre:
de-sá-ˀdre:
du-2s.p-drive.no_aspect
‛drive over here’

B.3.3 Complex verbs of motion with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, taking a-series neuter
pronominal prefixes

[adag-ye-ˀs-ǫˀ] ‘continue on’, with [hsgo-gy-e] ‘float (something alive)’

⌊transl-…refl-do-pl-distr⌋ ⌊noun-float-go⌋
stat haˀgadagyéˀsǫˀ ‘it continues on stat-prog gahsgó:gyeˀ ‘it (some-
endlessly’ thing alive) is floating’
[ade-ˀdre] ‘drag oneself’, ⌊srf-drag⌋ [igyohg-ǫgy-e] ‘a crowd roaming
about’ ⌊crowd-prog-go⌋
hab wadéˀdreˀs ‘a drag’, ‘a car’ (old
word, literally, ‘it is dragging itself’) hab-prog gęgyóhgǫgyeˀs ‘people
roaming about’
[ag-yenǫ-gy-e] ‘fly about, float [nǫhgwij-ǫgy-e] ‘come back all wet,
about’ ⌊srf-originate.from- saturated’ ⌊rep…saturated-prog-
float/fly-go⌋ go⌋
hab-prog gadigyenǫ́:gyeˀ(s) ‘they stat-prog sganǫhgwijǫ́:gyeˀ ‘it came
are flying, floating about in the air back all wet’
(seeds, etc.)’
[rihwa-gehd-e] ‘be a responsibility’
[at-hnaw-ine] ‘flowing liquid’ ⌊srf- ⌊matter-have.around.one’s.neck-
flowing.water-lead⌋ go⌋
stat watnawí:neˀ ‘flowing liquid’ stat gaihwagéhdeˀ ‘responsibility’

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B Verb dictionary

B.3.4 Complex verbs of motion with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, taking p-series

pronominal prefixes

[ad-ahsehd-ǫh-ǫgy-e] ‘sneak [hs-e] ‘ride on a back, ride horse-

around’ ⌊srf-hide-stat-prog-go⌋ back’ ⌊lower.back-go⌋
hab-prog honadahsehdǫ́hǫgyeˀs punc agéhse:ˀ ‘I rode’, ‘I came riding’
‘they are sneaking around’ stat hohseˀ ‘he is riding a horse’
[ad-awęnye] ‘walk about, wander’ [naˀsgw-ęh-ęgy-e] ‘skip along’ ⌊du-
⌊du…srf-stir⌋ skip-stat-prog-go⌋
punc dęyagodawęnyéhahk ‘they will stat-prog deyagonaˀsgwę̱hę́:gyeˀ
be walking about’ ‘she is skipping along’
stat deyagodáwęnyeˀ ‘she is walk-
[nęhęd-e] ‘guard, stand in a line’
ing about’
⌊du…stand.in.line-go⌋
[ade-ˀgw-ęh-ęgy-e] ‘avoid, run
stat de̱hodinęhę́:deˀ ‘they are al-
away’ ⌊srf-avoid-stat-prog-go⌋
ready guarding’, ‘they are standing
hab-prog sadeˀgwę̱hę́:gyeˀs ‘you are
there (in a line formation)’, ‘they are
avoiding’
guarding’
[ad-rihwa-gehd-e] ‘have a
[nhǫd-agy-e] ‘have in one’s mouth
responsibility’ ⌊srf-matter-
while moving’ ⌊mouth/opening-
have.around.one’s.neck-go⌋
prog-go⌋
stat sadrihwagéhdeˀ ‘your responsi-
bility (literally, it is hanging on you)’ stat-prog honhǫ́dagyeˀ ‘he has it in
his mouth as he moves’
[at-gęihsd-ǫh-ǫgy-e] ‘travel along’
⌊part…srf-postpone/move-stat- [ǫnhe-gy-e] ‘be stillborn’ ⌊neg…live-
prog-go⌋ prog-go⌋
stat-prog niyagotgęihsdǫ́hǫgyeˀ stat-prog deagǫnhé:gyeˀ ‘she was
‘she is travelling as she is moving’ stillborn’, ‘she came to be not living’
[at-hnaˀtsa-gęny-e] ‘be fidgety’ [sha-in-e] ‘be governed’ ⌊string-
⌊srf-buttocks-compete-go⌋ lead-go⌋
stat satnaˀtsagę́:nyeˀ ‘you are fid- stat ǫgwahsháineˀ ‘we all are gov-
gety’ erned’

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 B.4 List of counting verbs

B.3.5 Complex verbs of motion with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, taking p-series neuter
pronominal prefixes

[ad-ręd-agy-e] ‘soar’ ⌊srf-hover- stat ohjíˀgreˀ ‘it is cloudy’

prog-go⌋
hab-prog odrę́dagyeˀs ‘it is soaring [gy-e] ‘fly, float’ ⌊fly/float-go⌋
(e.g. a bird)’ stat ogyeˀ ‘it is floating along (in the
[ahjiˀgr-e] ‘be cloudy’ ⌊[cloud-go⌋ water)’

B.3.6 Complex verbs of motion with ⌊e⌋ ‘go’, taking interactive

pronominal prefixes

[hnǫdr-e, hnǫdrę] ‘follow someone’ [hsr-e] ‘follow someone, chase

⌊follow-go⌋ someone’ ⌊follow/chase-go⌋
punc ęhéhsnǫdręˀ ‘you will follow hab hǫwádi ̱hsreˀs ‘they follow him
him’ around all the time’
stat hǫwáhnǫdreˀ ‘someone is fol- punc ęséhsre:ˀ ‘you will chase’
lowing him’ stat hadíhsreˀ ‘they follow’
[hnǫdr-agy-e] ‘follow along with [nęts-in-e] ‘take someone by the
someone’ ⌊follow-prog-go⌋ arm’ ⌊du-arm-lead-go⌋
stat-prog hǫwahnǫdrá:gyeˀ ‘some- punc ętgǫnętsí:neˀ ‘I will take you by
one is following him along’ the arm’

B.4 List of counting verbs

Verbs used in counting are listed next. (Counting verbs were previously described
in §31.2.)

B.4.1 ⌊ǫ:⌋ ‘be a certain amount’, ‘three or more’, ‘a few’

(8) a. ní:yǫ:
ní:-y-ǫ:
part-3s.p-a.certain.number.stat
a certain amount

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B Verb dictionary

b. niyǫ́:hah
ni-y-ǫ́:-hah
part-3s.p-a.certain.number.stat-dim
few, a little bit
c. haˀdé:yǫ:
haˀ-dé:-y-ǫ:
transl-du-3s.p-a.certain.number.stat
many different things
d. nigę́:nǫ:
ni-gę́:n-ǫ:
part-3p.a-a.certain.number.stat-dim
a number of animals
e. nigá:gǫ:
ni-gá:g-ǫ:
part-3ns.fi.a-a.certain.number.stat-dim
a number of women, or a mixed group of males and females
f. ni ̱hę́:nǫ:
ni ̱-hę́:n-ǫ:
part-3ns.m.a.-a.certain.number.stat-dim
a number of men

(9) dó: ní:yǫ:

how a.certain.amount
‘how many’, ‘how much’

(10) ne-tóh ní:yǫ:

the-that.one a.certain.amount
‘that many’, ‘that much’

(11) To: gi ̱ˀ–tsǫ́: ní:yǫ:.

that.one just–only a.certain.amount
‘that’s just all there is’

(12) Ęhę́:ˀ do:–gwáˀ ní:yǫ:.

yes how–just.so a.certain.amount
‘Yes, there are some.’

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 B.4 List of counting verbs

(13) ahsę́h nigę:nǫ́: dagus

three a.number.of.animals cats
‘three cats’

(14) ahsę́h niga:gǫ́: ga:gǫgwéˀdase:

three a.number.of.women young.women
‘three young women’

(15) ahsę́h ni ̱hę:nǫ́: hadiksa̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh

three a.number.of.men boys
‘three boys’ (Michelson 2011)

B.4.2 ⌊+age:⌋ ‘a number of items’

(16) ⌊du-…noun+age:⌋ ‘two items’
a. degaˀahdrá:ge:
de-ga-ˀahdr-á:ge:
du-3s.a-basket-two.or.more.stat
two baskets
b. deyohǫnáˀdage:
de-yo-hǫnáˀd-age:
du-3s.p-potato-two.or.more.stat
two potatoes

(17) ⌊part-…noun+age:⌋ ‘a number of items’

nigana̱ˀjá:ge:
ni-ga-na̱ˀj-á:ge:
part-3s.a-pail-two.or.more.stat
‛an amount of pails, a number of pails’

(18) ⌊number part-…noun+age:⌋ ‘three or more items’

ahsę́h niyohǫnáˀdage:, ahsę́h nigahǫnáˀdage:
ni-yo/ga-hǫnáˀd-age:
part-3s.p/3s.a-potato-two.or.more.stat
‛three potatoes’

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B Verb dictionary

(19) ⌊du-…noun+agehagyeˀ⌋ ‘two at a time’

degaˀdre̱hdage̱há:gyeˀ
de-ga-ˀdre̱hd-age̱-h-á:-gy-e-ˀ
du-3s.a-car-two.or.more.stat-euphonic.h-prog-go-stat
‛two cars at at time’

B.4.3 ⌊d⌋ ‘stand’ and ⌊ǫd⌋ ‘attached’

The verb ⌊d⌋ ‘stand’ is used when counting one object. (See §12.2.4 for more
details.)

(20) ⌊rep-…noun-joinerA-t⌋ ‘be one object’

sganǫ́hsa:t
s-ga-nǫ́hs-a:-t
rep-3s.a-house-joinerA-stand.stat
‛one house’
cf. ganǫ́hsaˀ
ga-nǫ́hs-aˀ
3s.a-house-nsf
‛house’

The verb ⌊ǫd⌋ ‘attached’ can be used to mean ‘a certain number of attached ob-
jects’.

(21) ⌊number part-…noun-ǫd⌋ ‘three or more attached items’

ahsę́h niwęˀni ̱hsgáǫt
ahsę́h ni-w-ęˀni ̱hsg-á-ǫt
three part-3s.a-wheel-joinerA-attached.stat
‛it has three wheels’
cf. hyeíˀ niwęˀni ̱hsgáǫt
‛it has six wheels’

B.4.4 ⌊a…-yahshe:⌋ ‘two living things’

(22) a. degadiyáhshe:
de-gadi-yáhshe:
du-3p.a-two.living.things.stat
‛two living things’
cf. degadiyahshé: dagus
‛two cats’

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 B.4 List of counting verbs

b. degaeyáhshe:
de-gae-yáhshe:
du-3ns.fi.a-two.living.things.stat
‛two females’ (or a male and a female)
cf. degaeyahshé: ga:gǫgwéˀdase:
‛two young women’
c. de̱hadiyáhshe:
de̱-hadi-yahshe:
du-3ns.m.a-two.living.things.stat
‛two males’
cf. de̱hadiyahshé: hadiksá:ˀah
‛two boys’ (Michelson 2011

B.4.5 ⌊p…-gaˀdeˀ⌋ ‘many’

(23) a. otgáˀdeˀ
o-t-gáˀdeˀ
3s.p-srf-many.stat
‛often, many, lots’
b. odeˀdre̱hdága̱ˀdeˀ
o-d-e-ˀdre̱hd-á-ga̱ˀdeˀ
3s.p-srf-joinerE-car-many.stat
‛a lot of cars’
cf. ga̱ˀdréhdaˀ
ga̱-ˀdréhd-aˀ
3s.a-car-nsf
‛car’
c. onátga̱ˀdeˀ
on-át-ga̱ˀdeˀ
3p.p-srf-many.stat
‛lots of, many’
cf. onatga̱ˀdéˀ daksáeˀdohs
‛many chickens’
d. de̱ˀode̱ˀdrehdagáˀdeˀ
de̱ˀ-o-d-e̱-ˀdrehd-a-gáˀdeˀ
neg-3s.p-srf-joinerE-car-joinerA-many.stat
‛not many cars’

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B Verb dictionary

e. Tréhs gotgáˀdeˀ. Ji ̱ˀtréhs gotgáˀdeˀ.

(ji ̱ˀ)-trehs go-t-gáˀdeˀ
too.many 3ns.fi.p-srf-many.stat
‛There are too many people’
f. agéga̱ˀdeˀ
agé-ga̱ˀdeˀ
1s.p-many.stat
‛I have many’
g. aknyǫhsagáˀdeˀ
ak-hnyǫhs-a-gáˀdeˀ
1s.p-squash-joinerA-many.stat
‛I have a lot of squash’

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Appendix C: Particle dictionary
C.1 Particle order
Many particles occur in fixed positions. For example, particles such as gęh must
appear after another word, but also close to the beginning of the clause that they
occupy (1, square brackets denote clause boundaries). Other particles, including
dęˀ (also shown in 1) appear at the beginning of the clause. Yet others, including
neˀ occur before the word they modify (for example, before kso:t in 1). Finally
some particles can appear wherever relevant (see §C.1). Particle order is described
in the following sections.

(1) [Sęnǫ́hdǫh gęh] [dęˀ niyǫgyeháˀ neˀ kso:t?]

you.know Q what what.she.is.doing the grandmother
“Do you know what our grandma is doing?” (Henry 2005)

Initial particles and groups

The following particles and groups occur before the verb whose meaning they
modify, specifically at the beginning of independent clauses (2, see §36.9.2.)

(2) A:we:tˀah ‘pretend to…’ Hę:-dah ‘and’ (often used at the

A:yę:ˀ ‘it seems’, ‘I guess’ beginning of lines in speeches)
Ahgwih ‘don’t’ Gyę:gwaˀ hne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe this
Ahgwih…hwę:dǫh ‘don’t ever’ time’, ‘just maybe’
Ahgwih gwaˀ ‘don’t’ (g)yę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe
Awęˀ ‘it is said’ this time’
Da ne:ˀ ‘and’ Ne:ˀ giˀ ‘just’
Da: nę: dah ‘and now’ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess’
(da:) ne:ˀ hniˀ ‘also’, ‘and’, ‘too’ Ne:ˀ giˀ …, … hniˀ ‘and that too’,
Da: (ne:ˀ) onęh ‘and now’ ‘and that also’
Ewa:dǫˀ ‘Yes, you may’, ‘it is Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this
permissible’ time’
C Particle dictionary

Ne:ˀ giˀ tsǫ: gwahs ‘that’s Neˀ to gyę:ˀ ‘that’s what’

basically all’ (neˀ) to: … ne:ˀ ‘that’s it’, ’that’s’
Ne:ˀ he:gę: ‘just’, ‘only’, ‘all’ Neˀ toh ‘that is’
Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ ‘also too’ Neˀ (tsǫ:) gwaˀ toh ‘and also just
Ne:ˀ hne:ˀ ne:ˀ ‘in fact, it is!’, ‘It is’ this’
Ne:ˀ hniˀ ne:ˀ ‘and that also’ Ni:ˀ gyę:ˀ, ni:ˀ gę:ˀ ‘I did’
Ne:ˀ (neˀ) ‘it is’, ‘that is’, ‘that’s Tęˀ gyę:ˀ nę neˀ ‘what on earth?’,
what’ ‘emphatically no’
Ne:ˀ nęh ‘it is when’ Tęˀ hne:ˀ ‘definitely not’
Ne:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess it is’ Tęˀ hne:ˀ (neˀ) ‘not that one’
Ne:ˀ seˀ gyę:ˀ ‘you know’ Tęˀ to ne:ˀ ‘not really’
Ne:ˀ tsǫ: shęh ‘but’ Tęˀǫ:, tęˀ ǫh ‘maybe not’
Neˀ gwa̱ ˀ-toh ‘also’ Toh-geh ‘and then’
Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ (emphasis) To gę-ǫ / gaǫ (ne:ˀ), to ǫ ‘whether’,
Neˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ gyę:ˀ / negęˀnagęˀ ‘if’, ‘I wonder if’
‘that is what’ Waˀ gyęh ‘listen!’, ‘excuse me’,
Neˀ seˀ ‘that’s just the one’, ‘would you…?’
’that’s just who’ Waˀ-jih ‘wait!’

The following particles or groups occur at the beginning of special clause types
– either independent clauses (i), dependent clauses (d), direct questions (dq), or
indirect questions (iq). The relevant clause types are listed after each particle in
((3) (For clause types, see §36.9.2.)

(3) particles that appear at the beginning of the clause

Dęˀ … hoˀdęˀ ni- ‘how’, ’in what (gaoˀ) shęh niyo:weˀ ‘until,
way’ (d, iq, dq) before’ (d)
Dęˀ … ni:yoht ‘why’ (i, d) Gwahs heyohe: ‘the most, -est’ (i,
Dęˀ …(hoˀdęˀ) ‘what’ (d, iq, dq) d)
Do: … ni- ‘how much’, ’how (gwahs) shęh ni- ‘as…as’ (i, d)
many’ (d, iq, dq) Gyę:gwaˀ a:- ‘if’ (i, d)
Do: niyowi ̱hsda̱ ˀe:ˀ ‘when’, ‘at Gyę:gwaˀ ta:- ‘if not’ (i, d)
what time’ (i, d) Hę:gyęh, hę:gyeh (shęh) … ‘no
Gaę … hǫ:weh ‘where, which matter how much’, ‘whether or
place’ (d, dq) not’, ‘even if’ (d)
Gaoˀ … ni- ‘less so, -er’ (i, d) Heyohe:ˀ ‘more, -er’ (i, d)

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 C.1 Particle order

Hne:ˀ (shęh) ‘because’ (d) Shęh ‘because’ (d)

Hwę:dǫh ‘when’ (dq, iq) Shęh ‘that’ (d)
I:nǫh … gaoˀ neˀ ‘far from’, Shęh hǫ:weh ‘the place where’,
‘inadequate amount’ (i, d) ‘whereabouts’ (d)
Ji … trehs … shęh ‘too much so Shęh naˀonisheˀ / tsaˀonisheˀ / tsi-
for’, ‘too much so’ (i, d) ‘while’, ’when’ (d)
(ji) trehs ‘because’ (d) Shęh ni:yoht ‘how’, ‘the manner
(neˀ) aǫhę:ˀęh d- ‘the most, -est, in which’ (d)
-er (of)’ (i, d) Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘as far as’, ‘as
Neˀ gyaǫhę:ˀęh d- ‘the most’, ’the much as’ (i, d)
greatest’ (i, d) Shęh noh-geh ‘even’
Ne:ˀ … ‘because’, ‘it is’ (d, i) (emphasizing the unexpected) (i,
Ne:ˀ gwahs d- ‘the most, -est’ (i, d)
d) Sǫ: … (nˀaht/nˀoht) ‘who’ (d, iq,
Ne:ˀ … hǫ:niˀ / dagaihǫ:niˀ ‘why’ dq )
(d, i) Sǫ: go:węh ‘whose’ (d, iq, dq)
Ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘this (coming) time’, Tęˀ gęh deˀ- ‘isn’t it? ‘ (i, d)
‘when’ (d, i) To … ni- ‘to that degree’ (i, d)
Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this time’, ’when’ To niyo:weˀ ‘that far’, ‘that much’
(d, i) (i, d)
Nęh ‘when’ (d) Tohgeh … hǫ:weh ‘where’ (dq)

The particles and particle groups in (4) appear directly before nouns or before
verbs functioning as “nouns”. Alternatively, they are free-standing when they
function as “pronouns” (see §6).

(4) Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’

Gaę gwaˀ…ni-noun ‘wherever noun is’
Nę:-gyęh ‘this’, ‘this one’
To:-gyęh ‘that’, ‘that one’

The following particles (proclitics) must precede another word (5). An example
is shown in (6).

(5) proclitic particles

Da: ‘and’, ‘here’
E: ‘some direction’, ‘towards’
Neˀ ‘the’ (etc.)

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(6) proclitic particle placement

ę: nahahá:dih
towards the.side.of.the.road
‘on the other side of the road’

Particles functioning as “adverbs” tend to appear clause-initially, or before the

verb whose meaning they modify. For these, see §8.

Enclitic particles
Enclitic particles must follow another word – typically, the word or phrase whose
meaning they modify. Simultaneously, these particles or groups are as close to
the beginning of their clause as possible (but obviously, cannot be first). Example
(7) lists most of the enclitic particles and groups.

(7) enclitic particles

…dęˀ hniˀ ‘for sure’ … giˀ hne:ˀ ‘but’, ‘however’

… dęˀ ni:ˀ ‘me, for sure’ … giˀ ne:ˀ ‘just’
… deˀęgwaheh tęˀ seˀ ‘but then … giˀ (tsǫ:) ‘just’, ‘really’
not really’ … gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’
… diˀ ‘so’, ‘then’ … gwahs ‘anyway’
… e:ˀ ‘again’, ‘still’ … gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right
… ę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’, ‘isn’t it?’ then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, ‘do it
…(ga:t) giˀ-shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or now!’
maybe’ … gyę:ˀ (emphasis)
…(ga:t) giˀ shęh tęˀ ‘maybe not’,
… gyę:ˀ hne:ˀ ‘it was this one, (not
‘or not’
that one)’
… gę-ǫ ‘whether’, ‘if’, ‘I wonder
… gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ (emphasis)
if…?’
… gyę:ˀ ǫh, … gęˀ-ǫh ‘maybe’, ‘I
… gę:s ‘generally’, ‘used to’,
guess’, ‘I wonder’
‘usually’, ‘normally’
… gęh ‘Q’, ‘whether’, ‘if’, ‘mind … hęˀ ‘also’, ‘too’
you’, ‘didn’t I?’, ‘is it?’ … hęˀ hne:ˀ ‘also’, ‘too’
… gęh hne:ˀ ‘how about this … hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, ‘but’
one?’ … hniˀ ‘also’, ‘and’, ‘too’
… giˀ ‘just now’ … hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’
… giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘quite’, ‘kind of’, ‘just … hya:ˀ ‘first’, ‘before anything
do it!’ else’

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 C.1 Particle order

… (neˀ) ę:ˀ ‘isn’t it so?’, ‘yes?’, … ǫh, ǫ: ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’

‘no?’, ‘innit?’ … (seˀ) hęˀ ni:ˀ ‘me too’
… ǫh ne:ˀ ‘maybe’

Final particles and groups (tags)

The following particles or particle groups tend to appear as tags at the end of
utterances (see §27.2.2). They can also be independent utterances, as in (8).

(8) a. Do:gęhs ‘isn’t it true?’

b. Do:gęhs ę: ‘isn’t it true?’
c. Ehę:ˀ gęh ‘is that right?’
d. Tęˀ gęh ‘isn’t that right?’

Free-standing particles and groups

The following particles and particle groups appear wherever relevant or inde-
pendently (9). (An exclamation mark in the translations denotes either an excla-
mation or a command.)

(9) A:wetˀahshǫ́:ˀǫh ‘it’s pretend’, Dó:gaˀ ‘I don’t know’

‘it’s make-believe’ Dó:gęhs ‘exactly’, ‘for sure’
Agí: ‘ouch!’ (expressing pain) Do:gęhs diˀ gęh ‘isn’t it true?’
Ahgwih gwaˀ ‘don’t do it!’ Do:s giˀ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’
Ahsdeh ‘get outside!’ Ehęˀ ‘yes’
Ahsǫh ‘more!’ (asking for food or Ehęˀ ę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’
drink) Ehęˀ gyę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’
Ahsǫh gęh ‘do you want more?’ Ehęˀ seˀ ‘yes indeed’
(offering food or drink) Ewa:dǫˀ gęh ‘may I?’, ‘may we?’
Ajú: ‘yikes!’ (said in response to Ewa:dǫˀ giˀ-shęh ‘maybe’,
an unpleasant sensation) ‘possibly’
Aweˀ hęgyeh tsǫ:, awęˀ hęgyeh tsǫ: Gwahs ǫ:węh seˀ ‘yes indeed’
‘let it go’ Gwaˀ ti:gę: ‘plainly’, ‘clearly’, ‘as
Da: neˀ toh ‘that’s all’ it is’
Daji:hah (gwaˀ) ‘soon’, ‘in a Gwa̱ ˀ-toh ‘exactly that’
short while’ Gwé: ‘well!’, ‘hello’
Do: i:ˀ ‘let me!’, ‘how about me?’ Háiˀ, háeˀ ‘hi’ (a word attributed

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to Oneida or Tutelo) None:ˀ, nǫne:ˀ ‘mind you’, ‘you

Hanyoh, hanyohanyoh ‘do it!’, know’
‘come on’ Nyá:węh ‘thanks’
Haoˀ ‘come on’, ‘o.k.’ Nyoh ‘you’re welcome’, ‘alright’,
Haoˀ dęˀ nyoh ‘o.k. then.’ ‘o.k.’
Haoˀ diˀ sah ‘alright’, ‘o.k.’ O: gęh? ‘really?’
Hę:gyeh (tsǫ:) ‘no matter’, ‘not O: tęˀ ǫh … (gat) giˀ-shęh
likely’, ‘not for long’, ‘never gyę:gwaˀ/ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe,
mind’ maybe not’
Hę:gyeh giˀ ‘leave well enough O:, ó:ò: ‘oh!’
alone’ Oˀ-ǫ:, o: ǫh ‘oh really?’
Hęˀęh ‘no’ Sgę:nǫ:ˀǫ́h ‘slowly’
Hoh, ho: ‘what the…?’ Sgę́:nǫˀ ‘hello’
Hoho: ‘aha!’, ‘oh no!’ Si … gwa:dih ‘move it!’ (said to a
dog)
Hotgǫˀǫh, otgǫˀ ‘what the…?’,
‘for heaven’s sake!’ Tęˀ ‘no’
Tęˀ dedó:gęhs ‘not really’, ‘it isn’t
Hoˀdęˀ ‘kind (of thing)’
true’
I:ˀ hne:ˀ ‘I am’
Tęˀ giˀ ni:ˀ/ni:s ‘no, me/you!’
I:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘me first’
Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ (daǫ:ˀ) ‘maybe
I:ˀ seˀ ‘I am’ not’
Nę: ‘look!’, ‘say,…’ Tęˀ (gwahs) ǫ:weh ‘not really’
Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this here’ Tęˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh, tęˀ gęˀǫh ‘not really’
Nę:-dah ‘here, take this’ Tęˀ i:ˀ ‘not me’
Nę:-dah ‘this way’ Tęˀ ne:ˀ de̱ˀgę: ‘it isn’t the one’
Nę: diˀ ni:s/i:ˀ ‘how about Tęˀ seˀ ‘but then, not really’
you/me?’ To tsǫ: ‘that’s enough’, ‘that’s all
Nę: ne:ˀ i:s/i:ˀ ‘how about for now’
you/me?’ Trehs giˀ gyęˀ ‘my goodness!’,
Nę: toh ‘here’, ‘this many’ ‘too bad!’, ‘that’s amazing!’
Ne:ˀ ‘yes indeed’ Tsę́: ‘oh my!’
(Neˀ) gwa̱ ˀ-toh ‘here’ (rather than Waˀ-jih hya:ˀ ‘wait a minute’,
there) ‘wait a while’, ‘wait!’

Particles or particle groups functioning as “pronouns” are also independent, oc-

curring wherever nouns can (see §6). The word order for nouns and pronouns
was described in the section on word order effects (see §32).

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 C.2 A particles

C.2 A particles
Aga:węh ‘it’s mine’, ‘it’s ours’, ‘my’, ‘our’
Verb functioning as a “possessive pronoun” (§6.2); free-standing.

(10) agá:węh
ag-á:w-ęh
1s.p-own-stat
‘mine’, ‘I own it’

Agi: ‘ouch!’
Particle functioning as an “exclamation” (§35.1), in response to pain.

(11) “Agí:!” agyohé:t onę́h awádegoˀ.

ow she.cried now she.ran.away
“Ow!” she cried and ran away. (Keye 2016, Circle Book 10, The Magic
Chair)

Ahgwih gwaˀ ‘don’t!’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of negation” (§8.6, §27.1.6); emphatic; clause-
initial.

(12) Snigǫ:há:k giˀ gyę́:ˀ shę nyó: hętse:ˀ. Ahgwíh gwaˀ

watch.out just emphasis that place you.will.go do.not emphasis
ęjisa̱hnǫhnyáˀk é:ˀ!
you.will.be.hurt again
‘Watch out as you go. Don’t get hurt again!’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 386,
Ga̱há:gǫ: dialogue)

Ahgwih hwaˀ ‘don’t!’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of negation” (§8.6, §27.1.6); emphatic; clause-
initial.

(13) Ahgwih hwaˀ a:satró:wih.

do.not this.time you.should.tell
‘You shouldn’t tell!’

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Ahgwih hwę:dǫh ‘don’t ever’

Particle group ahgwih … hwę:dǫh functions as an adverb of negation (§8.6); emphatic;
clause-initial.

(14) “Do:gę́hs oyoˀtí:yeht,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “ahgwíh ni:s hwę:dǫ́h ęhsnihs

it.is.true it.is.sharp she.said don’t you ever you.will.use.it
tó:gyęh.
that
‘“It is really sharp,” she said, “don’t you ever use it.”’ (Henry 2005)

Ahsdeh ‘outside’, ‘outdoors’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(15) Eksaˀshǫ:ˀǫ́h hniˀ ǫ:nęh tęˀ ahsdeh de̱ˀjǫ́tga̱hnyeh.

children and now not outside they.didn’t.play
‘The children no longer played in the woods.’ (Carrier et al., 2013)

(16) “O: tsé:,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “ahsdéh jatgáhnye̱hah!

oh oh.my she.said outside you.two.play
‘“Oh my,” she said, “go play outside!”’ (Henry, 2005)

Ahsǫh ‘still’, ‘yet’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(17) Ahsǫ́h ne:ˀ honákwę̱ ˀǫh.

still it.is he.is.angry
‘he is still angry.’

(18) Ahsǫ́h hodrę́:nǫ:t.

still he.is.singing
‘he is still singing.’

Related
⇒ Ahsǫh ‘more’, p. 817
⇒ Ahsǫh gęh ‘Do you want some more?’, p. 817

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 C.2 A particles

⇒ Ahsǫh ‘more’ (asking food or drink), p. 817

Ahsǫh ‘more’
Particle functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(19) Ahsǫ́h e:ˀ nihs desatwęjó:nih!

more again you you.want.it
‘You still want more!’

Related
⇒ Ahsǫh gęh ‘Do you want some more?’, p. 817
⇒ Ahsǫh ‘more’ (asking food or drink), p. 817

Ahsǫh ‘more’ (asking food or drink)

Particle; free-standing; used when asking for more food or drink.

Related
⇒ Ahsǫh ‘still’, ‘yet’, p. 816
⇒ Ahsǫh gęh ‘Do you want some more?’, p. 817

Ahsǫh gęh ‘Do you want some more?’

Particle group; a question asked when serving food or drink.

(20) Ahsǫh gęh?

more Q
‘Do you want some more?’

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Related
⇒ Ahsǫh ‘still’, ‘yet’, p. 816
⇒ Ahsǫh ‘more’ (asking food or drink), p. 817

Aju: ‘yikes!’
Particle functioning as an “exclamation” (§35.1), in response to an unpleasant sensation,
such as being splashed with cold water, ice, or snow, etc.

Akda:gyeˀ ‘beside’, ‘the edge’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3), clause-initial (21); can also be a suffix,
with a similar meaning (22, also see §11.2.3).

(21) Akda:gyéˀ hé:ye̱:t.

the.edge she.stands.there
‘She is standing on the edge.’

(22) a. ohahakdá:gyeˀ ‘along the edge of the road’

b. ganyadakdá:gyeˀ ‘along the lakeside or shoreline’

Aǫgohdǫh ‘exceptional’, ‘over the top’, ‘extremely’, ‘too much so’

Verb functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(23) Aǫgohdǫ́h oné:nǫˀ.

it.is.surpassed it.is.warm/hot.weather
‘It is exceptionally hot weather.’

Related
⇒ Ji aǫgo̱hdǫh ‘too much so’, p. 915

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 C.2 A particles

Aǫhęˀ, Aǫhaˀ ‘it’

Verb functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing.

(24) áǫhęˀ
á-ǫhęˀ
3s.p-alone.stat
‘it is alone’

Related
⇒ Neˀ aǫhę:ˀęh d-stative.verb … (shęh gaoˀ ni-stative.verb) ‘the most, -est, -er (of)’,
p. 920
⇒ Neˀ gyaǫhę:ˀęh d-stative-verb… (shęh ni-stative.verb) ‘the most’, ‘the greatest’,
p. 922

Aweˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ:, Awęˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ: ‘let it go’

Verb and particle group; free-standing expression functioning as a “command” (§27.1.5).

(25) Aweˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ:.

it.is.said no.matter just
‘Let it go!’ ‘Never mind that!’

Related
⇒ Hę:-gyęh, Hę:-gyeh ‘no matter’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:-gyeh gaę hǫ:weh ‘no matter where’, ‘no matter which place’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:-gyeh giˀ ‘leave well enough alone’, p. 899
⇒ Hę:-gyęh shęh ‘no matter how much’, ‘whether or not’, ‘even if’, p. 899
⇒ Hę:-gyęh tsǫ: ‘it doesn’t matter’, ‘never mind’, p. 900
⇒ To hę:gyeh shęh ‘really’, p. 1019

A:we:tˀah ‘it is pretend’, ‘it’s implied’

Verb, used here as a command (§27.1.5); appears before another clause or verb.

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(26) A:we:tˀáh tsǫ: dęsáˀtsǫhs.

it.is.pretend just you.will.sneeze
‘Pretend to sneeze!’

A:yę:ˀ ‘I guess’, ‘it seems’

Verb functioning as an “evidential marker” (§35.2); appears before another clause or verb.

(27) Gwé:, a:yéˀ sanǫ́hnya̱ˀgǫh.

well, it.seems you.are.hurt
‘Well, it looks like you are hurt.’

C.3 D particles
Da: ‘and’
Particle or sentence connector (Foster 1974: 189), signaling the continuation of a previous
topic (§35.4.2); clause-initial.

Related
⇒ Da: gwa:dih ‘over here’, ‘this side’, p. 820
⇒ Da: hǫ:weh hǫ: ‘this is where’, p. 821
⇒ Da: ne:ˀ, da: ne:ˀ hniˀ ‘too’, ‘also’, ‘and’, p. 821
⇒ Da: ne:ˀ onęh ‘and now’, p. 822
⇒ Da: neˀ toh ‘that’s all’, p. 822
⇒ Da: nę: dah ‘and now’; p. 823
⇒ Nę:-dah ‘this’, ‘this way’, p. 953
⇒ Nę:-dah ‘here, take this’, p. 954

Da: gwa:dih ‘over here’, ‘this side’

Particle and atypical verb da:…gwa:dih functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-
initial; gwa:dih can also be spelled or pronounced as gwai.

(28) Sǫ:, di ̱ˀ hne:ˀ nˀáht nę:gyę́h da-gwa:díh gaet?

Who, so in.fact person this.one over.here someone.is.standing
‘So then who is this standing over here?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 257,
Ga̱hwajiyá:deˀ dialogue)

820
 C.3 D particles

(29) Da: giˀ gyę:ˀ gwa:díh wanaháotrahǫˀ.

here just this.one side hats.are.lying
‘Over here are the hats.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ
dialogue)

Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Gwa:dih, Gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873

Da: hǫ:weh hǫ: ‘this is where’

Particle group da:…hǫ:weh (hǫ:) functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial;
hǫ:weh can be spelled or pronounced as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, nhǫ:weh.

(30) Da: nhǫ:weh hǫ: hęˀdrǫˀ.

here place place he.lives.here
‘This is where he lives.’

Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907

Da: ne:ˀ, Da: ne:ˀ hniˀ ‘too’, ‘also’, ‘and’

Particle group da: ne:ˀ (hniˀ) signals the continuation of a previous topic and the addition
of new information (§35.4.2); clause-initial.

(31) Da ne:ˀ hniˀ dwę́:dǫh.

and it.is also we.all.mean.it
‘That is also what we mean.’

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Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Hniˀ ‘and’, p. 903
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’, p. 930

Da: ne:ˀ onęh ‘and now’

Particle group, da: (ne:ˀ) onęh is used at the beginning of a performance (a speech); clause-
initial.

(32) Da ne:ˀ onę́h toh niyáwę̱ hdreˀ.

and it.is now that.one what.is.going.to.happen
‘and now this is what is going to happen.’

Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’, p. 930

Da: neˀ toh ‘that’s all’

Particle group and free-standing expression signaling the end of a topic (§35.4.1); often
said at the end of a speech.

(33) Da neˀ toh.

and the that
‘That’s all.’

Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Da: neˀ toh ‘that’s all’, p. 822
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’, p. 930

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 C.3 D particles

⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

Da: nę: dah ‘and now’

Particle group, signaling the beginning of a speech, etc.; clause-initial.

(34) Da: nę: dah haˀgahéˀ gaoˀ ędihswatríhs

and this.one and it.is.time closer you.will.bump.together
ęhswada̱hǫhsí:yohs.
you.will.listen
‘Now is the time to come closer and listen.’

Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Da: nę: dah ‘and now’, p. 823
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948
⇒ Nę:-dah ‘this’, ‘this way’, p. 953

Daji:hah gwaˀ ‘soon’, ‘a short while’

Particle group daji:hah (gwaˀ) functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(35) Daji:hah gwaˀ giˀ tsǫ: o:nęh sagaǫdagaidá:t neˀ

early right.then just only now they.were.feeling.better.again the
háǫgwe̱ˀdaˀ.
his.people
‘Soon his people were starting to feel better.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)
(36) Toh giˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ haˀgaeyǫ́ˀ, haˀgaǫgyǫˀsé:ˀ dají:hah.
there just also in.fact they.arrived.there, they.visited.there a.while
‘Also when they arrived, they visited for a little while.’ (Henry 2005)
(37) A:yę:́ˀ dají:hah tsǫ: o:nę́h adekwa̱hasraˀgéh aˀehę́ˀ…
it.seemed a.little.while just now on.the.table she.placed.it
‘It seemed only a little while before she put it (bread) on the table…’
(Henry 2005)

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(38) Aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Waˀgyę́h de̱hsni:yǫ́h dají:hah o:nę́h!”

she.said wait, you.two.come.in a.little.while now
‘She said, “It is time for you to come in for a little while!”’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870

Deˀę: gwaˀ-heh tęˀ seˀ ‘but then not really’

Particle group; tag (§30).

(39) deˀ-ę: gwaˀ-heh tęˀ seˀ

not-it.is.so intensifier-heh not you.know
‘but then, not really’

(40) I:wíˀ gę́:s agatganǫ́:niˀ, deˀę:-gwahéh tęˀ seˀ.

I.want usually I.am.wealthy, it.is.not-just.then not you.know
‘I want to be wealthy, but then not really.’

Related
⇒ E:ˀ, Neˀ ę:ˀ ‘isn’t it so?’, ‘yes?’, ‘no?’, ‘innit?’, p. 838
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ ⌊-heh⌋ ‘element (related to time)’, p. 891
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’

Particle modifying nouns, or words functioning as nouns (§29.7); clause-initial or phrase-
initial.

824
 C.3 D particles

Related
⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’, p. 824
⇒ Dęˀ, dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’, p. 825
⇒ Dęˀ gwaˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘whatever one (of several)’, p. 826
⇒ Dęˀ hne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’ (emphatic), p. 826
⇒ Dęˀ hniˀ ‘for sure’, p. 827
⇒ Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni- ‘how’, ‘what way’, p. 828
⇒ Dęˀ ni:ˀ ‘I am for sure’, p. 828
⇒ Dęˀ ni:yoht shęh ‘why?’, p. 829
⇒ Dęˀ ǫh hne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what on earth?’, ‘I wonder what?’, p. 829
⇒ Haoˀ dęˀ nyoh ‘o.k. then’, p. 889

Dęˀ, Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’

Particle group dęˀ …(hoˀdęˀ) functions as an indefinite (§6.5) or interrogative (§6.6) pro-
noun; clause-initial in direct questions (41–44), indirect questions (not shown), and de-
pendent clauses (45), also see §29.7.

(41) Dęˀ ni:s hoˀdę́ˀ sniya:sǫh?

what you kind you.are.called
‘What are you two called?’

(42) Dęˀ hniˀ hoˀdę́ˀ hoihoˀdęhsro̱ˀdę:?

what and kind his.kind.of.work
‘What does he do?’

(43) Dęˀ ní:s ętsahtgaˀ?

what you you.will.give.up
‘What will you give, donate?’

(44) Dęˀ ní:s sa̱ˀnigǫ̱hoˀdę:?

what you your.kind.of.thoughts
‘What are your thoughts?’

(45) Gwi:déh honǫhdǫ́ˀ [dęˀ hoˀdę́ˀ gáęnǫ̱hweˀs].

Peter he.knows what kind they.like.the.taste.of.it
‘Peter knows what they like.’

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C Particle dictionary

Related
⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’, p. 824
⇒ Hoˀdęˀ ‘kind’, p. 904

Dęˀ gwaˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘whatever’

Particle group functioning as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-standing.

(46) Tę́ˀ de̱ˀago̱hsdǫ́:ˀ neˀ dęˀ gwaˀ hóˀdęˀ… ‘She never used
not she.didn’t.use.it the what right.then kind
whatever (it was called)…’ (Henry 2005)

(47) “Neˀ gę:s he:gę́: ohneˀdra̱ˀgéh toh gę:s a:yę́:ˀ

the usually it.exists.there on.the.ground there usually it.seems
gashá:s dęˀ gwaˀ hóˀdęˀ.”
it.looks.for what right.then kind
‘It usually sees on the ground whatever will make it strong.’ (speaking of
chickens pecking at the ground) (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’, p. 824
⇒ Dęˀ, Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’, p. 825
⇒ Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni- ‘how’, ‘what way’, p. 828
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Hoˀdęˀ ‘kind’, p. 904

Dęˀ hne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’ (emphatic)

Particle group dęˀ hne:ˀ (hoˀdęˀ) functions as an indefinite (§6.5) or interrogative (§6.6)
pronoun; emphatic; clause-initial in direct questions (48), indirect questions (not shown),
and dependent clauses (not shown).

(48) Dęˀ hné:ˀ í:se:ˀ?

what in.fact you.want.it
‘What do you want?’

826
 C.3 D particles

Related
⇒ Clauses with [dęˀ … (hoˀdęˀ)] ‘what’, p. 590
⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’, p. 824
⇒ Dęˀ, dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’, p. 825
⇒ Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni- ‘how’, ‘what way’, p. 828
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901
⇒ Hoˀdęˀ ‘kind’, p. 904

Dęˀ hniˀ ‘for sure’

Particle group …dęˀ hniˀ emphasizes a fact (§35.4.4); enclitic.

(49) Agyaˀda̱hsdeˀ dęˀ hniˀ.

I’m.heavy what and
‘I am heavy for sure.’

(50) Nę́: swatgahtóh gra̱he:t. Weˀsgęhę́: neˀ hnyagwái:. Heˀtgę́h dęˀ

look you.all.look.at.it tree it.was.here the bear high what
hniˀ hegano̱ˀjoyaǫní: tó:gyęh! Nę́: ne:ˀ hǫ:níˀ
and the.marks.are.made.up.there those.ones see it.is the.reason
gonahdrǫ́ˀs neˀ ǫ́:gweh. Oyaˀdanehagwáht dęˀ hniˀ nęgyę́h
they.are.afraid the people an.amazing.body what and this.one
hnyagwái dwadó:wa:s!
bear we.are.hunting.it
‘Look at this pine tree. The bear has been here. See how high up those
marks are! See – that’s what frightens the people. This bear we are
hunting is Nyah-gwaheh, a monster bear.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’, p. 824
⇒ Hniˀ ‘and’, p. 903

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C Particle dictionary

Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni- ‘how’, ‘what way’

Particle group dęˀ … (hoˀdęˀ) ni- introduces a manner clause (§29.4); clause-initial in
direct questions (51), indirect questions (not shown), and dependent clauses [ ], (52)

(51) Asadadwęˀna̱hsáik? Dęˀ hne:ˀ hoˀdę́ˀ naˀsye:ˀ?

you.bit.your.tongue what in.fact kind how.you.did.that
‘You bit your tongue? How did you do that?’ (Mithun and Henry, 1984,
386) (Ga̱há:gǫ: dialogue)

(52) Tęˀ néˀ sga̱hoˀdę́ˀ dehoˀnigǫhaędáˀs [dęˀ hoˀdę́ˀ niyo:gyę́: neˀ

not the nothing he.doesn’t.understand what kind how.it.works the
ga̱hwísda̱ˀe:s].
clock
‘No, he doesn’t understand how time works.’ (Mithun and Henry, 1984,
508) (Aǫhdęgyǫ́heˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’, p. 824
⇒ Dęˀ, Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’, p. 825

Dęˀ ni:ˀ ‘I am, for sure’

Particle group …dęˀ ni:ˀ functions as an emphatic pronoun (§6.1); tag.

(53) Agyáˀdahsdeˀ dęˀ ni:ˀ.

I’m.heavy what the.me
‘I’m heavy.’

Related
⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’ 824
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910

828
 C.3 D particles

Dęˀ ni:yoht shęh ‘why?’

Particles and verb dęˀ … ni:yoht (shęh) introduces a causative phrase (§29.3); emphatic
(§35.4.4); clause-initial in direct questions (54–56) and indirect questions (57). Not used
in dependent clauses, where phrases like ne:ˀ dagaihǫ:niˀ ‘the reason why’, ‘that’s why’,
‘because’ are used instead.

(54) Dęˀ hné:ˀ ni:yóht shęh ahádo̱ˀne:k?

what in.fact the.way.it.is that he.withdrew
‘Why did he leave?’

(55) Dęˀ hné:ˀ ni:yóht í:se:ˀ.

what in.fact the.way.it.is you.want.it
‘Why do you want it that way?’

(56) Dęˀ diˀ hoˀdę́ˀ ni:yóht tréhs hnaˀgę:ˀ?

what so what the.way.it.is too late
‘Why was it so late?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 508, Aǫhdęgyǫ́heˀ dialogue)

(57) Honǫhdǫ́ˀ diˀ gęh Gwí:deh [dęˀ ni:yóht shęh Tina

he.knows so Q Peter what the.way.it.is that Tina
gowanawę́ˀdagaˀs]?
she.likes.the.taste.of.sugar
‘Does Peter know why Tina likes candy?’

Related
⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’ 824
⇒ Shęh ‘because’, p. 982

Dęˀ ǫh hne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what on earth?’, ‘I wonder what?’

Particle group dęˀ oh ne:ˀ (hoˀdęˀ) functions as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); clause-
initial in direct questions (58), indirect questions (59), and dependent clauses (not shown).

(58) Ogaˀǫ́h nę́:gyęh! Dęˀ ǫ-hne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ? Dó:s nawę́ˀdaweht!

it.is.good this! What I.wonder-in.fact kind? Very it.is.sweet!
‘This is good! What is this? This is sweet!’ (Carrier et al., 2013)

829
C Particle dictionary

(59) [Dęˀ ǫ-hné:ˀ na:ya:wę́h] gyę:gwáˀ gwe:gǫ́h hęhné:ˀ

What I.wonder-in.fact it.would.happen if all also.in.fact
a:gaǫgya̱ˀdáhk neˀ agǫ́gwe̱ˀdaˀ?
I.could.share.with.them the my.people?
‘I wonder what would happen if I could share this with my people?’
(Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Clauses with Dęˀ … (hoˀdęˀ) ‘what’, p. 590
⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’ 824
⇒ Hoˀdęˀ ‘kind’, p. 904
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Oh ne:ˀ ‘maybe’, p. 975
⇒ Oh, Ǫ:, Ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974

Diˀ ‘so’, ‘then’

Particle signaling acknowledgement of something just said (§35.3.3); enclitic.

(60) Dó:gęhs diˀ gęh?

true so Q
‘Is that true then?’
(61) Gaę diˀ nhǫ:wéh nihsweˀs o:nęh?
which then place you.are.someplace now
‘Where then are you now?’
(62) Hwę:dǫ́h diˀ ęje:yǫˀ?
when then she.will.return
‘When then is she going to return?’
(63) I:s diˀ gęh hne:ˀ?
you then Q in.fact
‘How about you then?’
(64) Ęhę́ˀ sgę́:nǫˀ. Nęˀ diˀ ní:s?
yes fine and so you
‘I am fine thanks. And you then?’

830
 C.3 D particles

(65) Sanǫhǫkdá:niˀ gęh diˀ?

you are.sick Q so
‘Are you sick then?’

(66) Ęhsnéˀ gęh diˀ?

we.two.will.go.together Q then
‘Are you coming along then?’

(67) Do: diˀ nęyónisheˀ?

how then it.will.take.some.time
‘So how long will it take?’

Do: ‘how’
Particle do: followed by verb beginning with ⌊ni-⌋ part prefix and functioning as an
“adverb of manner” (§8.4, §29.5); clause-initial.

(68) Do: nigá:nǫ:?

how it.costs.a.certain.amount
‘How much does it cost?’

(69) Do: ní:waˀs?

how it.is.a.certain.size
‘How big is it?’

(70) Do: niyá:gaˀ?

how she.is.a.certain.size
‘How big is she / it?’

(71) Do: nitgá:deˀ?

how it.stands.out
‘How high is it?’

(72) Do: niyohwihsdáˀe:ˀ?

how the.way.it.strikes.the.metal
‘What time is it?’

(73) Do: nisohsriyáˀgǫh?>

how you.have.crossed.a.number.of.winters
‘How old are you?’

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C Particle dictionary

(74) Do: diˀ niyó:weˀ?

how so it.is.a.certain.distance
‘How far is it then?’

(75) Do: gwaˀ niyóhsrage:?

how this.time it.is.two.or.more.winters
‘How many years is it?’

Related
⇒ Do: ‘how’, p. 831
⇒ Do: gwaˀ ni:yǫ: ‘a certain amount’, ‘a certain measure’, ‘however much’, p. 832
⇒ Do: i:ˀ ‘let me’ ‘how about me?’, p. 833
⇒ Do: ni-…nisheˀ ‘how long’, ‘how much time’, p. 833
⇒ Do: ni+…ǫ: ‘how many people’ p. 834
⇒ Do: niyowi ̱hsda̱ ˀe:ˀ ‘what time is it?’, ‘when?’, p. 834

Do: gwaˀ ni:yǫ: ‘a certain amount’, ‘a certain measure’, ‘however

much’
Particle group and verb functioning as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-standing.

(76) Do: gwaˀ ni:yǫ́: ęsagá:dęˀ.

how.much right.then a.certain.amount it.will.cost.you
‘It is going to cost you a certain amount.’

(77) “Do: gwaˀ ní:yǫ: neˀ, neˀ giˀ

how.much right.then a.certain.amount the the just
ęhadigá:nyaˀk.
they(males).will.pay.for.it
‘However much they will use to pay for it.’ (Henry 2005)

832
 C.3 D particles

Related
⇒ Do: ‘how’, p. 831
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870

Do: i:ˀ ‘let me!’, ‘how about me?’

Particle group and free-standing expression; also see (§27.1.5).

(78) Do: i:ˀ!

how me
‘Let me!’ ‘How about me!’

Related
⇒ Do: ‘how’, p. 831
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910

Do: ni-…nisheˀ ‘how long’, ‘how much time’

Particle plus verb, do: … ni-…nisheˀ ‘how long’ functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2,
§29.5); clause-initial.

(79) Dó: gwaˀ nęyóni ̱sheˀ?

how emphasis it.will.take.time
‘How long will it take then?’

(80) Dó: gwaˀ naˀóni ̱hsheˀ?

how emphasis it.took.time
‘How long did it take?’

Related
⇒ Do: ‘how’, p. 831

833
C Particle dictionary

Do: ni+…ǫ: ‘how many’, ‘how much’

Particle plus verb ⌊ni+…ǫ:⌋ ‘be a certain number of’, used with counting and measuring
(§29.5, §31); clause-initial.

(81) Do: nigá:gǫ:?

how a.number.of.people
‘How many people (females or mixed group)?’

(82) Do: nihę́:nǫ:?

how a.number.of.males
‘How many men?’

(83) Do: ní:yǫ:?

how a.number.of.things
‘How many?’, ‘How much?’

(84) Do: ni:yǫ́: ga̱hna:ˀ?

how a.number.of.things gas
‘How much gas is in there?’

Related
⇒ Do: ‘how’, p. 831

Do: niyowihsdaˀe:ˀ ‘what time is it?’, ‘when?’

Particle and verb functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2, §29.9); clause-initial in inde-
pendent clauses (direct questions, (85) and dependent clauses (86)

(85) Do: niyowihsdaˀe:ˀ?

how it.is.a.certain.time
‘What time is it?’

(86) Daskro:wíˀ [do: niyowihsdaˀe:ˀ ęsahdę́:diˀ].

you.tell.me how it.is.a.certain.time you.will.leave
‘You tell me when you are going to leave.’

834
 C.3 D particles

Related
⇒ Do: ‘how’, p. 831

Do:gaˀ ‘I don’t know’

Particle functioning as an “evidential marker” (§35.2); free-standing.

(87) Sam:
Sǫ: diˀ hne:ˀ nˀaht?
who so in.fact who
‘Who is it?’
Lila:
Dó:gaˀ.
I.don’t.know
‘I don’t know.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 441, Dwęnǫhsanékahǫˀ dialogue)

Do:gęhs ‘really’, ‘very’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(88) …tréhs a:yę́:ˀ o:nę́h [do:gę́hs ganǫ́:ˀ ohǫ́na̱ˀdaˀ].

…because it.seems now [really it.is.expensive potatoes]
‘…because it seems like potatoes are really expensive now.’ Mithun &
Henry 1984: 420, Ęswayętoˀ Gęh? dialogue)

(89) A:yę́:ˀ [do:gę́hs desawayęnhá:ˀǫh].

it.seems [really you.are.busy]
‘You really looked busy.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 494, Ękníyętoˀ dialogue)

Related
Do:gęhs ‘it’s true’, ‘exactly’, ‘just so’, ‘isn’t it true?’, p. 835
Do:gęhs diˀ gęh ‘it’s true’, ‘isn’t it true?’, p. 836
Do:gęhs ę: ‘it’s true’, ‘exactly’, ‘just so’, ‘isn’t it true?’, p. 836

835
C Particle dictionary

Do:gęhs, Do:gęhs ę:ˀ ‘it’s true’, ‘exactly’, ‘just so’, ‘isn’t it true?’
Particle asking for or providing confirmation (§35.3.1); tag (§27.2.2) or free-standing.

(90) Wę̱ hnihsri:yó: wáˀneˀ, dó:gęhs?

it.is.a.nice.day today, true
‘It’s a nice day today, innit?’

(91) Wę̱ hnihsri:yó: wáˀneˀ, dó:gęhs ę:ˀ?

it.is.a.nice.day today, true affirm
‘It’s a nice day, innit?’

Related
⇒ Do:gęhs ‘really’, ‘very’, p. 835
⇒ Do:gęhs diˀ gęh ‘it’s true’, ‘isn’t it true?’, p. 836
⇒ Do:gęhs ę: ‘it’s true’, ‘exactly’, ‘just so’, ‘isn’t it true?’, p. 836

Do:gęhs diˀ gęh ‘it’s true’, ‘isn’t it true?’

Particle group asking for confirmation (§27.2.2); free-standing.

(92) Dó:gęhs diˀ gęh?

True so Q
‘Is that true then?’

Dohga:ˀah ‘a few’
Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5).

(93) do̱hga:ˀah
do̱hg-a:ˀah
noun-small.stative
‘a few’

Do:s ‘really’, ‘very’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

836
 C.3 D particles

(94) O:nę́h do:s aˀohdrǫ́:k neˀ hnyagwáiˀ.

now really it.became.fearful the bear
‘Fear filled the heart of the great bear for the first time.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(95) Ogaˀǫ́h nę́:gyęh! Dęˀ ǫhne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ? Do:s nawę́ˀdaweht!

it.tastes.good this what I.wonder thing really sweet
‘This is good! What is this? This is sweet!’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(96) Ó:, neˀ giˀ do:s aˀagyatgęˀsé:ˀ.

oh the just really we.looked.at.it
‘Oh, then we really had a good look.’ (Henry 2005)

(97) Akeyatgahtóˀ, o:nę́h do:s agyǫ́:gyaˀt.

I.looked.at.her now really I.laughed
‘I looked at her, and really started laughing.’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Do:s giˀ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’, p. 837

Do:s giˀ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’

Particle group functioning as an “agreement marker” (§35.3.1); free-standing.

(98) Do:s giˀ.

really just
‘Just so.’, ‘Indeed.’

Related
⇒ Do:s ‘really’, ‘very’, p. 836
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865

837
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C.4 E, Ę particles
E:ˀ ‘again’, ‘still’
Particle functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); enclitic.

(99) Jidwahshé:t giˀ gyę:ˀ e:ˀ.

let’s.count just that.one again
‘Let’s count it again then!’

(100) Hehshę:da:gé:ˀ e:ˀ.

he.is.lying.over.there again
‘He is lying over there again!’

(101) Ahsǫ́h e:ˀ nihs desatwę:jó:nih!

more again you you.want.it
‘You still want more!’

(102) Neˀ giˀ ę:ˀ e:ˀ toh iheˀs.

it just affirm again that.one he.is
‘He is here again!’

(103) Tsę: e:ˀ neˀ satró:wi:.

Oh.my, again the you.talk.about.it
‘You are talking about that again!’ (said in exasperation)

Ę:ˀ, Neˀ ę:ˀ ‘isn’t it so?’, ‘yes?’, ‘no?’, ‘innit?’

Particle group …(neˀ) ę:ˀ functions as a tag question or, in answers, to convey affirmation
(§27.2.2); enclitic.

(104) Enǫhwéˀs ę́:ˀ?

She.likes.it affirm
‘She likes it, doesn’t she?’

(105) Wę̱ hnihsri:yó: wáˀneˀ, neˀ ę́:ˀ?

it.is.a.nice.day today, the affirm
‘it is a nice day, innit?’

838
 C.4 E, Ę particles

Related
⇒ Ę:, E: (possible atypical verb), p. 839

⌊ę:, e:⌋ (possible atypical verb)

⌊ę:, e:⌋ may be an atypical verb. The following words may be related.

(106) a. ne:ˀ ‘it is’

b. de̱ˀgę: ‘it isn’t’
c. niwa:gęˀ ‘so many’ (Henry 2005)
d. gę:s ‘usually’
e. he:gę: ‘all’
f. ę:ˀ ‘it is so’, ‘affirmative’
g. ti:gę: ‘something odd’

Related
⇒ Equative sentences with linking verbs né:ˀ ‘it is’ or de̱ˀgę: ‘it isn’t’, p. 574
⇒ E:ˀ, Neˀ ę:ˀ ‘isn’t it so?’, ‘yes?’, ‘no?’, ‘innit?’, p. 838
⇒ Gę:s ‘generally, used to, usually, normally’, p. 864
⇒ Ne:ˀ equative, p. 930
⇒ Ne:ˀ he:gę: ‘just’, ‘only’, ‘all’, p. 940
⇒ Otgaˀdeˀ neˀ niwa:gęˀ ni- ‘as many as’, p. 972
⇒ Tęˀ de̱ˀgę: ‘it isn’t’, p. 1003

Ę: gwa:dih ‘on the other side’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3, §C.4); clause-initial; gwa:dih can
also be spelled or pronounced as gwai.

(107) Ne: tęhséhsage:t ę: gwa:dih hęhsóda: ę:

it.is you.will.bend.it other side you.will.hook.it other
na̱ˀohahá:dih degyohǫ́:do:t to hǫ: hęhsóda:.
side.of.the.road another.whip there where you.will.hook.it
‘You will bend it and hook it onto another whip on the other side of the
road.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

839
C Particle dictionary

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873

Ę: ni-noun+adih ‘on the other side of noun’

Particle and incorporating verb ⌊ę: ni-noun+adih⌋ functions as an “adverb of place”
(§8.3); clause-initial.

(108) Ne: tęhséhsage:t ę: gwa:dih hęhsóda: ę:

it.is you.will.bend.it other side you.will.hook.it other
na̱ˀohahá:dih degyohǫ́:do:t to hǫ: hęhsóda:.
side.of.the.road another.whip there where you.will.hook.it
‘You will bend it and hook it onto another whip on the other side of the
road.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

(109) Ę: naganǫ̱hsa:díh ita:t.

other side.of.the.house he.is.standing
‘he is standing on the other side of the house.’

Related
⇒ E: gwa:dih ‘on the other side’, p. 839

Ęhęˀ ‘yes’
Particle functioning as an “agreement marker” (§35.3.1).

Related
⇒ Ehęˀ ę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’, p. 841
⇒ Ehęˀ gęh ‘is that right?’, p. 841
⇒ Ehęˀ gyę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’, p. 842
⇒ Ehęˀ seˀ ‘it is so’, ‘yes indeed’, p. 842

840
 C.4 E, Ę particles

Ęhęˀ ę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’

Particle group (ęhęˀ) ę:ˀ functions as an agreement marker (§35.3.1); enclitic. A speaker
can use ę:ˀ to affirm or emphasize her statement; the listener can use ęhęˀ ę:ˀ to agree.

(110) Neˀ giˀ ę:ˀ e:ˀ toh iheˀs.

neˀ just affirm again there he.is
‘he is here again!’

(111) Sam:
Háe. Wę̱ hnisri:yó: ę́:ˀ.
hi nice.day affirm
‘Hi. Nice day, isn’t it.’
Neil:
Ęhę́ˀ ę́:ˀ.
yes affirm
‘Yes it is, isn’t it.’ (Mithun and Henry, 1984, 339, Oˀdréhdatgiˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ E:ˀ, Neˀ ę:ˀ ‘isn’t it so?’, ‘yes?’, ‘no?’, ‘innit?’, p. 838
⇒ Ehęˀ ‘yes’, p. 840
⇒ Ehęˀ gęh ‘is that right?’, p. 841
⇒ Ehęˀ gyę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’, p. 842
⇒ Ehęˀ seˀ ‘it is so’, ‘yes indeed’, p. 842

Ęhęˀ gęh ‘is that right?’

Particle group and free-standing expression functioning as a “tag question” (§27.2.2).

(112) Ęhęˀ gęh?

yes Q
‘Is that right?

841
C Particle dictionary

Related
⇒ Ehęˀ ‘yes’, p. 840
⇒ Ehęˀ ę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’, p. 841
⇒ Ehęˀ gyę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’, p. 842
⇒ Ehęˀ seˀ ‘it is so’, ‘yes indeed’, p. 842

Ęhęˀ gyę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’

Particle group and free-standing expression, functioning as an “agreement marker” (§35.3.1).

(113) Neighbour:
Sgę́:nǫˀ. Se̱ˀsgęhę́:ˀ ę:ˀ gwa̱ˀtóh waˀjih?.
Hello, you.were.here affirmation just.now not.long.ago
‘Hello. Weren’t you here a while ago?’
Sam:
Ęhę́ˀ gyę́:ˀ.
yes this.one
‘Yes I was.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 441, Dwęnǫhsanekahǫˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Ehęˀ ‘yes’, p. 840
⇒ Ehęˀ ę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’, p. 841
⇒ Ehęˀ gęh ‘is that right?’, p. 841
⇒ Ehęˀ seˀ ‘it is so’, ‘yes indeed’, p. 842

Ęhęˀ seˀ ‘it is so’, ‘yes indeed’

Particle group and free-standing expression, functioning as an “agreement marker” (§35.3.1).

(114) Ęhęˀ seˀ.

Yes you.know
‘Yes indeed.

842
 C.4 E, Ę particles

Related
⇒ Ehęˀ ‘yes’, p. 840
⇒ Ehęˀ ę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’, p. 841
⇒ Ehęˀ gęh ‘is that right?’, p. 841
⇒ Ehęˀ gyę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’, p. 842
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977

Ęwa:dǫˀ ‘yes, you may’, ‘it is permissible’

Verb functioning as an evidential marker (§35.2).

(115) Ęhęˀ, ęwá:dǫˀ.

yes it.will.be.possible
‘Yes, you may.’

(116) Né:ˀ giˀ aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Ęwa:dǫ́ˀ, ęwa:dǫ́ˀ ojikeˀdáˀ sdǫ́:hah

it.is just she.said, it.is.possible, it.is.possible salt a.little
ęhsnihs, deyohsaít hniˀ.”
you.will.use, pepper also
‘And then she said, “Use a little salt, and pepper too.”’

(117) Ó:, neˀ gíˀ gyę:ˀ aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Owidra:htáˀ hniˀ ęwa:dǫ́ˀ

Oh, the just this.one she.said, butter and it.is.possible
ęhsráh neˀ onáˀda:ˀ.”
you.will.spread the bread
‘Oh, and she also said, “There is butter to spread on your bread.”’ (Henry
2005)

(118) Swasha:ˀsé:k shęh taˀdewę̱ hnihsragé: ęwa:dǫ́ˀ

you.remember that every.day it.is.possible.
daedwadęnǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ.
we.should.give.thanks
‘Remember every day is a good day, and we can give thanks for that.’
(Carrier et al. 2013)

843
C Particle dictionary

(119) O:nę́h agasdáędaˀ. Ęwa:dǫ́ˀ ganadagǫ́: hękné: ó:nęh.

now it.stopped.raining. it.is.possible to.town we.will.go.there now
‘Now the rain has stopped. We can go to town now.’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 212, Satrǫ́:nih dialogue)

Related
⇒ Ewa:dǫˀ gęh ‘may I’, ‘may we’, p. 844
⇒ Ewa:dǫˀ giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘a possibility’, p. 844

Ęwa:dǫˀ gęh ‘may I’, ‘may we’

Particle group functioning as question ; clause-initial; (also see §35.2).

(120) Ęwa:dǫ́ˀ gęh ęgatgǫhsóhai?

it.is.possible Q I.will.wash.my.face
‘May I wash my face?’
(121) Ęwa:dǫ́ˀ gęh neˀ ohnégagriˀ?
it.is.possible Q the soup
‘May we have some soup?’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Ewa:dǫˀ ‘yes, you may’, ‘it is permissible’, p. 843
⇒ Ewa:dǫˀ giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘a possibility’, p. 844

Ęwa:dǫˀ giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘a possibility’

Particle group functioning as an “evidential marker” (§35.2).

(122) ęwa:dǫˀ giˀ shęh

it.will.be.possible just that
‘maybe’

844
 C.5 G particles

Related
⇒ Ewa:dǫˀ ‘yes, you may’, ‘it is permissible’, p. 843
⇒ Ewa:dǫˀ gęh ‘may I’, ‘may we’, p. 844

C.5 G particles
⌊gaˀ-⌋ element (referring to an approximate location)
Element appearing in several particle groups; describes an approximate location.

Related
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘around’, ‘anywhere’, ‘thereabouts’, p.
846
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah tohgeh ‘thereabouts’, p. 847
⇒ Tęˀ gaˀ-toh ‘nowhere’, ‘not anywhere’, p. 1004

⌊-ga:ˀ⌋ element (referring to living beings)

⌊-ga:ˀ⌋ element appearing in several particle combinations; enclitic; refers to living be-
ings.

Related
⇒ Sǫ:-ga:ˀ ‘anyone’, ‘any living thing’, p. 997
⇒ Sǫ:-ga:ˀah ‘someone’, ‘anyone’, ‘anything’, p. 997
⇒ Tęˀ sǫ:-ga:ˀ ‘nobody’, ‘no one’, p. 1014

Gaˀ-toh, Tęˀ gaˀ-toh ‘nowhere’, ‘not anywhere’

Particle group (tęˀ) ga̱ ˀ-toh functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

845
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(123) Ga̱ˀ-toh tsǫ: ta:setsę́i:.

nowhere only you.will.find.it
‘You just won’t find it anywhere.’

Related
⇒ ⌊Gaˀ-⌋ element (referring to a location), p. 845
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘around’, ‘anywhere’, ‘thereabouts’, p.
846
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah tohgeh ‘thereabouts’, p. 847
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ Tęˀ gaˀ-toh, Gaˀ-toh ‘nowhere’, ‘not anywhere’, p. 1004

Gaˀ-to:hah ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘around’, ‘anywhere’,

‘thereabouts’
Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(124) Ga̱ˀto:háh todáhsdǫh.

somewhere he.is.hiding.there
‘he is hiding somewhere, someplace.’

(125) Ga̱ˀtoháh tsǫ: ęse:tsę́iˀ.

somewhere only you.will.find.it
‘You will just find it someplace.’

(126) Si gi ̱ˀ-shę́h hwaˀ gwa:díh ga̱ˀtoháh tganí:yǫ:t.

over.there maybe this.time side somewhere it.is.hanging
‘Maybe it is hanging somewhere over there.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 142,
Satgęh dialogue)

Related
⇒ ⌊Gaˀ-⌋ element (referring to a location), p. 845
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah tohgeh ‘thereabouts’, p. 847

846
 C.5 G particles

⇒ Tęˀ gaˀ-toh ‘nowhere’, ‘not anywhere’, p. 1004

⇒ To:hah ‘a place’, ‘a time’, p. 1025

Gaˀ-to:hah tohgeh ‘thereabouts’

Particle group ga̱ ˀ-to:hah … tohgeh functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); when used
figuratively, it refers to an approximate amount; clause-initial.

(127) Ó:, agiˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ a:yę́:ˀ degrǫ́ˀ nigahwi ̱hsda:gé: gęh, ga̱ˀtó:hah
oh, I.said just that.one I.guess eight dollars Q, somewhere
neˀ enesdanyaˀktaˀ tohgéh degahwi ̱hsda:gé: hne:ˀ neˀ gajíhwaˀ.
the saw there two.dollars also the hammer
‘Oh, I guess I said about eight dollars for the saw, didn’t I, and two
dollars for the hammer.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 159,
Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)

Related
⇒ ⌊Gaˀ-⌋ element (referring to a location), p. 845
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘around’, ‘anywhere’, ‘thereabouts’, p.
846
⇒ Tęˀ gaˀ-toh ‘nowhere’, ‘not anywhere’, p. 1004
⇒ To:hah ‘a place’, ‘a time’, p. 1025

Gaę ‘which’
Particle modifying nouns or words functioning as nouns; does not occur alone; phrase-
or clause-initial; asks for information about a specific person, place, or object (from
among a set of people, places, or objects).

Related
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ gwa:dih ‘whichever way’, ‘whichever side’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ hǫ:weh ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘wherever’, ‘around’, p. 848

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⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni- ‘whichever one (of several)’, ‘whichever person’, p. 850
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni-noun ‘wherever noun is’, p. 851
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ tsǫ: ‘wherever’, ‘somewhere’, p. 852
⇒ Gaę hǫ:weh ‘which place’, ‘where’, p. 852
⇒ Gaę niyó:weˀ ‘how far’, ‘which distance’, p. 853
⇒ Hę:gyeh gaę hǫ:weh ‘no matter where’, ‘no matter which place’, p. 898

Gaę gwaˀ gwa:dih ‘whichever way’, ‘whichever side’

Particle group gaę gwaˀ gwa:dih functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial;
gwa:dih can also be spelled or pronounced as gwai; a following verb likely requires the
⌊ni-⌋ part, ⌊d-⌋ cis, or ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl prefix.

(128) Ętsatwada:séˀ gaę-gwaˀ gwai hęhse:ˀ dęhsatga̱hdǫ́:nyǫˀ.

you.will.come.around whichever way you.will.go you.will.take.a.look
‘Whichever way you go, look around.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

Related
⇒ Gaę ‘which’, p. 847
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ hǫ:weh ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘wherever’, ‘around’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni- ‘whichever one (of several)’, ‘whichever person’, p. 850
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni-noun ‘wherever noun is’, p. 851
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ tsǫ: ‘wherever’, ‘somewhere’, p. 852
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Gwa:dih, Gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873

Gaę gwaˀ hǫ:weh ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘wherever’, ‘around’

Particle group gaę gwaˀ…hǫ:(weh) functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial;
the following verb requires the ⌊ni-⌋ part, ⌊d-⌋ cis, or ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl prefix; hǫ:weh can
be spelled or pronounced as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, or nhǫ:weh. Gaęgwaˀ hǫ:weh can be used
in a figurative sense to mean ‘around’ or ‘about’ (133–134)

(129) Gaę-gwaˀ nhǫ:weh tǫwaˀnigǫ́ha:ˀ.

which-just.there place she.waits.for.him.there
‘She waits for him somewhere, someplace.’

848
 C.5 G particles

(130) To hǫ́: iwá:kˀah to hǫ́: gętsgo:t gaę-gwaˀ nhǫ́:.

there place near there place it.sits which-just.there place
‘Near there somewhere is where it will be.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

(131) O:, tę́ˀ giˀ gwahs a:yę́:ˀ de̱ˀagęnǫhdǫ́ˀ gaé nhǫ́: dǫgáhdǫ:ˀ,
oh, not just really it.seems I.do.not.know which place I.lost.it,
gaę-gwáˀ giˀ nhǫ́: nę́:-toh.
which-just.there just place that.one-there.
‘Oh, I don’t really seem to know where I lost it, somewhere.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 184, Gatgwęˀdaˀ dialogue)

(132) Gyotgǫ́:t gę:s neˀ tgá:gǫ:t hęháha:ˀ neˀ

always usually the it.is.necessary he.will.take.it.there the
gaę-gwaˀ hǫ́: hęhé:ˀ.
which-just.there place he.went.there
‘He always had to take it with him wherever he went.’ (Henry 2005)

(133) Saleslady:
Do: niyohshe:dę́h se̱hstaˀ?
how it.is.numbered you.use.it
‘What size do you wear?’
Lila:
Ó:, gaę-gwaˀ nhǫ́: neˀ géi sga̱heˀ ǫ: niyohshé:dęh.
Oh, which-just.there place the four tens speculate a.certain.number
‘Oh, somewhere around size fourteen.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225,
Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

(134) Haoˀ-dę̱ ˀnyóh. Ętgǫhnǫkséˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀ gaę-gwaˀ-nhǫ́: neˀ

ok. I’ll.pick.you.up just then which-just.there-place the
jadahkshǫ́:ˀǫh.
seven-ish
‘All right. I’ll pick you up somewhere around sevenish.’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 349, Dęˀ Hoˀdęˀ Nǫ̱sa:gye:ˀ? dialogue)

849
C Particle dictionary

Related
⇒ Gaę ‘which’, p. 847
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ gwa:dih ‘whichever way’, ‘whichever side’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni- ‘whichever one (of several)’, ‘whichever person’, p. 850
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni-noun ‘wherever noun is’, p. 851
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ tsǫ: ‘wherever’, ‘somewhere’, p. 852
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Gwa:dih, Gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907

Gaę gwaˀ ni- ‘whichever one (of several)’, ‘whichever person’

Particle group ⌊gaę (gwaˀ) … ni-⌋ functions as a definite pronoun (§6.4).

(135) gaę (gwaˀ) ní:waˀ

which right.then it.is.a.certain.size
‘whichever one (object)’

(136) gaę (gwaˀ) ní:ga:ˀ

which right.then it.is.contained.in.something
‘whichever one (object)’

(137) gaę niyéya̱ˀda:ˀ

which someone’s.body.is.contained.in.it
‘which person’, ‘which woman’

(138) Ó:, a:yę́:ˀ ní:ˀ né:ˀ gwahs knǫ̱hweˀs neˀ hehsháęˀ niyohso̱hgoˀdę:,
oh, I.guess I it.is really I.like t he brown
né:ˀ gi ̱ˀ-shę́h neˀ ojiˀtgwa:gę́:tˀah, jiˀtgwá:ˀ gi ̱ˀ-shę́h,
colour, it.is maybe the yellow.one, yellow
otgwęhji ̱ˀa:gę́:t gi ̱ˀ-shę́h. Gaę gwáˀ giˀ ni:gá:
maybe, pink maybe. whichever really just
nę́:gyęh.
it.is.contained.in.something this.one
‘Oh, the one I like the best is brown, or perhaps a light yellow, or maybe
yellow, or maybe pink. Anyway, one of these.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

850
 C.5 G particles

(139) To: neˀ gayá:ˀ, neˀ gę:s aˀeno̱hái:ˀ, tohgéh gaę gwaˀ
there the bag, the usually she.washed.it, then whichever right.then
ní:waˀ to: neˀ gayá:ˀ aˀehsrǫ́:niˀ.
it.is.a.certain.size there the bag she.fixed.it
‘…she would wash the flour bag and fix it.’ (use it for a tick/mattress)
(Henry 2005)

(140) Gaę ní:ga:ˀ i:séˀ á:se:k?

which it.is.contained.in.something you.want you.should.eat
‘Which one do you want to eat?’

Related
⇒ Gaę ‘which’, p. 847
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ gwa:dih ‘whichever way’, ‘whichever side’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ hǫ:weh ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘wherever’, ‘around’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni-noun ‘wherever noun is’, p. 851
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ tsǫ: ‘wherever’, ‘somewhere’, p. 852
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Gwa:dih, Gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873

Gaę gwaˀ ni-noun ‘wherever noun is’

Particle group ⌊gaęgwaˀ … ni-noun⌋ functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); means that
an object exists ‘wherever’; clause-initial.

(141) I:wí: neˀ gaę-gwáˀ nigátseˀdáˀ to: aˀakninǫ́:nheht,

I.think the which-just.there some.bottle there we.filled.it
‘I think that wherever the bottle (was), we filled it there,…’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Gaę ‘which’, p. 847
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ gwa:dih ‘whichever way’, ‘whichever side’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ hǫ:weh ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘wherever’, ‘around’, p. 848

851
C Particle dictionary

⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni- ‘whichever one (of several)’, ‘whichever person’, p. 850
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ tsǫ: ‘wherever’, ‘somewhere’, p. 852
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Gwa:dih, Gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873

Gaę gwaˀ tsǫ: ‘wherever’, ‘somewhere’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); likely clause-initial. A following
verb likely requires the ⌊ni-⌋ part, ⌊d-⌋ cis, or ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl prefix.

(142) gaę gwaˀ tsǫ:

which emphasis just
‘wherever’, ‘somewhere’

Related
⇒ Gaę ‘which’, p. 847
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ gwa:dih ‘whichever way’, ‘whichever side’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ hǫ:weh ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘wherever’, ‘around’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni- ‘whichever one (of several)’, ‘whichever person’, p. 850
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni-noun ‘wherever noun is’, p. 851
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Gwa:dih, Gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Gaę hǫ:weh ‘which place’, ‘where’

Particle group gaę … (hǫ:weh) functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3), clause-initial
in direct questions (143–147) and dependent clauses (148–149); hǫ:weh can be spelled or
pronounced as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, or nhǫ:weh; (also see §29.8).

(143) Gaę hne:ˀ sagyaˀdawiˀtraˀ?

Where in.fact your.coat
‘Where is your coat?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 142, Satgęh dialogue)
(144) Gaę nǫdahse:?
Where you.come.from.a.certain.place
‘Where do you come from?’

852
 C.5 G particles

(145) Gaę diˀ nhǫ:wéh ihsweˀs o:nęh?

Which so place you.are now
‘Where then are you now?’

(146) Gaę: nhǫ: tsiˀdrǫˀ?

Which place you.live.there
‘Where do you live?’

(147) Gaę hwaˀ nhǫ: hejisaihoˀdeˀ?

Which this.time place you.work.over.there
‘Where do you work?’

(148) Tę́ˀ de̱ˀagęnǫhdǫ́ˀ [gaę nhǫ́: nigá:yęˀ].

Not I.don’t.know which place it.is.placed.somewhere
‘I don’t know where it is.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 142, Satgęh dialogue)

(149) Tę́ˀ giˀ ní:ˀ de̱ˀge:gę́: [gaę-ˀǫ nhǫ́: desáhdǫ:ˀ].

Not just I I.didn’t.see.it which-I.wonder place you.lost.it
‘Well, I didn’t see where you lost it.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 184,
Gatgwęˀdaˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Gaę ‘which’, p. 847
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907

Gaę niyó:weˀ ‘how far’, ‘which distance’

Particle and verb functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial in direct ques-
tions.

(150) Gaę niyo:wéˀ heha:wé:nǫ:.

which it.is.a.certain.distance he.has.gone.there
‘How far has he gone?’

853
C Particle dictionary

Related
⇒ Gaę ‘which’, p. 847

Gaę niyo:weˀ tsǫ: ‘whenever’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); likely clause-initial in dependent
clauses. (Reported in (Sasse & Keye 1998), who attribute the phrase to a list provided by
Michael Foster.)

(151) gaę niyo:weˀ tsǫ:

which it.is.a.certain.distance just
‘whenever’

Related
⇒ Gaę ‘which’, p. 847

Gaoˀ ‘this side’, ‘this way’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(152) Gaoˀ nǫdáhse:ˀ.

this.way you.will.come.a.certain.way
‘Come this way.’

(153) Gaoˀ dǫdé:swe:!

this.way you.all.return
‘Come back!’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(154) Da:nę:dah haˀgahéˀ gaoˀ ędihswatríhs

and.now it.is.time this.way you.all.will.come.closer
ęhswada̱hǫhsí:yohs.
you.all.will.listen
‘Now is the time to come closer and listen.’

854
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Related
⇒ Gaoˀ nawahtgeh ‘the time before then’, p. 855
⇒ Gaoˀ ni- ‘less so’, p. 855
⇒ Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’, p. 856
⇒ I:nǫh gaoˀ neˀ ‘far from enough’, p. 913

Gaoˀ nawahtgeh ‘the time before then’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(155) Gaoˀ nawahtgéh tsaˀgaǫdrí:yoˀ…

towards the.time.before when.they.fought
‘The time before, when they fought…’

Related
⇒ Gaoˀ ‘this side’, ‘this way’, p. 854
⇒ Gaoˀ ni- ‘less so’, p. 855
⇒ Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’, p. 856

Gaoˀ ni- ‘less so’

Particle group ⌊gaoˀ … ni-stative.verb⌋ is used in comparisons (§31.1); gaoˀ precedes a
stative verb beginning with ⌊ni-⌋ part.

(156) gaoˀ ní:waˀ

less.so it.is.small
‘it is smaller than…’
cf. ní:-w-aˀ part-3s.a-be.a.certain.size.stat

(157) gaoˀ niwakyędáhkwaˀ

less.so a.certain.size.of.chair
‘a smaller chair’
cf. ni-w-akyędáhkw-aˀ part-3s.a-chair-be.a.certain.size.stat

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(158) Ne:ˀ gaoˀ ni:yǫ́: dęhsátahahk

it.is less.so a.certain.number you.will.walk
‘You have to walk a lot less.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)
cf. ni:-y-ǫ́: part-3s.p-certain.number.stat

(159) Ne:ˀ tsǫ́: hné:ˀ sa:dǫ́h shęh [gaoˀ ahsǫ́h niwago̱hsríya̱ˀgǫh]…

it.is just in.fact you.say that less.so still I.am.some.years.old
‘That’s not fair. Just because I am younger than you.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)
cf. ni-wag-o̱hsr-íya̱ˀg-ǫh part-1s.p-winter-cross-stat

(160) Aǫhę:ˀę́h hniˀ gyogaˀǫ́h shęh [gaoˀ nitode̱ˀnyę́:dę:]

the.most and it.tastes.good that less.so how.he.tasted.it
‘And it was sweeter than anything he had ever tasted.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)
cf. ni-t-ho-d-e̱-ˀnyę́:dę-: part-cis-3s.m.p-srf-joinerE-try-stat

Related
⇒ Gaoˀ ‘this side’, ‘this way’, p. 854
⇒ Gaoˀ nawahtgeh ‘the time before then’, p. 855
⇒ Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’, p. 856

Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ, Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’

Particle group (gaoˀ) shęh niyo:weˀ functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial
in dependent clauses; niyó:weˀ also has the short forms ní:yo:ˀ or nyo:. For more examples,
see §29.10.

(161) gaoˀ shę nyó:ˀ to: nęyá:węh…

which that it.is.a.certain.distance that it.will.happen…
‘before that happens…’ (sentence fragment)
(162) O:nę́h aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Waˀgyę́h,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “ęgehsrǫ:níˀ i:wí: tó: neˀ
now she.said just.now she.said I.will.fix.it I.want that the
sageˀaˀgéh [gaoˀ shę nyó:ˀ ęhsę́da̱ˀdraˀ.]”
on.your.hair which that it.is.a.certain.distance you.will.go.to.bed
‘“Just a minute,” she said, “I want to fix your hair right there before you
go to bed”.’ (Henry 2005)

856
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Related
⇒ Gaoˀ ‘this side’, ‘this way’, p. 854
⇒ Gaoˀ nawahtgeh ‘the time before then’, p. 855
⇒ Gaoˀ ni- ‘less so’, p. 855
⇒ Niyo:weˀ, Ni:yo:ˀ, Nyo:ˀ ‘a certain distance’, p. 958
⇒ Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘as far as’, ‘as much as’, p. 986
⇒ Shęh niyo:weˀ, Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’, p. 987
⇒ Toh niyo:weˀ ‘that far’, p. 1020
⇒ To: niyo:weˀ ne:ˀ ‘when’, p. 1021

Gaǫhęˀ, Gaǫhaˀ ‘she’

Verb functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing.

(163) gáǫhęˀ
ga-ǫhęˀ
3s.fi.p-alone.stative
‘she is alone’

Ga:t giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’

Particle group …(ga:t)-giˀ-shęh functions as a doubt or certainty marker (§35.2); enclitic.

(164) ga:t-giˀ shęh

just that
‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’

(165) To giˀ shęh há:ge:.

there just that I.should.go.there
‘Maybe I should go there.’

(166) Dęgyadawęnyeháˀ [gyę:ˀgwáˀ giˀ shęh hniˀ ęgyádawę:ˀ].

we.will.walk.about if just that and we.will.swim
‘We could go for a walk or maybe go for a swim.’ (Michelson 2011: 45)

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Related
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh tęˀ ‘maybe not’, ‘or not’, p. 858
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, p. 861
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ daˀǫ ‘maybe not’, p. 1006

Ga:t giˀ shęh tęˀ ‘maybe not’, ‘or not’

Particle group (ga:t) giˀ shęh tęˀ functions as a doubt or certainty marker (§35.2); free-
standing expression.

(167) ga:t giˀ shęh tęˀ

just that not
‘maybe not’, ‘or not’

Related
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’, p. 857
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, p. 861
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ daˀǫ ‘maybe not’, p. 1006

Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker)

Particle … gęh ‘Q’ is used with questions that imply ęhęˀ ‘yes’ or tęˀ ‘no’ answers; used
with direct questions (shown below), indirect questions, and dependent conditional clauses
(§27.2.1); enclitic. Translated as ‘whether’ or ‘if’ when used in indirect yes-no questions,
and dependent clauses.

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(168) Sgęnǫ́jih gęh?

you.are.well Q
‘Are you well?’

(169) Ędwé:ˀ gęh?

we.will.go.together Q
‘Are you coming along with us?’

(170) Ęhsnéˀ gęh diˀ?

we.will.go Q so
‘Are you coming along?’

(171) I:ˀ gęh sgí:dǫh?

I Q you.mean.me
‘Do you mean me?’

(172) Ahsǫ́h gęh?

more Q
‘Do you want some more?’

Related
⇒ Ahsǫh gęh ‘Do you want some more?’, p. 817
⇒ Do:gęhs diˀ gęh ‘it is true’, ‘isn’t it true?’, p. 836
⇒ Ehęˀ gęh ‘is that right?’, p. 841
⇒ Ewa:dǫˀ gęh ‘may I’, ‘may we’, etc., p. 844
⇒ Gęh ‘whether’, ‘if’, p. 860
⇒ Gęh ‘didn’t I’, p. 860
⇒ Gęh ‘mind you’, p. 861
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, p. 861
⇒ Gęh hne:ˀ ‘how about this one?’, p. 862
⇒ Gęh tęˀ nigęˀǫh ‘or not?’, p. 863
⇒ Ne:ˀ diˀ gęh ‘is that it then?’, ‘is that’, p. 932
⇒ Ne:ˀ gęh … ne:ˀ / neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … ‘or?’, p. 933
⇒ O: gęh ‘really?’, p. 961
⇒ Tęˀ gęh ‘no?, isn’t it?’, p. 1005
⇒ Tęˀ gęh deˀ- ‘didn’t?’, p. 1005
⇒ To gęh ǫ ne:ˀ ‘I wonder if it is’, p. 1018

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Gęh ‘whether’, ‘if’

Particle … gęh ‘whether, if’ introduces indirect yes-no questions (173) and dependent
conditional clauses (174, see §29.2); enclitic.

(173) Daskro:wíh [sanǫhǫkdá:niˀ gęh]?

you.tell.me you.are.sick Q
‘Tell me whether you are sick.’

(174) Ęsgoho:wíˀ [to gęh ne: hę́:yę:ˀ].

I.will.tell.you there Q it.is she.will.go.there
‘I will tell you if she is going.’

Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ Gęh ‘didn’t I’, p. 860
⇒ Gęh ‘mind you’, p. 861

Gęh ‘didn’t I’
Particle …gęh ‘didn’t I’ is used as a tag in rhetorical questions (which do not require an
answer; see §27.2.2); enclitic.

(175) Ó:, agiˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ a:yę́:ˀ degrǫ́ˀ nigahwi ̱hsda:ge: gęh, ga̱ˀtó:ha neˀ
Oh I.said just that.one it.seems eight dollars, Q, about the
enesdanyaˀktaˀ toh-gé degahwi ̱hsda:gé: hne:ˀ neˀ gajíhwaˀ.
saw that.one-on two.dollars in.fact the hammer
‘Oh, I guess I said eight dollars, didn’t.I, for the saw, and two dollars for
the hammer.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 159, Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)

Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ Gęh ‘whether’, ‘if’, p. 860
⇒ Gęh ‘mind you’, p. 861

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Gęh ‘mind you’

Particle …gęh ‘mind you’ signals shared knowledge (known to both speaker and listener,
§35.3.4); enclitic.

(176) Ni: gę:(gęh) tó-ne:ˀ ǫgahdǫ́:neˀ agétgwę̱ ˀdaˀ.

I mind.you it.is.that I.lost.it my.wallet…
‘Mind you, I lost my wallet.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 184, Gatgwę́ˀdaˀ
dialogue)

Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ Gęh ‘whether’, ‘if’, p. 860
⇒ Gęh ‘mind you’, p. 861

Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’

Particle group gęh …, (ga:t giˀ shęh) … nigęˀǫh ‘or?’ functions as a conjunction, connecting
a list of alternative choices, (§30). The alternatives are given between [ ] in the examples
below; gęh is enclitic and nigę́ˀǫh tends to appear at the end of the list of choices.

(177) [Hǫ:gwéh] gęh [agǫ:gwéh] nigęˀǫ́h Dan eyá:sǫh?

man Q woman or Dan someone.is.named
‘Was it a man or a woman whose name is Dan?’
(178) Sá:gaˀs gęh shęh niyogaˀǫ́hsro̱ˀdę: neˀ [daksaeˀdóhs]
you.like.the.taste.of.it Q that what.it.tastes.like the chicken
[gyǫnǫhsgwaǫ́t] [gwihsgwíhs oˀwahǫ́h] nigę́ˀǫh?
cow pig meat or
‘Do you like the taste of chicken, beef or pork?’ (p.c., Alfred Keye and
Tom Deer)
(179) [Desatahahkwáˀ] gęh neˀ o:nę́h ęhsadadrihǫnyani ̱háˀ [goyaˀdanęhgwíh
you.walk Q the when you.will.go.to.school bus
ęhsatnǫ̱hdá: ęhsehdáhk] nigę́ˀǫh?
you.will.embark you.will.go.by.vehicle or
‘Do you walk or take the bus to get to school?’ (p.c., Alfred Keye and
Tom Deer)

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(180) [Desadǫ̱hwę:jo:níh] gęh [trehs] nigęˀǫ́h [gano:ˀ]?

you.want.it Q too or expensive
‘Do you want it or is it too expensive (and so you don’t want it)?’
(Michelson and Price, 2011, 45)

(181) [Seko:níhs gęh neˀ ęhsadekǫ:níˀ oˀga:sˀáh] [(ga:t giˀ shę́h) ęhsni:nǫ́ˀ]
you.cook Q the you.will.eat evening ( or.maybe) you.will.buy
nigę́ˀǫh?
or
‘Do you cook your evening meal or buy it?’ (p.c., Alfred Keye and Tom
Deer)

Related
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’, p. 857
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh tęˀ ‘maybe not’, ‘or not’, p. 858
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, p. 861
⇒ Gęh tęˀ nigęˀǫh ‘or not?’, p. 863
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Ne:ˀ gęh … ne:ˀ/neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … ‘or?’, p. 933
⇒ …Nigęˀǫh ‘or’ (conjunction), p. 958
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ daˀǫ ‘maybe not’, p. 1006

Gęh hne:ˀ ‘how about this one?’

Particle group … gęh hne:ˀ used with questions that imply ęhęˀ ‘yes’ or tęˀ ‘no’ answers
(§27.2.1); enclitic; emphatic.

(182) Í:s diˀ gęh hne:ˀ?

you so Q in.fact
‘How about you?’ ‘Was that you?’

862
 C.5 G particles

Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901

Gęh oh, Gę-ǫ:, Ga-ǫ: ne:ˀ ‘is it that?’, ‘if it is that’

Particle group gęh ǫh (ne:ˀ) introduces conditional clauses (§29.2); enclitic. Gęh ǫh is also
spelled as gęˀǫ, gęǫ or gaǫ:.

(183) Sanǫhǫkda:níˀ gá-ǫ: / gę́-ǫ:.

you.are.sick Q-I.guess
‘I wonder if you are sick!’

Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ Ǫh ne:ˀ ‘maybe’, p. 975
⇒ Ǫh, ǫ:, ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016
⇒ To gęh ǫ ne:ˀ ‘is it that?’, ‘if it is that’, p. 1018

Gęh tęˀ nigęˀǫh ‘or not?’

Particle group … gęh (…) tęˀ nigęˀǫh ‘or not?’ functions as a conjunction, connecting
alternative choices (§30); gęh is enclitic and tęˀ nigę́ˀǫh appears at the end of the list
of choices []. In these examples, the second choice is omitted (because it is obvious or
repetitive).

(184) [Da̱héˀ] gęh tęˀ nigę́ˀǫh?

he.is.coming Q not or
‘Is he coming or not?’
(185) [Sanǫhǫkda:níh] tęˀ nigę́ˀǫh?
you.are.sick not or
‘Are you sick or not?’

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Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ …Nigęˀǫh ‘or’ (conjunction), p. 958
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Gę:s ‘generally’, ‘used to’, ‘usually, normally’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); enclitic.

(186) I:sóˀ agida̱hsgęhę́:ˀ gę:s.

much I.used.to.sleep generally
‘I generally used to sleep a lot.’

(187) Jiˀ gę:s trehs shenó:wę:.

because generally too.much you.lie
‘You lie too much’; ‘you are too much of a liar (in general).’

(188) Ne:ˀ gę:s gá:dǫh.

it.is usually I.say
‘That’s what I usually say.’

(189) Ji gę:s trehs ja̱hsę: tsęh nisnihnę́:ye:s.

too usually too.much you.two.are.fat that you.two.are.tall
‘you are generally too fat for your height.’

(190) Ahsǫhéh gę:s agahdrǫ́ˀni:.

darkness usually I’m.afraid
‘I am generally afraid of the dark.’

Related
⇒ Ę:, E: (possible atypical verb), p. 839

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 C.5 G particles

Giˀ ‘just’, ‘really’

Particle … giˀ is used for emphasis (§35.4.4); enclitic.

(191) Ne:ˀ giˀ é:dǫh.

it.is just she.means.it
‘That’s just what she means.’

(192) Sanǫhǫkda:níˀ giˀ gęh?

you are.sick just Q
‘Are you really sick?’ ‘Are you sick for sure?’

(193) Tęˀ ga̱ˀtoh. Tęˀ giˀ dehé:gę:

not anywhere not just I.did’t.see.him
‘Nowhere. I just didn’t see him.’

(194) Hoihoˀdeˀsri:yó: giˀ ne:ˀ.

he.has.a.good.job just it.is
‘He just has a good job.’

(195) Waheˀ giˀ gatahí:neˀ.

now just I.am.walking
‘I am just getting on my way.’

Related
⇒ Do:s giˀ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’, p. 837
⇒ Ewa:dǫˀ giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘a possibility’, p. 844
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’, p. 857
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh tęˀ ‘maybe not’, ‘or not’, p. 858
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, p. 861
⇒ Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘just do it!’, p. 866
⇒ Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘quite’, ‘kind of’, p. 866
⇒ Giˀ hne:ˀ ‘but’, ‘however’, p. 867
⇒ Giˀ ne:ˀ ‘it is just’, p. 868
⇒ Giˀ tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘really’, p. 869
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh ‘or maybe’, p. 886
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’, p. 886
⇒ Hę:gyeh giˀ ‘leave well enough alone’, p. 899

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⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ ‘just’ (emphasis), p. 933

⇒ Ne:ˀ/Neˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘that’s just it’, ‘that’s it for sure’, p. 934
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘before all else’, ‘first’, p. 935
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess’, p. 935
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ hniˀ ‘and that too’, ‘and that also’, p. 936
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’, p. 936
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ … giˀ shęh ‘or’, p. 937
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ tsǫ: gwahs ‘that’s really all’, p. 938
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ ni:ˀ ‘no, not me’, p. 1006
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ daˀǫ ‘maybe not’, p. 1006
⇒ Trehs giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘my goodness’, ‘too bad’, ‘that’s amazing’, p. 1028

Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘quite’, ‘kind of’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); enclitic.

(196) “O:,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “ohsno:wé:ˀah giˀ gyę:ˀ hwaˀ sa̱hsyǫˀ!”

oh she.said quicklyish just this.one this.time you.arrived.home
“Oh,” she said, “you came home kind of early this time!”(Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘just do it!’, p. 866
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881

Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘just do it!’

Particle group … giˀ gyę:ˀ adds emphasis to a command (§27.1.5); enclitic.

(197) Jidwahshé:t giˀ gyę:ˀ e:ˀ.

let’s.all.count just this.one again
‘Let’s count it again then!’

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 C.5 G particles

(198) Desaˀdraihę́h giˀ gyę:ˀ!

you(one).hurry just this.one
‘Hurry up then!’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 142, Satgęh dialogue)

(199) Haoˀ-dęˀ-nyóh. Sasęda̱ˀdráh giˀ gyę:ˀ hya:ˀ.

ok-what-acknowledge go.back.to.sleep just this.one this.time
‘O.k. Go back to bed.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 212, Satrǫ́:nih dialogue)

(200) Hó:! Heje:kni:yǫ́h giˀ gyę:ˀ!

Hoh! let’s.us.two.go.back.in just this.one
‘Hoh! Let’s go in!’ (Henry 2005)

(201) Sadeˀnyę:dę́h giˀ gyę:ˀ.

you(one).try just this.one
‘Try this one.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 212, (Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘quite’, ‘kind of’, p. 866
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881

Giˀ hne:ˀ ‘but’, ‘however’

Particle group … giˀ hne:ˀ introduces new information contrasting with something said
previously (§35.4.4); enclitic.

(202) Ǫgwa:yę́ˀ giˀ hné:ˀ neˀ wagye:sę́h heyóhe:, wagyesę̱ hsǫ́:ˀǫh.

we.have just in.fact the cheap.ones more, they.are.cheap
‘But we do have cheaper ones, the cheaper kind.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
159, Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)

(203) Tgwęhǫ: giˀ hné:ˀ gę́s tęˀ.

sometimes just but usually not
‘Sometimes this isn’t the case.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

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Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901

Giˀ ne:ˀ ‘it’s just’

Particle group … giˀ ne:ˀ is used for emphasis (§35.4.4); enclitic.

(204) Hoihoˀdęhsri:yó: giˀ ne:ˀ.

he.has.a.good.job just it.is
‘He just has a good job.’

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865

Giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’

Particle group.

Related
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’, p. 857

Giˀ shęh, Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ … giˀ shęh ‘or’

Particle group (ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ) … giˀ shęh functions as a conjunction, connecting an
additional list of choices, [ ]. Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ optionally appears before the first item in
the list; the other choices are followed by giˀ shęh.

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 C.5 G particles

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ … giˀ shęh ‘or’, p. 937

Giˀ tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘really’

Particle group … giˀ (tsǫ:) is used for emphasis (§35.4.4); enclitic.

(205) To: giˀ tsǫ: ní:yǫ:.

that just only it.is.a.certain.amount
‘That’s just all there is.’

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, ‘really’, p. 865
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Gona:węh ‘it’s theirs (females or mixed group)’, ‘it belongs to them

(females or mixed group)’, ‘their’
Verb functioning as a “possessive pronoun” (§6.2); free-standing.

(206) goná:węh
gon-á:w-ęh
3ns.fi.p-own-stat
‘they (fe/males) own it’

Gonǫ:hęˀ ‘they (females or mixed group)’

Verb functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing.

(207) gonǫ́:hęˀ
gon-ǫ́:hęˀ
3ns.fi.p-alone.stat
‘they are alone’

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Go:węh ‘it’s hers’, ‘it’s someone’s’

Verb functioning as a “possessive pronoun” (§6.2); free-standing.

(208) gó:węh
gó:-w-ęh
3s.fi.p-own-stative
‘she owns it’

Gǫdagyeˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right away’

Atypical word functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(209) Háoˀ desaˀdráihęh, gǫdagyeˀ dętseˀ.

come.on you.hurry, right.away you.will.return
‘Come on, hurry, and come right back.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 441,
Dwęnǫhsanékahǫˀ dialogue)

Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); enclitic.

(210) …o:nęh gwaˀ ahá:nyoˀ.

now right.then he.died
‘…finally he died.’(Carrier et al. 2013)

(211) Sa̱hohsa:ˀ gwaˀ shęh toh tsitga:yę́ˀ neˀ

He.remembered right.then that there while.it.was.lying.there the
gajęˀ gaǫda:kˀáh tgra̱he:t.
container beside.the.log there.in.the.tree
‘One day he remembered he had left his birchbark container at the
bottom of the tree.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(212) Ęsadra̱ˀswahetgę́ˀs gwaˀ shęh gyotgǫ́:t ihsé:

your.luck.will.turn.bad right.then that always you.want
a:sade:kǫ́:niˀ.
you.should.eat
‘One day you’ll get into trouble, always wanting to eat!’ (Carrier et al.
2013)

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 C.5 G particles

Related
⇒ Ahgwih gwaˀ ‘don’t!’, p. 815
⇒ Daji:hah gwaˀ ‘soon’, ‘a short while’, p. 823
⇒ Deˀę: gwaˀ-heh tęˀ seˀ ‘but then not really’, p. 824
⇒ Dęˀ gwaˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘whatever one (of several)’, p. 826
⇒ Do: gwaˀ ni:yǫ: ‘a certain amount’, ‘a certain measure’, ‘however much’, p. 832
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ gwa:dih ‘whichever way’, ‘whichever side’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ hǫ:weh ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘wherever’, ‘around’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni- ‘whichever one (of several)’, ‘whichever person’, p. 850
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ ni-noun ‘wherever noun is’, p. 851
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ tsǫ: ‘wherever’, ‘somewhere’, p. 852
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, p. 870
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘do it now!’, p. 871
⇒ Gwaˀ ti:gę: ‘plainly’, ‘clearly’, ‘as it is’, p. 872
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ a:-verb ‘if’, p. 885
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh ‘or maybe’, p. 886
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’, p. 886
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ hne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘just maybe’, p. 887
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ ta:- ‘if not’, ‘if it hadn’t been’, p. 887
⇒ Hwę:dǫh gwaˀ ‘sometime’, ‘whenever’, ‘once’, p. 909
⇒ Neˀ gwaˀ toh ‘here (rather than there)’, p. 921
⇒ Neˀ tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ‘also’, p. 928
⇒ Nę: tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ni- ‘just a little bit’, ‘very little’, p. 952
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ O:nęh gwaˀ ‘suddenly’, ‘already’, ‘finally’, ‘all at once’, p. 969
⇒ Sǫ: gwaˀ, sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht ‘anybody at all’, ‘anyone at all’, ‘any living thing’,
‘somebody’, ‘whoever’, p. 995
⇒ Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht o:yaˀ ‘someone else’, p. 996

Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘do it now!’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); also functions as an emphasis
marker, making a command more urgent (§27.1.5); enclitic.

(213) Osháisdaˀ! Gatgáhtwahs shęh nisá:yę:, sęní:hę:ˀ gwaˀ.

Snake! I.see that where.you.are.lying, quit.it right.now
‘I can see you serpent. Don’t go into that water.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

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C Particle dictionary

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870

Gwaˀ ti:gę: ‘plainly’, ‘clearly’, ‘as it is’

Particle and verb functioning as an “evidential marker” (§35.2); free-standing.

(214) gwaˀ ti:gę:

immediately something.odd
‘plainly’, ‘clearly’, ‘as it is’

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870

Gwaˀ toh ‘that one’, ‘just such a one’

Particle group functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (59); free-standing.

(215) gwaˀ toh

right.then that.one
‘that one’, ‘just such a one’

(216) Ęhę́ˀ, ganǫ́:ˀ, né:ˀ tsǫ: shęh oya:nréˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀ

yes it.is.expensive it.is just that it.is.good just emphasis
gw̱aˀ-toh.
right.then-that.one
‘Yes, it is expensive, but it is a good one.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 159,
Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)

(217) Neˀ gwaˀ-toh gí:dǫh.

neˀ right.then-that.one I.mean.it
‘I also mean that.’

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 C.5 G particles

(218) Neˀ gwaˀ-toh haˀhǫwadíha:ˀ.

neˀ right.then-that.one they.took.him.over.there
‘They also took him.’

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

Gwaˀ toh, Neˀ gwaˀ toh ‘here (rather than there)’

Particle group (neˀ) gwa̱ ˀ-toh functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); emphatic; clause-
initial.

Related
⇒ Neˀ gwaˀ toh ‘here (rather than there)’, p. 921

Gwa:dih, Gwai ‘to one side’

Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); enclitic to words describing the
actual direction.

Related
⇒ Da: gwa:dih ‘over here’, ‘this side’, p. 820
⇒ E: gwa:dih ‘on the other side’, p. 839
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ gwa:dih ‘whichever way’, ‘whichever side’, p. 848
⇒ Hehdaˀgeh gwa:dih ‘below’, ‘low’, p. 891
⇒ I:ˀgeh (gwa:dih) ‘on my side’, ‘as for me’, p. 912
⇒ Nę: toh gwa:dih ‘on this side’, p. 952
⇒ Nę:-gyęh gwa:dih ‘here’, ‘this side’, ‘over here’, p. 955
⇒ Nigwa:dih ‘-ward, direction’, p. 958
⇒ Ohnaˀgę: gwa:dih shęh ‘behind’, p. 965
⇒ Sewaihǫhsdǫh gwa:dih ‘to your right’, p. 978

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⇒ Si gwa:dih ‘over there’, p. 989

⇒ Si gwa:dih ‘move it!’, p. 990
⇒ Si gwa:di:hah ‘just this side of’, p. 990
⇒ Si hne:ˀ si gwa:dih ‘over there’, p. 991
⇒ To: gwa:dih ‘on that side’, p. 1018

Gwahs ‘really’, ‘quite’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(219) Ęhę́ˀ, gwáhs giˀ ǫgwatga̱ˀdé:ˀah.

yes quite just we.are.many-ish
‘Yes, there are quite a few of us.’(Mithun & Henry 1984: 257,
Ga̱hwajiyá:deˀ dialogue)

(220) Gwahs sgę:nǫ:ǫ́h awádesgoh oshaisdagó:wah ohnegagǫ́:

quite slowly it.was.escaping the.big.snake in.the.water
haˀweˀ.
it.went.there
‘The giant snake was sliding slowly across towards the water.’ (Carrier
et al. 2013)

(221) Gwahs tęˀ sga̱hǫˀdęˀ o:nęh de̱ˀsgá:yęˀ.

really not anything now nothing.is.left
‘There is really nothing left.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(222) Gwahs hniˀ agadagáida:t.

really and I’m.feeling.better
‘I am feeling so much better.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(223) …gwahs tsaˀdegaǫhya̱hę́hneh…

…right middle.of.the.sky.place
‘…right above us…’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

874
 C.5 G particles

Related
⇒ Gwahs ‘anyway’, p. 875
⇒ Gwahs hwaˀ ‘this time for sure’, p. 875
⇒ Gwahs ǫ:weh ‘really’, p. 876
⇒ Gwahs ǫ:węh seˀ ‘indeed’, ‘for sure’, p. 876
⇒ Gwahs shęh ni- ‘as…as’, p. 877
⇒ Gwahs waˀ-heh tsǫ: ‘just now’, ‘just a few seconds ago’, p. 878
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ tsǫ: gwahs ‘that’s really all’, p. 938
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs d- ‘the most’, p. 938
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs heyohe:ˀ ‘the most, -est’, p. 939
⇒ Tęˀ gwahs ǫ:weh ‘not really’, ‘not quite’, p. 1007

Gwahs ‘anyway’
Particle conveying focus or emphasis (§35.4.4); enclitic.

(224) Sǫ: ní:s nˀaht gwahs? Tę́ˀ gwáhs ǫ:wi: de̱ˀgǫyędéi. Dave
who you someone anyway not anyway really I.don’t.know.you Dave
Maracle gęh haya:sǫ́h neˀ hya̱ˀnih?
Maracle Q he.is.called the your.father
‘Who are you, anyway? I don’t really know you. Is Dave Maracle your
father?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 339, Oˀdréhdatgiˀ dialogue)

Gwahs heyohe:ˀ, Ne:ˀ gwahs heyohe:ˀ ‘the most, -est’

Particle group ⌊(ne:ˀ) gwahs stative.verb (heyohe:)⌋ is used in comparisons (§31.1).

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs heyohe:ˀ ‘the most, -est’, p. 939

Gwahs hwaˀ ‘this time for sure’

Particle group gwahs hwaˀ functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); emphatic; clause-
initial.

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(225) Gwahs hwaˀ eságaę.

emphasis this.time you.give.permission
‘You are willing or giving permission this time.’

Related
⇒ Gwahs ‘really’, ‘just’, ‘quite’, p. 874
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’, p. 907
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Gwahs ǫ:weh ‘really’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(226) Gwahs ǫ:weh tsaˀho:yá:t honíˀǫh.

really truly he.cannot.help.it he.is.stingy
‘He just cannot help himself, he is really really stingy.’

(227) Gwahs ǫ:weh agadatsę́hse:!

really truly I’m.tired
‘I am so tired!’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(228) Gwahs ǫ:wéh a:yę́ˀ tę́ˀ desho:tǫ́:deˀ.

really truly it.seems not he.doesn’t.hear
‘It really seems like he doesn’t hear.’ (That is, he has selective hearing.)

Related
⇒ Gwahs ‘really’, ‘just’, ‘quite’, p. 874
⇒ Gwahs ǫ:węh seˀ ‘indeed’, ‘for sure’, p. 876
⇒ O:weh, Neˀ ǫ:weh ‘really’, p. 976

Gwahs ǫ:węh seˀ ‘indeed’, ‘for sure’

Particle group functioning as an “agreement marker” (§35.3.1); free-standing.

876
 C.5 G particles

(229) Speaker A:
Trehs taˀdeyodriˀsdagé: ga̱ha:gǫ́: waˀne:ˀ.
too not.much.noise in.woods today
‘The woods are too quiet.’
Speaker B:
Ęhę:ˀ, gwahs ǫ́:weh seˀ.
yes very it.is.true you.know
‘Yes, much too quiet.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Gwahs ‘really’, ‘just’, ‘quite’, p. 874
⇒ Gwahs ǫ:weh ‘really’, p. 876
⇒ O:weh, Neˀ ǫ:weh ‘really’, p. 976
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977

Gwahs shęh ni- ‘as…as’

Particle group ⌊(gwahs) shęh ni-stative.verb⌋ is used in comparisons (§31.1); it precedes
a stative verb beginning with ⌊ni-⌋ part, and is clause-initial in dependent clauses.

(230) Enagre̱hsra:gwe:gǫ́h giˀ o:nę́h agaehne:ga:gó:ˀ gwahs shęh

all.the.inhabitants just now they.collected.water so.much that
nagaegwé:niˀ.
how.much.they.could
‘So all the village began collecting as much liquid as they could.’ (Carrier
et al. 2013)
(231) Atę:ná:t giˀ. [Gwahs shęh nihodigwe:nyǫ́:] atę́:na:t.
they.danced just so.much that how.they.were.able.to they.danced
‘The boys danced. They danced like they’d never danced before.’ (Carrier
et al. 2013)
(232) Sgę:nǫ́:ˀǫh shęh nęhse:gwé:níˀ dęhsátahahk
slow that how.you.will.be.able.to you.will.walk
‘Walk as slowly as you can.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

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Related
⇒ Gwahs ‘anyway’, p. 875
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Gwahs waˀ-heh tsǫ: ‘just now’, ‘just a short while ago’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); emphatic; clause-initial.

(233) Gwahs waˀhéh tsǫ: to: naˀá:węh.

really today only that it.happened
‘That just happened.’

(234) Gwahs waˀhéh tsǫ: agatna̱ˀdaǫdá:gwęh.

really today only I.took.bread.out
‘I just took it out of the oven.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 376, Dajǫh
dialogue)

(235) Ęhę́ˀ, o:nę́h giˀ agade̱hsrǫ́ni ̱hsˀǫh. Gwahs waˀheh-tsǫ́:

yes now just I’m.getting.ready really today-only
agagya̱ˀdoháesiˀ.
I’ve.finished.bathing
‘Yes, I am ready now. I just finished having a bath.’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 294, Dwade:kǫ́:nih dialogue)

Related
⇒ Gwahs ‘anyway’, p. 875
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030
⇒ Waˀ-heh ‘just now’, ‘finally’, p. 1033

Gwe: ‘hello’
Particle functioning as a greeting.

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 C.5 G particles

Related
⇒ Gwe: ‘well’, p. 879

Gwe: ‘well!’
Particle functioning as an “exclamation” (§35.1); conveys surprise or other emotion.

(236) Gwé: a:yę́ˀ sanǫ́hnya̱ˀgǫh!

well it.seems you.are.hurt
‘Well, it looks like you are hurt!’

Related
⇒ Gwe: ‘well’, p. 879

Gwe: ‘well’
Particle signaling a change in topic (§35.4.3); clause-initial.

(237) David: Háe Pete.

hi Pete
‘Hi Pete’
Pete: Háe.
hi
‘Hi.’
David: Gwé:, í:s gęh satse:nę́ˀ to:gyę́h so:wa:s?
so, you Q its.your.pet that.one dog
‘Well, is that your dog?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 317, Sanahsgwaę́ˀ Gęh
Sga̱hoˀdę́:ˀęh dialogue)
(238) Gwé:, dędwaˀęnáęˀ agę́ˀ ęyó:hęˀ. Oyanra̱hsdǫ́h giˀ
well we.will.play.snowsnake it.is.said tomorrow. It.is.ideal just
hne:ˀ shęh i:sóˀ oˀgráęˀ.
in.fact that a.lot there.is.snow
‘Well, they say we’re going to play snowsnake tomorrow. It is ideal

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because there is a lot of snow.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 481, Dedwaˀęnáęˀ
dialogue)

Related
⇒ Gwe: ‘well!’, p. 879

Gwe:gǫh, Agwe:gǫh, Ogwe:gǫh ‘all’, ‘everything’

Verb (atypical, when without ⌊o-⌋ 3s.p prefix), functioning as an “indefinite pronoun”
(§6.5); free-standing.

(239) O:nę́h giˀ adyǫkni ̱ˀdraihę́h, aˀakniksaohé:k gwé:gǫh hoˀdę́ˀ, hoˀdę́ˀ

now just we.hurried, we.gathered all the.kind, the.kind
ęyá:gwahs.
we.will.use
‘Then we hurried up and gathered up all the dishes that we would use.’
(Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Gwe:gǫh, Agwe:gǫh, Ogwe:gǫh ‘completely’, ‘totally’, p. 880
⇒ Hegwe:gǫh, Neˀ hegwe:gǫh ‘the whole thing’, p. 924

Gwe:gǫh, Agwe:gǫh, Ogwe:gǫh ‘completely’, ‘totally’

Verb (atypical, when without ⌊o-⌋ prefix) functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5);
clause-initial.

(240) A:yę́:ˀ hniˀ gwe:gǫ́h agadranawę̱ ˀdoˀkdáˀǫh hniˀ.

it.seems and it.is.all we.have.run.out.of.sugar and
‘I seem to have completely run out of sugar, too.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
441, Dwęnǫhsanékahǫˀ dialogue)

880
 C.5 G particles

Related
⇒ Gwe:gǫh, Agwe:gǫh, Ogwe:gǫh ‘all’, ‘everything’, p. 880
⇒ Hegwe:gǫh, Neˀ hegwe:gǫh ‘the whole thing’, p. 924

Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’

Particle … gyę:ˀ conveys emphasis (§35.4.4); enclitic.

(241) Honǫksǫ́ˀ seˀ neˀ Hagówanęh shęh haǫháˀ gyę:ˀ

he.knew you.know the he.is.big that he.alone emphasis
gaihwaędahgǫ́h dęshago̱hsnyéˀ neˀ háǫgwe̱ˀdaˀ.
the.responsibility he.will.lead.them the his.people
‘Their leader knew he was responsible for his people.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(242) Hę́:gyeh. Tęˀ gyę:ˀ ta:yoyęnawáˀs neˀ otgǫ́ˀtraˀ neˀ o:nę́h

no.matter not emphasis it.wouldn’t.be.helped the magic the now
dwa̱hsreˀ.
we.all.follow.it
‘Not for long. His magic is no good once we have his trail.’ (referring to
the Ugly Bear having magic) (Carrier et al. 2013)

(243) O:nę́h diˀ ihse:t gyę:ˀ nóne:ˀ dehsatga̱hdǫ́:nyǫhs.

now then you.are.standing emphasis you.know you.look.around
‘And now you will stand there looking.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

(244) Sǫheh gyę:ˀ nóne:ˀ gá:dǫh deyonadáwęnyeˀ.

nighttime emphasis you.know I.say they.walk.around
‘As I said, at night, they walk around.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

(245) Ne:ˀ seˀ gę:s neˀ sweˀgé:hah hęnadęhní:nǫh gę:s neˀ

it.is you.know usually the long.ago they.sold us ually
gwaˀyǫˀ gyę:ˀ.
the rabbits emphasis
‘A long time ago, they used to sell rabbits.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

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Related
⇒ Ehęˀ gyę:ˀ ‘yes indeed’, p. 842
⇒ Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘just do it!’, p. 866
⇒ Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘quite’, ‘kind of’, p. 866
⇒ Gyę:ˀ hne:ˀ tęˀ neˀ ‘it was this one, (not that one)’, p. 883
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘maybe’, ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder’, p. 884
⇒ Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ (emphasis), p. 923
⇒ Neˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ gyę:ˀ, Negęˀnagęˀ ‘that is what’, p. 923
⇒ Neˀ to gyę:ˀ ‘that’s what’, p. 926
⇒ Neˀ to gyę:ˀ hǫ:weh ‘it is where’, p. 927
⇒ Ne:ˀ/neˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘that’s just it’, ‘that’s it for sure’, p. 934
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘before all else’, ‘first’, p. 935
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess’, p. 935
⇒ Ne:ˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ ‘that really is’, p. 940
⇒ Ne:ˀ seˀ gyę:ˀ ‘you know’, p. 945
⇒ Ni:ˀ gyę:ˀ, Ni:ˀ gę:ˀ ‘I did it’, p. 957
⇒ Tęˀ gyę:ˀ nę neˀ ‘not’, ‘what on earth?’, p. 1008
⇒ Tęˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh, Tęˀ gęˀǫh ‘not really’, p. 1009
⇒ Waˀ-jih gyę:ˀ ‘almost’, ‘just about’, p. 1036

⌊-gyęh⌋ ‘this’, ‘that’

⌊-gyęh⌋ is an enclitic element occurring in the following particle combinations.

Related
⇒ Hę:-gyęh, hę:gyeh ‘no matter’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:-gyęh shęh ‘no matter how much’, ‘whether or not’, ‘even if’, p. 899
⇒ Hę:-gyęh tsǫ: ‘it doesn’t matter’, ‘never mind’, p. 900
⇒ Nę:-gyęh ‘this one’, p. 955
⇒ Nę:-gyęh gwa:dih ‘here’, ‘this side’, ‘over here’, p. 955
⇒ Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this time’, p. 956
⇒ Si:-gyęh ‘that one over there’, p. 992
⇒ To:-gyęh ‘that one’, p. 1023
⇒ Waˀ-gyęh ‘presently’, ‘so now’, ‘then’, p. 1032
⇒ Waˀ-gyęh ‘listen’, ‘excuse me’, ‘would you’, p. 1032

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 C.5 G particles

Gyę:ˀ hne:ˀ, Gyę:ˀ hne:ˀ tęˀ neˀ ‘it was this one, (not that one)’
Particle group … gyę:ˀ hne:ˀ … (tęˀ ne) conveys contrastive focus (§35.4.4); enclitic after
the item contrasted.

(246) I:s gyęˀ hne:ˀ.

you this.one in.fact
‘That’s you!’

(247) I:s gyęˀ hne:ˀ tsǫ: e:ˀ toh nahsye:ˀ

you this.one in.fact just again that.one you.did.something
‘you are the only one that did that again’

(248) Wa:li gyęˀ hne:ˀ, tęˀ neˀ John.

Mary this.one in.fact not the John
‘It was Mary, not John.’

Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ, Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ (emphasis)

Particle group (neˀ) gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ conveys emphasis (§35.4.4).

(249) Tsaˀdeyǫ̱hwęjaga̱hę́h gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ hǫ́:weh to:gyę́h hǫ:

as.the.land.rises.up emphasis here it.is where there where
heyagwę̱ ˀdrǫ́ˀ tohgéh hǫ́:weh
we.live.there that’s.where place
‘Where the land rises up, there where we live, that’s the place (where he
went).’ (Henry 2005)

(250) Ohnegatgíˀ gyę:ˀ nę́ ne:ˀ ęwá:dǫˀ.

dirty.water emphasis here it.is it.will.become
‘The water will get dirty (because it will get riled up)!’ (Henry 2005)

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(251) Aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Hotgęni ̱hsaˀnhǫ́: gyę:ˀ nę́ ne:ˀ.”

she.said he.went.to.council emphasis here it.is
‘She said, “He went to Council again, as usual.”’ (Henry 2005)
(252) O:nę́h gyę:ˀ nę́ ne:ˀ tó:hah ęyagwade:kǫ́:niˀ.
now emphasis here it.is almost we.will.eat
‘And then it was almost time for us to eat.’ (Henry 2005)
(253) “Ó:,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “agatna̱ˀdaǫ́t gyę:ˀ nę́ ne:ˀ hniˀ!
oh, she.said I.made.bread emphasis here it.is and
“Ah,” she said, “I made pan bread too!” (Henry 2005)
(254) Deyakigahné:ˀ, gyę:ˀ nę́ ne:ˀ hǫ́: dyǫknida̱ˀǫ́h
we.were.looking.at.her emphasis here it.is there we.were.sleeping
héˀtgęh.
upstairs
‘We were looking at her where we were asleep upstairs.’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ (emphasis), p. 923

Gyę:ˀ ǫh, gęˀ ǫh ‘maybe’, ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder’

Particle group … gyę:ˀ ǫh, gęˀǫh functions an evidential marker (§35.2); emphatic; enclitic.
Possibly related to gęh ǫh.

(255) Ó:, degyega̱hné:ˀ giˀ. O:nę́h gyę́:ˀ ǫh ǫkwái.

oh, she.is.looking.out just now this.one I.guess the.food.is.cooked
‘Oh, she is looking out. The food must be cooked now.’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 294, Dwade:kǫ́:nih dialogue)
(256) O:nę́h giˀ gyę́:ˀ ǫh ęsgahdę́:diˀ. O:nę́h gyę́:ˀ nǫ́ne:ˀ
now just this.one I.guess I.will.go.home now emphasis you.know
hné:ˀ haˀwa:jˀáht degáhswa̱ˀne:t!
in.fact it.is.all.gone the.pie
‘Well, I might as well go home now, because the pie is all gone, you
know!’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 376, Dajǫh dialogue)

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 C.5 G particles

(257) Né:ˀ gyę́:ˀ ǫh hné:ˀ nęh agídagraˀ agadadwęˀna̱hsáik.

it.is this.one I.guess in.fact when I.fell I.bit.my.tongue
‘I guess it was when I fell that I bit my tongue.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
386, Ga̱há:gǫ: dialogue)
(258) Tę́ˀ giˀ hné:ˀ de̱ˀagęnǫhdǫ́ˀ a:ge̱ˀnhǫhsaniháˀ gę́ˀ ǫh hniˀ.
not just in.fact I.don’t.know I.should.borrow.eggs this.one I.guess and
‘I don’t really know whether I should borrow eggs too.’ Mithun & Henry
1984: 441, Dwęnǫhsanékahǫˀ dialogue)
(259) To gęˀ ǫhní:yoht?
that I.guess it.resembles.something
‘I wonder if it is like that?’

Related
⇒ Gęh oh, Gę-ǫ:, Ga-ǫ: ne:ˀ ‘is it that?’, ‘if it is that’, p. 863
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Oh, Ǫ:, Ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974

Gyę:gwaˀ ‘if’
Particle gyę:gwaˀ introduces conditional clauses; clause-initial in dependent clauses [ ],
implying a prerequisite condition or hypothetical situation (§29.2). Gyę:ˀgwaˀ requires a
following verb beginning with an [a:-] indef prefix, and the verb often lacks an aspect
suffix.
(260) Tęˀ dejǫ́hsdi:s o:nę́h gyę:gwáˀ a:yáihe:
not she.didn’t.pay.attention now if she.would.die
‘She didn’t care that she was going to her death.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)
(261) A:ga̱hya:góˀ gyę:gwáˀ a:sgyená:waˀs
I.would.pick.fruit if you.would.help.me
‘I would pick fruit if only you would help me.’
(262) Ahgwíh dęhsyéhs ohné:gaˀ gyę:gwáˀ ihsé: ęsa:dó:wiˀ.
don’t you.will.mix water if you.want you.will.drive
‘Don’t mix booze if you want to drive.’ (‘Don’t drink and drive.’)

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Related
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh ‘or maybe’, p. 886
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’, p. 886
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ hne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘just maybe’, p. 887
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ ta:- ‘if not’, ‘if it hadn’t been’, p. 887
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962

Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh ‘or maybe’

Particle group …, … gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh (…) functions as a conjunction, connecting alter-
native choices [ ]; appears between or after the two choices (§30). (For ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ,
also shown below, see “Related”.)

(263) [Dęgyadawęnye̱háˀ] gyę:ˀ-gwáˀ giˀ-shę́h [ne:ˀ gi ̱ˀ-shę́h neˀ

we.will.walk.about if maybe [it.is maybe the
ęgyádawę:ˀ].
we.will.swim]
‘We could go for a walk or maybe go for a swim.’ (Michelson 2011: 45)

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ a:-verb ‘if’, p. 885
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ … giˀ shęh ‘or’, p. 937
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’

Particle group (g)yę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ functions as a doubt or certainty marker (§35.2);
free-standing; gyę:gwaˀ can also be pronounced as yę:gwaˀ.

(264) “Yę́:gwaˀ yę́:gwaˀ giˀ shę́h hwaˀ,” aˀa:gę́ˀ.

if if just that this.time she.said
‘“If you do, maybe this time,” she said.’ (Henry 2005)

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Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ a:-verb ‘if’, p. 885
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh ‘or maybe’, p. 886
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ hne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘just maybe’, p. 887
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’, p. 907
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Gyę:gwaˀ hne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘just maybe’

Particle group functioning as a “possibility marker” (§35.2).

(265) gyę:gwaˀ hne:ˀ hwaˀ

if in.fact this.time
‘just maybe’

Related
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ a:-verb ‘if’, p. 885
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’, p. 907

Gyę:gwaˀ ta:- ‘if not’, ‘if it hadn’t been’

Particle, clause-initial in dependent conditional clauses [ ], (§29.2); yę:gwaˀ requires a
following verb beginning with ⌊ta:-⌋ contr-indef prefixes; the verb often lacks an aspect
suffix.

(266) Ahsǫ́h awaga̱hyagwę̱ hęgye̱ˀsé:k [gyę:gwáˀ

Still I.would.have.been.going.along.picking.fruit if
ta:waknǫ́hnya̱ˀgǫ:k]
I.hadn’t.been.hurt
‘I would still have been picking fruit if I hadn’t been hurt.’

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Related
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ a:-verb ‘if’, p. 885

C.6 H particles
Hanyoh, Hanyo-hanyoh ‘do it!’, ‘come on’, ‘you go!’
Particle group, preceding a command (§27.1.5) or stand-alone phrase. Hanyo-hanyoh is
used as a word of encouragement.

(267) Dwadęhnǫdrǫ́ˀ, hanyóh sheswa:yé:na:!

brothers, come.on let.us.all.catch.it
‘Brothers, let’s hurry up and catch him!’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(268) Hányoh. Dé:dwa:t.

come.on let’s.all.of.us.dance
‘Come on. We will dance.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Haoˀ ‘o.k.’
Particle signaling acknowledgement (§35.3.3); free-standing.

(269) O:nę́h aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Ja̱ˀsnęht to:gyę́h waˀjíh neˀ sǫ:gwaˀ nóht

now she.said you.two.descend there right.now the anybody person
ęyagonǫ́hnyaˀk.”
she.will.get.hurt
‘Then she said, “Both of you get down before somebody gets hurt.” (said
by the mother)’
“Ó:, háoˀ.”
“Oh, o.k.”
‘“Oh, o.k.” (said by the children)’ (Henry 2005)

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 C.6 H particles

Related
⇒ Haoˀ ‘come on’, p. 889
⇒ Haoˀ dęˀ nyoh ‘o.k. then’, p. 889
⇒ Haoˀ diˀ sah ‘alright’, ‘o.k.’, p. 890

Haoˀ ‘come on’

Particle, preceding a command in these examples (§27.1.5).

(270) Haoˀ dahskro:wíh dę́ˀ ní:ˀ hoˀdę́ˀ nęgá:gye:ˀ.

O.k., tell.me what I what I.will.do.it
‘O.k., you tell me what to do!’

(271) Haoˀ gya̱hdę́:dih.

come.on let.us.two.go
‘Come on, let’s go.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 142, Satgęh dialogue)

Related
⇒ Haoˀ ‘o.k.’, p. 888

Haoˀ dęˀ nyoh ‘o.k. then’

Particle group signaling acknowledgement (§35.3.3); free-standing.

(272) Haoˀ dęˀ nyóh ó:nęh, o:nę́h agekwędáˀǫh.

ok what acknowledge now now I’ve.finished.eating
‘O.k., I have finished now.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 142, Satgęh dialogue)

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Related
⇒ Dęˀ ‘what’, ‘how’, p. 824
⇒ Haoˀ ‘o.k.’, p. 888
⇒ Nyoh ‘you’re welcome’, ‘alright’, ‘o.k.’, p. 960

Haoˀ diˀ sah ‘alright’, ‘o.k.’

Particle group signaling acknowledgement (§35.3.3); free-standing. (Saˀ means ‘look!’ or
‘see!’ in Tuscarora, Rudes 1999.)

(273) Haoˀ diˀ sáh. O:nę́h giˀ hyá:. Nya:wę́h giˀ gyę́:ˀ shęh
ok so you.know now just time acknowledge just this.one that
nyó: dasknˀǫ́hda:.
how.it.is you.put.me.in
‘Alright. So long. Thanks for the ride.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 339,
Oˀdréhdatgiˀ dialogue)

(274) Haoˀ diˀ sáh, ękni:nǫ́ˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀǫh.

o.k. so you.know I.will.buy.it just I.guess
‘O.k., I guess I’ll buy it then.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ
dialogue)

Related
⇒ Diˀ ‘so’, ‘then’, p. 830
⇒ Haoˀ ‘o.k.’, p. 888
⇒ Sah ‘you know’, p. 976
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977

Haǫhęˀ, Haǫhaˀ ‘he’

Verb functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing.

890
 C.6 H particles

(275) háǫhęˀ
ha-ǫhęˀ
3s.m.p-alone.stative
‘he is alone’

⌊-heh⌋ element (related to time)

Element, enclitic in the following particle combinations, which function as adverbs of
time (§8.2).

Related
⇒ Deˀę: gwaˀ-heh tęˀ seˀ ‘but then not really’, p. 824
⇒ Gwahs waˀ-heh tsǫ: ‘just now’, ‘just a few seconds ago’, p. 878
⇒ Waˀ-heh ‘just now’, ‘finally’, p. 1033
⇒ Waˀ-heh-geha:ˀ ‘finally’, ‘at long last’, p. 1034

Hehdaˀgeh gwa:dih ‘below’, ‘low’

Phrase hehdaˀgeh (gwa:dih) functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial; gwa:dih
can also be spelled or pronounced as gwai. Hehdaˀgeh is possibly related to ohéhda̱ ˀgeh
‘on dirt, earth, ground, land’.

(276) hehdaˀgeh gwai

on.the.ground side
‘the bottom’

(277) hehdaˀgéh nitgá:deˀ

below it.exists.there.in.a.certain.place
‘it is low, it is below.’

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, Gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873

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Hehdaˀgeh hǫ: ‘downstairs’

Phrase functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial. Hehdaˀgeh is possibly
related to ohéhda̱ ˀgeh ‘on dirt, earth, ground, land’.

(278) Hehdáˀgeh hǫ́: hęhse:ˀ.

below place you.will.go.there
‘You go downstairs!’

Related
⇒ Hehdaˀgeh gwa:dih ‘below’, ‘low’, p. 891
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907

Hehdagehjih ‘the bottom’, ‘low’

Atypical noun functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial. Hehdaˀgeh is pos-
sibly related to ohéhda̱ ˀgeh ‘on dirt, earth, ground, land’.

(279) Hehdagęhjíh niga:gyéˀ degá:dęhs.

low it.is.flying plane
‘The plane is flying low.’

Related
⇒ Hehdaˀgeh gwa:dih ‘below’, ‘low’, p. 891
⇒ Hehdaˀgeh hǫ: ‘downstairs’, p. 892

Hejo:yaˀ tsǫ: ‘another thing again’, ‘on a tangent’

Noun and particle functioning as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-standing. Also
metaphorically means, ‘on a tangent’, in which case it does not function as an “indef-
inite pronoun”. Also see o:yaˀ ‘another, other, else’.

(280) hejo:yaˀ tsǫ:

another just
‘another thing again’
cf. he-j-o:-y-aˀ transl-rep-it-other-nsf

892
 C.6 H particles

Related
⇒ Hejo:yaˀ tsǫ: ‘elsewhere’, p. 893
⇒ O:yaˀ ‘another’, ‘other’, ‘else’, p. 973
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Hejo:yaˀ tsǫ: ‘elsewhere’

Noun and particle functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); free-standing. Also see o:yaˀ
‘another, other, else’.

Related
⇒ Hejo:yaˀ tsǫ: ‘another thing again’, p. 892
⇒ O:yaˀ ‘another’, ‘other’, ‘else’, p. 973
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

He:tgęh ‘above’, ‘up’, ‘superior’

Atypical noun functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); also metaphorically means ‘su-
perior’; clause-initial.

(281) hé:tgęh
above
‘above, up, aloft’

(282) he:tgę́h tgá:deˀ

above it.exists
‘it is superior’

Related
⇒ He:tgę̱hjih ‘the very top’, ‘high up’, p. 894

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He:tgęhjih ‘the very top’, ‘high up’

Atypical noun functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(283) Hetgęhjíh niga:gyéˀ degá:dęhs.

high.up it.is.flying plane
‘The plane is flying high.’

Related
⇒ He:tgęh ‘above’, ‘up’, ‘superior’, p. 893

He:yo: dagwaishǫ: ‘straight ahead’

Phrase functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(284) He:yó: dagwaishǫ́: haˀohahá:deˀ.

a.far.distance straight the.road.goes
‘The road goes straight ahead.’
(285) He:yó: dagwaishǫ́: haˀohahadagyéˀ hęyǫ́gwadre:ˀ.
a.far.distance straight the.road.goes.there we.all.will.drive.there
‘We’ll drive on the straight road.’

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, Gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Senyęˀsgwadih ‘to your left’, p. 978
⇒ Sewaihǫhsdǫh gwa:dih ‘to your right’, p. 978

Heyohe:ˀ ‘more’
Verb functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(286) O:nęh heyohé: agadǫ̱hswéˀdanih!

now it.is.beyond I’m.hungry
‘I am really hungry!’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

894
 C.6 H particles

(287) Heyohé: ęhsnigǫ̱há:k tó:gyęh.

it.is.beyond you.will.take.care that.one
‘Now you will take care to walk more carefully.’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Heyohe:ˀ shęh ‘more than’, p. 895
⇒ Neˀ heyohe:ˀ ‘more’, ‘-er’, p. 924
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs heyohe:ˀ ‘the most, -est’, p. 939

Heyohe:ˀ shęh ‘more than’

Particle group ⌊heyohe:ˀ (pro)noun⌋ … ⌊shęh (pro)noun⌋ is used in comparisons (§31.1).

(288) Heyohé:ˀ [ní:ˀ] na:wagekwaędáˀk shęh [háǫhaˀ].

more I what.I.eat that him
‘I need more food than him.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Heyohe:ˀ ‘more’, p. 894
⇒ Neˀ heyohe:ˀ ‘more, -er’, p. 924
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs heyohe:ˀ ‘the most, -est’, p. 939
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Hęˀ ‘also’, ‘too’

Particle signaling the continuation of a previous topic and the addition of new informa-
tion (§35.4.2); enclitic.

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ ‘too’, ‘also’, p. 941
⇒ Seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ ‘me too’, ‘us too’, p. 977

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C Particle dictionary

Hę: syllable
Syllable often appearing at the beginning of speech lines, and often with the sentence
connector dah ‘and’, as in the phrase hę:dah ‘and now’. An example from Ganǫ́hǫnyǫhk
‘Thanksgiving Address’ in (Foster 1974) is shown below.

(289) hę:-né: neˀ í: nę:-gyę́h, agaihwáyędáˀk, nę:dá niyóihwáˀ.

hę-it’s the me this the.matter.has.been.laid this speech.
‘The responsibility for this speech has been given to me. (Foster 1974)

Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Hę:-dah ‘and now’, p. 897

Hęˀ hne:ˀ, Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ ‘too’, ‘also’

Particle group (ne:ˀ) hęˀ hne:ˀ emphasizes the continuation of a previous topic and the
addition of new information (§35.4.2); ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ is clause-initial; …hęˀ hne:ˀ is enclitic.

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ ‘too’, ‘also’, p. 941

Hęˀ ni:ˀ / ni:hs, Seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ / ni:hs ‘me too’, ‘us too’, ‘you too’
Particle group … (seˀ) hęˀ ni:ˀ functions as an emphatic pronoun (§6.1); enclitic.

(290) A:ga̱hyagwa̱hsé:k seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ gyę:gwáˀ a:wagadagáide:k.

I.would.pick.fruit you.know also the.me if I.would.be.well
‘I would be a fruit picker too if I were well.’

(291) Agahyagwęhné:ˀ seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ.

I’ve.picked.fruit you.know also the.me
‘I’ve also picked fruit.’ (I’ve experienced this)

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 C.6 H particles

(292) Ęgahyagwahsé:k hęˀ ni:ˀ nęh ęgáhdo:k.

I’ll.pick.fruit also the.me when I.will.mature
‘I’ll be a fruit picker when I grow up.’

(293) Ó:, gǫdagyéˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ haˀa:kni:yǫ́ˀ!

oh right.away also the.us we.two.went.in
‘Oh, right away we both got up and went in!’ (Henry 2005)

(294) Ęhę́ˀ, ǫgwatgaˀdé:ˀah. Swa̱hwajiyowanę́h di ̱ˀ-gęh hęˀ ni:s?

yes we.are.many your.family.is.big so-Q also the.you
‘Yes, there are a lot of us. Do you have a big family too?’(Mithun &
Henry 1984: 257, Ga̱hwajiyá:deˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Hęˀ ‘also’, ‘too’, p. 895
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910
⇒ I:s, Ni:s ‘you’ (any number of people), p. 913
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977

Hę:-dah ‘and now’

Particle group functioning as a sentence connector; used at the beginning of lines in
speeches.

(295) hę-dá: o:nę́h, to niyó:wéˀ, nigahá:wíˀ.

hę-and now that is.how.far it.is.carried.
‘And now the time has come.’ (Foster 1974)

Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Hę: (syllable), p. 896

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Hę:-gyęh, Hę:-gyeh ‘no matter’

Particle group hę:-gyęh or hę:-gyeh functions as an evidential marker (§35.2); free-standing
or clause-initial.

(296) Hę:gyę́h. Tęˀ gyę́:ˀ ta:yoyęnawáˀs neˀ otgǫˀtraˀ neˀ o:nę́h

no.matter not emphasis it.won’t.help.it the magic the now
dwa̱hsreˀ.
we.are.following.him
‘Not for long. His magic is no good once we have his trail.’ (Carrier et al.
2013)

Related
⇒ Aweˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ, Awęˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ: ‘let it go’, p. 819
⇒ ⌊-gyęh⌋ ‘this’, ‘that’, p. 882
⇒ Hę:gyeh gaę hǫ:weh ‘no matter where’, ‘no matter which place’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:gyeh giˀ ‘leave well enough alone’, p. 899
⇒ Hę:-gyęh shęh ‘no matter how much’, ‘whether or not’, ‘even if’, p. 899
⇒ Hę:-gyęh tsǫ: ‘it doesn’t matter’, ‘never mind’, p. 900
⇒ To hę:gyeh shęh ‘really’, p. 1019

Hę:-gyeh gaę hǫ:weh ‘no matter where’, ‘no matter which place’
Particle group hę:-gyęh / hę:-gyeh gaę hǫ:weh functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3);
clause-initial; a following verb requires the ⌊ni-⌋ part, ⌊d-⌋ cis, or ⌊heˀ-⌋ transl prefix;
hǫ:weh can be spelled or pronounced as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, or nhǫ:weh.

(297) Jiˀdę:ˀę́h ni:ˀ, ę: tsǫ: ęhsgé:gyeˀ hę:gyéh gaę

birds I, indeed just I.go.along.seeing.them.again no.matter which
hǫ:wéh ęwa:dǫ́ˀ hę́:ge:ˀ.”
place it.is.possible I.will.go.there
‘Birds are all I see no matter where I may go.’ (Henry 2005)

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 C.6 H particles

Related
⇒ Aweˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ, Awęˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ: ‘let it go’, p. 819
⇒ Hę:-gyęh, hę:gyeh ‘no matter’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:gyeh giˀ ‘leave well enough alone’, p. 899
⇒ Hę:-gyęh shęh ‘no matter how much’, ‘whether or not’, ‘even if’, p. 899
⇒ Hę:-gyęh tsǫ: ‘it doesn’t matter’, ‘never mind’, p. 900
⇒ To hę:gyeh shęh ‘really’, p. 1019

Hę:-gyeh giˀ ‘leave well enough alone’

Particle group hę:gyeh / hę:gyęh giˀ functions as a “command” (§27.1.5).

(298) Hę:-gyęh giˀ!

no.matter just
‘Leave well enough alone!’

Related
⇒ Aweˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ, Awęˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ: ‘let it go’, p. 819
⇒ Hę:-gyęh, hę:gyeh ‘no matter’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:gyeh gaę hǫ:weh ‘no matter where’, ‘no matter which place’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:-gyęh shęh ‘no matter how much’, ‘whether or not’, ‘even if’, p. 899
⇒ Hę:-gyęh tsǫ: ‘it doesn’t matter’, ‘never mind’, p. 900
⇒ To hę:gyeh shęh ‘really’, p. 1019

Hę:-gyęh shęh ‘no matter how much’, ‘whether or not’, ‘even if’
Particle group hę:-gyęh / hę:-gyeh (shęh) … is clause-initial in conditional clauses (§29.2).

(299) Jiˀdę:ˀę́h ní:ˀ, ę: tsǫ: ęhsge:gyéˀ [hę:gyéh gaę hǫ:wéh

birds I, affirm just I.will.fly.again [no.matter which way
ęwa:dǫ́ˀ hę́:ge:ˀ].”
it.may.be I.will.go.there]
‘Birds are all I see no matter where I may go.’ (Henry 2005)

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(300) Tę́ˀ dˀáǫ a:wadahsgwi ̱ˀtrǫ́:niˀ, [hę:gyę́h neˀ

not not.at.all it.won’t.wrinkle, even.if the
haesatroni ̱há:k aesę́:daˀ].
you.would.have.clothes.on you.would.sleep
‘It won’t wrinkle, even if you sleep with your clothes on.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)
(301) [Hę:gyę́h shęh agadatsę́hse:], tga:gǫ́:t ęge:tsę́iˀ.
no.matter that I’m.tired, it.must.be I.will.find.it
‘Although I am tired, I have to find it.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)
(302) [Hę:gyéh shę́h de̱ˀǫgwadǫtga:déˀ] “onę́h-gi ̱ˀhyá:” ayagwę́ˀ waˀjíh
no.matter that we.are.not.happy, “good-bye” we.say in.a.while
hné: tsǫ́: ęja:kí:gęh.
in.fact just we.will.see.them.again
‘And though we’re sad to say good-bye, we’ll see them in a while.’ (Keye
2016, Circle Book 10, On Our Way)

Related
⇒ Aweˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ, Awęˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ: ‘let it go’, p. 819
⇒ ⌊-gyęh⌋ ‘this’, ‘that’, p. 882
⇒ Hę:-gyęh, Hę:gyeh ‘no matter’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:gyeh gaę hǫ:weh ‘no matter where’, ‘no matter which place’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:gyeh giˀ ‘leave well enough alone’, p. 899
⇒ Hę:-gyęh tsǫ: ‘it doesn’t matter’, ‘never mind’, p. 900
⇒ To hę:gyeh shęh ‘really’, p. 1019

Hę:-gyęh tsǫ: ‘it doesn’t matter’, ‘never mind’

Particle group hę:-gyęh / hę:-gyeh tsǫ: functions as an “evidential marker” (§35.2); free-
standing, or clause-initial.
(303) Tę́ˀ. Hęgyę́h tsǫ:. Sede̱hjí:hah ní:ˀ ęgahdę:díˀ gǫ́dagyeˀ.
no no.matter just early.morning I I.will.leave immediately
‘No, never mind, I’ll go there right away, early in the morning.’ (Mithun
& Henry 1984: 494, Ękníyętoˀ dialogue)

900
 C.6 H particles

Related
⇒ Aweˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ, Awęˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ: ‘let it go’, p. 819
⇒ ⌊-gyęh⌋ ‘this’, ‘that’, p. 882
⇒ Hę:-gyęh, Hę:gyeh ‘no matter’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:gyeh gaę hǫ:weh ‘no matter where’, ‘no matter which place’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:gyeh giˀ ‘leave well enough alone’, p. 899
⇒ Hę:-gyęh shęh ‘no matter how much’, ‘whether or not’, ‘even if’, p. 899
⇒ To hę:gyeh shęh ‘really’, p. 1019

Hęˀęh ‘no’
Particle signaling disagreement (§35.3.2); said to be a slang-like expression.

Hne:ˀ ‘but’
Particle functioning as a “conjunction” (§30); enclitic.

(304) Tęˀ hne:ˀ [de̱hahǫkáˀ ǫgwehǫ́:weh], [hoˀnigǫ̱haędaˀs] hné:ˀ.

not in.fact [he.doesn’t.speak Indian], [he.understands] in.fact
‘He doesn’t speak Indian, but he does understand.’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 61, Sǫ: hne:ˀ nˀaht to:gyęh? dialogue)

Related
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901

Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’ (emphatic)

Particle used for emphasis or focus (§35.4.4, also see §30.2); enclitic.

(305) Ne:ˀ hne:ˀ gó:węh.

it.is in.fact she.owns.it
‘That’s hers in fact.’ ‘That’s hers.’
(306) Dęˀ hne:ˀ í:se:ˀ?
what in.fact you.want.it
‘What in fact do you want?’ ‘What do you want?’

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C Particle dictionary

(307) Dęˀ hne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ?

what in.fact kind
‘What kind in fact?’ ‘What kind?’

(308) Dęˀ hne:ˀ ni:yóht shęh toh nahsye:ˀ.

what in.fact a.certain.way that that.one you.did.it.a.certain.way
‘Why in fact did you do that?’ “Why did you do that?’’

(309) I:s gęh hne:ˀ?

you Q in.fact
‘Was that in fact you?’ ‘Was that you?’

(310) I:s diˀ gęh hne:ˀ?

you so Q in.fact
‘How about you then?’ ‘How about you?’

Related
⇒ Dęˀ hne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’, p. 826
⇒ Gęh hne:ˀ ‘how about this one?’, p. 862
⇒ Giˀ hne:ˀ ‘but’, ‘however’, p. 867
⇒ Gyę:ˀ hne:ˀ tęˀ neˀ ‘it was this one, (not that one)’, p. 883
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ hne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘just maybe’, p. 887
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘but’, p. 901
⇒ Hne:ˀ shęh ‘because’, p. 902
⇒ I:ˀ hne:ˀ ‘no, I am’, p. 911
⇒ Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ ‘too’, ‘also’, p. 941
⇒ Ne:ˀ hne:ˀ ne:ˀ ‘in fact, it is’, ‘it is’, p. 942
⇒ Si hne:ˀ si gwa:dih ‘over there’, p. 991
⇒ Tęˀ hne:ˀ ‘definitely not’, p. 1010
⇒ Tęˀ hne:ˀ neˀ ‘…not that one’, p. 1010

Hne:ˀ shęh ‘because’

Particle group hne:ˀ (shęh) is clause-initial in a causative dependent clause (§29.3).

902
 C.6 H particles

(311) O:nę́h giˀ gyę́:ˀ-ǫh ęsgahdę́:diˀ. O:nę́h gyę́:ˀ nǫ́ne:ˀ

Now just emphasis-I.guess I.will.go.home. Now emphasis you.know
[hné:ˀ haˀwa:jˀáht degáhswa̱ˀne:t]!
[in.fact it.has.gone.down.to.nothing pie]
‘Well, I might as well go home now, [because the pie is all gone], you
know!’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 376, Dajǫh dialogue)

(312) Oyanra̱hsdǫ́ giˀ [hne:ˀ shęh i:sóˀ oˀgráęˀ].

It.is.ideal just in.fact that a.lot there.is.snow
‘It is ideal because there is a lot of snow.’ (Mithun and Henry 1982, 481,
Dędwaˀęnáę dialogue)

Related
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Hniˀ ‘and’
Particle functioning as a “conjunction” (§30), linking a list of similar items [ ]; enclitic;
tends to occur at the end of the list of items.

(313) De̱hęnadatnǫ̱hwéˀs [Gwi:déh] [Éd] hniˀ shę́h hona:dáoˀ

they.like.each.other [Peter] [Ed] and that they.are.friends
‘Peter and Ed like each other because they are friends.’

(314) Ó:, haˀdeyo̱hsóhgwage:, [otgwę́hji ̱ˀaˀ], [ǫhyˀáęˀ], [swęˀdˀáęˀ],

Oh, all.sorts.of.colours, [red], [blue], [black],
[nrahdˀáęˀ], dewagye̱sahsdǫ́ hniˀ [neˀ gę:ˀgę́:] niyohso̱hgoˀdęˀs.
[green] all.mixed.up and [the white] what.kinds.of.colours
‘Oh, all sorts of colors, red, blue, black, (and) green, and some that are
white.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

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Related
⇒ Da: ne:ˀ hniˀ ‘too’, ‘also’, ‘and’, p. 821
⇒ Dęˀ hniˀ ‘for sure’, p. 827
⇒ Hniˀ ‘and’, ‘also’, ‘too’, p. 904
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ hniˀ ‘and that too’, ‘and that also’, p. 936
⇒ Ne:ˀ hniˀ ne:ˀ ‘and that also’, p. 942

Hniˀ ‘and’, ‘also’, ‘too’

Particle signaling the continuation of a previous topic and the addition of new informa-
tion (§35.4.2); enclitic.

(315) Dęˀ hniˀ hoˀdę́ˀ hoihoˀdę́hsro̱ˀdeˀ?

What and what his.kind.of.work
‘And what does he do?’

Related
⇒ Da: ne:ˀ hniˀ ‘too’, ‘also’, ‘and’, p. 821
⇒ Dęˀ hniˀ ‘for sure’, p. 827
⇒ Hniˀ ‘and’, p. 903
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ hniˀ ‘and that too’, ‘and that also’, p. 936
⇒ Ne:ˀ hniˀ ne:ˀ ‘and that also’, p. 942

Hoˀdęˀ ‘kind’
Particle functioning as a “definite pronoun” §6.4; free-standing.

(316) O:nę́h giˀ adyǫkniˀdraihę́h, aˀakniksaohé:k gwé:gǫh hoˀdę́ˀ, hoˀdę́ˀ

now then we.hurried.up we.gathered all the.kind, the.kind
ęyá:gwahs.
we.will.use
‘Then we hurried up and gathered up all the dishes that we would use.’
(Henry 2005)

904
 C.6 H particles

(317) Pete: A:yę́:ˀ gajihyó:t hoˀdę́ˀ neˀ onáˀda:ˀ.

it.seems oven.bread the.kind the bread
‘It looks like homemade biscuits.’
Sam: Né:ˀ tó ne:ˀ do:gę́hs hoˀdęˀ. Gonaˀda:yędeiˀ-ǫ́:
it.is that it.is it.is.true the.kind she.is.a.good.baker-I.suppose
gyę́:ˀ kegę́jih.
that.one my.wife
‘They sure are. She is a good baker, my wife.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 294,
Dwadé:kǫ́:nih dialogue)

(318) Ęhę́ˀ, né:ˀ giˀ neˀ gwáhs gę:s stǫ:hǫh oya:nré:ˀah hóˀdęˀ.
yes, it.is just the more usually a.little.bit better-ish the.kind
‘Yes, it is one of the better ones.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 456, Oyę́hsraˀ
dialogue)

Related
⇒ Dęˀ, Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’, p. 825
⇒ Dęˀ gwaˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘whatever one (of several)’, p. 826
⇒ Dęˀ hne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what’, p. 826
⇒ Dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni- ‘how’, ‘what way’, p. 828
⇒ Dęˀ ǫh hne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what on earth?’, p. 829
⇒ Sga̱ hoˀdę:ˀęh ‘something’, p. 979
⇒ Sga̱ hoˀdę:ˀęh o:yaˀ ‘anything else’, p. 979
⇒ Shęh hoˀdęˀ ‘a certain something’, ‘that which’, p. 983

Hoh, Ho: ‘what the?’, ‘yay!’

Particle functioning as an “exclamation” (§35.1), conveying surprise or enthusiasm.

(319) “I:yę́: ǫ:wí: ęyǫtna̱ˀdáǫdęˀ,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “to:gyę́h ogaˀǫ́h

she.wants I.think she.will.bake.bread she.said this.one it.tastes.good
ehstaˀ.”
she.makes
‘“I do believe she is going to bake,” she said, “that good-tasting bread she
makes.”’

905
C Particle dictionary

Hó:! Heje:kni:yǫ́h giˀ gyę:ˀ!

ho let’s.go.in just emphasis
‘Ho! Let’s go in!’ (Henry 2005)

(320) Hó: oya:di:yó: giˀ!

ho, good.track just
‘Oh, it is a good track.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 481, Dędwaˀęnáęˀ
dialogue)

Hoho: ‘aha!’, ‘oh no!’

Particle functioning as an “exclamation” (§35.1); said in anticipation of something bad or
good (for example, someone’s about to win at bingo, or have a fight).

Hona:węh ‘it’s theirs (males only)’, ‘it belongs to them (males only)’,
‘their (males only)’
Verb functioning as a “possessive pronoun” (§6.2); free-standing.

(321) honá:węh
hon-á:w-ęh
3ns.m.p-own-stat
‘they (males) own it’

Honǫ:hęˀ ‘they (males)’

Verb functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing.

(322) honǫ́:hęˀ
hon-ǫ́:hęˀ
3ns.m.p-alone.stat
‘they (males) are alone’

Hotgǫˀǫh, Otgǫˀ ‘what the?’, ‘for Heaven’s sake!’

Verb hotgǫ́ˀǫh or otgǫˀ functions as an exclamation (§35.1); said when something is out
of the ordinary or not right; literally, otgǫˀ means ‘strong or ominous medicine’.

906
 C.6 H particles

Related
⇒ Otgǫˀ, hotgǫˀǫh ‘what the?’, ‘for Heaven’s sake!’, p. 972

Ho:węh ‘it’s his’, ‘his’

Verb functioning as a “possessive pronoun” (§6.2); free-standing.

(323) hó:węh
hó:-w-ęh
3s.m.p-own-stat
‘he owns it’

Hǫ:weh ‘where’
Particle functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); enclitic; hǫ:weh can be spelled or pro-
nounced as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, or nhǫ:weh.

Related
⇒ Da: hǫ:weh hǫ: ‘this is where’, p. 821
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ hǫ:weh ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘wherever’, ‘around’, p. 848
⇒ Gaę hǫ:weh ‘which place’, ‘where’, p. 852
⇒ Hę:gyeh gaę hǫ:weh ‘no matter where’, ‘no matter which place’, p. 898
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907
⇒ Neˀ to gyę:ˀ hǫ:weh ‘it is where’, p. 927
⇒ Shęh hǫ:weh ‘the place where’, ‘whereabouts’, p. 984
⇒ Si: hǫ:weh ‘way over there’, p. 991
⇒ To: hǫ:weh ‘there’, ‘where’, p. 1019
⇒ Toh-geh hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 1026

Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); enclitic.

(324) “O:,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “ohsno:wé:ˀah giˀ gyę:ˀ hwaˀ sa̱hsyǫˀ!”

oh she.said quickly just emphasis this.time you.arrived.home
“Oh,” she said “you came home kind of early this time!” (Henry 2005)

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C Particle dictionary

(325) Junior: Gwé:, dęˀ ní:s hwaˀ hoˀdę́ˀ nęswa:gyé:ˀ nę:gyę́h

well, what you this.time kind you.will.do.something this
hwaˀ dęyogęnhǫ:diˀ?
this.time it.will.be.summer
‘Well, what are yous going to do this summer?’
Sam: Ó:. Ęgyagwa̱hdę:díˀ ni:ˀ hwaˀ.
oh, we’re.going.away we this.time
‘Oh, we’re going away this time.’
Junior: Ó:o:, tę́ˀ hwaˀ taeswayę́twa̱hsǫ: gęh?
oh, not this.time you.won’t.plant Q
‘Oh, you are not going to plant this time?’
Sam: Tę́ˀ. Ęyagwa̱hdę:díˀ ni:ˀ hwaˀ.
no, we’re.going.away we this.time
‘No, we’re going away this time.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 402,
Ęyagwa̱hdę́:diˀ dialogue)

(326) Ne:ˀ seˀ gyę:ˀ gę:s to:gyę́h hwaˀ nęh sǫheh nęh
it.is you.know emphasis usually that.one time when night when
gadidaksénǫgyeˀs shęh nhǫ: ohádenyǫˀ.
they.run.around that where there.are.roads
‘This is how it is, you know, at night when they run around their roads.’
(Mithun & Henry 1980)

Related
⇒ Ahgwih hwaˀ ‘don’t!’, p. 815
⇒ Gwahs hwaˀ ‘this time for sure’, p. 875
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’, p. 886
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ hne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘just maybe’, p. 887
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’, p. 936
⇒ Ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘this (coming) time’, ‘when’, p. 942
⇒ Nę: hwaˀ waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘nowadays’, p. 950
⇒ Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this time’, p. 956
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ daˀǫ ‘maybe not’, p. 1006
⇒ To:-hwaˀ, Tǫ:-hwaˀ ‘that time’, p. 1024

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 C.6 H particles

Hwę:dǫh ‘ever’, ‘when’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2), clause-initial in direct (327–328) and
indirect (329) questions [ ] (see §29.9).

(327) Hwę:dǫ́h ne:ˀ to nęya:węh?

when it.is that it.will.happen
‘When is that going to happen?’

(328) Hwę:dǫ́h diˀ ęje:yǫˀ?

when so she.will.return
‘When then is she going to return?’

(329) Daskro:wíh [hwę:dǫ́h ęsahdę:diˀ].

you.tell.me when you.will.leave
‘Tell me when you are going to leave.’

Related
⇒ Ahgwih hwę:dǫh ‘don’t ever’, p. 816
⇒ Hwę:dǫh ‘when’, p. 909
⇒ Hwę:dǫh gwaˀ ‘sometime’, ‘whenever’, ‘once’, p. 909
⇒ Tęˀ hwę:dǫh ‘never’, p. 1011

Hwę:dǫh gwaˀ ‘sometime’, ‘whenever’, ‘once’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(330) Hwę:dǫ́h gwaˀ to niyáwę̱ ˀǫh.

when right.then that something.happened
‘It happened sometime in the past.’

(331) Hwę:dǫ́h gwaˀ to niyáwę̱ hdreˀ.

when right.then that something.is.going.to.happen
‘Sometime it is going to happen.’

(332) Hwę:dǫ́h gwaˀ dętseˀ.

when right.then you.will.return
‘Come back sometime!’ (Michelson 2011: 39)

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C Particle dictionary

(333) hwę:dǫ́h gwaˀ neˀ shę́h nidwa:gé:nǫ:

when right.then the that I.will.be.a.certain.number
‘…maybe once I have reached a certain age,…’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Hwę:dǫh ‘ever’, ‘when’, p. 909

Hya:ˀ ‘first’, ‘before anything else’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); enclitic.

(334) Ne:ˀ giˀ hǫ:niˀ e:dwade:kǫ́:niˀ hya:ˀ!

it.is just the.reason we.should.eat first
‘That’s why I think we should eat something first brothers!’ (Carrier et al.
2013)

Related
⇒ I:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘me first’, p. 911
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘before all else’, ‘first’, p. 935
⇒ O:nęh giˀ hya:ˀ ‘good-bye’, p. 969
⇒ Waˀ-jih hya:ˀ ‘wait a minute’, ‘wait a while’, ‘wait!’, p. 1037

C.7 I particles
I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ ‘I’, ‘we’
Particle functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1). Ní:ˀ is said to be a combination of
neˀ and i:ˀ; free-standing. I:ˀ and ni:ˀ can occur anywhere that i:s and ni:s do.

910
 C.7 I particles

Related
⇒ Dęˀ ni:ˀ ‘I am for sure’, p. 828
⇒ Do: i:ˀ ‘let me!’, ‘how about me?’, p. 833
⇒ I:ˀ hne:ˀ ‘no, I am’, p. 911
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ, ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910
⇒ I:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘me first’, p. 911
⇒ I:ˀ seˀ ‘I am’, p. 911
⇒ I:ˀgeh (gwa:dih) ‘on my side’, ‘as for me’, p. 912
⇒ Nę: diˀ ni:s, p. 950
⇒ Ni:ˀ gyę:ˀ, ni:ˀ gę:ˀ ‘I did it’, p. 957
⇒ Seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ ‘me too’, ‘us too’, p. 977
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ ni:ˀ ‘no, not me’, p. 1006
⇒ Tęˀ i:ˀ ‘not me’, ‘not us’, p. 1012

I:ˀ hne:ˀ ‘no, I am’

Particle group functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing.

(335) I:ˀ hne:ˀ.

I in.fact
‘No, I am.’ (answering the question, “Is she leaving?”)

I:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘me first’, ‘us first’

Particle group functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing.

(336) I:ˀ hya:ˀ.

I first
‘Me first.’

I:ˀ seˀ ‘I am’

Particle group functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1) with contrastive focus; free-
standing.

(337) I:ˀ seˀ.

I you.know
‘No, I am.’ (answering the question, “Is she leaving?”)

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C Particle dictionary

Related
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ, ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977

I:ˀgeh gwa:dih ‘on my side’, ‘as for me’

Particle group, i:ˀgeh (gwa:dih) functions as an emphatic pronoun (§6.1); free-standing;
gwa:dih can also be spelled or pronounced as gwai.

(338) i:ˀ-geh gwa:dih

I-on side
‘on my side’, ‘as for me’

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ, ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910

I:nǫh ‘far’
Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(339) I:nǫ́h tgidrǫˀ.

it.is.far I.live.there
‘I live far away.’

Related
⇒ I:nǫh gaoˀ neˀ ‘far from’, ‘not all’, p. 913

912
 C.7 I particles

I:nǫh gaoˀ neˀ ‘far from’, ‘not all’

Atypical verb and particle group ⌊i:nǫh … gaoˀ neˀ stative.verb⌋ is used in comparisons
(§31.1).

(340) I:nǫ́h giˀ gaǫ neˀ gwę:gǫh hęyodiyéna̱ha:k

it.is.far just so.much the all they.will.be.caught
‘But I wouldn’t very often catch all of them.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

Related
⇒ Gaoˀ ‘this side’, ‘this way’, p. 854
⇒ I:nǫh ‘far’, p. 912
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918

I:s, Ni:s ‘you’ (any number of people)

Particle functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); ní:s is said to be a combination of
neˀ and i:s; free-standing. I:s and ni:s can occur anywhere that i:ˀ and ni:ˀ do.

Related
⇒ Dęˀ ni:ˀ ‘I am for sure’, p. 828
⇒ Do: i:ˀ ‘let me!’, ‘how about me?’, p. 833
⇒ I:ˀ hne:ˀ ‘no, I am’, p. 911
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ, ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910
⇒ I:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘me first’, p. 911
⇒ I:ˀ seˀ ‘I am’, p. 911
⇒ I:ˀgeh (gwa:dih) ‘on my side’, ‘as for me’, p. 912
⇒ Nę: diˀ ni:s ‘how about you?’, p. 950
⇒ Ni:ˀ gyę:ˀ, ni:ˀ gę:ˀ ‘I did it’, p. 957
⇒ Seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ ‘me too’, ‘us too’, p. 977
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ ni:ˀ ‘no, not me’, p. 1006
⇒ Tęˀ i:ˀ ‘not me’, ‘not us’, p. 1012

I:soˀ ‘much’, ‘many’, ‘lots’, ‘very’

Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

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(341) Dó:gęhs í:soˀ gotsę:nǫ:níˀ Hiˀnóˀ ashagoyénawaˀs.

truly lots she.is.happy Hiˀnoˀ he.helped.her
‘She was very grateful that Hiˀnoˀ helped her.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(342) I:sóˀ ga̱ˀdrehda̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh hó:yęˀ.

many cars he.owns
‘He has many cars.’

Related
⇒ I:so:ˀah ‘a fairly big bit’, p. 914

I:so:ˀah ‘a fair amount’

Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(343) …gwahs i:só:ˀah ęyagwayę́twahsǫ:ˀ…,

…really a.fair.amount we.will.plant.things
‘… we’ll plant a lot,…’(Mithun & Henry 1984: 420, Ęswayętoˀ Gęh?
dialogue)

Related
⇒ I:soˀ ‘much’, ‘many’, ‘lots’, ‘very’, p. 913

I:wa:kˀah ‘near’
Verb functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(344) I:wa:kˀáh dǫdahodrihsdǫ̱hǫ́:gyeˀ.

it.is.near he.is.sneaking.around.ever.closer
‘He is getting nearer and nearer again.’

914
 C.8 J particles

C.8 J particles
Ji ‘overly’, ‘too’
Element occurring in the following particle groups; proclitic.

Related
⇒ Ji aǫgo̱hdǫh ‘too much so’, p. 915
⇒ Ji trehs ‘more (than usual)’, ‘too much so’, p. 915
⇒ Ji trehs ‘because’, ‘overly’, p. 916
⇒ Ji trehs shęh ‘too much so for’, ‘so much so’, p. 917

Ji aǫgohdǫh ‘too much so’

Particle and verb ji … aǫgo̱hdǫh functions as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial
before an “adjectival” (stative-only) verb.

(345) Ęhę́ˀ ji giˀ aǫgohdǫ́h oyęhsrí:yoˀ, neˀ gwahs ǫ:wéh

yes too.much just it.is.surpassed good.blanket, the really truly
á:gehs.
I.should.use.it
‘Yes, it is too good a quilt to really use.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 456,
Oyę́hsraˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Aǫgo̱hdǫh ‘exceptional’, ‘over the top’, ‘extremely’, ‘too much so’, p. 818
⇒ Ji ‘too much’, p. 915

Ji trehs ‘more (than usual)’, ‘too much so’

Particle group (ji)…trehs functions as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(346) Dęˀ diˀ hoˀdę́ˀ ni:yóht tréhs hnaˀgę:ˀ?

what then thing the.reason too late
‘Why was it so late?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 508, Aǫhdęgyǫ́heˀ dialogue)

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(347) …tréhs a:yę́:ˀ ǫknigǫ̱hsá:dǫˀk.

…too.much.so it.seems I.got.lonesome
‘ …I seem to get too lonesome. (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah
dialogue)

(348) Tęˀ, tręhs do:gęhs a:yę́:ˀ gowá:nęˀs.

No, too.much truly it.seems it.is.big.items
‘It really seems to be too big for me.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225,
Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

(349) Jiˀ gę:s trehs shenó:wę:.

too usually too.much.so you.lie
‘You lie too much.’ ‘you are too much of a liar.’

(350) A:yeˀ ji tręhs tsishede̱hjíh agáhyagoˀ

it.seems too too.much this.morning I.picked.fruit
‘It seems to me I picked too much fruit this morning.’

Related
⇒ Ji ‘too much’, p. 915
⇒ Ji trehs ‘because’, ‘overly’, p. 916
⇒ Ji trehs shęh ‘too much so for’, ‘so much so’, p. 917
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982
⇒ Trehs ‘too much’, p. 1027

Ji trehs ‘because’, ‘overly’

Particle group (ji) trehs is clause-initial in causative dependent clauses (§29.3).

(351) Ętsgihnǫkséˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ, [tréhs tę́ˀ de̱ˀage̱ˀdréhdaęˀ].

you.will.come.and.seek.me just emphasis because not I.don’t.have.a.car
‘Will you come and get me, because I don’t have a car?’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 279, Ǫdwęnǫdáhtaˀ dialogue)

(352) Agahdrǫ́ˀs onę́h e: [ji trehs satsę:nǫ́:nih].

I’m.frightened now again because you.are.happy
‘I am frightened now because you are too happy again.’

916
 C.9 N particles

Related
⇒ Ji ‘too much’, p. 915
⇒ Ji trehs ‘more (than usual)’, ‘too much so’, p. 915
⇒ Ji trehs shęh ‘too much so for’, ‘so much so’, p. 917
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982
⇒ Trehs ‘too much’, p. 1027

Ji trehs shęh ‘too much so for’, ‘so much so’

Particle group ⌊(ji) … trehs stative.verb shęh verb⌋ or ⌊(ji) … trehs shęh stative.verb⌋
is used in comparisons (§31.1).

(353) Ji gę́:s trehs ja̱hsę́: shęh nisnihnę́:ye:s.

too usually too.much you.are.fat that how.tall.you.are
‘You are generally too fat for your height.’

(354) Tréhs shę́h i:sóˀ agwánę̱ hgwiˀ.

too.much that it.is.a.lot we.move.it
‘There is such a lot for us to move.’ (Keye 2016, Circle Book 11, On Our
Way)

Related
⇒ Ji ‘too much’, p. 915
⇒ Ji trehs ‘more (than usual)’, ‘too much so’, p. 915
⇒ Ji trehs ‘because’, ‘overly’, p. 916
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982
⇒ Trehs ‘too much’, p. 1027

C.9 N particles
Nˀaht, Noht meaning ‘some person’
Particle functioning as a “pronoun”; always appears after sǫ: ‘who’.

917
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Related
⇒ Sǫ:, sǫ: nˀaht ‘who’, p. 993
⇒ Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht ‘anybody at all’, ‘anyone at all’, ‘any living thing’, ‘somebody’,
‘whoever’, p. 995
⇒ Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht o:yaˀ ‘someone else’, p. 996

Naˀgę:ˀ, Ohnaˀgę:ˀ ‘late’

Verb (oh)naˀgę:ˀ functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(355) Ohnaˀgę́:ˀ ihseˀ

late you.are.here
‘You are late again.’ (said at the moment)

Related
⇒ Ohnaˀgę: gwa:dih shęh ‘behind’, p. 965
⇒ Ohnaˀgęhjih ‘late’, ‘back then’, p. 966
⇒ Ohnaˀgęhjih ‘late’, ‘back then’, ‘the bottom’, p. 966
⇒ Ohnaˀgǫ: ‘underneath’, ‘beneath’, ‘under’, p. 966

Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’

Particle signaling that the item it modifies constitutes shared knowledge (known to both
speaker and listener, §35.3.4); neˀ also identifies a generic category of event or state
(Chafe 1994: 155). Enclitic to the phrase it modifies (shown in bold).

(356) Dęˀ hoˀdę́ˀ eya:sǫ́h neˀ sanǫ́:haˀ?

what kind she.is.called the your.mother
‘What is the name of your mother?’ (asking about someone who is the
current topic of conversation)

(357) Honahsę́: hęˀ neˀ dehęnadęhnǫ́:drǫˀ.

they.are.fat also the your.brothers
‘Your brothers are also fat.’ (talking about people known to both speaker
and listener)

918
 C.9 N particles

(358) Elsie eya:sǫ́h neˀ gonǫhgę́:t, Esther hné:ˀ eya:sǫ́h neˀ

Elsie she.is.named the she.is.fair-haired, Esther in.fact she.is.named the
gogéˀaji:.
she.is.dark-haired
‘The fair-haired one is named Elsie, and the dark-haired one is Esther.’
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah dialogue) (speaking of two
women whom both speaker and listener can see)

(359) Go:gáˀs gęh nawę́ˀdaˀ neˀ Tina?

she.likes.the.taste.of.it Q candy the Tina
‘Does Tina like candy?’ (identifying people known by their proper
names to both speaker and listener)

(360) Hona:dáoˀ hǫwanǫ̱hwéˀs hęˀ neˀ Gwí:deh.

his.friend he.likes.him also the Peter
‘His friend likes Peter also.’

(361) identifying a generic state of ownership

Tęˀ gęh neˀ desá:węh?
not Q the you.don’t.own.it
‘Isn’t that yours?’

(362) identifying a category of event, such as ‘things I remember’ or ‘her

breadmaking’
Neˀ giˀ agása:ˀs neˀ dyotgǫ́:t gę:s gonaˀdaę́ˀ neˀ
the just I.remember the always usually she.made.bread the
ksotgę̱ hę́:ˀ neˀ gotnaˀdaǫ́daˀk.
late.grandmother the she.made.bread.
‘What I remember is that she always had bread, that grandma; she made
bread. (i.e. ‘her breadmaking’) (Henry 2005)

(363) identifying a category of event

Ahę́ˀ neˀ Hahnę:yé:s, “Sgęnǫˀ:ǫ́h hędwá:trihs. Ędwadenyę:dę́ˀ
he.said the tall.one slowly we.all.will.approach we.all.will.try
neˀ tawęnihná:do:k
the it.shouldn’t.notice
‘The Tall One said, “Go slowly, let us get near. We will try for it not to
notice.”’ (referring to the magical bear Hnyagwaiˀdatgiˀgó:wah) (Keye
2012)

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Related
⇒ Neˀ gyaǫhę:ˀęh d- ‘the most’, ‘the greatest’, p. 922
⇒ Da: neˀ toh ‘that’s all’, p. 822
⇒ E:ˀ, Neˀ ę:ˀ ‘isn’t it so?’, ‘yes?’, ‘no?’, ‘innit?’, p. 838
⇒ Gyę:ˀ hne:ˀ tęˀ neˀ ‘it was this one, (not that one)’, p. 883
⇒ I:nǫh gaoˀ neˀ ‘far from enough’, p. 913
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Neˀ aǫhę:ˀęh d- ‘the most, -est, -er (of)’, p. 920
⇒ Neˀ gwaˀ toh ‘here (rather than there)’, p. 921
⇒ Neˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ gyę:ˀ, negęˀnagęˀ ‘that is what’, p. 923
⇒ Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ (emphasis), p. 923
⇒ Neˀ hegwe:gǫh ‘the whole thing’, p. 924
⇒ Neˀ heyohe:ˀ ‘more, -er’, p. 924
⇒ Neˀ seˀ ‘that’s just the one’, ‘that’s just who’, p. 926
⇒ Neˀ to gyę:ˀ ‘that’s what’, p. 926
⇒ Neˀ to gyę:ˀ hǫ:weh ‘it is where’, p. 927
⇒ Neˀ to: ne:ˀ ‘that’s the one’, p. 927
⇒ Neˀ toh ‘that is’, ‘that one’, p. 928
⇒ Neˀ tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ‘also’, p. 928
⇒ Ne:ˀ gęh … ne:ˀ/neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … ‘or?’, p. 933
⇒ Ne:ˀ/neˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘that’s just it’, ‘that’s it for sure’, p. 934
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ … giˀ shęh ‘or’, p. 937
⇒ Ne:ˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ ‘that really is’, p. 940
⇒ Ne:ˀ neˀ ‘it is’, ‘that is’, ‘that’s what’, p. 943
⇒ Ne:ˀ seˀ gę:s neˀ ‘back then’, ‘a long time ago’, p. 945
⇒ O:nęh, neˀ o:nęh ‘now’, ‘when’, ‘then’, ‘at this time’, p. 967
⇒ Otgaˀdeˀ neˀ niwa:gęˀ ni- ‘as many as’, p. 972
⇒ O:weh, neˀ ǫ:weh ‘really’, p. 976
⇒ Tęˀ gyę:ˀ nę neˀ ‘not’, ‘what on earth?’, p. 1008
⇒ Tęˀ hne:ˀ neˀ ‘…not that one’, p. 1010

Neˀ aǫhę:ˀęh d-stative.verb … (shęh gaoˀ ni-stative.verb) ‘the most,

-est, -er (of)’
Phrase ⌊(neˀ) aǫhę:ˀęh d-stative.verb (ni-d-stative.verb)⌋ is used in comparisons (§31.1);
(neˀ) aǫhę:ˀęh precedes a stative verb beginning with ⌊d-⌋ cis.

(364) neˀ aǫhę:ˀę́h dwakyęda̱hgówanęh

the the.most very.big.chair
‘the greatest chair’

920
 C.9 N particles

cf. a-ǫhę:ˀ-ęh 3s.p-alone.stat-dim

cf. d-w-akyęda̱hg-ówan-ęh cis-3s.a-chair-big-stat

(365) Aǫhę:ˀę́h hniˀ gyogaˀǫ́h shęh gaóˀ nitode̱ˀnyę́:dę:.

the.most and more.than.sweet that more.so more.than.he.had.tasted
‘And it was sweeter than anything he had ever tasted.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)
cf. g-yo-gaˀ-ǫ́h cis-3s.p-taste.good-stat
cf. ni-t-ho-d-e̱-ˀnyę́:dę-: part-cis-3s.m.p-srf-joinerE-try-stat

(366) Í:ˀ aǫhę:ˀę́h tknę:yé:s shęh nigyǫ:.

I the.most I’m.more.than.tall that a.certain.amount
‘I am the tallest one here.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)
cf. t-k-hnę:yé:s cis-1s.a-tall.stat
cf. ni-g-y-ǫ: part-cis-3s.p-a.certain.amount.stat

Related
⇒ Neˀ gyaǫhę:ˀęh d- ‘the most’, ‘the greatest’, p. 922
⇒ Aǫhęˀ, Aǫhaˀ ‘it’, p. 819

Neˀ gwaˀ toh ‘here (rather than there)’

Particle group (neˀ) gwa̱ ˀ-toh functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); emphatic; clause-
initial.

(367) Neˀ gwaˀ toh haˀhǫwadíha:ˀ.

the just.there here they.took.him.over.there
‘They also took him here.’

(368) Sgę́:nǫˀ. Se̱ˀsgęhę́:ˀ ę:ˀ gwaˀ-toh waˀjih?

hello you.were.again again just.there-here a.while.ago
‘Hello. Weren’t you here a while ago?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 441,
Dwęnǫhsanekahǫˀ dialogue)

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Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘there’, ‘that place’, p. 1017

Neˀ gyaǫhę:ˀęh d-stative.verb … (shęh ni-stative.verb) ‘the most’, ‘the

greatest’
Particle group ⌊(neˀ) g-y-aǫhę:-ˀęh d-stative.verb (shęh) ni-verb)⌋ is used in compar-
isons (§31.1); (neˀ) gyaǫhę:ˀęh precedes a verb beginning with ⌊d-/g-⌋ cis.

(369) neˀ gyaǫhę:ˀę́h gyonǫˀshéhsde:ˀ

the the.most very.sickening
‘the most sickening, tiring, aggravating’
cf. g-ya-ǫhę:ˀ-ęh cis-3s.p-alone.stat-dim
cf. g-yo-nǫˀshéhsde:ˀ cis-3s.p-sickening.stat

(370) neˀ gyaǫhę:ˀę́h dwakyęda̱hgówanęh

the the.most very.big.chair
‘the greatest chair’
cf. g-ya-ǫhę:ˀ-ęh cis-3s.p-alone.stat-dim
cf. d-w-akyęda̱hg-ówan-ęh cis-3s.a-chair-big-stat

(371) O:nę́h ahǫwawę:ná:ˀ neˀ gyaǫhę:ˀę́h thahnę:yé:s shęh

then he.had.words.with.him the most he.was.so.tall that
niẖ ę́:nǫ:.
they.were.a.certain.number
‘I am the tallest one here.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)
cf. thahnę:yé:s cis-3s.m.a-tall.stat
cf. ni ̱-hę́:-nǫ: part-3ns.m.a-a.certain.amount.stat

922
 C.9 N particles

Related
⇒ Aǫhęˀ, Aǫhaˀ ‘it’, p. 819
⇒ Neˀ aǫhę:ˀęh d- ‘the most’, ‘the greatest’, p. 920

Neˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ gyę:ˀ, Negęˀnagęˀ ‘that’s what’

Particle group neˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ gyę:ˀ or negęˀnagęˀ conveys emphasis or focus (§35.4.4);
clause-initial.

(372) neˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ gyę:ˀ (possible analysis)

the this.one the this.one
‘that’s what…’
(373) Negęˀnageˀ gi:dǫh.
that’s.what I.mean
‘That’s what I meant to say.’

Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918

Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ (emphasis)

Particle group (neˀ) gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ conveys emphasis (§35.4.4); clause-initial.

(374) “Ne:ˀ,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ dęyǫ́kiˀnya:ˀ.”

it.is she.said the emphasis here it.is they.govern.us
‘“That’s it,” she said, “that’s because they govern us.”’ (Henry 2005)
(375) Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ toh hǫ́: hęnatgęníhsˀanhaˀ,
the emphasis here it.is that.one place they.will.meet
ahatgęnihsˀanháˀ neˀ hodiyanéhsǫˀ
he.holds.council the they.call.it
‘He went to where they hold council. it is called Ahatgęnihsˀanhaˀ (‘he
holds council’).’ (Henry 2005)

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Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ, Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ (emphasis), p. 883
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948

Neˀ hegwe:gǫh ‘the whole thing’

Particle and atypical verb (neˀ) hegwe:gǫh functioning as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5);
free-standing.

(376) Dó: diˀ niga:nǫ́:ˀ neˀ hegwé:gǫh?

how then it.costs.a.certain.amount the all.of.it
‘How much is the whole thing?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 159,
Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)

Related
⇒ Gwe:gǫh, Agwe:gǫh, Ogwe:gǫh ‘all’, ‘everything’, p. 880
⇒ Gwe:gǫh, Agwe:gǫh, Ogwe:gǫh ‘completely’, ‘totally’, p. 880

Neˀ heyohe:ˀ ‘more, -er’

Particle group ⌊(neˀ) heyohe:ˀ stative.verb⌋ or ⌊(neˀ) stative.verb heyohe:ˀ⌋ is used in
comparisons (§31.1). heyohe:ˀ literally means ‘it is excessive’, ‘it is overboard’.

(377) heyohé:ˀ wakyęda̱hgówanęh

it.is.overboard w-akyęda̱hg-ówan-ęh
3s.a-chair-big-stat
‘a bigger chair’

(378) Ęhsyáni ̱hsak seˀ-gye:ˀ waˀhéh o:nęh ne:ˀ

you.will.look.for.tracks you.know-emphasis before now this-is

924
 C.9 N particles

hǫ:niˀ heyohé:ˀ wagyésa̱ˀgeh.

because more w-ag-yésa̱ˀgeh
3s.a-srf-easy.stat
‘You look for the tracks first, because it is easier.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

(379) Ǫgwa:yę́ˀ giˀ hné:ˀ neˀ wagye:sę́h heyóhe:ˀ,

we.have just in.fact the w-ag-ye:s-ę́h more
3s.a-srf-cheap-stat
wagyesę̱ hsǫ́:ˀǫh.
w-ag-yes-ę̱ h-sǫ́:ˀǫh
3s.a-srf-cheap-stative-pluralizer
‘But we do have cheaper ones, the cheaper kind.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
159, Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)

(380) Ęhatgę̱ ˀsé:ˀ gę́:s neˀ joni:tsgrǫ́:t heyohé:ˀ i:sóˀ agahnegeháˀ

he.went.looking usually the squirrel more it.is.a.lot he.drank.sap,
aǫgágriˀ, haǫháˀ giˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ toh na̱há:ye:ˀ.
it.was.good.tasting.sap he.alone just also in.fact that.one he.did.it
‘Just like the squirrel, he kept going back for more.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Heyohe:ˀ ‘more’, p. 894
⇒ Heyohe:ˀ shęh ‘more than’, p. 895
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs heyohe:ˀ ‘the most, -est’, p. 939

Neˀ ǫ:weh, Ǫ:weh ‘really’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(381) Neˀ ǫ:weh gaǫdé:nǫhk.

the truly they.are.related
‘They really are related.’

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Related
⇒ O:weh, Neˀ ǫ:weh ‘really’, p. 976

Neˀ seˀ ‘that’s just the one’, ‘that’s just who’

Particle group used for emphasis or focus (§35.4.4); free-standing or clause-initial.

(382) Neˀ seˀ hǫwę́:dǫh.

the you.know she.means.him
‘He is just the one she means.’

Related
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977

Neˀ to gyę:ˀ ‘that’s what’

Particle group, used for emphasis or focus (§35.4.4); clause-initial.

(383) Neˀ to gyę:ˀ haˀhoya̱ˀdá:węh.

the that emphasis it.happened.to.his.body.over.there
‘That’s what happened to him over there.’

Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

926
 C.9 N particles

Neˀ to gyę:ˀ hǫ:weh ‘it’s where’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); emphatic; likely clause-initial;
hǫ:weh can be spelled or pronounced as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, or nhǫ:weh.

Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘there’, ‘that place’, p. 1017

Neˀ to: ne:ˀ ‘that’s the one’

Particle group (neˀ) to: … ne:ˀ functions as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); emphatic;
clause-initial.

(384) Neˀ to: ne:ˀ shagóhsgane:s.

the that.one it.is she.desires.him
‘She is the one he desires.’

(385) Ihsé: gęh [to: ne:ˀ dwá:ye:]?

you.think Q [that.one it.is we.do.it]
‘Do you think we should do it that way?’

(386) [To: ni:yóˀ ne:ˀ heseˀs].

that.one where it.is you.are.there
‘That’s your birthday.’ (literally, ‘that’s when you come around again.’)

Related
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

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Neˀ toh ‘that is’, ‘that one’

Particle group functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); emphatic; clause-initial.

(387) Neˀ toh ni:yǫ́: hó:yęˀ.

it that.one a.certain.number he.owns.it
‘That’s how many he has.’

Related
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

Neˀ tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ‘also’

Particle group, neˀ (tsǫ:) gwaˀ toh signals the continuation of a previous topic and the
addition of new information (§35.4.2); clause-initial.

(388) [Neˀ gwaˀ toh haˀhǫwadíha:ˀ.]

the emphasis that.one they.took.him.away
‘They also took him.’

(389) Hohsę́: [neˀ tsǫ́: gwaˀ toh nihahnę́:ye:s]

he.is.fat the only emphasis that.one he.is.short
‘He is stout and he is also short.’

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Ne:ˀ ‘it is’

Particle or atypical verb, conveys contrastive focus (§35.4.4, §29.1); clause-initial in a
dependent clause. Other uses are listed in the “Related” sections.

928
 C.9 N particles

(390) Hwę:dǫ́h [né:ˀ to nęyá:węh]?

when [it.is that it.will.happen]
‘When [is it that that’s going to happen]?’

(391) Tigaˀdre̱hda:déˀ [né:ˀ ahahní:nǫˀ].

a.different.kind.of.car [it.is he.bought.it]
‘He bought a different car.’ ‘A different kind of car [is what he bought].’

Related
⇒ Hne:ˀ, Ne:ˀ … (tsǫ: shęh) ‘but’, p. 596
⇒ Da: ne:ˀ onęh ‘and now’, p. 822
⇒ Da: ne:ˀ, da: ne:ˀ hniˀ ‘too’, ‘also’, ‘and’, p. 821
⇒ Dęˀ ǫh ne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what on earth?’, p. 829
⇒ Ę:, E: (possible atypical verb), p. 839
⇒ Giˀ ne:ˀ ‘it is just’, p. 868
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’, p. 930
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’ (equative), p. 930
⇒ Ne:ˀ dagaihǫ:niˀ ‘the reason why’, ‘that’s why’, ‘because’, p. 931
⇒ Ne:ˀ diˀ gęh ‘is that it then?’, ‘is that’, p. 932
⇒ Ne:ˀ gęh … ne:ˀ/neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … ‘or?’, p. 933
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ ‘just’ (emphasis), p. 933
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘before all else’, ‘first’, p. 935
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess’, p. 935
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ hniˀ ‘and that too’, ‘and that also’, p. 936
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’, p. 936
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ … giˀ shęh ‘or’, p. 937
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ tsǫ: gwahs ‘that’s really all’, p. 938
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs d- ‘the most’, p. 938
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs heyohe:ˀ ‘the most, -est’, p. 939
⇒ Ne:ˀ gwahs hwaˀ ‘this time for sure’, p. 875
⇒ Ne:ˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ ‘that really is’, p. 940
⇒ Ne:ˀ he:gę: ‘just’, ‘only’, ‘all’, p. 940
⇒ Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ ‘too’, ‘also’, p. 941
⇒ Ne:ˀ hne:ˀ ne:ˀ ‘in fact, it is’, ‘it is’, p. 942
⇒ Ne:ˀ hniˀ ne:ˀ ‘and that also’, p. 942
⇒ Ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘this (coming) time’, ‘when’, p. 942
⇒ Ne:ˀ neˀ ‘it is’, ‘that is’, ‘that’s what’, p. 943

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⇒ Ne:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess it is’, p. 944

⇒ Ne:ˀ seˀ gę:s neˀ ‘back then’, ‘a long time ago’, p. 945
⇒ Ne:ˀ seˀ gyę:ˀ ‘you know’, p. 945
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘because’, ‘it’s just’, p. 946
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: shęh ‘but’, ‘it’s just that’, p. 947
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘that’s only’, ‘that’s all’, p. 946
⇒ Ne:ˀ/neˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘that’s just it’, ‘that’s it for sure’, p. 934
⇒ Nę: hwaˀ waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘nowadays’, p. 950
⇒ Nę: ne:ˀ i:s ‘how about you’, p. 951
⇒ Nęh, ne:ˀ nęh ‘when’, ‘once’, ‘as soon as’, p. 956
⇒ Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ (emphasis), p. 923
⇒ Neˀ to: ne:ˀ ‘that’s the one’, p. 927
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Oh ne:ˀ ‘maybe’, p. 975
⇒ Tęˀ ne:ˀ de̱ˀgę: ‘without, lacking’, p. 1012
⇒ Tęˀ tǫ ne:ˀ, Tęˀ to ne:ˀ ‘not really’, p. 1015
⇒ To gęh ǫ ne:ˀ ‘I wonder if it is’, p. 1018
⇒ To: niyo:weˀ ne:ˀ ‘when’, p. 1021
⇒ Waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘today’, ‘now’, p. 1037

Ne:ˀ ‘it is’ (equative)

Particle or atypical verb ⌊noun … (ne:ˀ) noun⌋ optionally links two nouns (or noun
phrases), and carries the idea that the two nouns are at least partly equivalent. The first
noun ‘[ ]’ describes a category, and the second noun ‘[ ]’ belongs to the category denoted
by the first noun. See §27.4.

(392) [Ganyó:ˀ] hęˀ hne:ˀ (ne:ˀ) [gwíhsgwihs].

animal also in.fact (it.is) pigs
‘Pigs are animals.’

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

‘Ne:ˀ’ ‘just so’, ‘indeed’

Particle or atypical verb; free-standing expression, functioning as an “agreement marker”
(§35.3.1).

930
 C.9 N particles

(393) “Ne:ˀ,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ dęyǫ́kiˀnya:ˀ.”

it.is she.said the emphasis that.one it.is they.govern.us
‘“That’s it”, she said, “that’s because they govern us.”’ (Henry 2005)
(394) “Ne:ˀ tó:gyęh!” ahęˀ.
it.is that.one he.said
‘“That’s right!” he said.’ (Henry 2005)
(395) Pete: Ne:ˀ diˀ gęh? A:yę́:ˀ hné:ˀ gáegę̱ hjih.
it.is so Q it.seems in.fact they.are.old
‘Is that them? They look old!’
Junior: Ęhę́ˀ né:ˀ.
yes it.is
‘Yes, that is them.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah dialogue)

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’ (equative), p. 930

Ne:ˀ dagaihǫ:niˀ ‘the reason why’, ‘that’s why’, ‘because’

Particle group ne:ˀ … (dagai)hǫ:niˀ is clause-initial to an independent (396–398) or de-
pendent (399–400) causative clause (§29.3).

(396) Ne:ˀ seˀ hǫ:niˀ ogyanahséhdǫh.

it.is you.know the.reason it-has-hidden-its-tracks
‘That is because it has hiddens its tracks there.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)
(397) Ne:ˀ hǫ:niˀ to: ní:yoht.
it.is the.reason that it.is.a.certain.way
‘That’s why it is that way.’
(398) Ęhę́ˀ, gye̱ˀdrǫ́ˀ giˀ. Né:ˀ giˀ ho:níˀ to itgéˀs
yes, she.is.home just. it.is just the.reason there I.am.there
wę̱ hnihsragwé:gǫh.
all.day
‘Yes, she is home. That’s why I was there all day.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
456, Oyęhsraˀ dialogue)

931
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(399) Ahsǫ́h ní:ˀ agǫtsanǫhwá:s [neˀ dagaihǫ:níˀ gyotedę̱ hsǫ:ˀǫ́h

still I my.knees.are.sore the the.reason this.other.day
agahyagwę́hne:ˀ]
I.picked.fruit
‘My knees are still sore because of the other day (when) I picked fruit.’

(400) [Ne:ˀ hǫ́:niˀ í:wi: ęsadewá:yę:s], a:gasheya̱ˀdágenhaˀ

it.is the.reason I.want you.will.learn you.should.help.them
sǫgwéˀdasǫˀ í:soˀ godinǫ̱hǫ́kdani:.
your.people much they.are.sick
‘Because I want you to learn how to help your people, they are very sick.’
(Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ diˀ gęh ‘is that it then?’, ‘is that…?’

Particle group and free-standing expression or tag (§27.2.2).

(401) Ne:ˀ diˀ gęh?

it.is so Q
‘Is that it then?’ (that is, is that what you were referring to?)

(402) Junior: Si giˀ gyę:ˀ dagáęˀ ó:nęh!

there just this.one they.are.coming now
“Well here they come now!”
Pete: Ne:ˀ diˀ gęh? A:yę́:ˀ hné:ˀ gáegę̱ hjih.
it.is so Q? it.seems in.fact they.are.old.women
‘Is that them? They look old!” (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah
dialogue)

932
 C.9 N particles

Related
⇒ Diˀ ‘so’, ‘then’, p. 830
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ gęh … ne:ˀ/neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … ‘or?’

Particle group (ne:ˀ gęh) … ne:ˀ/neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … functions as a conjunction (§30), for
connecting a list of choices [ ]; ne:ˀ gęh appears before the list, and neˀ/ne:ˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ,
appears after the first item in a set of two choices.

(403) Né:ˀ gęh [neˀ gwahs ǫ:wéh oya:nréˀ desadǫ̱hwę:jó:nih], né:ˀ nigęˀǫ́h
it.is Q the really really it.is.good you.want.it, it.is or
neˀ [haˀdewę̱ hnihsragehká:ˀ] tsǫ: hoˀdę́ˀ ęhsehs?
the everyday.kind just what you.will.use
‘Do you want a really good one, or will you just use the everyday
kind?’(Mithun & Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

(404) [Onǫˀgwáˀ] neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ [ohneganóhs] desadǫhwę:jó:nih.

milk the or the water you.want.it
‘Do you want milk or water?’(Michelson 2011: 45)

Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ giˀ ‘just’ (emphasis)

Particle group, used for emphasis or focus (§35.4.4); clause-initial.

(405) Ne:ˀ giˀ é:dǫh.

it.is just she.means.it
‘That’s what she means.’

933
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(406) Ne:ˀ giˀ to:gyę́h agǫ́:gweh.

it.is just that.one woman
‘She’s the one.’

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ/neˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘that’s just it’, ‘that’s it for sure’

Particle group used for emphasis or focus (§35.4.4); free-standing or clause-initial.
(407) Neˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀ asiˀ.
the just this.one you.said
‘That’s what you said.’
(408) Neˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀ gáǫdǫh.
the just this.one they(females).mean
‘That’s what the women say.’
(409) “Tga:gǫ́:t gyęˀǫˀǫh hya̱hsó:t, neˀ shęh nyo:ˀ
it.is.obligatory I.guess your.grandfather the that a.certain.time
ęhshá:yǫˀ, waˀhéh ó:nęh. Néˀ giˀ gyę:ˀˀ.
he.will.arrive.home, just.now then it.is just this.one
“It will have to be when your grandpa arrives home. That’s how it will
be.” (Henry 2005) (speaking about when to do something…)
(410) Neˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ dó:gęhs.
the just this.one it.is.true
‘That’s just what we did…’ (Henry 2005) (referring to cleaning up after
playing)
(411) “Ó:, neˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ”, aˀa:gę́ˀ, “owidra:htaˀ hniˀ ęwa:dǫ́ˀ
oh the just this.one she.said butter also it.is.possible
ęhsrá neˀ onaˀda:ˀ.”
you.will.spread the bread
‘“Oh, and of course,” she said, “there is butter to spread on your bread.”’
(Henry, 2005)

934
 C.9 N particles

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘quite’, ‘kind of’, p. 866
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ hya:ˀ ‘before all else’, ‘first’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(412) Háoˀ. Neˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀ hya:ˀ aekninaˀdá:k agatna̱ˀdáǫt

OK. it.is just emphasis for.now/this.time we.should.eat I.baked.it
degáhswa̱ˀne:t.
pie
‘Mmm. Before anything else, we should eat the pie I baked.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 376, Dajǫh dialogue)

(413) Neˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀ hya:ˀ ędwa:gyę́ht

it.is just emphasis for.now/this.time we.will.knock.down
ęyagwa̱ˀgranhohsro:dę́ˀ nę́:-toh.
we.will.pile.snow this.one-here
‘Well first, we’ll pile some snow here.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 481,
Dędwaˀęnáęˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Hya:ˀ ‘first’, ‘before anything else’, p. 910
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess’

Particle group, emphatic, functioning as an “evidential marker” (§35.2); clause-initial.

935
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(414) Ęhę́ˀ. né:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ǫ́h nę:gyę́h néˀ. Degahwi ̱hsda:gé:
yes it.is just this.one I.wonder this.one the two.dollars
nigaji ̱hwa:nǫ́:ˀ. Né:ˀ ękní:nǫˀ.
the.hammer.costs it.is I.will.buy.it
‘Yes. I guess I will buy the two-dollar hammer.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
158, Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Oh, ǫ:, ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974

Ne:ˀ giˀ hniˀ ‘and that too’, ‘and that also’

Particle group ⌊ne:ˀ giˀ item item hniˀ⌋ ‘also (etc.)’ functions as an emphatic conjunction
(§30) linking a list of similar items [ ]. Ne:ˀ giˀ appears at the beginning of the clause, and
the linked items occur between it and hniˀ.

(415) Né:ˀ giˀ [Sampsón], [Deliláh] hniˀ gaǫdatáwa̱hksǫˀ. Ahsę́h

it.is just [Sampson], [Delilah] and their.children. Three
nigá:gǫ:.
a.certain.number
‘Those are Sampson and Delilah’s children. There are three of them.’
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 68, Eksaˀgó:wah dialogue)

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Hniˀ ‘and’, p. 903
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe that’s the one’

Particle group functioning as a “doubt or certainty marker” (§35.2); clause-initial.

936
 C.9 N particles

(416) Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ é:dǫh.

it.is just that this.time she.means.it
‘Maybe that’s the one she means.’

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’, p. 907
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ … giˀ shęh ‘or’

Particle group (ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ) … giˀ shęh functions as a conjunction (§30), connecting
an additional list of choices, [ ]; ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ optionally appears before the first item
in the list; the other choices are followed by giˀ shęh.

(417) Ó:, a:yę́:ˀ ní:ˀ né:ˀ gwahs knǫ̱hweˀs neˀ hehsá̱ˀęˀ niyohso̱hgoˀdę:, né:ˀ
Oh, it.seems I it.is really I.like the brown it.is.coloured, it.is
giˀ-shę́h neˀ [ojiˀtgwa:gę́:tˀah], [jiˀtgwá:ˀ giˀ-shęh], [otgwęhji ̱ˀa:gę́:t
maybe the [light.yellow], [yellow or], [pink
giˀ-shęh].
or].
‘Oh, the one I like the best is brown, or perhaps a light yellow, or maybe
yellow, or maybe pink.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ
dialogue)
(418) [Hnaˀgǫ̱hká:ˀ] giˀ-shę́h [sga̱hoˀdę:ˀęh]?
underclothes or anything
‘Underclothes or something?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225,
Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)
(419) Tę́ˀ gęh taˀdesadǫhwęjo:níh sga̱hoˀdę:ˀę́h o:yaˀ? [Adáhdi ̱ˀtraˀ]
not Q you.don’t.want.it something else? [socks],
[ahdahgwáˀ] giˀ-shęh?.
[shoes] or
‘There was not anything else you wanted? Stockings, or shoes?’ (Mithun
& Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

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(420) Tęˀ sga̱hoˀdę́ˀ [neˀ oˀwáhǫh], [ji ̱ˀdę:ˀę́h], [ojǫˀdáˀ] giˀ-shęh.

Not anything [the meat], [birds], [fish] or
‘No meat, no birds, no fish.’ (Carrier et al. 2013) (Men went hunting, but
returned with nothing.)

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’, p. 868
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’, p. 907
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Ne:ˀ giˀ tsǫ: gwahs ‘that’s really all’

Particle group functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); emphatic; clause-initial.

(421) Ęyǫgwadáhnyo:k, [né:ˀ giˀ tsǫ́: gwahs ęyagyonhéhgǫ̱hǫ:k],

we.will.be.fishing, it.is just only really we.will.live.on.it
‘We’ll be fishing, and that’s all we’ll live on,…’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
402, Ęyagwa̱hdę́:diˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Giˀ tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘really’, p. 869
⇒ Gwahs ‘really’, ‘just’, ‘quite’, p. 874
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Ne:ˀ gwahs d- ‘the most’

Particle group ⌊neˀ gwahs d-stative.verb⌋ is used in comparisons (§31.1); clause-initial
before a stative verb beginning with ⌊d-/g-⌋ cis.

938
 C.9 N particles

(422) ne:ˀ gwahs dwakyęda̱hgówanęh

it.is emphasis very.big.chair
‘the biggest chair’
cf. d-w-akyęda̱hg-ówan-ęh cis-3s.a-chair-big-stat

Related
⇒ Gwahs ‘really’, ‘just’, ‘quite’, p. 874
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ gwahs heyohe:ˀ ‘the most, -est’

Particle group ⌊(ne:ˀ) gwahs stative.verb (heyohe:)⌋ is used in comparisons (§31.1).

(423) Tohgéh nę:gyę́h gwahs gajihyowa:nę́h heyóhe:.

here this.one the.most very.big.hammer it.is.beyond
‘Here is the biggest hammer.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 159,
Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)
cf. ga-jihy-owa:n-ę́h 3s.a-hammer-big-stat

(424) Dá giˀ gwa:díh tga̱hǫˀ ne:ˀ gwahs oyá:nreˀs…

Over just here it.rests it.is the.most good.ones
‘Over here are the best (ones)…’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 159,
Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)
cf. 3s.p-good.stat-pl

Related
⇒ Gwahs ‘really’, ‘just’, ‘quite’, p. 874
⇒ Heyohe:ˀ ‘more’, p. 894
⇒ Heyohe:ˀ shęh ‘more than’, p. 895
⇒ Neˀ heyohe:ˀ ‘more, -er’, p. 924
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

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Ne:ˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ ‘that really is’

Particle group ne:ˀ gyę:ˀ (neˀ) is used for emphasis or focus (§35.4.4); clause-initial.

(425) Ne:ˀ gyę:ˀ gí:dǫh.

it.is this.one I.mean
‘That is what I mean.’

(426) Ne:ˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ tó:gyęh.

it.is this.one the that.one
‘That is the one.’

Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ he:gę: ‘just’, ‘only’, ‘all’

Particle group ne:ˀ … he:gę: is used for emphasis or focus (§35.4.4); clause-initial.

(427) Ne:ˀ he:gę: ęhsyaˀdaniyǫdago̱háǫˀ.

it.is all you.will.unhang.bodies
‘All you have to do is take the bodies down.’ (Henry 2005) (speaking of
removing rabbits from a snare)

(428) Né:ˀ tsǫ́: he:gę́ neˀ ahatsęnǫ:níˀ neˀ o:nę́h saeyǫ́ˀ neˀ
it.is just all the he.was.happy the now she.returned.home the
knó:haˀ.
mother
‘He is just happy that my mother is home.’(Mithun & Henry 1984: 508,
Aǫhdęgyǫheˀ dialogue)

940
 C.9 N particles

Related
⇒ Ę:, E: (possible atypical verb), p. 839

Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ ‘too’, ‘also’

Particle group (ne:ˀ) hęˀ hne:ˀ emphasizes the continuation of a previous topic and the
addition of new information (§35.4.2); ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ is clause-initial; …hęˀ hne:ˀ is enclitic.

(429) Honahsę́: hęˀ hne:ˀ de̱hęnadęhnǫ́:drǫˀ.

they.are.fat also in.fact your.brothers
‘Your brothers are also fat.’

(430) Ganyó:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ neˀ/ne:ˀ gwíhsgwihs.

Animal also in.fact the/it.is pig
‘Pigs are animals too.’

(431) Toh hǫ́: aˀagǫdá: onę́h hęˀ hne:ˀ aˀeji ̱ho:dę́ˀ, gaya:gǫ́: hęˀ
that.one place she.put.it.in now also in.fact she.closed.it in.the.bag also
hné:ˀ aˀagǫdá:.
in.fact she.put.it.in
‘She put it (tea) in the bag too and then she closed the bag too.’ (Henry
2005)

(432) Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ gáǫgwe̱ˀdaˀ.

it.is also in.fact her.people.
‘That is her family.’

Related
⇒ Hęˀ ‘also’, ‘too’, p. 895
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Tęˀ hne:ˀ neˀ ‘…not that one’, p. 1010

941
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Ne:ˀ hne:ˀ ne:ˀ ‘in fact’, ‘it is’, ‘it is’

Particle group ne:ˀ hne:ˀ (neˀ) emphasizes new information contrasting with something
said previously (§35.4.4); clause-initial.

(433) Ne:ˀ hne:ˀ neˀ gaihwagwę:ní:yo:.

it.is in.fact the it.is.the.main.idea
‘That in fact is the main thing, the main item. That is the main thing.’

(434) Ne:ˀ hne:ˀ gó:węh.

it.is in.fact she.owns.it
‘That’s hers.’ (not someone else’s)

Related
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ hniˀ ne:ˀ ‘and that also’

Particle group signaling the continuation of a previous topic and the addition of new
information (§35.4.2); clause-initial.

(435) ne:ˀ hniˀ ne:ˀ

it.is in.fact it.is
‘and that also’

Related
⇒ Hniˀ ‘and’, p. 903
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘this (coming) time’, ‘when’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2, §29.9); clause-initial.

942
 C.9 N particles

(436) [Ne:ˀ hwaˀ nę:gyę́h sá:dǫh: ‘dęyǫkidé:niˀ’] neˀ gę́:dǫh neˀ

it.is this.time this you.say: they.will.change.us the it.means the
tęˀ-da̱ˀǫ́: ǫgwehǫ:wéh ǫ:sawá:dǫˀ.
definitely.not real.people it.will.no.longer.become
‘When you say ‘they will change us,’ it means that you’ll no longer be
Indian.’ (Henry 2005)

(437) Ne:ˀ hwaˀ ęyotshęnǫ́:ni.ˀ

it.is time she.will.be.happy
‘This time she will be happy.’

(438) Ne:ˀ hwaˀ gí:dǫh.

it.is time I.mean.it
‘I mean that this time.’

Related
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’, p. 907

Ne:ˀ neˀ ‘it is’, ‘that is’, ‘that’s what’

Particle group Ne:ˀ (neˀ) that singles out the following items as being in focus (Keusen
1994, see §35.4.4); clause-initial.

(439) “Ó:, ne:ˀ ni:ˀ tó:gyęh!”

oh, it.is I that
“Oh, I want (to do) that!” (Henry, 2005) (mend clothes)

(440) Ne:ˀ gę:s gá:dǫh.

it.is usually I.say
‘That’s what I usually say.’

(441) Ne:ˀ gó:węh.

it.is she.owns.it
‘That’s hers.’ (Speakers said that this phrase was ‘a little more definite’
than “ne:ˀ hne:ˀ gó:węh”.)

943
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Related
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928

Ne:ˀ nęh, Nęh ‘when’, ‘once’, ‘as soon as’

Particle group (ne:ˀ) nęh functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial to depen-
dent clauses.

Related
⇒ Nęh, ne:ˀ nęh ‘when’, ‘once’, ‘as soon as’, p. 956

Ne:ˀ/neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ …, Ne:ˀ gęh … ne:ˀ/neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … ‘or?’

Particle group (ne:ˀ gęh) … ne:ˀ/neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … functions as a conjunction (§30), for
connecting a list of choices; ne:ˀ gęh appears before the list, and neˀ/ne:ˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ,
appears after the first item in a list of two choices.

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ gęh … ne:ˀ/neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … ‘or?’, p. 944

Ne:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess it is’

Particle group, emphatic, functioning as an “evidential marker” (§35.2); clause-initial.

(442) Ne:ˀ ǫh neˀ o:nę́h haˀgahé:ˀ edwadri ̱hóˀda:t.

it.is I.guess the.now it.is time we.should.work
‘I guess it is now time for us to work.’

944
 C.9 N particles

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Oh, ǫ:, ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974
⇒ Oh ne:ˀ ‘maybe’, p. 975

Ne:ˀ seˀ gę:s neˀ ‘generally’, ‘used to’, ‘usually’, ‘normally’

Particle group ne:ˀ (seˀ) gę:s neˀ functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(443) Ne:ˀ seˀ gę:s neˀ sweˀgé:hah hęnadę̱ hní:nǫh gę:s neˀ
that you.know usually the long.ago they.sell used.to this
gwaˀyǫˀ gyę:ˀ.
rabbit then
‘A long time ago, they used to sell rabbits.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

Related
⇒ Gę:s ‘generally, used to, usually, normally’, p. 864
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977

Ne:ˀ seˀ gyę:ˀ ‘you know’

Particle group signaling shared knowledge (known to both speaker and listener, §35.3.4);
or just a means of keeping the floor in a conversation; clause-initial.

(444) Ne:ˀ séˀ gyę:ˀ gę:s to:gyę́h hwaˀ nęh sǫhéh nęh
it.is you.know this.one usually that.one this.time once nighttime once
gadidaksénǫgyeˀs shęh nhǫ́: ohádenyǫˀ.
they.roamed.about that where roads.are
‘This is how it is, you know, at night when they run around their roads.’
(Mithun & Henry 1980)

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(445) Ahę́ˀ, “Ne:ˀ séˀ gyę:ˀ shęh tęˀ ní:s desana̱hsgwáęˀ toh
he.said it.is you.know this.one that not you you.have.no.pet that.one
nagana̱hsgwiyohá:k shęh niyóht neˀ Oditragáˀǫh.”
how.nice.a.pet.it.is that how.so the good.tea
‘He said, “Because you don’t have a pet as nice as Good Tea.”’ (Keye 2012)

Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977

Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘that’s only’, ‘that’s all’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(446) Ne:ˀ tsǫ: hǫwáya̱ˀda:ˀs.

it.is just she.depends.on.him
‘He is the only one she depends on.’

(447) Ne:ˀ tsǫ: dehoya̱ˀdówę̱ hdǫh.

it.is just he.is.thinking.about.it
‘That’s all he is thinking about.’ (He is preoccupied.)

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘because’, ‘it’s just’, p. 946
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: shęh ‘it’s just that’, p. 947
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘because’, ‘it’s just’

Particle group ne:ˀ (tsǫ:) … is clause-initial in a causative independent (448) or dependent
(449) clause (§29.3).

946
 C.9 N particles

(448) Né:ˀ gyę:ˀ tréhs1 degahǫ̱hstǫ́ˀe:s.

it.is emphasis too.much it.has.long.whiskers
‘Because its whiskers are too long.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 317,
Sanahsgwaęˀ Gęh Sga̱hoˀdę:ˀęh? dialogue) (Pete is answering David’s
question, “Why is it called that?”)

(449) Gowę́dagę: [ne:ˀ tsǫ: niyésgyędaˀ].

she.is.timid it.is just she.is.small-boned
‘She is timid because she is just a small person.’

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘that’s only’, ‘that’s all’, p. 946
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: shęh ‘it’s just that’, p. 947
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Ne:ˀ tsǫ: shęh ‘but’, ‘it’s just that’

Particle group functioning as a “conjunction” (§30); clause-initial.

(450) Sǫgweˀdi:yó: giˀ hné:; né:ˀ tsǫ́: shęh [tę́ˀ gwahs ǫ:wé
you.are.nice just in.fact, it.is just that [not really really
de̱ˀaknǫ̱hweˀǫ́:ˀ shę nhó: snagreˀ], tréhs a:yę́:ˀ ǫknigǫ̱hsá:dǫˀk.
I.don’t.like that where you.live], too it.seems I’m.lonesome
‘Well you are a nice person, but I don’t really like your neighborhood. I
seem to get too lonesome.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah
dialogue)

(451) Ęhę́ˀ, ganǫ́:ˀ, [né:ˀ tsǫ: shęh oya:nréˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀ gwa̱ˀtoh.]
yes it.is.expensive it.is just that good.one just this.one that.one
‘Yes, it is expensive, but it is a good one.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 159,
Enǫhsǫnyaˀdaˀsǫ́:ˀǫh dialogue)

947
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Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: shęh ‘it’s just that’, p. 947
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’

Particle functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); free-standing or phrase-initial
(as in nę: atsógwa̱ hdaˀ ‘these pipes, this pipe’).

(452) Ęhę́ˀ, ohya:jíˀ hoˀdę́ˀ degahswaˀné:t ǫgwá:yęˀ. Nę: giˀ gyę́:ˀ

Yes, berry kind pie we.have.it. this.one just emphasis
sna̱ˀdá:k.
eat.it.
‘Yes, we have blueberry pie. Here then, eat this (pie).’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 294, Dwade:kǫ́:nih dialogue)
(453) O:nę́h giˀ, gado:gę́: gaetsgó:t, gado:gę́: hniˀ agaejaodę́ˀ nę:
Now just, together they.sat, together and they.smoked this.one
atsógwa̱hdaˀ.
pipe
‘And then they both sat together and smoked these pipes.’ (Henry 2005)
(454) Gaę gwaˀ giˀshęh nhǫ:wéh a:gadǫ́hsę:ˀ nę:
which right.then maybe place I.would.rest this.one
niyónisheˀ?
how.it.takes.time
‘Maybe a place to rest before that time?’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Da: nę: dah ‘and now’, p. 823
⇒ Nę: ‘look!’, ‘say!’, ‘see’, p. 949
⇒ Nę: diˀ ni:s ‘how about you?’, p. 950

948
 C.9 N particles

⇒ Nę: hwaˀ waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘nowadays’, p. 950

⇒ Nę: ne:ˀ i:s ‘how about you’, p. 951
⇒ Nę: toh ‘here’, p. 951
⇒ Nę: toh gwa:dih ‘on this side’, p. 952
⇒ Nę: tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ni- ‘just a little bit’, ‘very little’, p. 952
⇒ Nę: tsǫ: ni- ‘just’, p. 953
⇒ Nę:-dah ‘this’, ‘this way’, p. 953
⇒ Nę:-dah ‘here, take this’, p. 954
⇒ Nę:-gyęh ‘this one’, p. 954
⇒ Nę:-gyęh gwa:dih ‘here’, ‘this side’, ‘over here’, p. 955
⇒ Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this time’, p. 956

Nę: ‘look!’, ‘say!’, ‘see!’

Particle functioning as a “command” (§27.1.5), said when drawing attention to something.

(455) Nę:. Tęnénǫgyeˀs. Háe! háe!

Look they.originate.from.there hi hi
‘Look. There they are. Hi! Hi!’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 481, Dędwaˀęnáęˀ
dialogue)

(456) Nę́: haˀsatga̱htóh o:yáˀ tganǫ́hso:t. A:yę́:ˀ sǫgwaˀ

say have.a.look other house.standing.over.there it.seems someone
nˀáht gonęna̱ˀdínyǫ̱ˀdǫh.
person they.have.moved.in
‘Say, have a look at the next house. It seems like somebody has moved in.’
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 441, Dwęnǫhsanékahǫˀ dialogue)

(457) Nę: swatgahtóh gra̱he:t.

Look! take.a.look tree
‘Look at this pine tree.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(458) Nę: - ne:ˀ hǫ:niˀ gonahdrǫ́ˀs neˀ ǫ́:gweh.

see - the reason.why they.are.afraid the people
‘See – that’s what frightens the people.’ (Carrier et al., 2013)

949
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Related
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948

Nę: diˀ ni:s ‘how about you?’

Particle group; free-standing.

(459) Nę: diˀ ni:s?

this(one) so you
‘How about you?’

Related
⇒ Diˀ ‘so’, ‘then’, p. 830
⇒ I:s, Ni:s ‘you’ (any number of people), p. 913
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948

Nę: hwaˀ waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘nowadays’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(460) Nę: hwaˀ waˀne:ˀ tęˀ de̱ˀsgánagreˀ.

now just.now today not they-no-longer-live
‘And nowadays, there are not very many around anymore.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1980)

Related
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’, p. 907
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948
⇒ Waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘today’, ‘now’, p. 1037

950
 C.9 N particles

Nę: ne:ˀ i:s ‘how about you?’

Particle group; free-standing.

(461) Nę: ne:ˀ i:s? Dęˀ nis hoˀdęˀ nisaˀnigǫ́hoˀdę:?

this.one it.is you what you kind what.your.thoughts.are
‘How about you? What are your thoughts?

Related
⇒ I:s, Ni:s ‘you’ (any number of people), p. 913
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948

Nę: toh ‘this place (here)’, ‘this one’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3) or as a “demonstrative pronoun”
(§6.3). Clause-initial for “adverb of place” and free-standing for “demonstrative pronoun”
function.

(462) Nę:-tóh giˀ nhǫ́: ęgatnˀǫhdáhgoˀ.

this.one-here just where I.will.debark
‘I’ll get out here.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 339, Oˀdréhdatgiˀ dialogue)

(463) Tę́ˀ gyę́:ˀ hné:ˀ de̱hadi ̱ˀdrehdǫ́:nihs nę:-toh.

Not this.one in.fact they.don’t.repair.cars this.one-here
‘They don’t repair cars here.’(Mithun & Henry 1984: 339, Oˀdréhdatgiˀ
dialogue)

(464) Nę: toh ni:yǫ́: hó:yęˀ.

this.one here a.certain.number he.has
‘That’s how many he has.’

951
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Related
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948
⇒ Nę: toh gwa:dih ‘on this side’, p. 952
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘there’, ‘that place’, p. 1017

Nę: toh gwa:dih ‘on this side’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial; gwa:dih can also
be spelled or pronounced as gwai.

(465) Nę: toh gwaih hęˀdrǫˀ Allan.

this.one that.one side he.lives.there Allan
‘Allan lives on this side.’

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948
⇒ Nę: toh ‘here’, p. 951
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘there’, ‘that place’, p. 1017

Nę: tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ni- ‘just a little bit’, ‘very little’
Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial. A following
stative-only verb begins with ⌊ni-⌋ part.

(466) Nę: tsǫ: gwaˀ toh niyǫ́: hohwíhsdaęˀ.

this.here just even that a.certain.amount he.has.money
‘Also, right now he has very little money.’

(467) Hohsę́: nę: tsǫ: gwaˀ toh nihahnę́:ye:s.

he.is.fat this.here just even that he.has.some.height
‘He is stout and he is also short (literally, not even tall).’

952
 C.9 N particles

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Nę: tsǫ: ni- ‘just’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); precedes a stative verb begin-
ning with ⌊ni-⌋ part; clause-initial.

(468) Nę: tsǫ́: niyǫ́: hohwíhsdaęˀ.

this.here just a.certain.amount he.has.money
‘He has very little money.’

(469) Nę: tsǫ: niwatonáˀdaˀ.

this.here just a.certain-sized.potato
‘It’s just a small, puny potato.’

Related
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Nę:-dah ‘this’, ‘this way’

Particle group functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); free-standing.

(470) Nęh toh hędwa:yǫ́ˀ nę:-dáh nędwá:ye:ˀ.

when that.place we.will.arrive.there this.one-and we.will.do.something
‘When we arrive there, we will do it this way.’

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Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948
⇒ Nę:-dah ‘here, take this’, p. 954

Nę:-dah ‘here, take this’

Particle group functioning as a “command” (§27.1.5), said when handing an item to some-
one.

(471) Nę:-dáh giˀ gyę:ˀ satgę:ˀsé: agwáya̱ˀda:ˀ.

this.here-and just this.one take.a.look our.pictures
‘In fact here, have a look at our pictures.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 257,
Ga̱hwajiyá:deˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948

Nę:-gyęh ‘this one’

Particle group functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); free-standing or preced-
ing the word it modifies (as in nę:gyęh hwaˀ ‘this time’).

(472) Ne:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ ho:wę́h nę́:-gyęh.

it.is also in.fact it.is.his this.one
‘This is also his.’

Related
⇒ ⌊-gyęh⌋ ‘this, ‘that’, p. 882
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948

954
 C.9 N particles

⇒ Nę:-gyęh gwa:dih ‘here’, ‘this side’, ‘over here’, p. 955

⇒ Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this time’, p. 955

Nę:-gyęh gwa:dih ‘here’, ‘this side’, ‘over here’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial; gwa:dih can also
be spelled or pronounced as gwai.

(473) Né:ˀ giˀ nę:gyę́h gwai iha:t ne:ˀ hne:ˀ hehso:t,…

it.is just this side he.stands it.is in.fact my.grandfather
‘This one standing over here is my grandfather,…’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
257, Ga̱hwajiyá:deˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Nę:-gyęh ‘this one’, p. 954

Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this one’

Particle group functioning as “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); free-standing.

(474) Ne:ˀ nęh toh nęyá:węh hęwátgatsaˀt shęh nhǫ́:

that-is when that.one so.it.will.happen it.will.come.off that place
hesodá:hǫh nę́:-gyęh hwaˀ gáęho:t
you.have.hooked.it this.one this.time trap
‘And when that happens, the part of the trap you hooked on will come
right off.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

Related
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’, p. 907
⇒ Nę:-gyęh ‘this one’, p. 954

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Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘when’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2, §29.9); clause-initial in indepen-
dent and dependent clauses [].

(475) Dęˀ diˀ hoˀdę́ˀ nę̱ hsa:gyé:ˀ [nę:gyę́h hwaˀ

What so what.kind you.will.do.something this this.time
dęjogęnhǫ́:diˀ]?
it.will.be.summer
‘What will you do when summer comes?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 349,
Dęˀ Hoˀdęˀ Nǫ̱hsa:gye:ˀ? dialogue)

Related
⇒ Nę:-gyęh ‘this one’, p. 954
⇒ Nę:-gyęh hwaˀ ‘this time’, p. 956

Nęh, Ne:ˀ nęh ‘when’, ‘once’, ‘as soon as’

Particle group (ne:ˀ) nęh functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial in depen-
dent clauses []. In contrast, o:nęh ‘when’ is used in independent clauses (see §29.9).

(476) Ęgahyagwahsé:k hęˀ ni:ˀ [nęh ęgáhdo:k].

I.will.habitually.pick.fruit also me when I.will.grow.up
‘I’ll be a fruit picker when I grow up.’
(477) ne:ˀ nęh dwa̱hdę́:gyǫh
it.is when we.will.arrive.there
‘when we get there’
(478) [Nęh toh hędwá:yǫˀ] nę:dáh nędwá:ye:ˀ.
when there we.will.arrive.there this.way we.will.do.something
‘When we arrive there, we will do it this way.’
(479) Ęyosdaęda̱ˀǫhǫ́:k gi ̱ˀ-shę́-hwaˀ hne:ˀ [nę́h ętsyeh].
it.will.have.stopped.raining maybe indeed when you.will.awaken
‘Perhaps the rain will have stopped when you wake back up.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 212, Satrǫ́:nih dialogue)

956
 C.9 N particles

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ O:nęh, neˀ o:nęh ‘now’, ‘when’, ‘then’, ‘at this time’, p. 967

Nęh to:hah, O:nęh to:hah ‘soon’, ‘almost’

Particle group (o:)nęh…to:hah functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

Related
⇒ O:nęh to:hah ‘soon’, ‘almost’, p. 971

Ni:ˀ gyę:ˀ, Ni:ˀ gę:ˀ ‘I did it’

Particle group functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing or clause-
initial.

(480) Ni: gę: tóh-ne:ˀ ǫgahdǫ́: neˀ agétgwę̱ ˀdaˀ. Tę́ˀ ní:s ga̱ˀ-tóh
the.me emphasis this.one I.lost.it the my.wallet not you anywhere
de̱ˀse:gę:?
you.didn’t.see
‘…mind you, I lost my wallet. You haven’t seen it?’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 184, Gatgwę́ˀdaˀ dialogue)

(481) Ni: gę: giˀ ahí:ˀ a:gęniháˀ sa:wę́ˀ

the.me emphasis just I.thought I.should.borrow you.own.it
degahenáˀtraˀse:ˀ.
scissors
‘I thought I might borrow your scissors.’ (Mithun and Henry, 1984, 368)
(Degahenáˀtra̱ˀse:ˀ dialogue)

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Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ, ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910

Nigęˀǫh (conjunction)
Particle …nigęˀǫh ‘or’ appears in conjunction phrases (§30, §30.3); enclitic.

Related
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, p. 861
⇒ Gęh tęˀ nigęˀǫh ‘or not?’, p. 863
⇒ Ne:ˀ gęh … ne:ˀ/neˀ nigęˀǫh neˀ … ‘or?’, p. 944

Nigwa:dih ‘-ward’, ‘direction’

Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); preceded by a word that de-
scribes the actual direction; clause-initial. Also see gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’

(482) Ó:, tę́ˀ gyę́:ˀ-ǫh onenǫˀgéh nigwa:díh haˀgeˀ.

oh not that-I.guess south side I’m.going.there
‘Oh, I don’t think so. I am going south.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 349, Dęˀ
Hoˀdęˀ Nǫ̱sa:gye:ˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873

Niyo:weˀ, Ni:yo:ˀ, Nyo:ˀ ‘a certain distance’, ‘a certain time’

Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); typically preceded by another
word; niyó:weˀ also has the short forms ní:yo:ˀ or nyo:ˀ.

958
 C.9 N particles

Related
⇒ Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’, p. 856
⇒ Niyo:weˀ, ni:yo:ˀ, nyo:ˀ ‘a certain distance’, ‘a certain time’, p. 958
⇒ Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘as far as’, ‘as much as’, p. 986
⇒ Toh niyo:weˀ ‘that far’, p. 1020
⇒ To: niyo:weˀ ne:ˀ ‘when’, p. 1021

None:ˀ, Nǫne:ˀ ‘mind you’, ‘you know’

Particle signaling shared knowledge (known to both speaker and listener, §35.3.4); free-
standing.

(483) Sǫheh gyę:ˀ nóne:ˀ gá:dǫh deyonadáwęnyeˀ.

nighttime this.one you.know I.say they.walk.about
‘As I said, at night, you know, they walk around.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

(484) O:nę́h giˀ gyę́:ˀǫh ęsgahdę́:diˀ. O:nę́h gyę́:ˀ nǫ́ne:ˀ hné:ˀ

now just I.guess I.will.go.home now emphasis you.know in.fact
haˀwa:jˀáht degáhswa̱ˀne:t!
it.has.gone.down.to.nothing pie
‘Well, I might as well go home now, because the pie is all gone, you
know!’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 376, Dajǫh dialogue)

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948

Nya:węh ‘thank you’, ‘thanks’

Particle signaling acknowledgement (§35.3.3); also an expression of thanks. At the end
of the meal, each person says nyá:węh ‘thanks’ or nya:wę́h (seˀ) hę́ˀ ni:ˀ ‘thanks, me too’
(to the Creator), and the other people say nyoh in acknowledgement.

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(485) Nya:wę́h giˀ gyę́:ˀ adi:dwá:dǫ:t.

acknowledge just this.one we.all.ate.together
‘Thank you that we ate together.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 294,
Dwade:kǫ́:nih dialogue)
(486) Haoˀ diˀ sáh. O:nę́h giˀ hyá:. Nya:wę́h giˀ gyę́:ˀ shęh
Ok so you.know now just time acknowledge just this.one that
nyó: dasknˀǫ́hda:.
place how.it.is you.put.me.in
‘Alright. So long. Thanks for the ride.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 339,
Oˀdréhdatgiˀ dialogue)
(487) Ahęˀ neˀ hagęhjiháˀ nya:wę́h shęh ehswá:yǫˀ.
he.said the old.man acknowledge that you.all.came.here
‘The old man said thank you because you all came here.’ (Keye 2012)

Related
⇒ Nyoh ‘you’re welcome’, ‘alright’, ‘o.k.’, p. 960

Nyoh ‘you’re welcome’, ‘alright’, ‘o.k.’

Particle signaling acknowledgement (§35.3.3); often said in response to nya:węh ‘thanks’.
One can also say it sarcastically to bug someone.

(488) Nyoh! Nya:wę́h hniˀ. O:nę́h giˀ ęgakeho:wíˀ akwá:ji:yaˀ,

Ok! Thanks as.well now just I.will.tell.them my.family
ęgakeˀnigǫhaędáhdęˀ shęh niyó:gyę:ˀ.
I.will.make.them.understand that how.it.is
‘Thank you Hi’No’. I will tell them and make them understand.’ (Carrier
et al. 2013) (In response to Hi’no’ instructing the Maiden to do
something)
(489) “Nyóh,” ahęˀ neˀ hagę́hjih, “dęgadręnǫ:táhs giˀ neˀ
o.k. he.said the old.man I.will.pray/hope just the
ehswadra̱hswíhyo̱ha:k”.
you.come.to.have.good.luck
‘“O.k.”, said the old man, “I will hope you have good luck.”’ (Keye 2012)

960
 C.10 O particles

Related
⇒ Nya:węh ‘thank you’, ‘thanks’, p. 959

C.10 O particles
O:, O:o: ‘oh’
Particle functioning as an “exclamation” (§35.1), expressing surprise or interest.

(490) Ó:ò:, gaę nhǫ́: gyagohdęgyǫ:?

oh which place she.comes.from.there
‘Oh. Where does she come from?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 61, Sǫ: Hne:ˀ
Nˀaht Tó:gyęh? dialogue)

Related
⇒ O: gęh ‘really?’, p. 961
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962

‘O ǫ:, O: ǫh’ ‘oh really?’

Particle group functioning as a “doubt or certainty marker” (§35.2), implying ęhęˀ ‘yes’
or tęˀ ‘no’ answers.

(491) O: ǫh?
oh I.guess
‘Oh really?’

‘O: gęh’ ‘really?’

Particle group functioning as a “doubt or certainty marker” (§35.2) and implying ęhęˀ
‘yes’ or tęˀ ‘no’ answers.

961
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(492) O: gęh?
oh Q
‘Really?’

Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ O:, ó:ò: ‘oh’, p. 961

O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’

Particle group o: tęˀ ǫh … (gat) giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ functions as a “doubt or certainty marker”
(§35.2); free-standing.

(493) O: tęˀ ǫh (giˀ), (ga:t-)giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ.

oh not I.guess just just that if
‘Maybe, maybe not.’

Related
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’, p. 857
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh tęˀ ‘maybe not’, ‘or not’, p. 858
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, p. 861
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ a:-verb ‘if’, p. 885
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’, p. 886
⇒ O:, ó:ò: ‘oh’, p. 961
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Oh, ǫ:, ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ daˀǫ ‘maybe not’, p. 1006

O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’

Particle group o: tęˀ ǫh … (gat) giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ functions as a “doubt or certainty marker”
(§35.2); free-standing.

962
 C.10 O particles

(494) O: tęˀ ǫ: (giˀ), (ga:t-)giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ.

oh not I.guess just just that it.is this.time
‘Maybe, maybe not.’

Related
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’, p. 857
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh tęˀ ‘maybe not’, ‘or not’, p. 858
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, p. 861
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ O:, ó:ò: ‘oh’, p. 961
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Oh, ǫ:, ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ daˀǫ ‘maybe not’, p. 1006

Ogwęhę:gyeˀ ‘now and then’, ‘now and again’

Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(495) Ogwehę:gyéˀ gę:s ahsyǫˀ.

now.and.again usually you’ll.arrive
‘Now and again you’ll be here.’

Related
⇒ Hę:-gyęh, Hę:gyeh ‘no matter’, p. 898

Ohę:dǫ: ‘early’, ‘first’

Verb functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(496) Ohę:dǫ́: ihseˀ.

early/first you.are.here
‘You are the first to arrive.’, ‘You are early.’

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Related
⇒ Ohę:dǫ: shęh ‘ahead’, ‘in front’, ‘forward’, p. 964

Ohę:dǫ: shęh ‘ahead’, ‘in front’, ‘forward’

Verb and particle ohę:dǫ: (shęh) functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(497) Hoˀę:náˀ atahk, o:nę́h ohę:dǫ́: haˀtę́hda:t.

his.spear he.picked.it.up now ahead he.went.ahead
‘He grabbed his spear and he dashed ahead of his brothers.’ (Carrier et al.
2013)
(498) Ohę:dǫ́: heˀga:yę́ˀ ęˀnhó:traˀ.
ahead it.is.lying.there ball
‘The ball is lying ahead.’
(499) ohę:dǫ́: (shęh) ganǫ́hso:t
ahead (that) standing.house
‘the house in front’, ‘in front of the house’
(500) Ohę:dǫ́: heˀsénǫ̱gyeˀ.
forward you.are.going.along.that.way
‘you are moving forward.’

Related
⇒ Ohę:dǫ: ‘early’, ‘first’, p. 963
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Ohnaˀgę:ˀ, Naˀgę:ˀ ‘late’

Verb (oh)naˀgę:ˀ functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(501) Ohnaˀgę́:ˀ ihseˀ

late you.are.here
‘You are late again.’ (said at the moment)

964
 C.10 O particles

Related
⇒ Ohnaˀgę: gwa:dih shęh ‘behind’, p. 965
⇒ Ohnaˀgęhjih ‘late’, ‘back then’, ‘the bottom’, p. 966
⇒ Ohnaˀgǫ: ‘underneath’, ‘beneath’, ‘under’, p. 966

Ohnaˀgę: gwa:dih shęh ‘behind’, ‘back’, ‘backwards’

Verb and particle group (oh)naˀgę: (gwa:dih) (shęh) functioning as an “adverb of place”
(§8.3); clause-initial; gwa:dih can also be spelled or pronounced as gwai.

(502) Ne: giˀ tsǫ: naˀgę: gwá:dih shęh ga̱hnáwęhtak…

it.is just only behind side that the.falls.rushed.out
‘But in a cave behind the rushing waters…’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(503) Ahgwíh ohnaˀgę́:ˀ hęjiswatgáhtoh.

don’t back you.all.will.look.that.way
‘You must not look back.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(504) Gei ni ̱hęnado:wá:s neˀ gwa̱ˀ-tóh neˀ hodi:tse:nę́ˀ so:wá:s

four a.number.of.hunters the that.one the their.pet dog
ohnaˀgę́:ˀ hadínę̱ hę:ˀ.
behind they.stand.in.line
‘The hunters and their small dog are close behind the dipper’s handle.’
(Carrier et al. 2013) (speaking of the placement of the hunters and their
dog in the handle of the Big Dipper)

(505) ohnaˀgę́:ˀ/naˀgę́:ˀ shęh ganǫ́hso:t

behind that standing.house
‘behind the house’

(506) ohna:gę́:ˀ ganǫ́hsadeˀ

behind the.existing.house
‘the house behind the house’

(507) Ne: giˀ tsǫ: naˀgę: gwá:dih shęh ga̱hnáwęhtak…

it.is just only behind side that the.waters.issue.out
‘But in a cave behind the rushing waters…’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

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(508) Ohnaˀgę: haˀdesatsáˀge:t.

behind bend.yourself
‘Bend backward!’

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Ohnaˀgę:ˀ, naˀgę:ˀ ‘late’, p. 964
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Ohnaˀgęhjih ‘late’, ‘way back then’, ‘the bottom’

Verb functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2) or “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(509) Ohnaˀgęhjíh ahá:yǫˀ.

late he.arrived
‘He arrived late.’

Related
⇒ Ohnaˀgę:ˀ, naˀgę:ˀ ‘late’, p. 964
⇒ Ohnaˀgę: gwa:dih shęh ‘behind’, p. 965
⇒ Ohnaˀgęhjih ‘late’, ‘back then’, p. 966
⇒ Ohnaˀgǫ: ‘underneath’, ‘beneath’, ‘under’, p. 966

Ohnaˀgǫ: ‘underneath’, ‘beneath’, ‘under’

Noun functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(510) Ohnaˀgǫ́h tgá:yęˀ.

below it.is.lying.there
‘It lies underneath, below.

966
 C.10 O particles

Related
⇒ Ohnaˀgę:ˀ, naˀgę:ˀ ‘late’, p. 964
⇒ Ohnaˀgę: gwa:dih shęh ‘behind’, p. 965
⇒ Ohnaˀgęhjih ‘late’, ‘back then’, ‘the bottom’, p. 966

Ona:węh ‘it’s theirs (animals)’, ‘it belongs to them (animals)’, ‘their

(animals)’
Verb functioning as a “possessive pronoun” (§6.2); free-standing.

(511) oná:węh
on-á:w-ęh
3p.p-own-stat
‘they (animals) own it’

O:nęh ‘now’, ‘when’, ‘then’, ‘at this time’

Particle o:nęh functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2). Clause-initial in independent clauses
only. Nęh is used in dependent clauses.

(512) Gaę diˀ nhǫ:wéh nihsweˀs ó:nęh?

which then place you.all.are.here now
‘Where then are you now?’

(513) O:nę́h giˀ haˀgahé:ˀ ęshétro̱hnaˀ.

now just the.time.has.come you.will.take.him.back
‘Now it is time for you to take him back.’

(514) O:nę́h giˀ hodehsroníhsˀǫh.

now just he.is.ready
‘He is ready now.’

(515) O:nę́h giˀ ęgoyęˀęsętwáhsǫˀǫh.

now just I.will.kick.you.around
‘I am now going to kick you around.’

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(516) Ó:, hyeiˀshǫ́:ˀǫh áǫda̱hseˀ. Onęh-ˀǫ

O, six-ish you.should.come then-I.guess
ęyagokwai ̱hséha:k.
she.will.have.cooked.the.food
‘Oh, you should come around six-ish. She should have the food cooked
by then.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 279, Ǫdwęnǫdáhtaˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Nęh, ne:ˀ nęh ‘when’, ‘once’, ‘as soon as’, p. 956
⇒ O:nęh, neˀ o:nęh ‘now’, ‘when’, ‘then’, ‘at this time’, p. 967
⇒ O:nęh e:ˀ ‘again!’, p. 968
⇒ O:nęh gwaˀ ‘suddenly’, ‘already’, ‘finally’, ‘all at once’, p. 969
⇒ O:nęh to:hah ‘soon’, ‘almost’, p. 971

O:nęh e:ˀ ‘again’ (emphatic)

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); emphatic; clause-initial.

(517) O:nęh é:ˀ Hiˀnoˀ haˀhó:diˀ dewęni ̱hóksǫh shęh níwe:

now again Hiˀnoˀ he.threw.it lightening.bolts that where.it.was
oshaísdaˀ, o:nęh gwaˀ ahá:nyoˀ.
snake, now right.then he.died
‘Again and again Hi’No’ hurled lightening bolts at the monster snake.
Finally the poisoner, the giant serpent, was killed.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(518) O:nęh e:ˀ toh hodáditsgo:t.

now again there he.sits.himself
‘Now again he has himself sitting there.’

(519) Agahdrǫˀs o:nęh e:ˀ ji trehs satsę:nǫ́:nih.

I’m.frightened now again too too.much you.are.happy
‘I am frightened now because you are too happy.’

(520) O:nęh e:ˀ agriˀsdowá:neh.

now again I’m.noisy
‘I am loud, noisy again.’

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(521) O:nęh e:ˀ i:s toh haˀségǫ̱he:k.

now again you that.one you.are.fighting.there
‘You are getting into someone else’s fight again, butting in.’

Related
⇒ E:ˀ ‘again’, ‘still’, p. 838
⇒ O:nęh, Neˀ o:nęh ‘now’, ‘when’, ‘then’, ‘at this time’, p. 967

O:nęh giˀ hya:ˀ ‘good-bye’

Particle group used for leave-taking; free-standing expression.

(522) O:nęh giˀ hya:ˀ

now just before.anything.else
‘Good-bye.’

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Hya:ˀ ‘first’, ‘before anything else’, p. 910
⇒ O:nęh, Neˀ o:nęh ‘now’, ‘when’, ‘then’, ‘at this time’, p. 967
⇒ Greetings, origins, and affiliations, p. 1063

O:nęh gwaˀ, Nęh gwaˀ ‘suddenly’, ‘already’, ‘finally’, ‘all at once’

Particle group (o:)nęh gwaˀ functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(523) O:nęh gwaˀ edwawayę:nę́:daˀ.

now just.now we’re.finished
‘We’re finished already.’

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(524) Onę́h gwaˀ, nę́-gwaˀ ahsha:kni:gę́ˀ neˀ hagehsotgęhę́:ˀ

now just.now now-just.now we.saw.him the our.late.grandfather
togyę́h da̱hayagę́ˀ,
there he.was.going.out
‘And all at once we saw my late grandfather, who was going out from
there.’ (Henry 2005)

(525) Gyotgǫ́:t toh hehéhtaˀ, heyohé: hę hne:ˀ i:sóˀ

always that.one he.did.it.on.purpose, even and in.fact more
ahahnegéhaˀ. O:nęh gwaˀ ahoˀnigǫháędaˀ, aga:gwe:níˀ ahóyǫgyaˀt.
he.drank.it now just.now he.understood, it.was.able.to he.smiled
‘Just like the squirrel, he kept going back for more. Then he discovered
something that made him smile.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(526) Honǫˀséh hada:kséˀ neˀ hohshę:. O:nęh gwaˀ a:yę́:ˀ ahę́dagraˀ.

he.was.lazy he.runs the he.is.fat now just.now it.seems he.fell
‘But the lazy hunter was getting tired of running and he suddenly
pretended to fall.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(527) O:nęh gwaˀ dó:gęhs ahę́he: hagę́hjiˀ.

now just.now truly he.conveyed.it.to.her this.old.one
‘Finally the Old One (HiˀNoˀ) gave her the news she wanted.’ (Carrier
et al. 2013)

(528) O:nęh é:ˀ Hiˀnoˀ haˀhó:diˀ dewęni ̱hóksǫh shęh níwe:

now again Hiˀnoˀ he.threw.it lightening.bolts that where.it.was
oshaísdaˀ, o:nęh gwaˀ ahá:nyoˀ.
snake, now just.now he.died
‘Again and again Hi’No’ hurled lightening bolts at the monster snake.
Finally the poisoner, the giant serpent, was killed.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ O:nęh, Neˀ o:nęh ‘now’, ‘when’, ‘then’, ‘at this time’, p. 967

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 C.10 O particles

O:nęh to:hah ‘soon’, ‘almost’

Particle group (o:)nęh…to:hah functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(529) Nę: toháˀ ędwahdę́:diˀ.

now almost we.all.will.leave
‘We’ll soon be on our way.’ (Keye 2016, Circle Book 11, On Our Way)

(530) O:nę́h to:háh toh hęshe:ˀ.

now almost there he.will.return.there
‘He is almost ready to return.’

(531) O:nę́h to:háh John ęhshodǫ̱hswéˀdęˀ.

Now almost John he.will.become.hungry.again.
‘John is almost going to get hungry again.’

(532) O:nę́h diˀ to:háh hęgahé:ˀ ędwę́ni ̱hę:ˀ.

now so almost the.time.has.come we.will.quit
‘Now it is almost time for us to quit.’

(533) O:nę́h hné:ˀ to:háh ja:dáhk niyohwi ̱hsdáˀe:.

now in.fact almost seven o’clock
‘It is now almost seven o’clock.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 142, Satgęh
dialogue)

(534) O:nę́h to:háh ęshá:yǫˀ.

now almost he.will.go.back
‘He is almost ready to go back.’

(535) O:nę́h giˀ to:háh hękní:yǫh.

now just almost we.will.arrive.there
‘We’ll be there soon.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 481, Dędwaˀęnáęˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ O:nęh, Neˀ o:nęh ‘now’, ‘when’, ‘then’, ‘at this time’, p. 967
⇒ To:hah ‘a place’, ‘a time’, p. 1025

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Onǫ:hęˀ ‘they (animals)’

Verb functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing.

(536) onǫ́:hęˀ
on-ǫ́:hęˀ
3p.p-alone.stat
‘they (animals) are alone’

Otgaˀdeˀ neˀ niwa:gęˀ ni- ‘as many as’

Verb and particle group ⌊otgaˀdeˀ … neˀ … number (niwa:gęˀ ni-stative.verb)⌋ figures
in comparisons (§31.1).

(537) Ó: otgáˀdeˀ giˀ ni: gę́:s neˀ wa̱hshę: niwa:gęˀ

oh it.is.many just I usually the ten so.many
nigahaní:yo:t neˀ swa̱hsǫ́:da:t
where.they.were.hanging the one.night
‘I would often have as many as ten hoops hanging each night.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1980)

(538) Ó: otgáˀdeˀ hne:ˀ gę:s neˀ tgwáhaǫˀ hyeiˀ, ó: tgwaháǫˀ já:dahk.

oh it.is.many in.fact usually the sometimes six, oh sometimes seven
‘Oh sometimes I used to catch as many as six or seven.’ (Mithun & Henry
1980)

Related
⇒ Ę:, E: (possible atypical verb), p. 839

Otgǫˀ, Hotgǫˀǫh ‘what the…?’, ‘for Heaven’s sake!’

Verb hotgǫ́ˀǫh or otgǫˀ functions as an “exclamation” (§35.1); said when something is out
of the ordinary or not right. Otgǫˀ literally means ‘it is strong or ominous medicine’.

(539) Hotgǫˀǫ́h ahsyǫˀ!

for.heaven’s.sake you.arrived
‘For heaven’s sake, you got here!’ ‘What the…?! You made it!’

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(540) Jagwadatre:waht tęˀ de̱ˀagodigaęˀǫ:ˀ akíno̱haˀ. Otgǫˀ

we.are.sorry not they.wouldn’t.agree our.parents it.is.not.fair
to:háh seˀ tsaˀgá:t a:yǫgwadri ̱hwahdęgyǫ́:k shęh
almost certainly the.same.thing we.should.do.a.ceremony that
ni:yóht ganǫ́hsesgeh.
what.kind at.the.longhouse
‘We’re sorry – our parents would not agree. it isn’t fair – it would have
been like the real thing – a real ceremony.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

O:węh ‘it belongs to it (an animal)’, ‘its’

Verb functioning as a “possessive pronoun” (§6.2); free-standing.

(541) ó:węh
ó:-w-ęh
3s.p-own-stat
‘it owns it’

O:yaˀ ‘another’, ‘other’, ‘else’

Basic noun functioning as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-standing.

(542) Ohgeh o:yaˀ hniˀ gę:s niyagwayé:haˀ.

then other and usually the.way.we.do.it
‘There is another way we used to do it.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

(543) Onę́h néˀ oyaˀsǫ́ˀ ǫgwéh gonadekǫ:níˀ hę́hne:.

now the others people they.are.eating also
‘Soon other people were eating too.’ (Keye 2016, Circle Book 13, Rosie
went to a feast of food)

Related
⇒ Hejo:yaˀ tsǫ: ‘another thing again’, p. 892
⇒ Hejo:yaˀ tsǫ: ‘elsewhere’, p. 893
⇒ Sga̱ hoˀdę:ˀęh o:yaˀ ‘anything else’, p. 979
⇒ Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht o:yaˀ ‘someone else’, p. 996

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C.11 Ǫ particles
Ǫh, Ǫ:, Ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’
Particle group, emphatic, …ǫh, ǫ:, ǫ functions as an “evidential marker” (§35.2); enclitic;
also pronounced as ˀǫh, ˀǫ:, ˀǫ.

(544) To ˀǫ: ní:yoht.

that I.wonder it.is.like.that
‘I wonder if it is like that.’

(545) Agiˀda̱ˀǫ́h ǫh shęh na̱ˀonishéˀ hohta:ˀ.

I.slept I.guess that during he.spoke
‘I suppose I slept while he spoke.’

(546) A:yę́:ˀ gwe:gǫ́ˀ ǫ swayáˀda:ˀ. Swatgaˀdéˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ.

it.seems all I.guess your.pictures you.are.many just this.one
‘It seems like you all got your picture taken. There are a lot of yous.’
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 257, Ga̱hwajiyá:deˀ dialogue)

(547) Ó:, hyeiˀshǫ́:ˀǫ áǫda̱hseˀ. Onęh ˀǫ

O, six-ish you.should.come then. I.guess
ęyagokwai ̱hséha:k.
she.will.have.cooked.the.food
‘Oh, you should come around six-ish. She should have the food cooked
by then.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 279, Ǫdwęnǫdáhtaˀ dialogue)

(548) ˀǫ́h, a:yę́:ˀ i:wí: odǫtga:déˀ ǫh.

oh it.seems I.think it.will.be.fun I.guess
‘Oh, it seems, I think, it will be fun.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 402,
Ęyagwa̱hdę́:diˀ dialogue)

(549) A:yę́:ˀ agwę́h onęhę́ˀ osaheˀdáˀ ohǫna̱ˀdáˀ ǫ hniˀ,

it.seems we.have corn beans potatoes I.guess and
‘… It seems like we think corn, beans, and potatoes,’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 420, Ęswayętoˀ Gęh dialogue) (listing what will be planted)

(550) I:wí: ahsę́h nigaya:gé:ˀ ǫ a:gagwé:niˀ.

I.think three an.amount.of.bags I.guess it.should.be.possible
‘I think about three bags should do it.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 420,
Ęswayętoˀ Gęh dialogue)

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Related
⇒ Dęˀ ǫh ne:ˀ hoˀdęˀ ‘what on earth?’, p. 829
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘maybe’, ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder’, p. 884
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess’, p. 935
⇒ Ne:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess it is’, p. 944
⇒ Oˀǫ:, o: ǫh ‘oh really?’, p. 961
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Oh ne:ˀ ‘maybe’, p. 975
⇒ Tęˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh, tęˀ gęˀǫh ‘not really’, p. 1009
⇒ To gęh ǫ ne:ˀ ‘I wonder if it is’, p. 1018

Ǫh ne:ˀ ‘maybe’
Particle group ǫh ne:ˀ verb functions as an “evidential marker” (§35.2); enclitic.

(551) Mary ǫh ne:ˀ gohwihsdagaˀdeˀ.

Mary I.wonder it.is she.has.a.lot.of.money
‘Maybe Mary has a lot of money.’
(552) “Dęˀ ǫh ne:ˀ na:ya:wę́h,” aˀa:gę́ˀ,
what I.wonder it.is it.would.happen she.said
“e:gyadeˀsgóh nę:gyę́h ohnáwaot?”
we.should.immerse.ourselves this well
‘“What would really happen,” she said, “if we got into the well?”’ (Henry
2005)
(553) Akeyatgahtóˀ, agíˀ, “Tęˀ ǫh ne:ˀ da̱ˀǫ́ a:wá:dǫˀ.”
I.looked.at.her I.said not I.guess it.is definitely.not it.cannot.be.done
‘I just looked at her. I said, “No we cannot do that.”’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Ne:ˀ ǫh ‘I guess it is’, p. 944
⇒ Oh, ǫ:, ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974

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Ǫ:weh, Neˀ ǫ:weh ‘really’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(554) Neˀ ǫ:weh gaǫdé:nǫhk.

the truly they.are.related
‘They really are related.’

Related
⇒ Gwahs ǫ:weh ‘really’, p. 876
⇒ Gwahs ǫ:węh seˀ ‘indeed’, ‘for sure’, p. 876
⇒ Shęh ǫ:weh ‘it is really’, p. 988

C.12 S particles
Sah ‘you know’
Possibly related to seˀ ‘you know’. Appears in at least one particle combination. Also,
possibly related to Tuscarora saˀ ‘look!’ or ‘see!’ (Rudes 1999).

Related
⇒ Haoˀ diˀ sah ‘alright’, ‘o.k.’, p. 890
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977

Sa:węh ‘it’s yours (one person’s)’, ‘your’

Verb functioning as a “possessive pronoun” (§6.2); free-standing.

(555) sá:węh
s-á:w-ęh
2s.p-own-stat
‘you own it’

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 C.12 S particles

Seˀ ‘you know’

Particle signaling shared knowledge (known to both speaker and listener, §35.3.4).

Related
⇒ Deˀę: gwaˀ-heh tęˀ seˀ ‘but then not really’, p. 824
⇒ Ehęˀ seˀ ‘it is so’, ‘yes indeed’, p. 842
⇒ Gwahs ǫ:węh seˀ ‘indeed’, ‘for sure’, p. 876
⇒ I:ˀ seˀ ‘I am’, p. 911
⇒ Neˀ seˀ ‘that’s just the one’, ‘that’s just who’, p. 926
⇒ Ne:ˀ seˀ gę:s neˀ ‘back then’, ‘a long time ago’, p. 945
⇒ Ne:ˀ seˀ gyę:ˀ ‘you know’, p. 945
⇒ Sah ‘you know’, p. 976
⇒ Seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ ‘me too’, ‘us too’, p. 977
⇒ Tęˀ seˀ ‘not really’, ‘but then not really’, p. 1013

Seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ ‘me too’, ‘us too’

Particle group … (seˀ) hęˀ ni:ˀ functions as an emphatic pronoun (§6.1); enclitic.

(556) A:ga̱hyagwa̱hsé:k seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ gyę:gwáˀ a:wagadagáide:k.

I.would.pick.fruit you.know also the.me if I.would.be.well
‘I would be a fruit picker too if I were well.’

(557) Agahyagwęhné:ˀ seˀ hęˀ ni:ˀ.

I’ve.picked.fruit you.know also the.me
‘I’ve also picked fruit.’ (I’ve experienced this)

Related
⇒ Hęˀ ‘also’, ‘too’, p. 895
⇒ Hęˀ ni:ˀ ‘me too’, ‘us too’, p. 896
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ, ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977

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Senyęˀsgwadih ‘to your left’

Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(558) senyę́ˀsgwadih
se-nyęˀs-gwadih
rep-2s.a-noun-side.stat
‘to your left’

(559) Senyę́ˀsgwadíh goyaˀdanędagǫ́h ne:ˀ hoksaˀgowáhsraˀ.

to.your.left.side she.is.clinging.on it.is his.beautiful.one
‘To your left stands his beautiful, dearly beloved woman.’

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ He:yo: dagwaishǫ: ‘straight ahead’, p. 894
⇒ Sewaihǫhsdǫh gwa:dih ‘to your right’, p. 978

Sewaihǫhsdǫh gwa:dih ‘to your right’

Atypical verb and particle, ⌊waihǫhsdǫh gwa:dih⌋ functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3);
clause-initial; gwa:dih can also be spelled or pronounced as gwai. ⌊waihǫhsdǫh⌋ is con-
jugated with a-series pronominal prefixes.

(560) Sewaihǫhsdǫ́h gwaí /gwa:díh hęsatahá:goˀ.

your.right side you.will.get.off
‘You will get off on the right side of the road.’

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ He:yo: dagwaishǫ: ‘straight ahead’, p. 894
⇒ Senyęˀsgwadih ‘to your left’, p. 978

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 C.12 S particles

Sgahoˀdę:ˀęh ‘something’, ‘anything’

Particle functioning as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-standing.

(561) Hnaˀgǫ̱hká:ˀ gi ̱ˀ-shę́h sgahoˀdę:ˀęh?

Undies or something
‘Underclothes or something?’ (saleslady suggesting something to
buy)(Mithun & Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)
(562) A:sna̱ˀdaǫníˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀ, sgahoˀdę́:ˀęh neˀ waˀjíh ędwa:k.
you.should.bake just emphasis, something it presently we.will.eat
‘You should bake something for us all to eat later on.’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 225, Dwęnǫhsanékahǫˀ dialogue)
(563) A:yę́:ˀ sgahoˀdę:ˀę́h snegé:haˀ.
it.seems something you.are.drinking
‘It looks like you are drinking something.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Hoˀdęˀ ‘kind’, p. 904
⇒ Sga̱ hoˀdę:ˀęh o:yaˀ ‘anything else’, p. 979

Sgahoˀdę:ˀęh o:yaˀ ‘anything else’

Particle and noun, sga̱ hoˀdę:ˀęh … o:yaˀ functions as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-
standing.

(564) Tę́ˀ gęh taˀdesadǫhwęjo:níh sgahoˀdę:ˀę́h o:yaˀ? Adáhdi ̱ˀtraˀ

not Q any.old.thing.you.want anything other? socks
ahdahgwáˀ gi ̱-shęh?.
shoes maybe?
‘There was not anything else you wanted? Stockings, or shoes?’ (Mithun
& Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)
(565) Sgahoˀdę:ˀę́h diˀ gęh o:yáˀ sanáhsgwaęˀ?
anything so Q other you.have.pets
‘Do you have any other pets?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 317, Sanahsgwaęˀ
gęh sga̱hoˀdę́:ˀęh? dialogue)

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Related
⇒ Hoˀdęˀ ‘kind’, p. 904
⇒ O:yaˀ ‘another’, ‘other’, ‘else’, p. 973
⇒ Sga̱ hoˀdę:ˀęh ‘something’, p. 979

Sganyęˀsgwadih ‘to its left’

Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(566) sganyęˀsgwadih
s-ga-nyęˀs-gwadih
rep-3s.a-noun-side.stat
‘to its left’

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ He:yo: dagwaishǫ: ‘straight ahead’, p. 894
⇒ Sewaihǫhsdǫh gwa:dih ‘to your right’, p. 978

Shęh ‘that’
Particle optionally introducing a dependent clause (567–570), a dependent clause func-
tioning as a “noun” (571–580), or a relative clause (581), see (§29.1); clause-initial; also
pronounced as tsęh.

(567) Degaˀdre̱hdaˀge̱ha:gyéˀ [shęh ahę:nǫ́:da:ˀ].

two.cars.at.a.time [that they.put.in]
‘[They put in] the cars two at a time.’

(568) Gwi:déh ahę́ˀ [Tina go:gáˀs nawę́ˀdaˀ].

Peter he.said [Tina she.likes.the.taste.of.it candy]
‘Peter said [Tina likes sugar/candy].’ (This sentence shows that shęh is
optional.)

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 C.12 S particles

(569) Gwi:déh honǫhdǫ́ˀ [shęh Tina nawęˀdáˀ gó:gaˀs].

Peter he.knows [that Tina sugar/candy she.likes.the.taste.of.it]
‘Peter knows that Tina likes candy.’
(570) Gwi:déh ahę́ˀ [Mary ǫ́:dǫh], [go:gáˀs nawę́ˀdaˀ]].
Peter he.said [Mary she.says] [she.likes.the.taste.of.it sugar/candy]
‘Peter said Mary says she likes sugar/candy.’ (This sentence illustrates
that shęh is optional.)
(571) A:yę́:ˀ do:gę́hs ǫ: odǫtga:déˀ [shęh gá:gǫnheˀ].
it.seems truly I.guess it.is.enjoyable [how they.live]
‘It sure seems enjoyable, [the way they live].’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88,
Eksaˀgó:wah dialogue)
(572) shęh niyó:sdeˀ
that how.heavy.it.is
‘mass’
(573) shęh nigá:dę:s
that how.thick.it.is
‘volume’, ‘density’, ‘mass’, ‘how thick it is’
(574) shęh niyóyade:s
that how.deep.it.is
‘a hole’
(575) shęh niwagadeˀdróˀdę:
that how.I.feel
‘how I feel about something, someone’
(576) [shęh niyo:wéh] taná:greˀ
[that it.is.a.certain.distance] he.lives.there
‘He lives [that far (away)].’
(577) Sekdǫ́: [shęh niyoga̱ˀǫ́hsro̱ˀdę:]
try.it [that what.kind.of.taste.it.has]
‘Taste it!’ ‘Try [what it tastes like]!’
(578) Ohsga:náht [shęh nihahnatsí:yo:].
it.is.attractive [that what.a.nice.butt.he.has]
‘He has [an attractive butt].’

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C Particle dictionary

(579) Dękde:níˀ [shęh niwagri ̱hóˀdę:].

I.will.change.it [that what.my.kind.of.matter.is]
‘I am going to change [my outlook].’

(580) Aǫgo̱hdǫ́h ǫgeˀdra̱héhs [shęh nagadekǫ́:niˀ].

it.is.above.average I.exceeded [that what.I.ate]
‘I ate too much.’

(581) O:nę́h hniˀ ohsǫdagwe:gǫ́h de̱hodinęhę́:ˀ neˀ hęnǫ:gwéh [shęh

now and all.night they.guard the men [that
ená:greˀ]
someone.lives.there]
‘Now too all night they are guarding, the men [who live there].’ (Keye
2012) (The bolded material constitutes a noun phrase that includes a
relative clause. The relative clause is shown in square brackets ‘[ ]’).

Shęh ‘because’
Particle, clause-initial in causative dependent clauses (§29.3). Also pronounced as tsęh.

(582) De̱hęnadatnǫhwéˀs Gwi:déh Ed hniˀ [shęh hona:dáoˀ]

They.like.each.other Peter Ed and that they.are.friends
‘Peter and Ed like each other because they are friends.’

(583) Agyǫˀnigǫho:gǫ́ˀ [shęh ǫdowishę́ˀ goná:jih].

her.mind.is.scattered that she.died her.friend
‘She is broken-hearted because her friend died.’

Related
⇒ Nigę́ˀǫh ‘or?’, Giˀ shęh ‘or’, etc., p. 597
⇒ Dęˀ ni:yoht shęh ‘why?’, p. 829
⇒ Ewa:dǫˀ giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘a possibility’, p. 844
⇒ Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’, p. 856
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, p. 857
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh tęˀ ‘maybe not’, ‘or not’, p. 858
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, p. 861
⇒ Gwahs shęh ni- ‘as…as’, p. 877

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⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’, p. 886

⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ giˀ shęh ‘or maybe’, p. 886
⇒ Heyohe:ˀ shęh ‘more than’, p. 895
⇒ Hę:-gyęh shęh ‘no matter how much’, ‘whether or not’, ‘even if’, p. 899
⇒ Hne:ˀ shęh ‘because’, p. 902
⇒ Ji trehs shęh ‘too much so for’, ‘so much so’, p. 917
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ ‘maybe this time’, p. 936
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ shęh neˀ … giˀ shęh ‘or’, p. 937
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: shęh ‘but, it’s just that…’, p. 947
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Ohę:dǫ: shęh ‘ahead’, ‘in front’, ‘forward’, p. 964
⇒ Ohnaˀgę: gwa:dih shęh ‘behind’, p. 965
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, p. 980
⇒ Shęh hǫ: heyodokdaˀǫh ‘the bottom’, p. 984
⇒ Shęh hoˀdęˀ ‘a certain something’, ‘that which’, p. 983
⇒ Shęh hǫ:weh ‘the place where’, ‘whereabouts’, p. 984
⇒ shęh naˀonisheˀ, tsaˀonisheˀ, ⌊tsi-⌋ ‘while’, ‘when’, p. 985
⇒ Shęh ni:yoht ni- ‘how’, ‘the manner in which’, p. 986
⇒ Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘as far as’, 987
⇒ Shęh nohgeh ‘even’, p. 988
⇒ Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ daˀǫ ‘maybe not’, p. 1006
⇒ To hę:gyeh shęh ‘really’, p. 1019
⇒ Toh shęh ni- ‘to that degree’, p. 1022

Shęh hoˀdęˀ ‘a certain something’, ‘that which’

Particle group functioning as a “definite pronoun” §6.4; free-standing.

(584) Gado:gę́: shęh hoˀdęˀ aˀǫgwayǫ́dahk.

together that kind we.all.came.together
‘A certain something that brought us together.’ (a meeting, etc.)

Related
⇒ Hoˀdęˀ ‘kind’, p. 904
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

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Shęh hǫ: heyodokdaˀǫh ‘the bottom’

Particle group and verb shęh hǫ: heyodokdáˀǫh functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3);
likely clause-initial; hǫ:weh is spelled variously as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, or nhǫ:weh.

(585) shęh hǫ: heyodokdaˀǫh

that place the.end
‘the bottom’

Related
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Shęh hǫ:weh ‘the place where’, ‘whereabouts’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3), clause-initial in dependent
clauses; hǫ:weh is spelled variously as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, or nhǫ:weh.

(586) Knigǫhá:ˀ [shęh hǫ:wéh dęgátahahk].

I.watch that where I.will.walk
‘I watch where I walk.’

(587) Hętsyę́:ˀ [shęh hǫ: hesá:gwęh].

you.will.put.it.back.there that where you.picked.it.up.there
‘You will put it back where you got it.’

(588) [shęh hǫ:wéh nito:né:nǫ:]

that where they.come.from.a.certain.place
‘where they come from’

Related
⇒ Clauses with hǫ:(weh) ‘the place where’, p. 591
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982
⇒ Shęh hǫ: heyodokdaˀǫh ‘the bottom’, p. 984

984
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Shęh naˀonisheˀ, Tsaˀonisheˀ, Tsi- ‘while’, ‘when’

Particle and verb beginning with ⌊ni-⌋ part or ⌊tsi-⌋ coin, functioning as an “adverb of
time” (§8.2, §29.11); clause-initial in dependent clauses.

(589) Agiˀda̱ˀǫ́h ǫh [shęh naˀonishéˀ hohta:ˀ].

I.slept I.guess that it.is.a.certain.time he.is.speaking
‘I slept while he spoke.’
(590) Hohsę́: [tsaˀonihseˀ hǫgwéˀdase:].
he.was.fat while he.is.a.young.man
‘While he was young, he was fat.’
(591) [Tsigǫgwe̱ˀda:sé:] gę́:s ga̱hyagwa̱hsgę́hę:ˀ.
when.I.was.young usually I.would.pick.berries
‘When I was a young person I usually picked berries.’
(592) Knǫhwéˀs gę:s [tsigǫgwe̱ˀda:séˀ] tiga:gwe:gǫ́h gę́:s
I.love.it usually when.I.was.young all.over usually
agahyagwęhęgyéˀsgę̱ hę:ˀ
I.would.go.along.picking.fruit
‘When I was young, I used to love going all over and picking fruit.’

Related
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 982

Shęh ni-, Gwahs shęh ni- ‘as…as’

Particle group ⌊(gwahs) shęh ni-stative.verb⌋ is used in comparisons (§31.1); it precedes
a stative verb beginning with ⌊ni-⌋ part, and is clause-initial in dependent clauses.

Related
⇒ Gwahs ‘anyway’, p. 875
⇒ Gwahs shęh ni- ‘as…as’, p. 877
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 980

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Shęh ni-, Shęh ni:yoht ni- ‘how’, ‘the manner in which’

Particle and verb ⌊(shęh) ni-, shęh ni:yoht ni-⌋ is clause-initial in a manner clause (§29.4).

(593) Knigǫhá:ˀ [shęh ni:yóht dęgátahahk].

I.watch that which.way I.will.walk
‘I watch how I walk.’
cf. ni:-yó-ht part-3s.p-resemble.stat

(594) shęh na̱ˀá:węh

that how.it.happened
‘how it happened’
cf. n-a̱ˀ-á:-w-ęh part-fac-3s.p-happen-stat

(595) shęh niyóyanreˀ

that how.good.it.is
‘how good it is’
cf. ni-yó-yanreˀ part-3s.p-good.stat

(596) niyá:węhs
ni-yá:-w-ę-hs
part-3s.p-happen-hab
‘how it happens’

(597) niyáwę̱ ˀǫh

ni-yá:-w-ę̱ -ˀǫh
part-3s.p-happen-stat
‘how it did happen’

Related
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 980

Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘as far as’, ‘as much as’

Particle group shęh niyo:weˀ is used in comparisons (§31.1); clause-initial; niyó:weˀ also
has the short forms ní:yo:ˀ or nyo:.

986
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(598) “A:yę́:ˀ, shęh nyó:ˀ haˀhéˀ dedwatahaˀsé:ˀ, to

it.seems that a.certain.distance he.went.there the.crossroad, that
nyo:wéˀ,” aˀa:gę́ˀ neˀ ǫgyaˀsé:ˀ, aˀa:gę́ˀ.
a.certain.distance she.said the we.are.cousins she.said
‘“It seems, as far as he went on the crossroad, that far (we will go),” said
my cousin.’ (Henry 2005)

(599) Ęyonishéˀ hęwagi ̱ˀdrǫ́:ˀ [shę niyo:weˀ gakwi:yó:

it.will.be.a.while it.will.last.me that a.certain.distance good.food
agadekǫ́:niˀ].
I.ate.it
‘It will last me a long time, how much good food I ate.’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 294, Dwade:kǫ́:nih dialogue)

Related
⇒ Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’, p. 856
⇒ Niyo:weˀ, ni:yo:ˀ, nyo:ˀ ‘a certain distance’, ‘a certain time’, p. 958
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 980
⇒ Toh niyo:weˀ ‘that far’, p. 1020
⇒ To: niyo:weˀ ne:ˀ ‘when’, p. 1021

Shęh niyo:weˀ, Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’

Particle group (gaoˀ) shęh niyo:weˀ functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2, §29.10); clause-
initial in dependent clauses; niyó:weˀ also has the short forms ní:yo:ˀ or nyo:.

(600) Agwaˀnigǫháˀ [shęh niyo:wéˀ hędwawayę:nę́:daˀ].

we.are.waiting that it.is.a.certain.distance we.will.finish
‘We’re waiting until the time we’re finished.’

(601) Háoˀ o:nę́h dajagyę̱ hę́:toh! Heˀsniǫdiˀdré: o:nę́h [shęh

OK now you.two.pull! drag.the.log.over.there now [that
niyó: heyó:doˀk].
it.is.a.certain.distance it.will.end]
‘Come on, you two pull. Drag the log now until it gets to the end.’
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 481, Dędwaˀęnáęˀ dialogue)

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Related
⇒ Gaoˀ ‘this side’, ‘this way’, p. 854
⇒ Gaoˀ nawahtgeh ‘the time before then’, p. 855
⇒ Gaoˀ ni- ‘less so’, p. 855
⇒ Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ, shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’, p. 856
⇒ Niyo:weˀ, ni:yo:ˀ, nyo:ˀ ‘a certain distance’, ‘a certain time’, p. 958
⇒ Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘as far as’, ‘as much as’, p. 986
⇒ To: niyo:weˀ ne:ˀ ‘when’, p. 1021
⇒ Toh niyo:weˀ ‘that far’, p. 1020

Shęh nohgeh ‘even’

Particle group used for emphasis (§35.4.4); possibly only appears before noun phrases
[].
(602) Ó: i:soˀ gyó:doˀk waˀne:ˀ, shę́h nohgeh [neˀ ojǫ́ˀdaˀ], gá:dǫh
oh much it.is.lessened today, that even the fish, I.say
gyę:ˀ waˀjih.
emphasis a.while.ago
‘Oh, there is a lot less of everything nowadays even fish, as I was saying
just a while ago.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

Related
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 980

Shęh ǫ:weh ‘it is really’

Particle group marking emphasis (§35.4.4).

Related
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 980
⇒ ǫ:weh, neˀ ǫ:weh ‘really’, p. 976

988
 C.12 S particles

Si: ‘over there’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(603) Si: tga̱heˀ.

over.there it.is.sitting.up.on.top.of.something
‘It is sitting over there.’

(604) Si: tga:ní:yǫ:t.

over.there it.is.hanging.there
‘It was hanging over there.’

(605) Si: giˀ gyę:ˀ dagáęˀ ó:nęh!

there just this.one they.are.coming now
‘Well here they come now!’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah
dialogue)

Related
⇒ Si gwa:dih ‘move it!’, p. 990
⇒ Si gwa:dih ‘over there’, p. 989
⇒ Si gwa:di:hah ‘just this side of’, p. 990
⇒ Si hne:ˀ si gwa:dih ‘over there’, p. 991
⇒ Si: hǫ:weh ‘way over there’, p. 991
⇒ Si:-gyęh ‘that one over there’, p. 992

Si gwa:dih ‘over there’

Particle group si…gwa:dih functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial; gwa:dih
can also be spelled or pronounced as gwai.

(606) Si gwa:dih tgá:yęˀ.

over.there side it.lies.there
‘It is lying over there.’

(607) Si gi ̱ˀ-shę́h hwaˀ gwa:díh ga̱ˀto:háh tganí:yǫ:t.

over.there maybe this.place side somewhere it.is.hanging.there
‘Maybe it is hanging somewhere over there.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 142,
Satgęh dialogue)

989
C Particle dictionary

(608) Si: hne:ˀ gwai hęhsá:diˀ.

over.there in.fact side you.will.put.it.to.one.side
‘Throw that over there!’

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Si: ‘over there’, p. 989
⇒ Si gwa:dih ‘move it!’, p. 990

Si gwa:dih ‘move it!’

Particle group si … gwa:dih functions as a “command” (§27.1.5), used when speaking to
animals; gwa:dih can also be spelled or pronounced as gwai.

(609) Si hne:ˀ si gwa:díh haˀse:.

over.there in.fact over.there side go.over.there
‘Get over there!’ (speaking to an animal)

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Si gwa:dih ‘over there’, p. 989

Si gwa:di:hah ‘just this side of’

Particle group si…gwa:di-hah functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3). In the examples,
it is used metaphorically to mean ‘a little more than’, ‘in the neighbourhood of’, or ‘just
this side of’; clause-initial.

(610) si gwa:di:-hah
there side.stat-dim
‘just this side of’

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(611) Géi na̱ˀdewe̱ˀnyá:wˀe: si gwa:dí:hah niga:nǫ́:ˀ.

four hundred over.there side-ish it.costs
‘It costs a little more than four hundred dollars.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
420, Ęswayętoˀ Gęh? dialogue)

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Si gwa:dih ‘over there’, p. 989

Si hne:ˀ si gwa:dih ‘over there’

Particle group; si hne:ˀ (si) gwá:dih functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); emphatic;
clause-initial; gwa:dih can also be spelled or pronounced as gwai.

(612) Si: hne:ˀ gwai hęhsá:diˀ!

over.there in.fact side you.will.throw.it.there
‘Throw that over there!’

(613) Si hne:ˀ si-gwa:díh haˀse:!

over.there in.fact side go.over.there
‘Get over there!’ (said to an animal)

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901
⇒ Si: ‘over there’, p. 989
⇒ Si gwa:dih ‘move it!’, p. 990

Si: hǫ:weh ‘way over there’

Particle group si:…hǫ:weh functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial; hǫ:weh
can be spelled or pronounced as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, or nhǫ:weh.

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(614) Si: nhǫ:weh tgani:yǫ:t sagyaˀdawíˀtraˀ.

over.there place it.is.hanging.there your.coat
‘Your coat is hanging way over there.’

(615) Si: hǫ:weh haˀęˀ ęyékwaˀ, waˀjíh ędwana̱ˀdá:kshǫ:ˀ

over.there place she.is.there she.will.escape, later we.all.will.snack
‘I see her going over there; later we’ll go have a snack.’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907
⇒ Si: ‘over there’, p. 989

Si:-gyęh ‘that one over there’

Particle group functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); free-standing.

(616) Si:-gyęh tgá:yęˀ, dé:sehk!

that.one it.is.lying.there pick.it.up
‘That lying over there, pick it up!’

Related
⇒ ⌊-gyęh⌋ ‘this’, ‘that’, p. 882
⇒ Si: ‘over there’, p. 989

Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ‘any (person, thing)’

Particle functioning as an “indefinite” (§6.5) or “interrogative” (§6.6) pronoun; also used
as a short form for sǫ: nˀaht ‘who’.

992
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Related
⇒ Sǫ, sǫ: nˀaht ‘who’, p. 993
⇒ Sǫ: go:węh ‘whose’ (interrogative), p. 995
⇒ Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht ‘anybody at all’, ‘anyone at all’, ‘any living thing’, ‘somebody’,
‘whoever’, p. 995
⇒ Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht o:yaˀ ‘someone else’, p. 996
⇒ Sǫ: gwadih ‘on some other side’, p. 996
⇒ Sǫ:-ga:ˀ ‘anyone’, ‘any living thing’, p. 997
⇒ Sǫ:-ga:ˀah ‘someone’, ‘anyone’, ‘anything (living)’, p. 997
⇒ Tęˀ sǫ:-ga:ˀ ‘nobody’, ‘no one’, p. 1014

Sǫ:, Sǫ: nˀaht ‘who’

Particle group sǫ: … (nˀaht/nˀoht) functions as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5, §29.6); clause-
initial in direct questions (618), statements (619), indirect questions (620–621), and depen-
dent clauses (622–623).

(617) Sǫ́: ne:ˀ?

Who it.is
‘Who’s there?’

(618) Sǫ: hne:ˀ nˀáht to:gyę́h eksá:ˀah?

who in.fact person that.one girl
‘Who is that girl?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 61, Sǫ: Hne:ˀ Nˀaht To:gyęh?
dialogue)

(619) Sǫ: ˀǫh hne:ˀ nˀaht gaǫdę́:nǫhk.

who I.wonder in.fact person her.relatives
‘I am wondering who her people are.’

(620) Daskro:wíˀ [sǫ: nˀaht daǫdekǫ́nya̱hneˀ].

you.tell.me who person someone.is.coming.to.eat
‘Tell me who’s coming to eat.’

(621) Gwi:déh honǫhdǫ́ˀ gęh [sǫ ˀǫ nˀáht gowanawę́ˀdagaˀs]?

Peter he.knows Q who I.wonder person she.likes.the.taste.of.sugar
‘Does Peter know who likes candy?’

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(622) Toh hǫ:wéh godaˀstáˀ gę:s [sǫ: nˀáht neˀ ęyǫnǫ̱hwé:t].

that.one where they.sleep usually who person the she.will.visit
‘That’s where they sleep when someone is visiting.’ (Henry 2005)

(623) Ne:ˀ giˀ tsǫ́: agǫgwe̱ˀdá:se: tęˀ degógaę [sǫ: nˀáht

it.is just only young.woman not she.didn’t.want who person
ęyagodí:nya:k].
they.will.marry
‘But the young girl didn’t want to be forced by her family to marry
anyone.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ ⌊-nˀaht, -noht⌋ ‘some person’, p. 917
⇒ Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ‘any (person, thing)’, p. 992

Sǫ: go:węh ‘whose’ (possessive)

Particle and verb functioning as a “possessive pronoun” (§6.2); free-standing.

(624) sǫ: gó:węh

someone she.owns.it
‘she/someone owns it’
cf. gó:-w-ęh 3s.fi.p-own-stat

(625) Sǫ: go:węh toh ga̱ˀdréhdase:ˀ?

who someone’s that new.car
‘Whose new car is that?’

Related
⇒ Go:węh ‘it’s hers’, ‘it’s someone’s’, p. 870
⇒ Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ‘any (person, thing)’, p. 992

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Sǫ: go:węh ‘whose’ (interrogative)

Particle group functioning as an “interrogative possessive pronoun” (§6.6, §6.2, §29.6);
clause-initial in direct questions (and possibly indirect questions, and dependent clauses).

(626) Sǫ́: go:wę́h tǫ ga̱ˀdréhdase:ˀ?

Who someone.owns.it that.one new.car
‘Who owns that new car?’ ‘Whose new car is that?’

Related
⇒ Go:węh ‘it’s hers’, ‘it’s someone’s’, p. 870
⇒ Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ‘any (person, thing)’, p. 992

Sǫ: gwaˀ, Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht, Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀoht ‘anybody at all’, ‘anyone at
all’, ‘any living thing’, ‘somebody’, ‘whoever’
Particle group sǫ:-gwaˀ (nˀaht/nˀoht) functions as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-
standing.

(627) Ahgwíh sǫ:-gwaˀ da:yǫkí:dahs.

don’t someone-right.then they.should.stop.us
‘Don’t let anyone stop us.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(628) Nę́: haˀsatga̱htóh o:yáˀ tganǫ́hso:t. A:yę́:ˀ

look look.at.it other the.house.there It.seems
sǫ:-gwaˀ-nˀáht gonęna̱ˀdínyǫ̱ˀdǫh.
someone-right.then-person she.has.moved.in
‘Say, have a look at the next house. It seems like somebody has moved in.’
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 441, Dwęnǫhsanékahǫˀ dialogue)

(629) Háoˀ sǫ:-gwaˀ-nˀáht gaǫda̱ˀgéh de̱há:daˀ.

come.on someone-right.then-person on.the.log he.stands
‘Come on, somebody stand on the log.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 481,
Dędwaˀęnáęˀ dialogue)

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(630) Ahę́ˀ, “Tęˀ gwahs.” Ahę́ˀ, “Trehs sǫ:-gwaˀ-nˀóht giˀ

he.said not this.time he.said because someone-right.then-person just
ahǫwayá:sǫ:ˀ, neˀ gyęǫˀǫh honǫhsodáęˀ.”
he.called.him, the maybe his.sickness
‘He said, “Not this time, because whoever they called, maybe he was
sick.”’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ ⌊-nˀaht, -noht⌋ ‘some person’, p. 917
⇒ Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ‘any (person, thing)’, p. 992
⇒ Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht o:yaˀ ‘someone else’, p. 996

Sǫ: gwaˀ nˀaht o:yaˀ ‘someone else’

Particle group functioning as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-standing.

(631) Ahí:ˀ tgá:gǫ:t sǫ:-gwaˀ-nˀóht o:yáˀ

I.thought important someone-right.then-person other
ękehó:wíˀ,
I.will.tell.someone
‘I thought that it was important that someone else should be told,’(Henry
2005)

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ ⌊-nˀaht, -noht⌋ ‘some person’, p. 917
⇒ O:yaˀ ‘another’, ‘other’, ‘else’, p. 973
⇒ Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ‘any (person, thing)’, p. 992

Sǫ: gwa:dih ‘on some other side’

Particle group sǫ:…gwadih, sǫ gwai functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); likely clause-
initial.

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Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ‘any (person, thing)’, p. 992

Sǫ:-ga:ˀ ‘anyone’, ‘any living thing’

Particle group functioning as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-standing.

(632) Hada:di:gę́ˀ hnyagwáiˀ tę́ˀ hwę:dǫ́ˀ sǫ:gá:ˀ degye:gę́:ˀ toh

…they.saw.it bear not ever anything it.was.seen that.one
na:gagowanę́hę:k, to hniˀ na:yoyáˀdatgi:k.
it.was.so.big, that and it.was.so.ugly
‘A great bear had appeared, so large and so powerful that many thought
it must be some kind of a monster.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ ⌊-ga:ˀ⌋ element (referring to living beings), p. 845
⇒ Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ‘any (person, thing)’, p. 992

Sǫ:-ga:ˀah ‘someone’, ‘anyone’, ‘anything (living)’

Particle group functioning as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); clause-initial in direct ques-
tions (634–635), indirect questions (not shown), and dependent clauses (636–637). Also
used in statements (638–639) where it is free-standing.

(633) sǫ:-ga:ˀah
sǫ:-ga:-ˀah some(one)-element-diminutive
‘someone’, ‘anyone’, ‘anything (living)’

(634) Sǫga:ˀáh gęh hǫwa:yę́:di:?

someone Q he.knows.him
‘Does someone know him?’ ‘Who knows him?’

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(635) Sǫga:ˀáh gę́h neˀ gagǫ:gwéh swęnǫhsanekahǫ́ˀ neˀ tę́ˀ

Anyone Q the women your.neighbours the not
de̱ˀagonyá:gǫh?
they.aren’t.married
‘Do you have any women neighbors who are not married?’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah dialogue)

(636) Ne:ˀ giˀ hǫ:niˀ ahí:ˀ gyę́:gwaˀ hné: hwaˀ a:gatró:wiˀ

it.is just the.reason I.thought if in.fact this.time I.would.tell
gyę́:gwaˀ hné: hwaˀ sǫgá:ˀah ęhodi ̱ˀnigǫ̱háędaˀ nę:-gyę́h hwaˀ
if in.fact this.time someone they.will.understand this time
shęh niga:yę:.
that how.it.is.done
‘That is why I thought perhaps I might tell about it so that they might
understand how it is done.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

(637) A:ya:wę́h giˀ gyę́:ˀ do:gę́hs a:setséiˀ sǫgá:ˀah

I.hope just emphasis sure you.would.find.it someone
a:heyaˀdagé:nhaˀ,
I.will.help.him
‘I sure hope you find someone who could help you, (Mithun & Henry
1984: 339, Oˀdréhdatgiˀ dialogue)

(638) Sǫga:ˀáh ǫgyénawahs!

someone someone.help.me
‘Someone help me!’

(639) Ó:. Gyę́:gwaˀ giˀ gyę́:ˀ ęga:she:gę́ˀ sǫgá:ˀah,

Oh, if just emphasis you.will.see.them someone,
ęgasheho:wíˀ shęh ǫgetgwę̱ ˀdáhdǫ:ˀ.
you.will.tell.them that I.lost.my.wallet
‘Oh. Well, if you see anyone, tell them I lost my wallet.’ (Mithun & Henry
1984: 184, Gatgwę́ˀdaˀ dialogue)

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Related
⇒ ⌊-ga:ˀ⌋ element (referring to living beings), p. 845
⇒ Sǫ: ‘some (person, thing)’, ‘any (person, thing)’, p. 992

Stǫ:hah, Stǫ:hǫh ‘a little bit’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(640) Stǫ:háh segę́is.

little.bit move
‘Move a little bit.’

(641) Tę́ˀ hné:ˀ de̱ˀheˀs. Honǫhǫkda:níh gyę́:ˀ-gęh stǫ:hǫ́h

no in.fact he.is.not.here he.is.sick this.one-Q a.little
hotowinyǫˀsé: gyę́:ˀ-ǫh.
he.has.a.cold this.one-I.guess
‘No he isn’t. He seems to be sick, a bit of a cold, I guess.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 184, Gatgwę́ˀdaˀ dialogue)

(642) Géi sga̱heˀ niyohshé:dęh. Gyę:gwáˀ-hne:-hwáˀ stǫ:hǫ́h

four tens what.size.it.is maybe-in.fact a.little
degyáhdi ̱hęh, shęh ní:waˀs.
they.are.different, what size.they.are
‘It is a size fourteen. Maybe they are a little different in size.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

C.13 T particles
Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’
Particle signaling disagreement (§35.3.2); optional before a negated verb.

(643) Tęˀ ta:hayę́:toh.

not he.won’t.plant
‘No, he won’t plant.’

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(644) Tęˀ dewagadagáideˀ.

not I’m.not.well
‘No, I am not well.’

(645) Tęˀ toh degáhe:ˀ.

not there it.is.not.setting
‘No, it isn’t setting there.’

(646) Tęˀ tǫdesa̱ˀdré: tó:gyęh!

not you.won’t.drive that.one
‘Don’t drive that over here!’

(647) Tęˀ taˀdeyagodawę́:nyeˀ.

not she.is.not.walking.about
‘No, she isn’t walking about.’

(648) Tęˀ ni:ˀ toh tá:ge:ˀ.

not I there I’m.not.going
‘No, I am not going there.’

(649) Tęˀ ni:ˀ ta:gyé:na:.

not I I.won’t.accept.it
‘No, I will not accept it.’

(650) Tęˀ giˀ ni:ˀ to tá:gye:.

not just I there I.won’t.do.it
‘No, I will not do that.’

Tęˀ ahsǫh ‘not yet’

Particle group tęˀ … ahsǫh functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(651) Tęˀ gęh ahsǫ́h de̱ˀotsęhdǫ́h tó:gyęh?!

not Q yet it.is.not.getting.tired this.one
‘Isn’t that bear getting tired yet?!’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

(652) Tęˀ ahsǫ́h de̱ˀagatgę́hǫh.

not yet I’m.not.up
‘I am not yet up.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 142, Satgęh dialogue)

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Related
⇒ Ahsǫh ‘still’, ‘yet’, p. 816
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ daˀǫ ‘it will never happen’, ‘definitely not’

Particle group tęˀ … da̱ ˀǫ signals disagreement (§35.3.2); emphatic; clause-initial.

(653) tęˀ da ˀǫ
not and I.wonder
‘it will never happen’, ‘definitely not’

(654) Tęˀ daˀǫ toh tá:ge:.

not definitely.not there I.should.go.there
‘No, I will definitely not go.’

(655) Tęˀ daˀǫ a:hǫwayená:waˀs.

not definitely.not he.should.help.him
‘Definitely not; no one will help him.’

(656) Tęˀ giˀ daˀǫ ta:yagógaę.

no just definitely.not she.would.agree
‘No, she will never agree.’

(657) “O:nę́h giˀ gę:s tęˀ gwahs daˀǫ́ a:hadijáoˀdę:.”

now just usually no emphasis definitely.not he.would.smoke.tobacco
“If only they didn’t smoke as much tobacco.” (Henry 2005)

(658) Ji ̱ˀtréhs sahsę:, sanǫˀséh hniˀ. Tęˀ daˀǫ́ a:wadeˀgóˀ

too.much.you are.fat you.are.lazy and not certainly.not it.would.escape
neˀ nęh ęhyá:gęˀ!
the now it.will.get.away.from.you
‘You are too fat and lazy – it certainly won’t run from you.’ (Carrier et al.
2013)

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(659) Tę́ˀ. Tréhs hne:ˀ a:yę́:ˀ niwú:sˀuh. A:yę́:ˀ tę́ˀ daˀǫ

not too.much in.fact it.seems it.is.small it.seems not certainly.not
ha:wagí:dęˀ.
it.should.fit.me
‘No. It seems to be too small for me. It doesn’t seem to fit me.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 225, Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

(660) A:yę́:ˀ gyę:ˀ stǫ:hǫ́h ganǫ́:ˀ. Ne:ˀ tsǫ́: shęh oya:nréˀ

it.seems this.one little.bit expensive it.is just that good.ones
se̱ˀ-gyę́: hné:ˀ gwa̱ˀ-toh. Tę́ˀ daˀǫ
you.know-this.one in.fact that.one not certainly.not
a:wadahsgwi ̱ˀtrǫ́:niˀ, hę:gyę: neˀ haesatroni ̱há:k
it.won’t.get.wrinkles no.matter the you.would.wear.clothes
aesę́:daˀ.
you.would.sleep
‘It seems a little expensive, but it is a good one. It won’t wrinkle, even if
you sleep with your clothes on.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225,
Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

(661) O:nę́h ǫ hné:ˀ gwé:gǫh. Tę́ˀ ǫ hné:ˀ daˀǫ

now I.guess in.fact all not I.wonder in.fact definitely.not
daǫsagǫˀnigǫháęˀ ó:nęh.
I.shouldn’t.bother.you now
‘This must be everything now. I shouldn’t bother you any more now.’
(Mithun & Henry 1984: 441, Dwęnǫhsanekahǫˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Da: ‘and’, p. 820
⇒ Oh, ǫ:, ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ dedo:gęhs ‘it’s not true’, ‘not really’

Particle and verb signaling disagreement (§35.3.2); free-standing or clause-initial.

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(662) Tęˀ tǫ ne:ˀ dedó:gęhs.

no that.one it.is it.is.not.true
‘No, it isn’t really true.’
(663) Tęˀ giˀ hne:ˀ dedo:gę́hs deˀsá:dǫh.
not just in.fact it.is.not.true you.are.not.saying.it
‘No, it isn’t really true what you are saying.’

Related
⇒ Do:gęhs ‘it is true’, ‘isn’t it true?’, p. 835
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ deˀgę: ‘it isn’t’

Particle group ⌊tęˀ … noun de̱ˀgę: neˀ noun⌋ or ⌊tęˀ … noun noun de̱ˀgę:⌋ ‘noun is not
a noun’ links two nouns (or noun phrases), and conveys the idea that the second noun
(phrase) does not belong to the category denoted by the first noun (phrase) (664–666).
Words or phrases functioning as “nouns” are shown between square brackets.) Particle
group ⌊tęˀ … noun de̱ˀgę:⌋ ‘noun is not’ conveys the idea that the noun (in square brack-
ets) does not exist (667).
(664) tęˀ deˀ-gę:
not not-it.is
‘it isn’t’
(665) Tęˀ hne:ˀ [ganyó:ˀ] deˀgę: [neˀ awę́hęˀ]
Not in.fact animal it.is.not the flower(s)
‘Flowers are not animals.’
(666) Tę́ˀ ní:ˀ de̱ˀa:gé:gaˀs. Tę́ˀ [ní:ˀ] [gwaˀyǫˀ] deˀgę:.
no I I.don’t.like.the.taste.of.it not I rabbit it.is.not
‘No, I don’t like it. I am no rabbit, you know.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 294,
Dwade:kǫ́:nih dialogue)
(667) Tęˀ gwahs ǫ:wéh [ǫ:gwéh] degę:.
not really truly person it.is.not
‘No, you aren’t really human.’

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Related
⇒ Equative sentences with linking verbs né:ˀ ‘it is’ or de̱ˀgę: ‘it isn’t’, p. 574
⇒ Ę:, E: (possible atypical verb), p. 839
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ Tęˀ degę:hęh ‘not too many’, p. 1004

Tęˀ degę:hęh ‘not too many’

Particle group (tęˀ) degę:hęh likely functions as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5) and is likely
clause-initial.

(668) tęˀ deˀ-gę:-hęh

not not-it.is-diminutive
‘not too many’

Related
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ Tęˀ de̱ˀgę: ‘it isn’t’, p. 1003

Tęˀ gaˀ-toh, Gaˀ-toh ‘nowhere’, ‘not anywhere’

Particle group (tęˀ) ga̱ ˀ-toh functions as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial.

(669) Tęˀ gaˀ-toh degá:yęˀ.

not anywhere it.is.not.lying
‘It isn’t lying anywhere.’

Related
⇒ ⌊gaˀ-⌋ element (referring to a location), p. 845
⇒ Gaˀ-toh, tęˀ gaˀ-toh ‘nowhere’, ‘not anywhere’, p. 845
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘around’, ‘anywhere’, ‘thereabouts’, p.

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 C.13 T particles

846
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah tohgeh ‘thereabouts’, p. 847
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ gęh ‘no?’, ‘isn’t it?’

Particle group or tag question (§27.2.2); optionally followed by a negative verb.

(670) Wę̱ hnihsri:yó: waˀneˀ, tęˀ gęh?

it.is.a.nice.day today, not Q
‘It’s is a nice day, innit?’

Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ gęh deˀ- ‘didn’t?’

Particle group used with questions that imply ęhęˀ ‘yes’ or tęˀ ‘no’ answers (§27.2.1);
followed by a negative verb; clause-initial.

(671) Tęˀ gęh deshó:yǫ:?

Not Q he.didn’t.return
‘Did he not come home?’

(672) Tęˀ gęh dehsé: to: ne: dwá:ye:?

Not Q you.don’t.think that it.is we.do.it
‘Don’t you think we should do that?’

Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

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Tęˀ giˀ ni:ˀ ‘no, not me’

Particle group functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing.

(673) Tęˀ giˀ ni:ˀ to tá:gye:.

not just the.me that I.wouldn’t.do.it
‘No, I will not do that.’

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ daˀǫ ‘maybe not’

Particle group tęˀ giˀ shęh (hwaˀ) (daǫ:) functions as a “doubt or certainty marker” (§35.2);
free-standing or clause-initial.

(674) Tęˀ giˀ shęh hwaˀ - waˀgyę́h dęˀ nęyá:węh.

not just that this.time presently what it.will.happen
‘Maybe not – we’ll see.’ (Carrier et al. 2013)
(675) [Tęˀ giˀ shę́h hwaˀ daǫ́: toh na:yá:węh.]
not just that this.time not.at.all that.one it.will.happen
‘Maybe it won’t happen this time.’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh ‘maybe’, ‘or maybe’, p. 857
⇒ Ga:t giˀ shęh tęˀ ‘maybe not’, ‘or not’, p. 858
⇒ Gęh ga:t giˀ shęh nigęˀǫh ‘or?’, p. 861
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’, p. 907
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh gyę:gwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ O: tęˀ ǫh ga:t giˀ shęh ne:ˀ hwaˀ ‘maybe, maybe not’, p. 962
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 980

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 C.13 T particles

⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

⇒ Tęˀ daˀǫ ‘it will never happen’, ‘definitely not’, p. 1001

Tęˀ gwahs ǫ:weh ‘not really’, ‘not quite’

Particle group tęˀ (gwahs) (ǫ:weh) signals disagreement (§35.3.2); clause-initial.

(676) Tęˀ gwahs ǫ:wéh ǫ:gwéh degę:.

not really truly person it.is.not
‘No, you are not really human.’

(677) Sǫ: ní:s nˀaht gwahs? Tę́ˀ gwáhs ǫ:wéh de̱ˀgǫyędéi. Dave
who you who anyway not really truly I.do.not.know.you Dave
Maracle gęh haya:sǫ́h neˀ hya̱ˀnih?
Maracle Q he.is.named the your.father
‘Who are you, anyway? I don’t really know you. Is Dave Maracle your
father?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 339, Oˀdréhdatgiˀ dialogue)

(678) Tę́ˀ giˀ hné:ˀ gwahs á:yę:ˀ, tréhs gyę́:ˀ ǫh do:gę́hs

not just in.fact really it.seems too.much this.one I.guess it.is.true
wa̱hdahgwadę́:s dewagę́:sǫ:.
thick.shoes I.have.shoes.on
‘No, it doesn’t really seem too bad, I guess, because I have really thick
shoes on.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 386, Ga̱há:gǫ: dialogue)

(679) Tę́ˀ gwahs deˀǫkniwayęnę́da̱ˀǫˀ, stǫ́:hǫh daonǫ́:ˀ.

not really we.did.not.finish.it a.little they.weren’t.a.certain.number
‘Not quite we didn’t. There was still a little more left to do.’ (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 456, Oyę́hsraˀ dialogue)

(680) Tę́ˀ gwáhs degowanę́h tę́ˀ gwáhs dewú:ˀuh.

not really it.is.not.big not really it.isn’t.small
‘Not too big, not too small.’ (Keye 2016, Circle Book 10, the Magic Chair)

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Related
⇒ Gwahs ‘really’, ‘just’, ‘quite’, p. 874
⇒ Gwahs ǫ:weh ‘really’, p. 876
⇒ O:weh, neˀ ǫ:weh ‘really’, p. 976
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ gwaˀ-toh ‘none at all’

Particle group functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); free-standing.

(681) tęˀ gwaˀ toh

not right.then that.one
‘none at all’

(682) Nę: tsǫ: ni:yǫ́: ǫgwa:yę́ˀ oˀwáhǫh. Tęˀ

it.is little it.is.a.certain.amount we.have meat not
gwaˀ-toh de̱ˀjǫ:gwa:yę́ˀ neˀ onę́hę:ˀ, osáheˀdaˀ.
right.then-that.one we.do.not.have the corn beans
‘We have very little meat left; we have no corn or beans left.’(Carrier et al.
2013)

Related
⇒ Gwaˀ ‘immediately’, ‘right then’, ‘just then’, ‘finally’, p. 870
⇒ Gwa̱ ˀ toh ‘that one; just such a one’, p. 872
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ Tęˀ gwa̱ ˀ-toh ‘none at all’, p. 1008
⇒ to, To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

Tęˀ gyę:ˀ nę neˀ ‘not’, ‘what on earth?’

Particle group emphasizing something negative or upsetting (§35.4.4); clause-initial.

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 C.13 T particles

(683) Tohgéh aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Dęˀ diˀ nęya:wę́h ędwáganyaˀk? Tęˀ

then she.said what so something.will.happen we.will.pay not
gyę:ˀ nę neˀ - dęˀ diˀ hoˀdę́ˀ ędwahs? Tęˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ
emphasis here the - what so kind we.will.use not emphasis here the
ni:ˀ de̱ˀǫ:gwa:yę́ˀ neˀ ohwíhsdaˀ.”
we we.do.not.have the money
‘Then she said, “How will we pay for it? What on earth will we use?
None of us have any money.”’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Neˀ gyę:ˀ nę ne:ˀ (emphasis), p. 923
⇒ Nę: ‘this’, ‘these’, p. 948
⇒ Nę: ne:ˀ i:s ‘how about you’, p. 951
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ gyę:ˀ ǫh, Tęˀ gęˀǫh ‘not really’

Particle group signaling disagreement (§35.3.2); free-standing.

(684) Ó:, tęˀ gyę́:ˀ ǫ hné:ˀ ǫ:wí: agyę́ˀ gyę́:ˀ

oh, not this.one I.wonder in.fact I.should.think I.have emphasis
nǫ́ne:ˀ neˀ degahehdáwenyehs. Dají:hah gę́:s tsǫ́:
you.know the cultivator short.amount.of.time usually just
i:sóˀ atkehdawę́:nye:ˀ.
much I.plow.it
‘Oh, not really, because I have a cultivator, you know. In just a short time
I plow a lot.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 420, Ęswayętoˀ Gęh dialogue)

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Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ǫh ‘maybe’, ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder’, p. 884
⇒ Oh, ǫ:, ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ hne:ˀ ‘definitely not’

Particle group signaling disagreement (§35.3.2); emphatic; clause-initial.

(685) Tęˀ hne:ˀ hwaˀ to ta:yá:węh.

not in.fact this.time that it.shouldn’t.happen
‘No, that’ll never really happen this time.’
(686) Tęˀ hne:ˀ dehóyętwęh.
not in.fact he.did.not.plant
‘No, in fact he didn’t plant.’

Related
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ hne:ˀ neˀ ‘not that one’

Particle group ⌊(item) tęˀ hne:ˀ (neˀ) item⌋ is used for contrastive focus (§35.4.4).

(687) Ohyadǫhsra:sé: i:wí: tęˀ hne:ˀ ohyadǫ̱hsra:gá:yǫh.

new.book I.want not in.fact old.book
‘I want the new book, not the old one.’
(688) Agadadrihǫnyę́ˀ ohyadǫhsra:sé:ˀ té:dęˀ, tęˀ hne:ˀ neˀ
I.read.it new.book yesterday, not in.fact the
gyoté:dęht.
day.before.yesterday
‘I read the new book yesterday, not the day before.’

1010
 C.13 T particles

(689) I:ˀ ęgahdę:díˀ tęˀ hne:ˀ neˀ gáǫhęˀ.

I I.will.leave not in.fact the she.alone
‘It is I who am leaving, not her.’

(690) Wa:li gó:gaˀs, tęˀ hne:ˀ neˀ John.

Mary she.likes.the.taste.of.it not in.fact the John
‘It is Mary who likes the taste of it, not John.’

(691) Tęˀ hne:ˀ gaǫhę́ˀ ne:ˀ. Tęˀ hne:ˀ haǫhę́ˀ giˀ.

not in.fact she.alone it.isn’t in.fact he.alone just
‘It’s not her. It’s him.’

Related
⇒ Hne:ˀ ‘in fact’, p. 901
⇒ Neˀ ‘that is’, ‘the’, p. 918
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ hwę:dǫh ‘never’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(692) Tęˀ hwę:dǫ́h tǫ: sǫsádonhe:k.

not ever that.one you’ll.come.alive.again
‘You’ll never come alive again.’

(693) Tęˀ hwę:dǫ́h to tǫ: ęshá:gyeˀ.

not ever that that.one he’ll.do.it.again
‘No, he’ll never do that.’

(694) Tęˀ hwę:dǫ́h to tá:gyeˀ.

not ever that I.would.do.it
‘I would never do that.’

1011
C Particle dictionary

Related
⇒ Hwę:dǫh ‘ever’, ‘when’, p. 909
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ i:ˀ ‘not me’, ‘not us’

Particle group functioning as an “emphatic pronoun” (§6.1); free-standing.

(695) Tęˀ i:ˀ.

not I
‘Not me.’ (Answering the question “Are you leaving?”)

Related
⇒ I:ˀ, Ni:ˀ ‘I’, ‘we’, p. 910
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ ne:ˀ deˀgę: ‘without’, ‘lacking’

Particle group ⌊tęˀ…noun (ne:ˀ) de̱ˀgę:⌋ conveys the idea that the noun or item is absent.
For the positive counterpart, see §27.4.

(696) Tęˀ (ne:ˀ) deˀgę:.

not (it.is) it.is.not
‘It isn’t the one’

(697) Tęˀ [ohnaˀ] deˀgę:, shę́h ohę́: neˀ onáˀda:.

not grease it.is.not, that it.is.dry the bread
‘(The one with) no grease, because the bread is dry.’ (Henry 2005)

1012
 C.13 T particles

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ Tęˀ de̱ˀgę: ‘it isn’t’, p. 1003

Tęˀ seˀ ‘not really’, ‘but then not really’

Particle group signaling new information that is contrary to expectation or contrastive
focus, §35.4.4; free-standing.

(698) I:wíˀ gę:s agatganǫ́:niˀ, de̱ˀęgwaheh tęˀ seˀ.

I.want usually I.am.wealthy, not.then not really
‘I want to be wealthy, but then not really.’

(699) Wa̱ˀhéˀ ęgíhsa:k. Tę́ˀ seˀ sǫ:-gwáhs de̱ˀagatrehnagáˀ

just.now I’ll.look.for.it not really anything-emphasis I.haven’t.unpacked
tsǫ:.
just
‘I’ll just look for it. I am not really unpacked yet.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
41, Dwęnǫhsanekahǫˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ Seˀ ‘you know’, p. 977
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ sgahoˀdęˀ ‘nothing’, ‘not anything’

Particle group (tęˀ) … sga̱ hoˀdęˀ functions as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-standing.

(700) Tęˀ sgahoˀdę́ˀ desę́nǫ̱hdǫˀ.

not anything you.do.not.know
‘No, you don’t know anything.’

1013
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(701) A:yę́:ˀ giˀ hne:ˀ Tęˀ gwáhs sgahoˀdęˀ.

it.seems just in.fact not intensifier anything.
‘Oh, nothing much, I guess.’ (In response to Dęˀ hoˀdę́ˀ niẖ sagye̱haˀ?
‘What are you doing?’) (Mithun & Henry 1984: 41, Ǫdwęnǫdáhtaˀ
dialogue)

(702) Sgahoˀdę́ˀ dawátehtgęht.

something it.went.bad
‘Something’s not right.’

Tęˀ sǫ:-ga:ˀ ‘nobody’, ‘no one’

Particle group functioning as an “indefinite pronoun” (§6.5); free-standing.

(703) Tęˀ sǫgá:ˀ de̱ˀagodekǫ́:nih.

not anyone no.one.is.eating
‘No one is eating.’(Michelson 2011: 39)

Related
⇒ Sǫ:-ga:ˀ ‘anyone’, ‘any living thing’, p. 997
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ ta:wa:dǫh ‘you may not’

Particle and verb ⌊tęˀ … ta:wa:dǫh … indef-verb⌋ functions as a negative suggestion
(§27.1.7).

(704) Tęˀ ta:wa:dǫ́h a:sejáodęˀ.

not it.shouldn’t.be.possible you.would.smoke
‘No smoking.’
cf. a:-s-e-já-odę-ˀ
indef-2s.a-joinerE-tobacco-put.in-punctual

1014
 C.13 T particles

Related
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999

Tęˀ tǫ ne:ˀ, Tęˀ to ne:ˀ ‘not really’

Particle group signaling disagreement (§35.3.2); free-standing or clause-initial.

(705) Tęˀ tǫ ne:ˀ dedó:gehs.

not that.one it.is it.is.not.true
‘No, it isn’t really true.’

(706) Neˀ to ne:ˀ, [tęˀ to ne:ˀ detga:yéi:ˀ].

the that it.is, not that.one it.is it.is.not.right
‘That’s the one that’s ‘not all there.’’

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Tęˀ ‘no’, ‘not’, p. 999
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

Tgǫhaǫgyeˀ ‘sometimes’
Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(707) A:yę́:ˀ gę:s tgǫháǫgyeˀ neˀ tęˀ gwáhs de̱ˀakniksaˀdí:yo:.

it.seems usually sometime the not really we.weren’t.good.children
‘I think that we weren’t always good children.’ (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ Tgwahaǫ:ˀ ‘sometimes’, p. 1016
⇒ Tgwęhę:ˀ ‘sometimes’, p. 1016

1015
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Tgwahaǫ:ˀ ‘sometimes’
Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(708) Ó: otgáˀdéˀ hne:ˀ gę:s neˀ tgwáhaǫ:ˀ hyeiˀ, ó: tgwaháǫ:ˀ já:dahk.

oh it.is.much in.fact usually the sometimes six, oh sometimes seven
‘Oh sometimes I used to catch as many as six or seven.’ (Henry, 2005)

Related
⇒ Tgǫhaǫgyeˀ ‘sometimes’, p. 1015
⇒ Tgwęhę:ˀ ‘sometimes’, p. 1016

Tgwęhę:ˀ ‘sometimes’
Atypical verb functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(709) Tgwęhę́:ˀ hakdǫhs.

sometimes he.stops.back.in
‘Sometimes he comes back around.’

Related
⇒ Tgǫhaǫgyeˀ ‘sometimes’, p. 1015
⇒ Tgwahaǫ:ˀ ‘sometimes’, p. 1016

To, To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’

Particle functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); free-standing.

(710) Ahí:ˀ giˀ toh nęyá:węh.

I.thought just that.one it.will.happen
‘I thought that’s what would happen.’
(711) Dęˀ hne:ˀ ni:yóht shęh toh na̱hsye:ˀ?
what in.fact the.reason that that.one you.do.it
‘Why in fact did you do that?’

1016
 C.13 T particles

Related
⇒ Da: neˀ toh ‘that’s all’, p. 822
⇒ Gwa̱ ˀ toh ‘that one’, ‘just such a one’, p. 872
⇒ Neˀ gwaˀ toh ‘here (rather than there)’, p. 921
⇒ Neˀ to: ne:ˀ ‘that’s the one’, p. 927
⇒ Neˀ toh ‘that is’, ‘that one’, p. 928
⇒ Neˀ tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ‘also’, p. 928
⇒ Nę: toh ‘here’, p. 951
⇒ Nę: toh gwa:dih ‘on this side’, p. 952
⇒ Nę: tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ni- ‘just a little bit’, ‘very little’, p. 952
⇒ Tęˀ gaˀ-toh ‘nowhere’, ‘not anywhere’, p. 1004
⇒ Tęˀ gwa̱ ˀ-toh ‘none at all’, p. 1008
⇒ Tęˀ tǫ ne:ˀ, Tęˀ to ne:ˀ ‘not really’, p. 1015
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘there’, ‘that place’, p. 1017
⇒ To gęh ǫ ne:ˀ ‘I wonder if it is’, p. 1018
⇒ To: gwa:dih ‘on that side’, p. 1018
⇒ To hę:gyeh shęh ‘really’, p. 1019
⇒ To: hǫ:weh ‘there’, ‘where’, p. 1019
⇒ Toh niyo:weˀ ‘that far’, p. 1020
⇒ To: niyo:weˀ ne:ˀ ‘when’, p. 1021
⇒ To: niyonisheˀ to: ‘a certain amount of time’, p. 1022
⇒ Toh shęh ni- ‘to that degree’, p. 1022
⇒ To tsǫ: ‘that’s all’, p. 1023
⇒ To tsǫ: ‘that’s enough’, p. 1023
⇒ To:-gyęh ‘that one’, p. 1023
⇒ Toh-geh ‘there, then’, p. 1025
⇒ Toh-geh ‘and then’, p. 1026
⇒ Toh-geh hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 1026
⇒ Toh-jih ‘just the one’, ‘just such a one’, p. 1027

To, To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘there’, ‘that place’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3), and possibly, as “adverb of time” (§8.2)
meaning ‘then’; clause-initial.

(712) Dewagegaę́hs to: há:ge:ˀ.

I’m.unwilling that.one I.will.go.there
‘I am unwilling to go there.’

1017
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Related
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

To gęh ǫ ne:ˀ ‘is it that?’, ‘if it is that’

Particle group to (gęh) (ǫ) (ne:ˀ) introduces conditional clauses (713–716), §29.2; clause-
initial or free-standing. Gęh ǫ is also spelled as gęˀǫ, gęǫ or gaǫ:, and ǫ is also spelled as
ˀǫ, ǫh, or ǫ:.
(713) O gá-ǫ:/gę́-ǫ: ne:ˀ ní:yoht?
that Q-I.guess it.is it.is.a.certain.way
‘I wonder if it is like that?’
(714) To gę-ˀǫ ní:yoht?
that Q-I.guess it.is.a.certain.way
‘I wonder if it is like that?’
(715) To ˀǫ ní:yoht?
that I.guess it.is.a.certain.way
‘I wonder if it is like that?’
(716) Ęsgoho:wíˀ [to gęh ne:ˀ hę́:yę:ˀ].
I.will.tell.you that Q it.is she.will.go.there
‘I will tell you if she is going.’

Related
⇒ Gęh ‘Q’ (question marker), p. 858
⇒ Gęh oh, gę-ǫ:, ga-ǫ: ne:ˀ ‘is it that?’, ‘if it is that’, p. 863
⇒ Oh, ǫ:, ǫ ‘I guess’, ‘I wonder (if)’, p. 974
⇒ Oh ne:ˀ ‘maybe’, p. 975
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

To gwa:dih ‘on that side’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); likely clause-initial. Gwa:dih
can also be spelled or pronounced as gwai.

1018
 C.13 T particles

(717) to: gwa:dih

that.one side
‘on that side’

Related
⇒ Gwa:dih, gwai ‘to one side’, p. 873
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

To hę:gyeh shęh ‘really’, ‘very’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(718) To hęgyeh shęh age:ji:yoˀ.

that no.matter that I’m.lame
‘I am really crippled.’

Related
⇒ Hę:-gyęh, hę:gyeh ‘no matter’, p. 898
⇒ Hę:-gyęh shęh ‘no matter how much’, ‘whether or not’, ‘even if’, p. 899
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

To hǫ:weh ‘there’, ‘where’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3); clause-initial. Hǫ:weh can be
spelled or pronounced as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, nhǫ:weh.

(719) To hǫ: hę́:geˀ.

there place I.will.go
‘I will go there.’

(720) To hǫ: hayę́hęˀ.

there place he.puts.it.there
‘He is always putting it there.’

1019
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(721) To hǫ: sré:hah.

there place you.place.it
‘That’s where you put it.’

Related
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

To ne:ˀ, Neˀ to ne:ˀ ‘that’s the one’

Particle group (neˀ) to: … ne:ˀ functions as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); emphatic;
clause-initial.

Related
⇒ Neˀ to: ne:ˀ ‘that’s the one’, p. 927

To niyo:weˀ ‘that far’

Particle and verb toh … niyo:weˀ is used in comparisons (§31.1). Niyó:weˀ also has the
short forms ní:yo:ˀ or nyo:.

(722) To niyo:wéˀ hęˀséˀ waˀhéˀ hęhsyǫˀ.

that a.certain.distance you.will.be.there time you.will.arrive.there
‘You’ll get that far before you arrive.’

(723) Toh tsǫ: ni:yo:wéˀ hęsę́ˀdrǫ:ˀ.

that.one just a.certain.distance you’ll.be.driven.over.there
‘That’s only as far as it will take you.’

(724) To: ni:yó:ˀ neˀ heha:wé:noh.

that a.certain.distance the he.went.over.there
‘That’s as far as he has gone.’

1020
 C.13 T particles

(725) “A:yę́:ˀ, shęh nyó:ˀ haˀhéˀ dedwatahaˀsé:ˀ, to

it.seems that a.certain.distance he.went.there the.crossroad, that
nyo:wéˀ,” aˀa:gę́ˀ neˀ ǫgyaˀsé:ˀ, aˀa:gę́ˀ.
a.certain.distance she.said the we.are.cousins she.said
‘“It seems, as far as he went on the crossroad, that far (we will go),” said
my cousin.’ (Henry 2005)

(726) Tó tsǫ: ni:yǫ: ne:ˀ ahi:ˀ aeswadáhǫdęh.

that just a.certain.distance it.is I.thought you.would.hear
‘And that is about as much as I thought you would like to hear.’ (Mithun
& Henry 1980)

Related
⇒ Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’, p. 856
⇒ Niyo:weˀ, ni:yo:ˀ, nyo:ˀ ‘a certain distance’, ‘a certain time’, p. 958
⇒ Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘as far as’, ‘as much as’, p. 986
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016
⇒ To: niyo:weˀ ne:ˀ ‘when’, p. 1021

To niyo:weˀ ne:ˀ ‘when’

Particles and verb, to: … niyo:(weˀ) ne:ˀ functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-
initial. Niyó:weˀ also has the short forms ní:yo:ˀ or nyo:.

(727) To: ni:yó: ne:ˀ hesheˀs.

that a.certain.amount.of.time it.is you’ll.come.around.again
‘That’s when your birthday is.’

Related
⇒ Gaoˀ shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before’, ‘until’, p. 856
⇒ Niyo:weˀ, ni:yo:ˀ, nyo:ˀ ‘a certain distance’, ‘a certain time’, p. 958
⇒ Shęh niyo:weˀ ‘as far as’, ‘as much as’, p. 986
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016
⇒ Toh niyo:weˀ ‘that far’, p. 1020

1021
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To niyonisheˀ to: ‘a certain amount of time’

Particle plus verb and particle, to … niyonisheˀ to: functions as an “adverb of time” (§8.2,
§29.11); clause-initial.

(728) “Toh tsǫ́: niyonishéˀ to ęshekni ̱ˀnigǫ̱há:k neˀ

that.one just it.takes.time that.one we.will.wait.for.him the
shakníhso:t.”
our.grandfather
“We’ll wait for our grandpa there only as long as that.” (Henry 2005)

Related
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

To shęh ni-, To ni- ‘to that degree’

Particle group ⌊toh … (shęh) ni-stative.verb⌋ is used in comparisons (§31.1); precedes a
stative verb beginning with ⌊ni-⌋ part.

(729) “Toh tsǫ́: niyonishéˀ to ęsheknigǫ̱há:k neˀ

that.one just an.amount.of.time there we.will.wait.for.him the
shakníhso:t.”
our.grandfather
‘We’ll wait for our grandpa there only as long as that.’ (Henry 2005)

(730) Tó shęh niwáˀ néˀ ogya:nǫ́hk akyę́da̱hkwaˀ.

that.one that a.certain.size the it.is.magic chair
‘The magic chair was just the right size for the little boy.’ (Keye 2016,
Circle Book 10, The Magic Chair)

Related
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 980
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

1022
 C.13 T particles

To tsǫ: ‘that’s enough’

Particle group and expression used when asking someone to stop pouring a drink or
providing food.

(731) To tsǫ:!
that just
‘That’s enough!’

Related
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016
⇒ To tsǫ: ‘that’s all’, p. 1023
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

‘To tsǫ:’ ‘that’s all’, ‘that’s it’

Particle group signalling the end of a topic or conversation (§35.4.1); free-standing.

(732) To tsǫ:.
that just
‘That’s all.’, ‘That’s it.’

Related
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016
⇒ To tsǫ: ‘that’s enough’, p. 1023
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

To:-gyęh ‘that one’

Particle group functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); free-standing, or preced-
ing the word it modifies (as in to:-gyę́h hǫgweˀdasé:ˀah ‘that young man’).

(733) Tęˀ tǫ:desa̱ˀdré: tó:-gyęh!

not do.not.drive that.one
‘Don’t drive that one over here!’

1023
C Particle dictionary

(734) Sęnihę́: tó:-gyęh!

quit.it that.one
‘Quit that!’

(735) Ne:ˀ gyę:ˀ neˀ tó:-gyęh.

it.is this.one the that.one
‘That is the one.’

(736) Sǫ: hne:ˀ nˀáht tó:-gyęh?

Who in.fact a.certain.person that.one
‘Who is that?’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah dialogue)

(737) To:-gyęh hǫgweˀdase:ˀáh shǫgwahyadǫ́:nih.

that.one young.man he.writes.for.us
‘That young man does our writing.’

(738) Ne:ˀ seˀ gyę:ˀ gę:s to:-gyę́h hwaˀ nęh sǫheh nęh
it.is you.know this.one usually that time when night when
gadidaksénǫgyeˀs shęh nhǫ: ohádenyǫˀ.
they.run.around that where existing.roads
‘This is how it is, you know, at night when they run around their roads.’
(Mithun & Henry 1980)

Related
⇒ ⌊-gyęh⌋ ‘this’, ‘that’, p. 882
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

To:-hwaˀ, Tǫ:-hwaˀ ‘that time’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); emphatic; clause-initial.

(739) Tǫ:-hwaˀ gí:dǫh.

that.one-that.time I.mean.it
‘I mean it that time.’

1024
 C.13 T particles

Related
⇒ Hwaˀ ‘this time’, ‘next’, p. 907
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

To:hah ‘a place’, ‘a time’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2).

(740) to:-hah
that(one.)-diminutive
‘a place’, ‘a time’

Related
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah ‘somewhere’, ‘someplace’, ‘around’, ‘anywhere’, ‘thereabouts’, p.
846
⇒ Gaˀ-to:hah tohgeh ‘thereabouts’, p. 847
⇒ O:nęh to:hah ‘soon’, ‘almost’, p. 971
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘there’, ‘that place’, p. 1017

Toh-geh ‘there’, ‘then’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3) meaning ‘there’, or as an “adverb
of time” (§8.2) meaning ‘then’; clause-initial.

(741) Ętsá:ˀ, tohgéh hętsá:ˀ gwa̱ˀ tóh nęh

you.will.take.it, there you.will.take.it.there emphasis there when
ęgéhsda̱hsiˀ.
I.have.finished.with.them
‘You can take them back when I have finished with them. (Mithun &
Henry 1984: 368, Degahenáˀtraˀse:ˀ dialogue)

1025
C Particle dictionary

Related
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘there’, ‘that place’, p. 1017
⇒ Toh-geh hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 1026

Toh-geh ‘and then’

Particle signaling the continuation of a previous topic (§35.4.2); clause-initial.

(742) Eyaˀdá:t gonǫhgę́:t, [toh-géh jeyaˀdá:t

this.one.woman she.is.fair-haired that.one-on this.one.woman
gogéˀaji:]
she.has.dark.hair
‘One is fair, and the other has dark hair.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88,
Eksaˀgó:wah dialogue)

(743) Toh-géh, í:ˀ hné:ˀ hęgǫhawihdę́ˀ sadę́na̱ˀtraˀ.

that.one-on I in.fact I.will.carry.for.you your.lunch
‘Then I’ll carry your lunch for you.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 494,
Ękníyętoˀ dialogue)

(744) Toh-géh neˀ agǫ:gwéh, né:ˀ hęˀ hne:ˀ deyagyadęhnǫ́:de:ˀ.

that.one-on the woman, it.is also in.fact she.is.my.sister
‘And the woman, she is my sister.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 257,
Ga̱hwajiyá:deˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016
⇒ Toh-geh ‘there’, p. 1025

Toh-geh hǫ:weh ‘where’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of place” (§8.3), §29.8; clause-initial in direct
questions. Hǫ:weh can be spelled or pronounced as hǫ:, nhǫ:, hǫ:weh, or nhǫ:weh.

1026
 C.13 T particles

(745) Toh-géh gęh hǫ:wéh toh naˀá:weh?

that.one-on Q place there something.happened
‘Where did it happen?’

Related
⇒ Hǫ:weh ‘where’, p. 907
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘there’, ‘that place’, p. 1017
⇒ Toh-geh ‘there’, p. 1025
⇒ Toh-geh ‘and then’, p. 1026

Toh-jih ‘just the one’, ‘just such a one’

Particle functioning as a “demonstrative pronoun” (§6.3); emphatic; free-standing. In-
cludes the ⌊-jih⌋ ints (§10.13).

(746) Né:ˀ a:yę́:ˀ toh-jíh shęh ní:waˀs.

it.is it.seems that.one-intensifier that it.is.a.certain.size
‘It seems to be just the right size.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 225,
Agyaˀdawíˀtraˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ To:, Toh, Tǫ: ‘that one’, p. 1016

Trehs, Ji trehs ‘too much’

Particle group (ji) trehs functions as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(747) …tréhs a:yę́:ˀ ǫknigǫ̱hsá:dǫˀk.

…too.much.so it.seems I.got.lonesome
‘ …I seem to get too lonesome.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 88, Eksaˀgó:wah
dialogue)

1027
C Particle dictionary

(748) Jiˀ gę:s trehs shenó:wę:.

too usually too.much.so you.lie
‘You lie too much.’

Related
⇒ Ji ‘too much’, p. 915
⇒ Ji trehs ‘more (than usual)’, ‘too much so’, p. 915
⇒ Ji trehs ‘because’, ‘overly’, p. 916
⇒ Ji trehs shęh ‘too much so for’, ‘so much so’, p. 917
⇒ Trehs giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘my goodness’, ‘too bad’, ‘that’s amazing’, p. 1028

Trehs giˀ gyę:ˀ ‘my goodness!’, ‘too bad!’, ‘that’s amazing!’

Particle group functioning as an “exclamation” (§35.1), conveying surprise or disappoint-
ment.

(749) O:, tréhs giˀ gyę́:ˀ agayeshaˀ, osdaǫgyǫ́: hné:ˀ ó:nęh.

oh, too.much just this.one it.is.too.bad, it.is.raining in.fact now
‘Oh, that’s too bad, it is raining now.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 212,
Satrǫ́:nih dialogue)

(750) Ó:o:. tréhs-giˀ-gyę́:ˀ do:gę́hs sadraˀswahé:tgęˀ, shęh

oh, it.is.amazing it.is.true your.luck.turned.bad that
ne̱ˀsaya̱ˀda:wę́h wáˀne:ˀ.
something.happened.to.you today
‘Oh. It sure is amazing, how bad your luck turned, with all that happened
to you today.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 386, Ga̱há:gǫ: dialogue)

Related
⇒ Giˀ ‘just’, p. 865
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ Ji trehs ‘more (than usual)’, ‘too much so’, p. 915
⇒ Ji trehs ‘because’, ‘overly’, p. 916

1028
 C.13 T particles

Trǫhgeh tsǫ: ‘barely’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); emphatic; clause-initial.

(751) Trǫhgeh tsǫ: ǫgwahdęgyáˀdǫh.

barely just we.begin
‘We’re just barely able to make it go.’ (speaking of a ceremony, etc.)
(752) Trǫhgeh tsǫ: jǫgwaihóˀdeˀ.
barely just we.work.again
‘We’re barely working.’

Related
⇒ Tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘only’, p. 1030

Tsaˀonisheˀ, shęh naˀonisheˀ ‘while’, ‘when’

Particle and verb beginning with ⌊ni-⌋ part or ⌊tsi-⌋ coin (§29.11); clause-initial in de-
pendent clauses.

(753) Agiˀda̱ˀǫ́h ǫh [shęh naˀonishéˀ hohta:ˀ].

I.slept I.guess that it.is.a.certain.time he.is.speaking
‘I slept while he spoke.’
(754) Hohsę́: [tsaˀonihseˀ hǫgwéˀdase:].
he.was.fat while he.is.a.young.man
‘While he was young, he was fat.’
(755) [Tsigǫgwe̱ˀda:sé:] gę́:s ga̱hyagwa̱hsgę́hę:ˀ.
when.I.was.young usually I.would.pick.berries
‘When I was a young person I usually picked berries.’
(756) Knǫhwéˀs gę:s [tsigǫgwe̱ˀda:séˀ] tiga:gwe:gǫ́h gę́:s
I.love.it usually when.I.was.young all.over usually
agahyagwęhęgyéˀsgę̱ hę:ˀ
I.would.go.along.picking.fruit
‘When I was young, I used to love going all over and picking fruit.’

1029
C Particle dictionary

Related
⇒ Shęh ‘that’, ‘because’, p. 980
⇒ shęh naˀonisheˀ, tsaˀonisheˀ, ⌊tsi-⌋ ‘while’, ‘when’, p. 985

Tsę: ‘oh my!’

Particle functioning as an “exclamation” (§35.1), conveying mild disgust or exasperation;
pronounced as [tsæ:] ([æ] sounds like the A in ‘tack’).

(757) Tsę́: e:ˀ neˀ satró:wi:.

oh.my again the you.are.talking
‘You’re talking about that again!’ (expression of disgust)

(758) “O: tsę:,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “ahsdéh jatgáhnye̱hah!”

oh oh.my she.said outside you.two.go.and.play
‘“Oh my,” she said, “go play outside!”’ (Henry 2005)

‘Tsǫ:’ ‘just’, ‘only’

Particle functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); clause-initial.

(759) Hwíhs agę́ˀ [tsǫ́: na̱ˀgahwi ̱hsdáˀe:k] to nyó:

five it.is.said [only a.certain.number.of.hours] that amount.of.time
haˀgáęˀ.
they.went.there
‘They said it took only five hours to get there.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984:
508, Aǫhdęgyǫ́heˀ dialogue)

(760) Tsǫ: niwahonáˀde:s.

just a.certain.length.of.potato
‘They are just short spuds.’ (speaking of young children)

1030
 C.14 W particles

Related
⇒ Hne:ˀ, Ne:ˀ … (tsǫ: shęh) ‘but’, p. 596
⇒ Aweˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ:, Awęˀ hę:gyeh tsǫ: ‘let it go’, p. 819
⇒ Gaę gwaˀ tsǫ: ‘wherever’, ‘somewhere’, p. 852
⇒ Giˀ tsǫ: ‘just’, ‘really’, p. 869
⇒ Gwahs waˀ-heh tsǫ: ‘just now’, ‘just a few seconds ago’, p. 878
⇒ Hejo:yaˀ tsǫ: ‘another thing again’, p. 892
⇒ Hejo:yaˀ tsǫ: ‘elsewhere’, p. 893
⇒ Hę:-gyęh tsǫ: ‘it doesn’t matter’, ‘never mind’, p. 900
⇒ Ne:ˀ giˀ tsǫ: gwahs ‘that’s really all’, p. 938
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘that’s only’, ‘that’s all’, p. 946
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: ‘because’, ‘it’s just’, p. 946
⇒ Ne:ˀ tsǫ: shęh ‘but’, ‘it’s just that’, p. 947
⇒ Neˀ tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ‘also’, p. 928
⇒ Nę: tsǫ: gwaˀ toh ni- ‘just a little bit’, ‘very little’, p. 952
⇒ Nę: tsǫ: ni- ‘just’, p. 953
⇒ To tsǫ: ‘that’s all’, p. 1023
⇒ To tsǫ: ‘that’s enough’, p. 1023
⇒ Trǫhgeh tsǫ: ‘barely’, p. 1029

C.14 W particles
⌊waˀ-⌋ (referring to the current moment)
Element occurring at the beginning of the following particle combinations and having
to do with time (§8.2); proclitic.

Related
⇒ Gwahs waˀ-heh tsǫ: ‘just now’, ‘just a few seconds ago’, p. 878
⇒ Nę: hwaˀ waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘nowadays’, p. 950
⇒ Waˀ-gyęh ‘presently’, ‘so now’, ‘then’, p. 1032
⇒ Waˀ-gyęh ‘listen’, ‘excuse me’, ‘would you’, p. 1032
⇒ Waˀ-heh ‘just now’, ‘finally’, p. 1033
⇒ Waˀ-heh-geha:ˀ ‘finally’, ‘at long last’, p. 1034
⇒ Waˀ-jih ‘after a while’, ‘eventually’, ‘just a while ago’, p. 1034
⇒ Waˀ-jih ‘wait!’, p. 1035

1031
C Particle dictionary

⇒ Waˀ-jih gyę:ˀ ‘almost’, ‘just about’, p. 1036

⇒ Waˀ-jih hya:ˀ ‘wait a minute’, ‘wait a while’, ‘wait!’, p. 1037
⇒ Waˀ-ji-:hah ‘presently’, ‘a little later’, ‘after a bit’, ‘after a while’, ‘afterwards’,
‘later’, p. 1036
⇒ Waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘today’, ‘now’, p. 1037

Waˀ-gyęh ‘presently’, ‘so now’, ‘then’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(761) Lila:
Waˀgyę́h diˀ seteˀtraníhahsah, nawęˀdáˀ hniˀ ętsę́ni ̱haˀ.
so.now so you.will.go.and.borrow.flour sugar and you.will.borrow
‘So why don’t you go and borrow some flour from her, and borrow some
sugar, too.’
Sam:
Haoˀ dę̱ ˀ nyóh. waˀgyę́h diˀ é:ˀ ne̱ˀ-tóh hesge:.
Ok what acknowledge so.then so again the-there I’ll.go.back.again
‘O.K. then I’ll go back there again.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 441,
Dwęnǫhsanékahǫˀ dialogue)

Related
⇒ ⌊gyęh⌋ ‘this’, ‘that’, p. 882
⇒ ⌊waˀ-⌋ (referring to the current moment), p. 1031
⇒ Waˀ-gyęh ‘listen’, ‘excuse me’, ‘would you’, p. 1032

Waˀ-gyęh ‘listen!’, ‘excuse me’, ‘would you’

Particle group functioning as a “command” (§27.1.5).

(762) Waˀgyęh!
so.now
‘Listen!’, ‘Excuse me!’

1032
 C.14 W particles

(763) Waˀgyęh desaˀdráihęh!

so.now hurry.up
‘Would you hurry up!’

Related
⇒ ⌊gyęh⌋ ‘this’, ‘that’, p. 882
⇒ ⌊waˀ-⌋ (referring to the current moment), p. 1031
⇒ Waˀ-gyęh ‘presently’, ‘so now’, ‘then’, p. 1032

Waˀ-heh ‘just now’, ‘finally’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(764) Waˀhéh giˀ gatahí:neˀ.

just.now just I’m.walking
‘I am just now getting on my way.’

(765) To niyo:wéˀ hęˀséˀ waˀhéh hęhsyǫˀ.

that a.certain.distance you.will.go.there just.now you.will.arrive
‘You’ll get that far before you arrive.’

(766) Waˀhéh ahsyǫˀ.

finally you.arrived
‘You finally arrived.’ (just now)

(767) Waˀhéh tsǫ: ahá:tgęh.

just.now only he.got.up
‘He just now got up.’

Related
⇒ Gwahs waˀ-heh tsǫ: ‘just now’, ‘just a few seconds ago’, p. 878
⇒ ⌊-heh⌋ element (related to time), p. 891
⇒ ⌊waˀ-⌋ (referring to the current moment), p. 1031
⇒ Waˀ-heh-geha:ˀ ‘finally’, ‘at long last’, p. 1034

1033
C Particle dictionary

Waˀ-heh-geha:ˀ ‘finally’, ‘at long last’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(768) waˀ-heh-geha:ˀ
current.moment-element-former
‘finally’, ‘at long last’

(769) Waˀhehgehá:ˀ aha:kǫ́:niˀ.

at.long.last he.cooked
‘At long last he (decided to) cook.’

Related
⇒ Gwahs waˀ-heh tsǫ: ‘only just now’, p. 878
⇒ ⌊-heh⌋ element (related to time), p. 891
⇒ ⌊waˀ-⌋ (referring to the current moment), p. 1031
⇒ Waˀ-heh ‘just now’, ‘finally’, p. 1033

Waˀ-jih ‘after a while’, ‘eventually’, ‘just a while ago’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); includes the ⌊-jih⌋ ints suffix,
(§10.13); free-standing.

(770) “I:sóˀ toh né:ˀ tga:gǫ́:t ęga:yę:dáˀk,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “waˀjíh

a.lot that.one it.is it.is.necessary it.will.be.done she.said after.a.while
ęhswa:tó:wa:t.”
it.will.get.cold
‘There is a lot a lot that needs to be done,” she said, “today it will get cold
again.”’ (Henry 2005)

(771) Ó: i:soˀ gyó:doˀk waˀne:ˀ, shę́h nohgeh neˀ ojǫ́ˀdaˀ, gá:dǫh

oh it.is.much it.is.lessened today that even the fish I.say
gyę:ˀ waˀjih.
emphasis a.while.ago
‘Oh, there is a lot less of everything nowadays even fish, as I was saying
just a while ago.’ (Mithun & Henry 1980)

1034
 C.14 W particles

(772) O:nę́h aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Ja̱ˀsnęht to:gyę́h waˀjíh neˀ sǫ:gwaˀ nóht

now she.said get.down there eventually the someone person
ęyagonǫ́hnyaˀk.”
she.will.get.hurt
‘And then she said, “Both of you get down before somebody gets hurt.”’
(Henry 2005)
(773) Honęnǫ̱hdǫ́ˀ shęh waˀjih tsǫ: o:nęh sǫ:gwaˀ noht ęyagonyóˀ
they.know that after.a.while just now someone person she.will.die
neˀ nę:gyę́h Hnyagwaiˀdatgiˀgó:wah.
the this.one Ugly.Bear
‘They knew Ugly Bear would soon become even more bold. (Carrier et al.
2013)
(774) O:nę́h giˀ aˀa:gę́ˀ, “Waˀjíh tsǫ:,” aˀa:gę́ˀ, “ęgaˀdaihaˀt
now just she.said after.a.while just she.said I.will.heat.up
haˀdé:yǫ:,” aˀa:gę́ˀ.
various.things she.said
‘Now then she said, “In just a little while I’ll heat up various things.”’
(Henry 2005)
(775) Waˀjih tsǫ́: o:nę́h ęgyahdę́:diˀ.
after.a.while just now we.will.leave
‘You and I will leave pretty soon.’ (Mithun & Henry 1984: 142, Satgęh
dialogue)

Related
⇒ ⌊waˀ-⌋ (referring to the current moment), p. 1031
⇒ Waˀ-jih ‘wait!’, p. 1035
⇒ Waˀ-jih gyę:ˀ ‘almost’, ‘just about’, p. 1036
⇒ Waˀ-jih hya:ˀ ‘wait a minute’, ‘wait a while’, ‘wait!’, p. 1037
⇒ Waˀ-ji-:hah ‘presently’, ‘a little later’, ‘after a bit’, ‘after a while’, ‘afterwards’,
‘later’, p. 1036

Waˀ-jih ‘wait!’, ‘hold up!’

Particle group waˀ-jih ‘wait’ is clause-initial in commands (§27.1.5).

1035
C Particle dictionary

(776) Waˀjih, ętsyáˀdęˀ.

wait you.will.fall
‘Wait, you might fall.’

Related
⇒ ⌊waˀ-⌋ (referring to the current moment), p. 1031
⇒ Waˀ-jih ‘after a while’, ‘eventually’, ‘just a while ago’, p. 1034

Waˀ-jih gyę:ˀ ‘almost’, ‘just about’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of degree” (§8.5); emphatic; likely clause-initial.

Related
⇒ Gyę:ˀ ‘just the one’, p. 881
⇒ ⌊waˀ-⌋ (referring to the current moment), p. 1031
⇒ Waˀ-jih ‘after a while’, ‘eventually’, ‘just a while ago’, p. 1034
⇒ Waˀ-ji-:hah ‘presently’, ‘a little later’, ‘after a bit’, ‘after a while’, ‘afterwards’,
‘later’, p. 1036
⇒ Waˀ-jih hya:ˀ ‘wait a minute’, ‘wait a while’, ‘wait!’, p. 1037

Waˀ-ji-:hah ‘presently’, ‘a little later’, ‘after a bit’, ‘after a while’,

‘afterwards’, ‘later’
Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); clause-initial.

(777) Waˀji:hah to hęgyǫˀ.

presently there I.will.arrive.there
‘I will arrive there after a while.’

1036
 C.14 W particles

Related
⇒ ⌊waˀ-⌋ (referring to the current moment), p. 1031
⇒ Waˀ-jih ‘after a while’, ‘eventually’, ‘just a while ago’, p. 1034
⇒ Waˀ-jih gyę:ˀ ‘almost’, ‘just about’, p. 1036
⇒ Waˀ-jih hya:ˀ ‘wait a minute’, ‘wait a while’, ‘wait!’, p. 1037

Waˀ-jih hya:ˀ ‘wait a minute’, ‘wait a while’, ‘wait!’

Particle group, likely clause-initial before commands (§27.1.5).

(778) Waˀ-jih hya:ˀ.

in.a.while before.anything.else
‘Wait a minute.’, ‘Wait a while.’, ‘Wait!’

Related
⇒ Hya:ˀ ‘first’, ‘before anything else’, p. 910
⇒ Waˀ-jih ‘after a while’, ‘eventually’, ‘just a while ago’, p. 1034
⇒ Waˀ-jih ‘wait!’, p. 1035

Waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘today’, ‘now’

Particle group functioning as an “adverb of time” (§8.2); free-standing.

(779) Ędwahyagwáhaˀ, ędwahnyo̱ˀgwano̱hgwa:sáˀ hniˀ waˀne:ˀ!

we.will.gather.berries, we.will.gather.nuts and today
‘We are gathering nuts and berries today!’ (Carrier et al. 2013)

Related
⇒ Ne:ˀ ‘it is’, p. 928
⇒ Nę: hwaˀ waˀ-ne:ˀ ‘nowadays’, p. 950
⇒ ⌊waˀ-⌋ (referring to the current moment), p. 1031

1037
C Particle dictionary

C.15 Y particles
Yę:gwaˀ ‘if’
Alternative way to pronounce gyę:gwaˀ ‘if’.

Related
⇒ Gyę:gwaˀ ‘if’, p. 885

1038
Appendix D: Thematic dictionary
D.1 Kinship terms
Pronominal prefix choice for kinship terms is described in §23.

adopted child ⌊de-p-hsnyeˀ-ǫh⌋ du- 1s.a-mother/aunt-dim. This word only

p-care.for-stat. Verb functioning as a takes ⌊k-⌋ 1s.a, which means ‘my ma-
kinship term. ternal relative’.
deyago̱hsnyéˀǫh ‘her adopted daugh- kno:há:ˀah ‘my aunt’ (maternal), ‘Aun-
ter’ tie’
aunt (maternal) ⌊int-nohá:- aunt (to have an aunt) ⌊p-haˀk⌋ p-
ˀah-(shǫ:ˀǫh)⌋ int-aunt-dim-(plrz). aunt. Archaic word, possibly related to
Different-generation kinship term. verb ga̱haˀk ‘it did sit on something’.
This word used to refer only to one’s Verb functioning as a kinship term.
mother’s sister. Now, it can also refer
agé:haˀk ‘my aunt’
to one’s father’s sister.
boyfriend – see ‘friend’
ǫkino̱há:ˀah ‘our aunt’
gakeno̱haˀahsǫ́:ˀǫh ‘my aunts’ ǫgyá:tsih ‘my friend, my boyfriend, my
girl friend’
aunt (maternal) ⌊int-nohá:-ˀah⌋
int-aunt/mother-dim. goksaˀgowáhsraˀ ‘her boyfriend’
etino̱há:ˀah ‘our aunt (two of us)’ brother – see sibling
Different-generation kinship term, deyagyadęhnǫ́:de:ˀ ‘my brother, my sis-
with reversed roles (meaning that ter’
the stem is inflected just like a same- hehjíˀah ‘my older brother’
generation kinship term)
heˀgę́:ˀęh ‘my younger brother’
aunt (to have a maternal aunt)
⌊p-no:ha:-ˀah⌋ p-aunt/mother-dim. brother-in-law – see ‘in-law’
Different-generation kinship term. ǫgyá:gyoh ‘my brother-in-law, sister-
gono:há:ˀah ‘her aunt’ in-law’
hono:há:ˀah ‘his aunt’ (on the maternal child ⌊int-hawahk-(shǫˀ)⌋ int-child-
side) (plrz). Different-generation kinship
sano:há:ˀah ‘your aunt’ term.
aunt (maternal aunt), also a hehá:wahk ‘my son’
term of address ⌊k-no:ha:-ˀah⌋ kehá:wahk ‘my daughter’
D Thematic dictionary

cousin (term of address) ⌊int- father-in-law – see ‘in-law’

aˀse:ˀ⌋ int-doubled.stat. Same- hakné:nhǫ:s ‘my father-in-law’
generation kinship term.
friend (term of address) ⌊int-
gya̱ ˀse:ˀ ‘cousin!’ (when directly ad- atsih⌋ int-paired.stat. Same-
dressing a cousin) generation kinship term.
gwa̱ ˀse:ˀ ‘cousins’ (when directly ad- gyá:tsih ‘Friend’ (term of address)
dressing one’s cousins) friend (ceremonial friend) ⌊p-
cousin ⌊p-aˀse:ˀ⌋ p-doubled.stat. Verb ad-aoˀ-(shǫˀ)⌋ p-srf-run.stat-(plrz).
functioning as a kinship term. Verb functioning as a kinship term.
honáˀse:ˀ ‘his cousin’ honadáoˀsǫˀ ‘they are friends’
ǫgyáˀse:ˀ ‘my cousin’ hona:dáoˀ ‘his ceremonial friend’
ǫgwaˀsé:ˀsǫˀ ‘our cousins’ ǫgwadáoˀsǫˀ ‘we all are buddies,
friends’
cousin (to have a cousin) ⌊p-
aˀse:ˀ-shęˀ⌋ p-doubled.stat-declare.- ǫgwá:daoˀ ‘we all are friends’
kinship. Verb functioning as a kinship ǫgyá:daoˀ ‘my ceremonial friend’,
term. ‘Friend’ (term of address)
ǫgyaˀsé:ˀshęˀ ‘our cousins’ friend (have, become a ceremo-
nial friend) ⌊p-ad-aoˀ-tsę:ˀ⌋ p-srf-
daughter – see ‘child’
run.stat-declare.kinship. Verb func-
kehá:wahk ‘my daughter’ tioning as a kinship term.
daughter-in-law – see ‘in-law’ agaǫdáoˀtsę:ˀ ‘they (fe/males) became
kehsé:yǫh ‘daughter-in-law’ ceremonial friends’
family ⌊p-hwajiy-aˀ⌋ p-family-nsf. friend ⌊p-atsih⌋ p-paired.stat. Verb
Noun functioning as a kinship term. functioning as a kinship term.
akwa:jí:yaˀ ‘my family’ goná:tsih ‘they (animals) are friends’
honá:tsih ‘his friend’, ‘they (males) are
father ⌊int-ˀnih⌋ int-father.
friends’
Different-generation kinship term.
ǫgyá:tsih ‘my friend’, ‘my boyfriend’,
hǫwáˀnih ‘his/her father’
‘my girl friend’
hya̱ ˀnih ‘your father’ ǫgwátsi ̱hsǫˀ ‘all of our friends’
father (have a father) ⌊p-ˀnih- friend, boyfriend, girl-
shęˀ⌋ p-father-declare.kinship. Verb friend ⌊int-ksaˀgowahsr-aˀ⌋ int-
functioning as a kinship term. beautiful.one-nsf. Same-generation
hoˀníshęˀ ‘he has a father’ kinship term.
father (also a term of address) heksaˀgowáhsraˀ ‘my boyfriend’
⌊ha -ˀnih⌋ 3s.m.a-father. This word keksaˀgowáhsraˀ ‘my girlfriend’
only takes ⌊ha-⌋ 3s.m.a, which means friend, boyfriend, girlfriend ⌊p-
‘my paternal relative’. ksaˀgowahsr-aˀ⌋ p-beautiful.one-nsf.
haˀnih ‘my father’, ‘Dad’ Noun functioning as a kinship term.

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 D.1 Kinship terms

hoksaˀgohwáhsraˀ ‘his girlfriend’ Verb functioning as a kinship term.

ageksaˀgówa̱ hsraˀ ‘my boyfriend’, ‘my hohso:t ‘his Grandma’
girlfriend’ sa̱ hso:t ‘your Grandmother’
goksaˀgowáhsraˀ ‘her boyfriend’ grandmother (also a term of ad-
girlfriend – see ‘friend’ dress; also a term of respect
ǫgyá:tsih ‘my friend’, ‘my boyfriend’, for an old woman) ⌊k-hsot⌋ 1s.a-
‘my girlfriend’ grand.parent. This word only takes
godfather (also a term of ad- ⌊k-⌋ 1s.a, which means ‘my maternal
dress). Also see ‘stepfather’ ⌊ha- relative’.
ˀni:hah⌋ 3s.m.a-step-father. This word kso:t ‘my grandmother’, ‘Grandma’
only takes ⌊ha-⌋ 3s.m.a, which means grandparent ⌊int-hsot⌋ int-
‘my paternal relative’. grandparent. Different-generation kin-
haˀní:hah ‘my godfather’ ship term.
grandchild ⌊int-adreˀ-(shǫˀ)⌋ int- hehso:t ‘my grandfather’
grandchild-(plrz). Different-gener- ǫgéhso:t ‘my grandmother’
ation kinship term.
etíhso:t ‘our grandmother’
gakéyadreˀ ‘my grandchildren (said
hagéhso:t, hakso:t ‘my grandfather’
when reckoning a bloodline)’
hǫwáhso:t ‘his/her grandfather’
heyá:dreˀ ‘my grandson’
hagá:dreˀ ‘his grandson, me’, ‘I am his grandparent (to have a grand-
grandson’ parent) ⌊p-hsot-shęˀ⌋ p-grandparent-
declare.kinship. Verb functioning as
keyá:dreˀ ‘my granddaughter’ a kinship term.
hǫwá:dreˀ ‘his/her grandson’ hohsó:tsęˀ ‘he has a grandparent’
sheyá:dreˀ ‘your granddaughter’
grandson – see ‘grandchild’
ǫdádadreˀ ‘her granddaughter’
heyá:dreˀ ‘my grandson’
shagó:dreˀ ‘his granddaughter’
husband – see ‘spouse’
gaǫdadreˀsǫ́:ˀah ‘her grandchildren’
hegę́hjih ‘my husband’
shagódre̱ˀsǫˀ ‘his grandchildren’
in-law, sibling-in-law ⌊p-agyoh⌋ p-
gakeyadréˀsǫˀ ‘my grandchildren’ sibling.in.law. Verb functioning as a
gasheyadréˀsǫˀ ‘your grandchildren’ kinship term.
hehsá:dreˀ ‘your grandson’ goná:gyoh ‘their (fe/males) or her in-
gwadre:ˀ ‘you are my grandchild’ laws’
(term of address) honá:gyoh ‘their (males) in-laws’
grandmother – see ‘grandpar- ǫgyá:gyoh ‘my brother-in-law’, ‘my
ent’ sister-in-law’
ǫgéhso:t ‘my grandmother’ in-law (a female’s mother/daughter-
grandmother (to have a grand- in-law) ⌊int-hseyǫh⌋ int-female.sex-
mother) ⌊p-hsot⌋ p-grandparent. in.law. Different-generation kinship

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term. a kinship term.

ǫgehsé:yǫh ‘my mother-in-law’ (a honó:haˀ ‘his mother’
woman speaking) sanó:haˀ ‘your mother’
kehsé:yǫh ‘my daughter-in-law’ (a mother (to have a mother) ⌊p-
woman speaking) no:haˀ-tsęˀ⌋ p-mother-declare.kinship.
in-law (a female’s mother/daughter- Verb functioning as a kinship term.
in-law) ⌊int-hseyǫh⌋ int-female.sex- honó:haˀtsęˀ ‘he has a mother’
in.law. Same-generation kinship term.
mother (also a term of address)
ǫdade̱hsé:yǫh ‘her mother-in-law’
⌊k-nó:haˀ⌋ 1s.a-mother. This word only
shehsé:yǫh ‘your mother-in-law, your takes ⌊k-⌋ 1s.a, which means ‘my ma-
daughter-in-law’ (when speaking to a ternal relative’.
woman)
knó:haˀ ‘my mother’, ‘Mom’
in-law (someone’s father/son-in-
mother-in-law – see in-law
law, a male’s mother-in-law)
⌊int-nenhǫs⌋ int-in.law. Different- ǫkné:nhǫ:s ‘my (a male’s) mother-in-
generation kinship term. law’
hené:nhǫ:s ‘my son-in-law’ neighbour ⌊de-a-nǫhsa-kahǫh⌋ du-a-
hakné:nhǫ:s ‘my father-in-law’ house-adjoin.stat. Verb functioning
as a kinship term.
hyané:nhǫ:s ‘your father-in-law’
deswęnǫ̱hsákahǫˀ ‘your neighbour’
ǫkné:nhǫ:s ‘my mother-in-law’ (a man
speaking) swęnǫhsakáhǫˀ ‘your neighbours’
in-law (someone’s father/son-in- deyagwanǫhsakáhǫh ‘my neighbours’
law, a male’s mother-in-law) neighbour ⌊de-a-nǫhsa-ne:gę:⌋ du-a-
⌊int-nenhǫs⌋ int-different.sex.in.law. house-side.by.side.stat. Verb function-
Same-generation kinship term. ing as a kinship term.
hǫwánenhǫ:s ‘his/her father-in-law, deyagyanǫhsané:gę: ‘my neighbour’
son-in-law’ nephew, niece ⌊int-ǫhwadęˀ-(shǫˀ)⌋
shagónenhǫ:s ‘his mother-in-law’ int-nephew/niece-(plrz). Different-
shené:nhǫ:s ‘your mother-in-law’ generation kinship term.
(when speaking to a man) heyǫ́hwa:dęˀ ‘my nephew’
kin – see ‘relatives’ gakeyǫ̱hwá:dęˀ ‘my brother’s children’,
ǫdę́nǫ̱hksǫˀ ‘relatives, kin,’ etc. ‘my nieces and nephews’
mother ⌊int-no:haˀ⌋ int-mother. keyǫhwá:dęˀ ‘my niece’
Different-generation kinship term. gasheyǫ̱hwádę̱ˀsǫˀ ‘your nieces and
etíno̱haˀ ‘our mother’, ‘women’ nephews’
ǫdátno̱haˀ ‘her mother’ nephew, niece ⌊int-yaˀdawęh⌋ int-
ǫkíno̱haˀ ‘our mother’ support.someone.stat. Different-
mother (to have a mother) ⌊p- generation kinship term.
no:haˀ⌋ p-mother. Verb functioning as gakeya̱ ˀdá:węh ‘my brother’s

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 D.1 Kinship terms

children’ agǫ́gwe̱ˀdaˀ ‘my relatives’

heyáˀdawęh ‘my nephew’ sibling (near in age) ⌊de-a-adę-
keyáˀdawęh ‘my brother’s kids’ hnǫde:ˀ⌋ du-a-srf-follow.stat, ⌊de-
a-adę-hnǫd-rǫˀ⌋ du-a-srf-follow-
niece – see ‘nephew, niece’
distr.stat. Verb functioning as a kin-
keyǫhwá:dęˀ ‘my niece’ ship term.
niece (maternal) ⌊int-hawa:k-ˀah⌋ degadę̱hnǫ́:de:ˀ ‘my sibling’
int-child-dim. The child of one’s degaǫdęhnǫ́:de:ˀ ‘his/her sister’,
mother’s brother or mother’s sister. ‘his/her brother’
Different-generation kinship term.
de̱hęnadęhnǫ́:de:ˀ ‘his brother’
ǫdatawá:kˀah ‘her maternal niece’
de̱hęnadęhnǫ́:drǫˀ ‘his brothers’
kehawá:kˀah ‘my maternal niece’
deyagyadęhnǫ́:de:ˀ ‘my brother, my sis-
relative (to be mutually re- ter’ (my nearest sibling)
lated) ⌊a-adę-nǫhk-(shǫˀ)⌋ a-srf-
sibling (younger) ⌊int-ˀgę:ˀęh⌋ int-
mutually.related-(plrz). Verb function-
younger.sibling. Different-generation
ing as a kinship term.
kinship term.
agwadęnǫ́hksǫˀ ‘we are relatives’
heˀgę́:ˀęh ‘my younger brother’
agya:dę́:nǫhk ‘my relative’
hesheˀgę́:ˀęh ‘your younger brother’
ǫdę́nǫ̱hksǫˀ ‘relatives, kin, etc’
kheˀgę́:ˀęh ‘my younger sister’
ǫgwadęnǫ́hksǫˀ ‘our relatives’
ǫdade̱ˀgę́:ˀęh ‘her younger sister’
sadę́:nohk ‘any relative (of yours)’
shagoˀgę́:ˀęh ‘his younger sister’
ja:dę́:nǫhk ‘your relative’
hǫwaˀgę́:ˀęh ‘his / her younger brother’
gęna:dę́:nǫhk ‘they (animals) are re-
sheˀgę́:ˀęh ‘your younger sister’
lated’
etiˀgę́:ˀah ‘our younger sister’
relative (to have relatives on
one’s father’s side) ⌊p-adę-ni- shǫgwaˀgę́:ˀah ‘our younger brother’
ho:nǫˀ⌋ p-srf-father-pop. Verb func- sibling (older) ⌊a-ad-riyah-shǫˀ⌋ a-
tioning as a kinship term. srf-older.sibling-plrz. Verb function-
sadęni ̱hó:nǫˀ ‘your relatives on your ing as a kinship term.
(sg) father’s side’ gaǫdriyáhsǫˀ ‘my older siblings’
relative (close relative) ⌊int- sibling (older) ⌊t-a-gowanę-ˀs⌋ cis-
nǫhk-shǫˀ⌋ int-love-plrz. Same- a-big.stat-pl. Verb functioning as a
generation kinship term. kinship term.
kenǫ́hksǫˀ ‘my relatives’ tgaegówanęˀs ‘my older siblings’
shenǫ́hksǫˀ ‘your relatives’ (high lan- sibling (older) ⌊int-hji-ˀah⌋ int-
guage, describing our relationship to older.sibling-dim. Verb functioning as
all people) a kinship term.
relative ⌊p-ǫgweˀd-aˀ⌋ p-people-nsf. hehshéhjiˀah ‘your older brother’
Noun functioning as a kinship term. kehjíˀah ‘my older sister’

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D Thematic dictionary

hehjíˀah ‘my older brother’ Verb functioning as a kinship term.

hǫwáhji ̱ˀah ‘his older brother’ degaeihwawáˀkǫˀ ‘her husband’, ‘his
gakehjiˀáhsǫˀ ‘my older brothers, sis- wife’
ters’ desni:hwáwaˀkǫˀ ‘your wife’, ‘your
shedwáhjiˀah ‘our older brother’ husband’
sibling (to have an older sibling) deyakni:hwawáˀkǫ:ˀ ‘my wife’, ‘my
⌊p-hjiˀah⌋ p-older.sibling. Verb func- husband’
tioning as a kinship term. spouse, husband, wife Atypical
hohjíˀah ‘his older sister’. word.
sibling-in-law – see ‘in-law’ ho:ˀ ‘his or her spouse’
ǫgyá:gyoh ‘my brother-in-law, sister- step-daughter – see ‘step-
in-law relative’
sister – see ‘sibling’ ǫdá:tno:ˀ ‘her step-daughter’
kehjíˀah ‘my older sister’ step-father – see step-relative
sister (also a term of address) ⌊k- hakno:ˀ ‘my step-father’
hehjiˀ⌋ 1s.a-older.sibling step-father, god-father ⌊int-ˀni:-
kehjiˀ ‘my older sister’ (term of address hah⌋ int-father-dim
for one’s relative) hǫwaˀní:hah ‘her godfather’, ‘her step-
sister-in-law – see ‘in-law’ father’
ǫgyá:gyoh ‘my brother-in-law’, ‘my step-father, god-father (also
sister-in-law’ a term of address) ⌊ha-ˀni:-hah⌋
3s.m.a-father-dim. This word only
son – see ‘child’
takes ⌊ha-⌋ 3s.m.a, which means ‘my
hehá:wahk ‘my son’ paternal relative’.
son-in-law – see ‘in-law’ haˀní:hah ‘my godfather’
hené:nhǫ:s ‘my son-in-law’ step-mother ⌊int-naˀehs⌋ int-
spouse, husband, wife (informal) step.mother. Different-generation kin-
⌊int-gęhjih⌋ int-old.person.stat. ship term.
Same-generation kinship term. ǫknáˀehs ‘my step-mother’
hegę́hjih ‘my husband’, ‘my old man’ step-mother (to have a step-
kegę́hjih ‘my wife’, ‘my old lady’ mother) ⌊p-naˀehs⌋ p-step.mother.
hehségę̱hjih ‘your husband’, ‘your old Verb functioning as a kinship term.
man’ aknáˀehs ‘I have a step-mother’
shegę́hjih ‘your wife’, ‘your old lady’ sanáˀehs ‘your step-mother’
hǫwágę̱hjih ‘her husband’, ‘her old step-mother (to have a step-
man’ mother) ⌊p-no:ˀ⌋ p-step.parent/child.
shagógę̱hjih ‘his wife’, ‘his old lady’ Verb functioning as a kinship term.
spouse, husband, wife ⌊de-a- sano:ˀ ‘your step-mother’
(r)ihwawaˀkǫˀ⌋ du-a-support.stat hono:ˀ ‘his step-mother’

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 D.2 Terms of address

step-relative ⌊int-no:ˀ⌋ int- hǫwáno̱ˀsęh ‘his/her uncle’

step.parent/child. Different-generation hyanóˀsęh ‘your uncle’
kinship term.
shǫkníno̱ˀsęh ‘our uncle’
ǫkno:ˀ ‘my step-mother’
uncle (maternal uncle) ⌊int-
hǫwá:no:ˀ ‘her step-son’
noˀsęh⌋ int-maternal.uncle. Different-
ǫdá:tno:ˀ ‘her step-daughter’ generation kinship term, with re-
hakno:ˀ ‘my step-father’ versed roles (meaning that the stem
hehsno:ˀ ‘your step-son’ is inflected just like a same-generation
shé:no:ˀ ‘your step-daughter’ kinship term).
step-son – see ‘step-relative’ Etino̱ˀsę́h Ęhęnatnoˀáowanaht ‘Our
Uncles ceremony’ ⌊eti-no̱ˀsę́h⌋
hǫwá:no:ˀ ‘her step-son’
1ns.in>3s.fi/3ns-uncle Ęhęnat-
uncle (maternal uncle) ⌊int- noˀáowanaht ‘they become Bigheads’
noˀsęh⌋ int-maternal.uncle. This
word used to refer only to one’s uncle (also a term of address)
mother’s brother. Now, it can also re- ⌊k-noˀsęh⌋ 1s.a-maternal.uncle. This
fer to one’s father’s brother. Different- word only takes ⌊k-⌋ 1s.a, which means
generation kinship term. ‘my maternal relative’.
gakéno̱ˀsęh ‘my uncles’ knóˀsęh ‘my uncle’
gakeno̱ˀsęhsǫ́:ˀǫh ‘my uncles’ wife – see ‘spouse’
haknóˀsęh ‘he is my uncle’ kegę́hjih ‘my wife’

D.2 Terms of address

Doda ‘Grandparent!’ Hehso:t ‘Grandpa!’

Doda Grace ‘Great Aunt Grace!’ (term Kehjiˀ ‘Older sister!’
of address for maternal great aunt) Kso:t ‘Grandmother!’ (term of address;
Dodama: ‘Grandma!’ (term of address also a term of respect for an old per-
for grandmother on one’s mother’s son)
side) Kno:há:ˀah ‘maternal aunt’, ‘Auntie!’
Gwadre:ˀ ‘Grandchild!’ (term of address Knó:haˀ ‘Mom!’
said by any old person to a young Knoˀsęh ‘Uncle!’
child)
Kso:t ‘Grandma!’
Gwaˀse: ‘Cousins!’ (term of address
Sgę:nǫ́: Degyadęhnǫ́:de:ˀ ‘Hello brother
used when directly speaking to one’s
/ sister!’ (Said by a brother, sister,
cousins)
if they haven’t seen each other in a
Gyá:tsi: ‘Friend!’ while.)
Gyaˀse: ‘Cousin!’ (term of address used Yahso:t ‘Grandparent!’, ‘Grandchild!’
when directly speaking to a cousin) (term of address; also a term of
Hehjiˀ ‘Older brother!’ endearment).

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D Thematic dictionary

D.3 Words for human beings

owi:yá:ˀah ‘baby’ ⌊o-wi:yá:-ˀah⌋ 3s.p- hǫgwéˀdase: ‘young man’ ⌊h-ǫgwéˀd-

offspring-dim ase:⌋ 3s.m.a-person-new.stat
owi:ya:ˀáh haksá:ˀah ‘baby boy’ ⌊ha- agǫgwe̱ˀdá:se: ‘young woman’ ⌊ag-
ksá-:ˀah⌋ 3s.m.a-child-dim ǫgwe̱ˀd-á:se:⌋ 3s.fi.a-person-new.stat
owi:ya:ˀáh eksá:ˀah ‘baby girl’ ⌊e-ksá:- agǫ́:gweh ‘girl’, ‘woman’ ⌊ag-ǫ́:gweh⌋
ˀah⌋ 3s.fi.a-child-dim 3s.fi.a-person
nihú:ˀuh ‘little boy’ ⌊ni-h-ú:ˀuh⌋ part-
hǫ́:gweh ‘man’ ⌊h-ǫ́:gweh⌋ 3s.fi.a-
3s.m.a-small.stat
person
niya:gú:ˀuh ‘little girl’ ⌊ni-ya:g-ú:ˀuh⌋
part-3s.fi.a-small.stat nitawenǫ́:hah ‘middle-aged male’
⌊ni-t-haw-enǫ́:-hah⌋ part-cis-3s.m.a-
eksá:ˀah ‘girl child’ ⌊e-ksá-:ˀah⌋ 3s.fi.a- originate.from-dim
child-dim
nigyagawe:nǫ́:hah ‘middle-aged fe-
haksá:ˀah ‘boy child’ ⌊ha-ksá-:ˀah⌋
male’ ⌊ni-g-yagaw-e:nǫ́:-hah⌋ part-
3s.m.a-child-dim
cis-3s.fi.a-originate.from-dim
hadiksa̱ˀsǫ́:ˀǫh ‘male children’ ⌊hadi-
ksa̱ˀ-shǫ́:ˀǫh⌋ 3ns.m.a-child-plrz hagę́hjih ‘old man’, ‘husband’ ⌊ha-
gę́hjih⌋ 3s.m.a-old.stat
haksaˀdasé:ˀah ‘teenage boy’ ⌊ha-ksaˀd-
asé:-ˀah⌋ 3s.m.a-child.increment- egę́hjih ‘old woman’, ‘wife’ ⌊egę́hjih⌋
new.stat-dim 3s.fi.a-old.stat
eksaˀdasé:ˀah ‘teenage girl’ ⌊e-ksaˀd- gaegę̱hjihsǫ́:ˀǫh ‘elderly people’ ⌊gae-
asé:-ˀah⌋ 3s.fi.a-child.increment- gę̱ hjih-shǫ́:ˀǫh⌋ 3ns.fi.a-old.stat-
new.stat-dim plrz

D.4 Clans
Introductions

(1) Dę́ˀ ni:s hoˀdę́ˀ nisaˀsyáoˀdę:?

what you kind your.kind.of.clan
‘What is your clan?’
cf. ni-sa-ˀsya-oˀdę: part-2s.p-clan-type.of.stat

(2) Dę́ˀ ni:s hoˀdę́ˀ niswaˀsyáoˀdę:?

what you kind your.kind.of.clan
‘What is your clan?’ (The speaker knows you are all of the same family.)
cf. ni-swa-ˀsya-oˀdę: part-2p.p-clan-type.of.stat

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 D.4 Clans

(3) Dę́ˀ ni:s hoˀdę́ˀ niswaˀsyáoˀdę:ˀs?

what you kind your.kinds.of.clan
‘What is your clan?’ (The speaker knows that you are from different
families.)
cf. ni-swa-ˀsya-oˀdę:-ˀs part-2p.p-clan-type.of.stat-pl

(4) … niwage̱ˀsyáoˀdę:, nǫgeˀsyáoˀdę:.

my.kind.of.clan
‘I am … clan.’
cf. ni-wag-e-ˀsyá-oˀdę: part-1s.p-joinerE-clan-type.of.stat
cf. nǫg-e-ˀsyá-oˀdę: part.1s.p-joinerE-clan-type.of.stat

Bear Clan ⌊a-hnyagwai⌋ ⌊ga̱-ˀsyá:- Eel Clan

deˀ⌋ 3s.a-clan-exist.stat gǫ́:deh ‘eel’
hahnyagwái ‘he is Bear Clan’
gǫ:déh nǫgeˀsyáoˀdę: ‘I am Eel clan’
ehnyagwái ‘she is Bear Clan’
Hawk Clan ⌊p-hswęˀgaiyoˀ⌋ 3s.p-
gaehnyagwái ‘they (fe/males) are Bear
hawk
Clan’
oswęˀgáiyoˀ, swęˀgaiyoˀ ‘hawk’
ge̱hnyagwái ‘I am Bear Clan’
hadihnyagwái ga̱ˀsyá:deˀ ‘they (males) hodihswę̱ˀgáiyoˀ ‘they are Hawk clan’
are Bear Clan’ agehswę̱ˀgáiyoˀ ‘I am Hawk clan’
Beaver Clan hodihswę̱ˀgáiyoˀ ‘they (fe/males) are
naganyáˀgǫˀ ‘beaver’ Hawk clan’
naganyaˀgǫˀ nǫgeˀsyáoˀdę: ‘I am Heron Clan
Beaver clan’
degaǫhyága̱ hne:ˀ ‘Great Blue Heron
Clan clan’
oˀsya:dé:nyǫˀ ‘clans’ ⌊o-ˀsya:-dé:-nyǫˀ⌋
Moiety
3s.p-clan-exist-distr.stat
ǫgwatnǫ̱hsóhdahgwęh ‘our moiety,
ga̱ ˀsyá:deˀ ‘clan’ ⌊ga̱-ˀsyá:-deˀ⌋ 3s.a-
side’, ‘grouped clans, sides’ ⌊ǫgwa-
clan-exist.stat
t-nǫ̱hs-ódahgw-ęh⌋ 1p.p-srf-house-
Clan mother detach-stat
honaˀgá:ˀ eha:ˀ ‘clan mother’ ⌊ho- ǫgwatnǫhsóˀkda̱ ˀǫh ‘our clan, side’,
naˀgá:-ˀ⌋ 3s.m.p-horn-nsf ⌊e-ha:-ˀ⌋ ‘our end of the Longhouse’ ⌊ǫgwa-t-
3s.fi.a-hold-stat nǫhs-óˀkda̱ˀ-ǫh⌋ 1p.p-srf-house-end-
Deer Clan stat
dewáhǫhdé:s ‘deer’ ǫgyáˀsehshęˀ ‘the opposite side’
dewahǫhdé:s nǫgeˀsyáoˀdę: ‘I am Deer ⌊ǫgy-áˀseh-shęˀ⌋ 1d.p-cousin-
clan’ declare.kinship

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D Thematic dictionary

Sandpiper clan genyáhdę: ‘I am of the Turtle clan’ ⌊g-e-

oˀnehsí:yoˀ ‘sandpiper’ ⌊o-ˀnehs-í:yoˀ⌋ nyáhdę:⌋
3s.p-sand-good.stat 1s.a-joinerE-turtle
oˀnehsi:yóˀ niwage̱ˀsyáoˀdę: ‘I am Sand- agwánya̱ hdę: ‘we all are of the Turtle
piper clan’ clan’ ⌊agwá-nya̱hdę:⌋ 1p.in.a-turtle
Wolf clan ⌊p-at-ahy-ǫ:ni:⌋ 3s.p-srf-
Snipe clan
fruit-make.stat
duwíhsduwi: ‘snipe’
otahyǫ́:ni:, tahyǫ́:ni: ‘wolf’ ⌊(o)-t-ahy-
duwisduwí: niwage̱ˀsyáoˀdę: ‘I am ǫ́:ni:⌋ (3s.p)-srf-fruit-make.stat
Snipe clan’
hotahyǫ́:ni: ‘he is Wolf clan’ ⌊ho-t-ahy-
Turtle clan ⌊a-nyahdę:⌋ ǫ́:ni:⌋ 3s.m.p-srf-fruit-make.stat
ganyáhdę: ‘turtle’ ⌊ga-nyáhdę:⌋ 3s.p- agata̱ hyǫ́:niˀ ‘I am Wolf clan’ ⌊ag-at-
turtle ahy-ǫ́:ni:⌋ 1s.p-srf-fruit-make.stat

D.5 Nations
Introductions

(5) Sǫgwehǫ́:weh gęh?

you.are.a.real.person Q
‘Are you Indian?’
cf. s-ǫgweh-ǫ́:weh 2s.a-person-typ

(6) Ǫgwehǫ́:weh gęh?

a.real.person Q
‘Are you Indian?’
cf. ǫgweh-ǫ́:weh person-typ

(7) Gǫgwehǫ́:weh ni:ˀ.

I.am.a.real.person I
‘I am Indian.’
cf. g-ǫgweh-ǫ́:weh 1s.a-person-typ

(8) Ǫgwehǫ́:weh ni:ˀ.

a.real.person I
‘I am Indian.’

(9) Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ ni:ˀ.

Cayuga I
‘I am Cayuga.’

1048
 D.5 Nations

(10) Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ gęh ni:s?

Cayuga Q you
‘Are you Cayuga?’

(11) Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ niwago̱hętsoˀdę:.

Cayuga my.kind.of.nation
‘I am of the Cayuga nation.’
cf. ni-wag-o̱hęts-oˀdę: part-1s.p-nation-kind.of.stat

Aboriginal Caughnawaugans
Ga̱hnawa̱ˀgehó:nǫˀ ⌊ga̱-hnaw-a̱-ˀgeh-
Ǫgwehǫ́:weh ‘First Nations’, ‘Indian
hó:nǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-rapids-joinerA-on-pop
people’, ‘Aboriginal’, ‘Native’
Cayuga people
Oyaji̱hó:nǫˀ ‘other Indian people’, Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ ⌊ga-yogo̱-hó:nǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-
‘strangers’, ‘aliens’ ⌊o-ya-ji ̱-hó:nǫˀ⌋ pipe-pop
3s.p-other-ints-pop Cherokee people
African-American Oyada̱ˀgehó:nǫˀ ⌊o-yada-ge-hó:nǫˀ⌋
3s.a-ditch-on-pop
Hahǫ́ˀji: ‘African-American man’ ⌊ha- Chippewa
hǫ́ˀji:⌋ 3s.m.a-black.stat
Tsaˀgá:nhaˀ ‘Potawatomi’, ‘Odawa’,
Ahkwesahsne people ‘Ojibwe’, ‘Chippewa’
Delaware
Ogwesa̱hsnehó:nǫˀ ⌊o-gwesa̱hs-hne- Dewáˀganhaˀ ‘Delaware’, ‘Algo-
hó:nǫˀ⌋ 3s.p-partridge-at-pop nquians living near Six Nations’
Algonquians Dutch
Ohwęˀgá:ˀ Dehonę:sowé:ksǫˀ ohwęˀgá:ˀ
Tsaˀgá:nhaˀ ‘Potawatomi’, ‘Odawa’, ‘wood chips’ ⌊de̱-hon-ę-hsowé:k-shǫˀ⌋
‘Ojibwe’, ‘Chippewa’ ⌊tsa-ˀgá:-nhaˀ⌋ du-3ns.m.p-srf-shod.stat-plrz
coin.ø.prefix-noun-tied.stat
faithkeeper ⌊p-ad-rih-ǫ:d⌋ p-srf-
Dewáˀganhaˀ ‘Delaware’, ‘Algonquians matter-put.in.stat
living near Six Nations’ ⌊de-wá-ˀga- godríhǫ:t ‘she is a faithkeeper’
nhaˀ⌋ 3s.a-noun-tied.stat gonádri̱hǫ:t ‘they (fe/males) are faith-
keepers’
Americans
honádri̱hǫ:t ‘they (males) are faithkeep-
Gwahsdǫ̱honǫ̱hgehó:nǫˀ ⌊gwahsdǫ- ers’
honǫh-ˀge̱-hó:nǫˀ⌋ ø.prefix-boston1 - hodríhǫ:t ‘he is a faithkeeper’, ‘he is an
pop-on-pop agent’
1
Referring to America.

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D Thematic dictionary

First Nations ohę́dǫ̱hsǫˀ ‘the Head Ones’ (referring to

Ǫgwehǫ́:weh ‘First Nations’, ‘Indian Longhouse officials) ⌊o-hę́d-ǫ̱h-shǫˀ⌋
people’, ‘Aboriginal’, ‘Native’ 3s.p-ahead-stat-plrz

Five Nations (the original Con- Lower End People

federacy) Ganedagehó:nǫˀ ⌊ga-neda-ge-hó:nǫˀ⌋
Hwíhs Niyǫhwęjá:ge: hwíhs ‘five’ 3s.a-valley-on-pop
⌊ni-y-ǫhwęj-á:ge:⌋ part-3s.p-land- Métis
three.or.more.stat
De̱honadetgwę̱hsáye̱hsdǫh ⌊de̱-hon-
Huron people ad-e-tgwę̱ hsá-ye̱hsd-ǫh⌋ du-3ns.m.p-
Ohwehnagehó:nǫˀ ⌊o-hwehn-age- srf-joinerE-blood-mix-stat
hó:nǫˀ⌋ 3s.p-island-on-pop Mohawk people
Indian Ganyęˀge̱hó:nǫˀ ⌊ga-nyęˀ-ge̱-hó:nǫˀ⌋
Ǫgwehǫ́:weh ‘First Nations’, ‘Indian 3s.a-flint-on-pop
people’, ‘Aboriginal’, ‘Native’ Native
Indian (East Indian) Ǫgwehǫ́:weh ‘First Nations’, ‘Indian
Oniga:hęhsráˀ Honatnoˀá:nhahwęh ⌊o- people’, ‘Aboriginal’, ‘Native’
niga:hęhsr-áˀ⌋ 3s.p-cloth-nsf ⌊hon-at- Odawa
noˀá:-nhahw-ęh⌋ 3ns.m.p-srf-head-
encircle-stat Tsaˀgá:nhaˀ ‘Potawatomi’, ‘Odawa’,
‘Ojibwe’, ‘Chippewa’
Inuit
Ojibwe
Otowegehó:nǫˀ ⌊o-at-howe-ge-hó:nǫˀ⌋
3s.p-srf-cold.stat-on-pop Tsaˀgá:nhaˀ ‘Potawatomi’, ‘Odawa’,
‘Ojibwe’, ‘Chippewa’
Longhouse
Oklahoman
gaenǫ̱hsesge̱hó:nǫˀ ‘they (fe/males) are
Longhouse people’ ⌊gae-nǫ̱hs-es-ge̱- Ga̱hnawiyoˀge̱hó:nǫˀ ⌊ga̱-hnaw-iyo-
hó:nǫˀ⌋ 3ns.fi.a-house-long.stat-on- ˀge̱-hó:nǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-rapids-beautiful.stat-
pop on-pop
hadinǫ̱hsesge̱hó:nǫˀ ‘they (males) are Oneida people
Longhouse people’ ⌊hadi-nǫ̱hs-es-ge̱- Ohnyahęhó:nǫˀ ⌊o-hnya-hę-hó:nǫˀ⌋
hó:nǫˀ⌋ 3ns.m.a-house-long.stat-on- 3s.p-stick-half.way-pop
pop
Onondaga people
Hodinǫ̱hsǫ:ní:dǫh ‘Longhouse People’
(referring to the hierarchy) ⌊hodi- Onǫdage̱hó:nǫˀ ⌊o-nǫda-ge̱-hó:nǫˀ⌋
nǫ̱hs-ǫ:ní:-d-ǫh⌋ 3ns.m.p-house-make- 3s.p-hill-on-pop
caus-stat Osage people
godinǫ̱hsǫ́:ni: ‘Longhouse people’ Wasahse̱hó:nǫˀ ⌊wa-sahse̱-hó:nǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-
⌊godi-nǫ̱hs-ǫ:ní:-d-ǫh⌋ 3ns.fi.p-house- noun-pop (related to Wasá:seh ‘War
make.stat Dance (of the Osage)’, ‘Rain dance’)

1050
 D.6 Chiefs

Potawatomi Odawa)
Tsaˀgá:nhaˀ ‘Potawatomi’, ‘Odawa’, Ahsę́h Hodiji̱hsdáęˀ ahsę́h ‘three’ ⌊hodi-
‘Ojibwe’, ‘Chippewa’ ji ̱hsdá-ęˀ⌋ 3ns.m.p-spark-put.in.stat
Seneca people
Tuscarora people
Onǫdowáˀga:ˀ ⌊o-nǫd-owáˀga:ˀ⌋
possibly segmented as 3s.p-hill- Dahsgáowęˀ ⌊dahsgá-owęˀ⌋ unparsed-
big.stat.aug. Translated as ‘people of split.stat
the great mountain’. Tutelo people
Six Nations
Honǫhwęja:dó:gę: ⌊hon-ǫhwęja:-
Hyeí Niyǫhwęjá:ge: dó:gę:⌋ 3ns.m.p-land-true.stat
hyeí ‘six’ ⌊ni-y-ǫhwęj-á:ge:⌋ part-3s.p-
land-three.or.more.stat Deyodi̱hó:nǫˀ ⌊de-yo-di ̱-hó:nǫˀ⌋ du-
3s.p-noun(tea?)-pop
Sour Spring people
Ganǫhgwatro̱hó:nǫˀ ⌊ga-nǫhgwatro̱- Upper End people
hó:nǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-medicine-pop Dagęhyatge̱hó:nǫˀ ‘Upper End peo-
Three Fires Confederacy (consist- ple’ ⌊da-g-ęhy-a-t-hó:nǫˀ⌋ cis-3s.a-
ing of the Ojibwe, Potawatomi, and mountain.top-stand.stat-pop

D.6 Chiefs

D.6.1 Onondaga Chiefs a Stick for Him’ ⌊hǫwa-hnya-yę́:-

ni:⌋ 3ms/3fis:3ms-stick-lay.down-
Awę́ˀge̱hya:t ‘Top of the Water’ ⌊a- ben.stat
wę́-ˀge̱hya:-t⌋ 3s.a-wet.item-summit- Hoˀdra:há:hǫh ‘He Has an Axe Placed
stand.stat in Between’ ⌊ho-ˀdra:h-á:hǫh⌋ 3s.m.p-
Gowęnęˀshę́:dǫh ‘Her Voice Sus- noun-span.a.distance.stat
pended’, ‘Her Voice Scattered’ ⌊go- Ohnéˀdraę:ˀ ‘The Best Soil Uppermost’
węn-ęˀshę́:d-ǫh⌋ 3s.fi.p-voice-scatter- ⌊o-hnéˀdra-ęˀ⌋ 3s.p-ground-lie.stat
stat
Sganáwadih ‘Opposite Side of the Pond’,
Hahí:hǫh ‘He Is a Spiller’, ‘He Is Spilling ‘Opposite Side of the Swamp’ ⌊s-ga-
It’ ⌊ha-hí:h-ǫh⌋ 3s.m.a-spill-stat náw-adih⌋ rep-3s.a-swamp-side.stat
Honowiyéhdǫh ‘He Is Out of Sight in Shogógę̱heˀ ‘He Is Seeing Them’ ⌊shagó-
Water’, ‘He Went Down Current’ ⌊ho- gę̱ -h-e-ˀ⌋ 3ms:3fi/3p.p-see-purp-go-
naw-iyéhd-ǫh⌋ 3s.m.p-running.water- stat
verb-stat Shogwá:sęh ‘He Has Bruised Himself’
Honyaˀdají:wahk ‘Bitter Throat’ ⌊ho- ⌊s-ho-gwá:s-ęh⌋ rep-3s.m.p-bruise-
nyaˀda-jí:wahk⌋ 3s.m.p-throat/stick- stat
bitter.stat Tadodá:hoˀ ‘Entangled’ ⌊t-ha-d-
Howahnyayę́:ni: ‘He Laid Down odá:hoˀ⌋ cis-3s.m.a-srf-draped.stat

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D Thematic dictionary

Tatga̱hdǫhs ‘He Looks Around’ ⌊t-h- Deyotowéhgǫh ‘Double Cold’ ⌊de-yo-t-

at-ga̱hdǫ-hs⌋ cis-3s.m.a-srf-examine- howéh-gǫh⌋ du-3s.p-srf-cold-rev
hab Gadagwá:sęh ‘It Is Bruised’ ⌊ga-d-
Tayátgwai: ‘He Is of Wide Body’ ⌊t-ha- agwá:s-ęh⌋ 3s.a-srf-bruised-stat
yát-gwai⌋ cis-3s.m.a-body-side.stat Gajiˀnǫdáwe̱heh ‘Coming On Its Knees’
⌊ga-jiˀnǫdáwe̱heh⌋ 3s.a-unanalysed
D.6.2 Seneca Chiefs Hadǫdá:hehaˀ ‘Putting It On Top’ ⌊ha-
d-ǫdá:-h-e-haˀ⌋ 3s.m.a-srf-drape-disl-
Deyoninhogá:węh ‘Door Partly Open’ go-hab
⌊de-yo-n-inho-gá:w-ęh⌋ du-3s.p-srf-
door-split-stat Hagáˀę:yǫh ‘He Looks Both Ways’ ⌊ha-
gáˀę:y-ǫh⌋ 3s.m.a-verb-stat
Ganó:gai: ‘Threatened’ ⌊ga-nó:-gai:⌋
3s.a-noun-make.rattling.noise.stat Hagyáˀdrǫ̱hneˀ ‘He Will Put Bodies
One on Top of the Other’ ⌊ha-g-yáˀd-
Ganǫhgi:ˀdá:wiˀ ‘Curled Hair’ ⌊ga-nǫh- rǫ̱-hn-e-ˀ⌋ 3s.m.a-srf-body-verb-disl-
gi:ˀdá:wiˀ⌋ 3s.a-scalp-verb go-stat
Nishayé:nahs ‘He Is Falling Over’ Shoyǫ́:we:s ‘He Has Long Wampum’,
⌊ni-s-ha-yé:na-hs⌋ part-rep-3s.m.a- ‘He Has a Long Intestine Again’
fall.over-hab ⌊s-ho-yǫ́:w-e:s⌋ rep-3s.m.p-intestines-
Sadyénawahk ‘Hold Unto’ ⌊sa-d- long.stat
yénaw-a-hk⌋ 2s.a-srf-hold-joinerA-
former
D.6.4 Mohawk Chiefs
Sganyadái:yoˀ ‘Handsome Lake’
⌊s-ga-nyadá-i:yoˀ⌋ rep-3s.a-lake- Awęheˀgó:wah ‘Doubtful’, ‘High Hill’,
beautiful.stat ‘Wide Branch’, ‘Large Flower’ ⌊awęheˀ-
Shogęˀjó:wa:ˀ ‘Large Forehead’ ⌊s- gó:wah⌋ flower-aug
ho-gęˀj-ó:wa:ˀ⌋ rep-3s.m.p-forehead- Degaihó:gęˀ ‘Between the News’
big.stat ⌊de-ga-ih-ó:gęˀ⌋ du-3s.a-matter-
Tsaˀdegáǫhye:s ‘Skies of Equal Length’ between.stat
⌊tsaˀde-gá-ǫhy-e:s⌋ coin.du-3s.a-sky- Dyǫnhéhgwęh ‘Double Life’, ‘Our Sus-
long.stat tenance’ ⌊d-y-ǫnhéhgw-ęh⌋ cis-3s.p-
sustained.by-stat
D.6.3 Cayuga Chiefs Hahsdawędrǫ́:taˀ ‘Attaching Rattles’
⌊ha-hsdawędr-ǫ́:t-haˀ⌋ 3s.m.a-rattle-
Dehsgáhe:ˀ ‘Not Sitting on It Any attach-hab
Longer’ ⌊de-s-gá-he:ˀ⌋ neg-rep-3s.a- Hayę́hwataˀ ‘He Who Seeks a Wampum
sit.on.top.stat Belt, ‘He Who Makes a Wampum Belt’
Deyohǫwé:tǫ:ˀ ‘Mossy Place’ ⌊de-yo- ⌊ha-yę́hwa-t-haˀ⌋ 3s.m.a-wampum-
hǫwé:tǫ:ˀ⌋ du-3s.p-unanalysed stand-hab
Deyǫhyǫ́:go: ‘It Touches the Sky’ ⌊de-y- Saęˀhó:wa:ˀ ‘He Is Biggest Tree Top’ ⌊s-
ǫhy-ǫ́:go:⌋ du-3s.p-sky-verb.stat ha-ęˀh-ó:wa:ˀ⌋ rep-3s.m.a-tip-big.stat

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 D.6 Chiefs

Shohsgoháowa:ˀ ‘He Is a Good D.6.6 Miscellaneous

Woodrift’, ‘He Is a Big Branch’ ⌊s-
ho-hsgohá-owa:ˀ⌋ rep-3s.m.p-branch- Thematic headwords (in small caps) ei-
big.stat ther provide the English name for a
hereditary chief position or constitute a
Tęnagái:neˀ ‘Dragging Horns’ ⌊t-h- thematic category for grouping related
ę-nagá-i:n-e-ˀ⌋ cis-3s.m.a-srf-horn- words.
lead-go-stat
chief
Tsaˀdegáihwadeˀ ‘News Is Different
from Another’, ‘Two of Same News’ hadigowá:nęˀs ‘chiefs’ ⌊hadi-gowá:nę-
⌊tsaˀde-gá-ihwa-deˀ⌋ coin.du-3s.a- ˀs⌋ 3ns.m.a-big.stat-pl
matter-exist.stat hodiyanéhsǫˀ ‘they (males) are
chiefs’ ⌊hodi-yanéh-shǫˀ⌋ 3ns.m.p-
D.6.5 Oneida Chiefs law.maker.stat-plrz
hoyá:neh ‘he is a chief’, ‘Confed-
Dewada̱hǫhdę́:dǫhs ‘It Is Shaking Its
eracy Chief’ ⌊ho-yá:neh⌋ 3s.m.p-
Ears’ ⌊de-wa-d-a̱hǫhd-ę́:dǫ-hs⌋ du-
law.maker.stat
3s.a-srf-ear-shake-hab
hoya:néh hahshęnowá:nęh ‘chief’
Deyohaˀgwę́:deˀ ‘Open Voice’ ⌊de-
hoyá:neh ‘chief’ ⌊ha-hshęn-owá:n-ęh⌋
yo-haˀgwę́:-deˀ⌋ du-3s.p-throat-
3s.m.a-name-big-stat
exist.stat
Ganǫhgweiyó:dǫˀ ‘Standing Corn Cobs’ chief title gaya:né:daˀ ⌊ga-ya:né:-d-
⌊ga-nǫhgwę-iy-ó:d-ǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-corn.cob- aˀ⌋ 3s.a-law.maker-noun.increment-
unanalysed-stand-distr.stat nsf
Hadwęnái:kǫh ‘Shouting Loudly’ ⌊ha- clan mother
d-węná-i:k-h-ǫh⌋ 3s.m.a-srf-voice- Hoyánetaˀ ‘the chief’s clan mother’
stuck.on-modz-stat ⌊ho-yánet-haˀ⌋ 3s.m.p-make.laws-
Hagyaˀdonę́htaˀ ‘He Lowers His Body’ habitual
⌊ha-g-yaˀd-onę́ht-haˀ⌋ 3s.m.a-srf- Goyá:neh ‘clan mother’ ⌊go-yá:neh⌋
body-lower-hab 3s.fi.p-law.maker.stat
Honyaˀdashá:yę: ‘Slow-Moving Body’ Divided Body
⌊ho-nyaˀd-ashá:yę:⌋ 3s.m.p-body-
slow.moving.stat Deoˀjaˀjáˀgǫh (a Chief’s name)
Howatsadę́hǫh ‘He Is Buried’, ‘He funeral (for a chief)
Is Dampened’ ⌊hǫwa-tsadę́h-ǫh⌋ agaˀhnyé:nęˀ ‘something fell over’, ‘the
3ms/3fis:3ms-bury-stat passing of a chief’ (high language)
Hoˀdátshehdeˀ ‘Carrying a Quiver ⌊a-ga-ˀhnyé:nę-ˀ⌋ fac-3s.a-fall.over-
Around His Neck or Shoulder’ ⌊ho- punc
ˀdá-tshehd-e-ˀ⌋ 3s.m.p-quiver-noun- aˀǫgwa̱ˀhnyé:nęˀs ‘we all are experi-
go-stat encing the passing of a chief’ ⌊aˀ-
Shonǫ́hse:s ‘He Is of a Longhouse’ ⌊s-ho- ǫgwa̱-ˀhnyé:nę-ˀs⌋ fac-1p.p-fall.over-
nǫ́hs-e:s⌋ rep-3s.m.p-house-long.stat punc.pl

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D Thematic dictionary

Pine Tree Chief Hǫwaǫdá:nǫh, Háǫdanǫh ‘He Is the

Hǫwahnyohsodá:hǫh ⌊hǫwa-hnyohs- Watcher of the Log’, ‘a subchief’
odá:hǫh⌋ 3ms/3fis:3ms-squash- ⌊hǫwa-ǫdá:-nǫh⌋ 3ms/3fis:3ms-log-
mix.up.stat guard.stat ⌊há-ǫda-nǫh⌋ 3s.m.a-log-
subchief guard.stat

D.7 Months

Gayaˀdagó:wah ‘January’ ⌊ga-yaˀda- Jo:to:ˀgó:wah ‘December’ ⌊j-o:-t-ho:ˀ-

gó:wah⌋ 3s.a-doll-big.stat gó:wah⌋ rep-3s.p-srf-cold.stat-aug
Ganráhda̱hgah ‘February’ ⌊ga-nráhda̱- dewęhni̱ˀdá:ge: ‘two months’ ⌊de-
hgah⌋ 3s.a-leaf-unanalysed w-ęhni ̱ˀd-á:ge:⌋ du-3s.a-month-
Ganęsgwaǫtá:ˀah ‘March’ ⌊ga-nęsgwa- two.or.more.stat
ǫt-há:-ˀah⌋ 3s.a-frog-put.in-hab-dim ęhníˀda:ˀ ‘a month’, ‘a moon’
Ganęsgwaǫ:taˀgó:wah ‘April’ ⌊ga- ⌊ęhníˀda:-ˀ⌋ month-nsf
nęsgwa-ǫ:t-haˀ-gó:wah⌋ 3s.a-frog-
ęhníˀdase:ˀ ‘it is a new month’ ⌊ęhníˀd-
put.in-hab-aug
ase:ˀ⌋ month-new.stat
Ganáˀgaht ‘May’ ⌊ga-náˀg-aht⌋ 3s.a-
horn-resemble.stat ęswęniˀda:ˀ ‘it will be a new month
again’ ⌊ę-s-w-ęniˀda:-ˀ⌋ fut-rep-3s.a-
Hyáikneh ‘June’ ⌊hyá-ik-neh⌋ fruit-
month-punc
ripen-on/at
Hyaiknehgó:wah ‘July’ ⌊hya-ik- ęwadę̱hníˀdo̱ˀkta:k ‘every month will
neh-gó:wah⌋ fruit-ripen-on/at- end’ ⌊ę-wa-d-ę̱ hníˀd-o̱ˀkt-ha:-k⌋ fut-
augmentative 3s.a-srf-month-end-hab-modz
Jíhsgę̱hneh ‘August’ ⌊jíhsg-ę̱ -hneh⌋ swę̱hníˀda:t ‘one month’ ⌊s-w-
grasshopper-Joiner-at/on ę̱ hníˀd-a:-t⌋ rep-3s.a-month-joinerA-
Sáˀgę̱hneh ‘September’ ⌊sáˀg-ę̱ -hneh⌋ stand.stat
cough-joiner-at/on tsaˀdewę̱hnída̱hęˀ ‘middle of the month’
Saˀgę̱hnehgó:wah ‘October’ ⌊saˀg-ę̱ - ⌊tsaˀde-w-ę̱ hníd-a̱-hęˀ⌋ coin.du-3s.a-
hneh-gó:wah⌋ cough-joiner-at/on- month-joinerA-mid.stat
augmentative wę̱hniˀdadé:nyǫˀ ‘months’ ⌊w-
Jo:to:ˀ ‘November’ ⌊j-o:-t-ho:ˀ⌋ rep-3s.p- ę̱ hniˀd-adé:-nyǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-month-exist-
srf-cold.stat distr.stat

D.8 Periods of time in the day

The following terms are arranged approximately in chronological order.

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 D.8 Periods of time in the day

dewędí:yaˀs ‘it cuts the day’ (referring hegahgwá:ˀah ‘when the sun is low
to a period of time) ⌊de-w-ęd-í:yaˀ-s⌋ in the sky’, ‘late afternoon’ ⌊he-
du-3s.a-day-cut-hab ga-rahgw-á:ˀah⌋ transl-3s.a-sun-
dewęhni̱hsrí:yaˀs ‘it cuts the day’ (refer- small.stat
ring to a period of time) ⌊de-w-ęhni ̱hsr- deyáˀga:s ‘the night is coming’, ‘early
í:yaˀ-s⌋ du-3s.a-day-cut-hab night’ ⌊de-yá-ˀga:-s⌋ du-3s.p-evening-
haˀgáhe:ˀ ‘the time has arrived’ ⌊haˀ-gá- hab
he:ˀ⌋ transl-3s.a-sit.up.on.top.stat ęgyoˀgá:hah ‘it will be early night’ ⌊ę-
nigahá:wiˀ ‘a period of time’ ⌊ni-ga- g-yo-ˀgá:-hah⌋ fut-du-3s.a-evening-
há:wi-ˀ⌋ part-3s.a-hold-stat dim

niyodoˀdá:gyeˀs ‘up to these times’ ⌊ni- oˀgá:sˀah ‘evening’ ⌊o-ˀgá:s-ˀah⌋ 3s.p-

yo-d-oˀkd-á:-gy-e-ˀs⌋ part-3s.p-srf- evening-dim
end-joinerA-prog-go-hab oˀgase̱hné:hah ‘eveningish’ ⌊o-ˀgas-ˀa-
shęh niwadę̱hnihsrí:neˀs ‘the time of hné-hah⌋ 3s.p-evening-dim-at/on-
day’ shęh ‘that’ ⌊ni-wa-d-ę̱ hnihsr-í:n- dim
e-ˀs⌋ part-3s.a-srf-day-lead-go-hab wędá:jihs ‘dusk’, ‘twilight’ ⌊w-ęd-á:-
dawę:dó:dęˀ ‘dawn, daybreak’ ⌊da-w- jihs⌋ 3s.a-day-joinerA-dark.stat
ę:d-ó:dę-ˀ⌋ cis.fac-3s.a-day-standup- ahsǫheh ‘night’ ⌊ahsǫ-heh⌋ night-time
stat ęyóˀga: ‘it will be tonight’ ⌊ę-yó-ˀga:-ˀ⌋
shedéhjí:hah ‘early morning’ ⌊shedéh- fut.3s.p-evening-punc
jí:-hah⌋ early.morning-ints-dim gyo̱hsǫ:dehk ‘the other night’ ⌊g-yo̱-
shedehjihahné:hah ‘brunch time’, ‘mid- hsǫ:d-e-hk⌋ cis-3s.a-night.noun.-
morning’, ‘early morning’ ⌊shedeh-ji- increment-go-former
ha-hné:-hah⌋ early.morning-ints-dim- haˀdęwa̱hsǫdáę:daˀ ‘when night
at/on-dim has arrived’ ⌊haˀdę-w-a̱hsǫd-
tsishéde̱hjih ‘earlier this morning’ ⌊tsi- á-ę:da-ˀ⌋ transl.du.fut-3s.p-
shéde̱h-jih⌋ coin-early.morning-ints night.noun.increment-arrive-punc
gaǫ:hya̱hęhsǫ́:ˀǫh ‘around noon’ haˀdewa̱hsǫdage: ‘many nights’, ‘ev-
⌊ga-ǫ:hya̱-hęh-shǫ́:ˀǫh⌋ 3s.a-sky- ery night’ ⌊haˀde-w-a̱hsǫd-age:⌋
mid.stat-plrz transl.du-3s.a-night-be.a.certain.-
tsaˀdegáǫhya̱hęh ‘right at noon’ number.stat
⌊tsaˀde-gá-ǫhya̱-hęh⌋ coin.du-3s.a- ǫdahsǫda:di̱háhsdǫh ‘past midnight’ ⌊ǫ-
sky-mid.stat d-ahsǫd-a:di ̱h-á-hsd-ǫh⌋ 3s.fi.a-srf-
tsigaǫhyáhęh ‘at noon’ (previous night-side.stat-joinerA-instr-stat
noon) ⌊tsi-ga-ǫhyá-hęh⌋ coin-3s.a- ohsǫdagwé:gǫh ‘all through the night’,
sky-mid.stat ‘all night’ ⌊o-hsǫd-a-gwé:g-ǫh⌋ 3s.p-
daóˀga̱hneˀ ‘early night is coming’ ⌊da- night-joinerA-all-stat
ó-ˀga̱-hn-e-ˀ⌋ du.fac-3s.p-evening- sǫ:deˀ ‘last night’ ⌊sǫ:d-e-ˀ⌋ night-go-
disl-go-punc stat

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D Thematic dictionary

tsaˀdewa̱hsǫ:tęh ‘at midnight’ meeting) ⌊ęh-s-ahsǫd-ǫ:ni-ˀ⌋ fut-2s.a-

⌊tsaˀde-w-a̱hsǫ:t-hęh⌋ coin.du-3s.a- night-make-punc
night.noun.increment-mid.stat wahsǫdǫ:ni: ‘the night is marked’, ‘a
ęhsahsǫdǫ:niˀ ‘you will mark the night’ time has been designated’ ⌊w-ahsǫd-
(referring to setting a time for a ǫ:ni-:⌋ 3s.a-night-make-stat

D.9 Yesterday, today, and tomorrow

ahsęh nęyó:da:ˀ ‘three days from now’ haˀwęhni̱hsradenyǫ́:gyeˀ ‘days ahead’

ahsęh ‘three’ ⌊nę-yó:-d-a:ˀ⌋ part.fut- ⌊haˀ-w-ęhni ̱hsr-ade-nyǫ:-gy-e-ˀ⌋
3s.a-srf-hold.stat transl-3s.a-day-exist-distr-prog-
dawęhni̱hsraędǫ́:gyeˀ ‘the coming days’ go-stat
⌊da-w-ęhni ̱hsra-ęd-ǫ́:-gy-e-ˀ⌋ cis-3s.a- hęjó:hęˀ ‘the day after tomorrow’ ⌊hęj-
day-become-stat-prog-go-stat ó:-hęˀ⌋ transl.fut.rep-3s.p-day.stat
dwę̱hnihsradé:nyǫhk ‘days past’ ⌊d- hejóhęˀdrǫh ‘every other day’ ⌊hej-ó-
w-ę̱ hnihsr-adé:-nyǫ-hk⌋ cis-3s.a-day- hęˀ-dr-ǫh⌋ transl.rep-3s.p-day.disl-
exist-distr.stat-former stat
ę́:deh ‘daylight’, ‘day’
té:dę:ˀ ‘yesterday’ ⌊té:dę-:ˀ⌋ ⌊day-stat⌋
ęhswęhni̱hsráędaˀ ‘another day’ (for-
tsaˀdewę̱hníhsra̱hęh ‘half a day’
mal language) ⌊ęhs-w-ęhni ̱hsrá-ędaˀ⌋
⌊tsaˀde-w-ę̱ hníhsra̱-hęh⌋ coin.du-
fut.rep-3s.a-day-become.stat
3s.a-day-half.stat
ęyó:hęˀ ‘it will be tomorrow’ ⌊ę-yó:-hę-
ˀ⌋ fut-3s.p-day-punc waˀne:ˀ ‘today’ (particle, hence, no af-
fixes to show)
gyoté:dęhk, gyoté:dęht ‘the other day’,
‘the day before yesterday’ ⌊g-yo-té:dę- wę̱hnihsradé:nyoˀ ‘every day’, ‘many
hk⌋ cis-3s.p-day.stat-former days’ ⌊w-ę̱ hnihsr-adé:-nyǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-day-
gyotedę̱hsǫ́:ˀǫh ‘several days past’ ⌊g- exist-distr.stat
yo-tedę̱ h-sǫ́:ˀǫh⌋ cis-3s.p-day.stat- węhníhsradeˀ ‘this day’ ⌊w-ęhníhsr-
plrz adeˀ⌋ 3s.a-day-exist.stat

D.10 Seasons and years

degawadé:nyǫhs ‘season’ ⌊de-ga-wa- ing’ (referring to changing seasons)

dé:ny-ǫhs⌋ du-3s.a-air-change-hab ⌊dǫsa-ga-wa:-dé:ni-ˀ⌋ cis.fac.rep-3s.a-
air-change-punc
dęyogęnhǫ:diˀ ‘it will be summer’ ⌊dę-
yo-gęnh-ǫ:di-ˀ⌋ du.fut-3s.a-summer- gagwide̱hjí:hah ‘early spring’ ⌊ga-gwid-
put.in-punc e̱h-jí:-hah⌋ 3s.a-spring-stat-ints-dim
dǫsagawa:dé:niˀ ‘the wind is chang- gagwíde̱hneh ‘springtime’, ‘in the

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 D.11 Weekdays

spring’ ⌊ga-gwíd-e̱-hneh⌋ 3s.a-spring- ‘one’ ⌊dę-w-at-hwadá:se-ˀ⌋ du.fut-

stat-at/on 3s.a-srf-turn-punc
gęnęnagéhneh ‘fall’, ‘autumn’ ⌊g-ęnęn- sgá:t eyóhsra:t ‘one year’ sgá:t ‘one’ ⌊ę-
aˀgé-hneh⌋ 3s.a-fall-on-at/on y-óhsr-a:-t⌋ fut-3s.p-winter-joinerA-
gęnhéhneh ‘summer’ ⌊g-ęnh-é-hneh⌋ stand.punc
3s.a-summer-stat-at/on shęh niyotgęisdǫ̱hǫ:gyéˀ deyowá-
go̱hsréhneh ‘winter time’ ⌊g-o̱hsr-é- węnyeˀ ‘seasons’ shęh ‘that’ ⌊ni-
hneh⌋ 3s.a-winter-stat-at/on yo-t-gęisd-ǫ̱h-ǫ:-gy-é-ˀ⌋ part-3s.a-
jo̱hsrá:tsǫˀ ‘yearly’ ⌊j-o̱hsr-á:-t-shǫˀ⌋ srf-move.over-stat-stat-prog-go-
rep.3s.a-winter-joinerA-stand.stat- stat ⌊de-yo-wá-węnye-ˀ⌋ du-3s.a-air-
plrz change-stat
niyóhsrage: ‘years’ ⌊ni-y-óhsr-aˀge:⌋ tsigade̱hgwí:deh ‘last spring’ ⌊tsi-ga-
part-3s.a-winter-on d-e̱hgwí:d-eh⌋ coin-3s.a-srf-spring-
ohsré:dahs ‘year’ ⌊o-hsr-é:d-a-hs⌋ 3s.p- stat
winter-stat.euph.d-joinerA-hab tsigóhsreh ‘last winter’ ⌊tsi-g-óhsr-eh⌋
sgá:t dęwatwadá:seˀ ‘one year’ sgá:t coin-3s.a-year-stat

D.11 Weekdays
The following terms are arranged approximately in chronological order.

Awędędáˀǫh ‘Monday’ ⌊aw-ęd-ędáˀ-ǫh⌋ Nakdóhaehs ‘Saturday’ ⌊nakd-ohae-hs⌋

3s.p-day-end-stat bed-wash-hab
Ęwę:dę́:daˀ ‘next Monday’ ⌊ę-w-ę:d- Hejonakdóhaehs ‘next Saturday’ ⌊hej-
ę́:da-ˀ⌋ fut-3s.a-day-end-punc o-nakd-óhae-hs⌋ transl.rep-3s.p-bed-
Tsaˀwę:dę́:daˀ ‘last Monday’ ⌊tsaˀ-w-ę:d- wash-hab
ę́:da-ˀ⌋ coin.fac-3s.a-day-end-punc Tsiyonakdóhaehs ‘last Saturday’ ⌊tsi-
Dekní: hadǫˀt ‘Tuesday’ dekní: ‘two’ yo-nakd-óhae-hs⌋ coin-3s.p-bed-
⌊hadǫˀt⌋ day.stat wash-hab
Dekní: hadǫ́ˀtgę̱hę:ˀ ‘last Tuesday’ Awędadógę̱hdǫh ‘Sunday’ ⌊aw-ęda-
dekní: ‘two’ ⌊hadǫˀt-gę̱ hę:ˀ⌋ day.stat- dógę̱ hd-ǫh⌋ 3s.p-day-make.true-stat
former
Ęyaǫdadogę́hteˀ ‘next Sunday’ ⌊ę-
Ahsę́h Hadǫˀt ‘Wednesday’ ahsę́h ya-ǫda-dogę́hd-h-e-ˀ⌋ fut-3s.p-day-
‘three’ make.true-disl-go-punc
Ahsę́h Hadǫ́ˀtgę̱hę:ˀ ‘last Wednesday’
Tsiyaǫdadogę́hdǫh ‘last Sunday’ ⌊tsi-
Geí: Hadǫˀt ‘Thursday’ geí ‘four’ ya-ǫda-dogę́hd-ǫh⌋ coin-3s.p-day-
Geí: Hadǫ́ˀtgę̱hę:ˀ ‘last Thursday’ make.true-stat
Hwíhs Hadǫˀt ‘Friday’ hwíhs ‘five’ oyáˀ degyadǫdá:drehk ‘last week’ ⌊o-
Hwíhs Hadǫ́ˀtgę̱hę:ˀ ‘last Friday’ yá-ˀ⌋ 3s.p-other-nsf ⌊deg-y-ad-ǫdá:-

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D Thematic dictionary

dr-e-hk⌋ du.cis-3s.p-srf-day-disl- stuck.on.stat ⌊tsaˀdeg-y-ad-ǫ́d-adeˀ⌋

go.stat-former coin.du.cis-3s.p-srf-day-exist.stat
shęh naˀdegyadǫ́dai ‘during the week’ sgá:t ęyaǫdadogéhteˀ ‘one week’ sgá:t
shęh ‘that’ ⌊naˀdeg-y-ad-ǫ́da-i⌋ part- ‘one’ ⌊ę-ya-ǫda-dogéhd-h-e-ˀ⌋ fut-
du-cis-3s.a-srf-day-stuck.on.stat 3s.p-day-make.true-disl-go-punc
Tsaˀdegyadǫdaí, tsaˀdegyadǫ́dadeˀ tsaˀdegyadǫ́dadrehk ‘week before
‘during the week’ ⌊tsaˀdeg-y-ad- last’ ⌊tsaˀdeg-y-ad-ǫ́da-dr-e-hk⌋
ǫda-í⌋ coin.du.cis-3s.p-srf-day- coin.du.cis-3s.p-day-disl-go-former

D.12 Clock time

The following information is largely from chapter 9 of Mithun & Henry (1984: 99–120).
The following terms are arranged approximately in chronological order.

Do: niyowi̱hsdáˀe:? ‘What time is it?’ jo̱hwihsda̱ˀehne:ˀ ‘it was one o’clock’ ⌊j-
do: ‘how’ ⌊ni-yo-wi ̱hsd-á-ˀe:⌋ part- o̱-hwihsd-a̱-ˀe-hne:ˀ⌋ rep-3s.p-metal-
3s.p-metal-joinerA-strike.stat joinerA-strike.stat-rem
dekni: deyohwi̱hsdaˀehne:ˀ ‘it was two
D.12.1 On the hour o’clock’ ⌊de-yo-hwi ̱hsd-a-ˀe-hne:ˀ⌋ du-
3s.p-metal-joinerA-strike.stat-rem
sgá:t jo̱hwíhsda̱ˀe:, sgá:t ohwíhs-
ahsęh niyohwi̱hsdaˀehne:ˀ ‘it was three
da̱ˀe: ‘one o’clock’ sga:t ‘one’ ⌊(j)-
o’clock’ ⌊ni-yo-hwi ̱hsd-a-ˀe-hne:ˀ⌋
o̱-hwíhsd-a̱-ˀe:⌋ (rep)-3s.p-metal-
part-3s.p-metal-joinerA-strike.stat-
joinerA-strike.stat
rem
dekní: dejohwi̱hsdáˀe:, dekní: dey-
tsaˀdegáǫhya̱hęh / gáǫhya̱hęh ‘noon’
ohwi̱hsdáˀe: ‘two o’clock’ dekni: ‘two’
⌊tsaˀde-gá-ǫhy-a̱-hęh⌋ (coin.du)-3s.a-
⌊de(j)-o-hwi ̱hsd-á-ˀe:⌋ du.rep)-3s.p-
sky-joinerA-mid.stat
metal-joinerA-strike.stat
ahsę́ niyohwi̱hsdáˀe: ‘three o’clock’ ah- tsaˀdewa̱hsǫ́:tęh / wa̱hsǫ́:tęh ‘midnight’
sę́ ‘three’ ⌊ni-yo-hwi ̱hsd-á-ˀe:⌋ part- ⌊tsaˀde-w-a̱hsǫ́:d-hęh⌋ coin.du-3s.a-
3s.p-metal-joinerA-strike.stat night-mid.stat
géi niyohswi̱hsdáˀe: ‘four o’clock’ géi
‘four’ D.12.2 Past the hour
ja:dáhk niyohwi̱hsdáˀe: ‘seven o’clock’ tsaˀdeyo̱hsę:nǫ́ˀ niyodǫgóhdǫh ‘it is
ja:dáhk ‘seven’ half-past the hour’ ⌊tsaˀde-yo̱-
gyo̱hdǫ́: niyohwi̱hsdáˀe: ‘nine o’clock’ hs-ę:nǫ́-ˀ⌋ coin.du-3s.p-noun-
gyo̱hdǫ́: ‘nine’ originate.from-stat ⌊ni-yo-d-ǫgóhd-
sgá:t sga̱héˀ niyohwi̱hsdáˀe: ‘eleven ǫh⌋ part-3s.p-srf-surpass-stat
o’clock’ sga:t sga̱ héˀ ‘eleven’ odǫgo̱hdǫ́ ‘it has gone beyond, sur-
dekní: sga̱héˀ niyohwi̱hsdáˀe: ‘twelve passed’ ⌊o-d-ǫgo̱hd-ǫ́h⌋ 3s.p-srf-
o’clock’ dekní: sga̱ héˀ ‘twelve’ surpass-stat

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 D.13 Place names

tsaˀdewa̱hsę:nǫ́ odǫgo̱hdǫ́ sgá:t ‘half D.12.3 Before, to the hour

past one’ ⌊tsaˀde-wa̱-hs-ę:nǫ́-h⌋
coin.du-3s.a-noun-originate.from- gyonǫ́:haˀ ‘till’, ‘to’, ‘before’, ‘of’ (refer-
hab ring to time) ⌊g-yon-ǫ́:haˀ⌋ cis-3p.p-
tsáˀdewa̱hsę:nǫ́ odǫgo̱hdǫ́ dekni: ‘half alone.stat
past two’ wa̱hshę́: gyonǫ:háˀ sgá:t ‘12:50’, ‘ten to
tsáˀdewa̱hsę:nǫ́ odǫgo̱hdǫ́ ahsęh ‘half one’ wa̱ hshę́: ‘ten’
past three’
dewahshę́: gyonǫ:háˀ hyéiˀ ‘5:40’,
tsáˀdewa̱hsę:nǫ́ odǫgo̱hdǫ́ degrǫˀ ‘half ‘twenty to six’ dewahshę́: ‘twenty’,
past eight’ hyéiˀ ‘six’
tsáˀdewa̱hsę:nǫ́ odǫgo̱hdǫ́ sgá:t sga̱heˀ
‘half past eleven’ hwíhs sga̱héˀ gyonǫ:háˀ dekní: sga̱heˀ
‘11:45’, ‘quarter to twelve’ hwíhs sga̱ héˀ
hwíhs sga̱heˀ odǫgo̱hdǫ́ sgá:t ‘fifteen
‘fifteen’, dekní: sga̱ heˀ ‘twelve’
past one’, ‘1:15’ hwíhs sga̱ heˀ ‘fifteen’
hwíhs odǫgo̱hdǫ́ ahsęh ‘five past three’, hwíhs gyonǫ:háˀ hyéiˀ ‘5:55’, ‘five to
‘3:05’ six’
dewahshę́: hwíhs odǫgo̱hdǫ́ géi hwihshǫˀ, hwihshǫ:ˀǫh ‘five-ish’,
‘twenty-five past four’, ‘4:25’ de- ‘around five o’clock)’ ⌊hwihshǫˀ,
wahshę́: hwíhs ‘twenty-five’ hwihshǫ:ˀǫh⌋

D.13 Place names

Place names also function as “adverbs of place” (see §8.3). For maps of place names, see
Figure D.1, p. 1062 and Figure D.2, p. 1062.

Canadagwá:dih, Kanadagwá:dih Degyoˀne̱hsáhǫh ‘Burlington, ON’

‘Canada’ ⌊Kanada-gwá:dih⌋ canada- ⌊deg-yo-ˀne̱hs-á-hǫh⌋ du.cis-3s.p-
side sand-joinerA-lie.across.stat
Degaga̱ˀgéh ganǫ́hse:s ‘Onondaga Detgahnegahaˀgó:wah ‘Dunnville, ON’
Longhouse’ (Longhouse at Six Nations, ⌊det-ga-hneg-a-haˀ-gó:wah⌋ du.cis-
ON) ⌊de-ga-g-a̱ˀgéh⌋ du-3s.a-noun-on 3s.a-water-joinerA-hab-aug
⌊ga-nǫ́hs-e:s⌋ 3s.a-house-long.stat
Detgahnyǫ̱hsráhdǫˀ ‘Kingston, ON’
Dagę́hya:t ‘Upper End (Six Nations,
⌊det-ga-hnyǫ̱hsr-áhdǫ-ˀ⌋ du.cis-3s.a-
ON)’ ⌊da-g-ę́hy-a:-t⌋ cis-3s.a-tip-
metal.bars-hidden-stat
joinerA-stand.stat
Dahsgaowę́ˀ(geh) ‘Tuscarora, NY’ (near Detgayędánegęˀ, Tayędané:gęˀ ‘Tyen-
Lewiston, NY) ⌊dahs-ga-owę́-ˀ(geh)⌋ dinaga, ON’ ⌊detgayędánegęˀ⌋ ⌊(de)t-
cis.rep-3s.a-split.stat-on ha-yęd-a-né:gę:ˀ⌋ (du)-cis-3s.m.a-log-
joinerA-side.by.side.stat
Degyotnǫ̱hsá:kdǫ: ‘St. Catharines, ON’
⌊deg-yo-t-nǫ̱hs-á:kdǫ:⌋ du.cis-3s.p- Dewaˀgagéh ganǫ́hse:s ‘Seneca Long-
srf-house-crooked.stat house (Longhouse at Six Nations, ON)’

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D Thematic dictionary

Deyohatéhsǫˀ ‘Pittsburgh, PA’ ⌊de-yo- Ganehsadá:geh ‘Kanesatake/Oka,

hat-éh-shǫˀ⌋ du-3s.p-bright-stat-plrz QC’ ⌊ga-ˀnehs-a-d-á:geh⌋ 3s.a-sand-
Deyohwęjahkahsǫ́gwahnǫˀ ‘states’ (re- joinerA-stand.stat-on
ferring to the United States) ⌊de- Ganǫ́:nyǫˀ ‘New York, NY’ ⌊ga-nǫ́:-
yo-hwęj-a-hkahsǫ́gw-a-hnǫˀ⌋ du- nyǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-expensive-distr.stat
3s.p-land-joinerA-divided-joinerA- Ganǫ́hgwa̱ˀtroˀ ‘Sour Springs, Six Na-
distr.stat tions, ON’ ⌊ga-nǫ́hgwaˀtr-oˀ⌋ 3s.a-
Deyoyadáęˀ ‘No Ditch, Cattaragus, medicine-submerged.stat
NY’ ⌊de-yo-yad-á-ęˀ⌋ neg-3s.p-ditch- Ganǫhgwa̱ˀtróˀ ganǫ́hse:s ‘Upper Ca-
joinerA-lie.stat yuga Longhouse’ (Longhouse at Six
Deyoyęgwá:kęh ‘Sandy’s Road’ ⌊de- Nations, ON)
yo-yęgw-á:-kęh⌋ du-3s.p-tobacco- Ganyadáiyoˀ ‘Ontario’, ‘Lake On-
joinerA-joined.stat tario’ ⌊ga-nyadá-iyoˀ⌋ 3s.a-lake-
Dwa̱hyáyętwęh ‘Jordan, ON’ ⌊d-wa̱- beautiful.stat
hyá-yętw-ęh⌋ cis-3s.a-fruit-plant- Ganyęˀgehónǫ̱hgeh ‘Mohawk Terri-
stat tory’ ⌊ga-nyę-ˀge-hó:nǫ̱h-geh⌋ 3s.a-
Gada:gráhsgę̱hę:ˀ ‘Cattaraugus, NY’ flint-on-pop-on
⌊ga-ˀda:-gráhs-gę̱ hę:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-mud- Gayę́twa̱hgeh ‘Cornplanter Reserve’
smell.stat-former (near Warren, Pennsylvania) ⌊ga-yę́tw-
a̱ˀgeh⌋ 3s.a-planted-on
Ga̱hę́nagǫ: ‘Hamilton, ON’ ⌊ga̱-hę́n-
agǫ:⌋ 3s.a-bay-in Gihęˀgowáhneh ‘the Grand River’ (in
Ontario) ⌊gihęˀ-gowá-hneh⌋ 3s.a.river-
Ga̱hnáwageh ‘Caughnawaga/Kahnawake, aug-at/on
Quebec’ ⌊ga̱-hnáw-aˀgeh⌋ 3s.a-
moving.water-on Gwagówa̱hneh ‘England’ ⌊gwagówa̱-
hneh⌋ queen-at/on
Ga̱hnáwagǫ: ‘Warren, PA’ ⌊ga̱hnáwagǫ:⌋
⌊ga̱-hnáw-agǫ:⌋ 3s.a-moving.water-in Gwahsdǫ̱hónǫ̱hgeh ‘United States’
⌊gwahsdǫ̱-hónǫ̱h-geh⌋ boston2 -pop-
Ga̱hnawiyóˀgeh ‘Oklahoma’ ⌊ga̱- on
hnaw-iyó-ˀgeh⌋ 3s.a-moving.water-
Gwésa̱hsneh, Ogwésa̱hsneh ‘Ahkwe-
beautiful-on
sahsne Territory’ (includes Cornwall,
Ganádase:ˀ ‘Newtown, Cattarau- ON, and St Regis, NY) ⌊(o)-gwesa̱hs-
gus, NY’ ⌊ga-nád-ase:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-town- neh⌋ (3s.p)-partridge-at/on
new.stat
Gye̱hahshędáhkwaˀ ‘a local word for
Ganéda̱ˀgeh ‘Lower End’ (region of Six Ohsweken, ON’ ⌊g-ye̱-hahshęd-á-
Nations) ⌊ga-néd-aˀgeh⌋ 3s.a-valley- hkwaˀ⌋ cis-3s.fi.a-counsel-joinerA-
on instr
Ganedagǫ́: ganǫ́hse:s ‘Lower Cayuga Gyohnégano: ‘Cold Spring, NY’ ⌊g-yo-
Longhouse’ (Longhouse at Six Nations, hnég-a-no:⌋ cis-3s.p-water-joinerA-
ON) ⌊ga-ned-agǫ́:⌋ 3s.a-valley-in cold.stat
2
Referring to America.

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 D.13 Place names

Gyonǫhsadé:geh ‘Cornplanter Reserve’ Sganyada:digó:wah ‘Europe’ ⌊s-ga-

(a placename on Cornplanter Reserve) nyada:-adi-gó:wah⌋ rep-3s.a-lake-
⌊g-yo-nǫhs-adé:g-ęh⌋ cis-3s.p-house- side.stat-aug
burn-stat Sganyádaes ‘Long Lake, NY’, ‘Skaneate-
Hanadagánya̱hsgeh ‘Washington, les, NY’ ⌊s-ga-nyáda-es⌋ rep-3s.a-lake-
DC’ ⌊ha-nad-a-gánya̱-hs-geh⌋ 3s.m.a- long.stat
town-joinerA-destroy-hab-on
Sgihę́:dih ‘Pinewoods, Cattaraugus, NY’
Hyeí Niyǫhwęjá:ge: ‘Six Nations’ hyeí ⌊s-gihę́:-dih⌋ rep-3s.a.river-sidestat
‘six’ ⌊ni-y-ǫhwęj-á:ge:⌋ part-3s.p-
land-exist.stat Tahnawá:deˀ ‘Tonawanda, NY’
⌊t-ha-hnaw-á:deˀ⌋ cis-3s.m.a-
Kyodró:wę:, Gyodró:wę: ‘Buffalo, NY’
running.water-exist.stat
⌊g-yo-d-ró:wę:⌋ cis-3s.p-srf-split.stat
Tayędané:gęˀ ‘Deseronto, NY’ ⌊t-ha-
Niganaˀjú:ˀuh ‘Cayuga, ON’ ⌊ni-ga-naˀj-
yęd-a-né:gęˀ⌋ cis-3s.m.a-firewood-
ú:ˀuh⌋ part-3s.a-pail-small.stat
joinerA-side.by.side.stat
Ohí:yoˀ ‘Allegheny, NY’ ⌊o-h-í:yoˀ⌋ 3s.p-
flowing.water-good.stat Tgagwę́:troˀ ‘York, ON’, ‘Jarvis,
ON’ ⌊t-ga-gwę́:tr-oˀ⌋ cis-3s.a-silt-
Ohnyáhęh ‘Oneida, ON’ ⌊o-hny-á-hęh⌋
submerged.stat
3s.p-stick-joinerA-mid.stat
Ohswé:gęˀ ‘Ohsweken, ON’ Tga̱hnáwęhtaˀ, Ga̱hnáwe̱htaˀ ‘Niagara
Falls’ ⌊(t)-ga̱-hnáw-ęht-haˀ⌋ (cis)-3s.a-
Ǫhwęjagáyǫ̱hneh ‘Europe’ ⌊o-hwęj-
running.water-flow-hab
a-gáyǫ̱-hneh⌋ 3s.p-land-joinerA-
old(thing).stat-at/on Tganádaę:ˀ ‘Caledonia, ON’ ⌊t-ga-náda-
Onę́yotga:ˀ ‘Oneida, NY’ ⌊o-nę́yot-ga:ˀ⌋ ęˀ⌋ cis-3s.a-town-lie.stat
3s.p-noun-hold.stat Tganadaęˀgó:wah ‘Philadelphia, PA’
Onę́ˀdagǫ: ‘Pinewoods, Cattaraugus, ⌊t-ga-nada-ęˀ-gó:wah⌋ cis-3s.a-town-
NY’ ⌊o-nę́ˀd-agǫ:⌋ 3s.p-pine-in lie.stat-aug
Onǫ́dageh ‘Onondaga, ON’ ⌊o-nǫ́d- Tganada̱háe:ˀ ‘Brantford, ON’ ⌊t-
aˀgeh⌋ 3s.p-hill-on ga-nada̱-háe:ˀ⌋ cis-3s.a-town-
Oswé:gęˀ ‘town of Ohsweken, Six Na- sit.on.top.of.stat
tions, ON’ ⌊o-swé:gęˀ⌋ 3s.p-place.name Tgana̱hwái:ˀ ‘Niagara-on-the-Lake,
Oˀnéhsagǫ: ‘In the Sand’ (a place near ON’ ⌊t-ga-na̱hw-á-i:ˀ⌋ cis-3s.a-noun-
Tonawanda, NY) ⌊o-ˀnéhs-agǫ:⌋ 3s.p- joinerA-stuck.on.stat
sand-in Tganáˀjo̱ha:ˀ ‘Mohawk Valley, NY’, ‘An-
Sganędá:dih ‘Albany, NY’ ⌊s-ga-nęˀd- caster, NY’ ⌊t-ga-náˀj-o̱ha:ˀ⌋ cis-3s.a-
á:dih⌋ rep-3s.a-pine-side.stat pot-attached.stat

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D Thematic dictionary

Figure D.1: Six Nations today, based on (Froman et al. 2002: xiv).

Figure D.2: Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ place names, Ontario and New York State,
based on (Mithun & Henry 1984: 37).

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 D.14 Greetings, origins, and affiliations

Tganęnogáhe:ˀ ‘Hagersville, ON’ ⌊t- Tgaya̱ˀdagwęníyo̱ˀgeh ‘Ottawa, ON’

ga-nęnog-á-he:ˀ⌋ cis-3s.a-hickory- ⌊t-ga-ya̱ˀd-a-gwęníyo̱-ˀgeh⌋ cis-3s.a-
joinerA-sitting.on.top.of.stat body-joinerA-principal.stat-on
Tgáǫ:doˀ ‘Toronto, ON’ ⌊t-gá-ǫd-oˀ⌋ cis- Wáhtaˀ ‘Gibson Reserve, ON’ wáhtaˀ
3s.a-log-submerged.stat ‘maple tree’

D.14 Greetings, origins, and affiliations

D.14.1 Greetings, social expressions, leave-taking
The following expressions are in no particular order.

Sgę́:nǫ.ˀ ‘Hello.’ O:nę́h gi ̱ˀ hyá:ˀ. ‘So long for now.’,

Gwé:. ‘Hello.’ ‘Good-bye.’
Háiˀ / háeˀ. ‘Hello.’ (a word attributed to Nyá:węh. ‘Thank you.’
Oneida or Tutelo) Nyóh. ‘You’re welcome.’, ‘Alright.’, ‘O.k.’
Agada̱ˀgáideˀ. ‘I feel well.’ Noya:! ‘Happy New Year!’ This expres-
Aknǫhǫkdá:nih. ‘I am sick.’ sion or greeting is used at the start of
Agatowínyǫ̱ˀse:. ‘I have a cold.’ the New Year. (Knocking on someone’s
Aknǫˀá:nǫ̱hwa:s. ‘I have a headache.’ door at New Year’s and saying “Noya:!”
Oyányragyeˀ. ‘It is going well.’ will reward you with some home-made
Haoˀ dę̱ ˀ nyoh. ‘O.k. then.’ doughnuts.)

(12) Sgę:nǫ́ˀ sweˀgéh tgǫgę́hne:ˀ! (16) Tę́ˀ, tę́ˀ desgę́:nǫˀ

hello long.ago I.saw.you no no not.well
‘I haven’t seen you for a while!’ ‘No, I am not well.’

(13) Sgę́:nǫˀ gę́h?

(17) Sgę:nǫ́ˀ genǫ́hdǫnyǫh.
well Q
well I.feel
‘Are you well?’
‘I am fine or healthy.’
(14) Sgęnǫ́jih gę́h? (18) Nęˀ neˀ í:s?
really.well Q that it.is you
‘Are you really well?’ ‘What about you?’

(15) Ęhę́ˀ sgę́:nǫˀ. (19) Neˀ diˀ í:s?

yes well the so you
‘I am fine thanks.’ ‘What about you?’

(20) Dęˀ hoˀdę́ˀ niyohdǫ̱hǫ:gyeˀ?

what kind it.is.going.along.happening
‘What’s happening?’, ‘How’s it going?’
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(21) Dęˀ hoˀdę́ˀ niságye̱haˀ?

what kind you.are.doing
‘What are you doing?’

(22) Sgę:nǫ:ˀǫ́h niwágagyę:

slowly I.am.doing.it
‘I’m taking it easy.’

(23) Gitsgodagyéˀs tsǫ:

I’m.loafing.around just
‘I’m taking it easy.’

D.14.2 Asking about jobs

(24) Saíhoˀdeˀ?
you.are.working
‘Are you working?’

(25) Gaę hwaˀ nhǫ́: hejisaihoˀdeˀ?

which emphasis place you.work.there
‘Where do you work?’

(26) Dę́ˀ hniˀ hoˀdę́ˀ hoihoˀdéˀsro̱ˀdę:?

what and kind his.kind.of.work
‘And what does he do?’

(27) Hoihoˀdeˀsri:yó: giˀ ne:ˀ.

he.has.a.good.job just it.is
‘He has a good job.’

D.14.3 Asking someone’s age

(28) Dó: nisohsriyáˀgǫh?
how how.you(one).have.crossed.winters
‘How old are you?’

(29) Dó: ní:s nidihsé:nǫ:?

how you where.you(one).originate.from
‘How old are you?’

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 D.14 Greetings, origins, and affiliations

(30) Dó: ní:s nidihswé:nǫ:?

how you where.you(all).originate.from
‘How old are you?’

(31) Ahsę́ niwáhshę: niwago̱hsríya̱ˀgǫh

three tens how.I.have.crossed.rivers
‘I am thirty years old.’

(32) How to communicate one’s age (Use numbers in place of the ellipses.)
a. …niwago̱hsríya̱ˀgǫh ‘I am … years old’
cf. ni-wag-o̱hsr-íya̱ˀg-ǫh part-1s.p-winter-cross-stat
b. … nisohsriyáˀgǫh ‘you (singular) are ... years old’
c. … nisnohsriyáˀgǫh ‘you two are ... years old’
d. … nijohsriyáˀgǫh ‘you all are ... years old’
e. … nihao̱hsríya̱ˀgǫh ‘he is ... years old’
f. … niyagaohsriyáˀgǫh ‘she is ... years old’
g. … niyono̱hsríya̱ˀgǫh ‘they (animals) are ... years old’
h. … nihono̱hsríya̱ˀgǫh ‘they (males) are ... years old’
i. … niyagonohsriyáˀgǫh ‘they (females or mixed) are ... years old’

(33) Another way to to communicate one’s age (Use numbers in place of the
ellipses.)
a. … nidihsé:nǫ: ‘you (singular) are … years old’
cf. ni-di-hs-é:n-ǫ: part-cis-2s.p-originate.from-stat
b. … nidihswé:nǫ: ‘you (plural) are … years old’
c. … nitawé:nǫ: ‘he is … years old’
d. … nigya:wé:nǫ: ‘it is … years old’
e. … nigyagawé:nǫ: ‘she is … years old’
f. … nigyagoné:nǫ: ‘they (females or mixed) are … years old’
g. … nito:né:nǫˀs ‘they (males) are … years old’

D.14.4 Asking someone’s name

(34) Dę́ˀ ní:s hoˀdę́ˀ sya:sǫh?
what you kind you.are.called
‘What is your name?’

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D Thematic dictionary

(35) Dę́ˀ ní:s hoˀdę́ˀ swayasǫ̱hǫ:nyǫh?

what you kind you.all.are.individually.called
‘What are your names?’ (Each individual’s name is requested)

(36) Dę́ˀ ní:s hoˀdę́ˀ swaya:sǫh?

what you kind you.all.are.called
‘What is your name?’ (Said, for example, when asking people for their
team’s name)

(37) Dę́ˀ hoˀdę́ˀ eya:sǫ́h neˀ sanó:haˀ?

what kind she.is.called the your.mother
‘What is your mother’s (female relative’s) name?’

(38) Í:ˀ gęh sgí:dǫh?

I Q you.mean.me
‘Do you mean me?’

(39) Nę: ne:ˀ í:s?

this it.is me
‘What about you?’

(40) John ní:ˀ gyá:sǫh.

John I I.am.called
‘My name is John.’

(41) naming someone (use names in place of the ellipses)

a. … gyá:sǫh ‘I am called …’
cf. g-yá:s-ǫh 1s.a-named-stat
b. … akníyasǫh ‘we two are called …’
c. … agwáyasǫh ‘we all are called …’
d. … agwayasǫ́hǫnyǫh ‘we all are called …’
cf. agwa-yas-ǫ́-h-ǫny-ǫh 1p.p-named-distr-euph.h-distr-stat
e. … kniyá:sǫh, tniyá:sǫh ‘we two are called …’
f. … dwayá:sǫh ‘we all are called …’ (referring to a team name)
g. … dwayasǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫh ‘we all are called …’ (referring to a list of names)
h. … syá:sǫh ‘you (singular) are called …’
i. … sniyá:sǫh ‘you two are called …’

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 D.14 Greetings, origins, and affiliations

j. … swayá:sǫh ‘you all are called …’ (referring to a team name)

k. … swayasǫ̱hǫ́:nyǫh ‘you all are called …’ (referring to a list of names)
l. … gayá:sǫh ‘it is called …’
m. … hayá:sǫh ‘he is called …’
n. … eyá:sǫh ‘she is called …’
o. … gadíyasǫh ‘they (animals) are called …’ (referring to a team name)
p. … gadiyasǫ́hǫnyǫh ‘they (animals) are called …’ (referring to a list of
names)
q. … hadíyasǫh ‘they (males) are called …’ (referring to a team name)
r. … hadiyasǫ́hǫnyǫh ‘they (males) are called …’ (referring to a list of
names)
s. … gáeyasǫh ‘they (females or mixed) are called …’ (referring to a team
name)
t. … gaeyasǫ́hǫnyǫh ‘they (females or mixed) are called …’ (referring to
a list of names)

D.14.5 Asking where someone comes from

(Use place names in place of the ellipses. For place names, see §D.13.)

(42) a. Gaę́ nǫdahse:?

Where you.come.from.someplace
‘Where do you come from?’
b. … nǫdá:ge:ˀ
… where.I.come.from
‘I come from …’

(43) a. Gaę hǫ́: nǫdi:se:nǫ:?

which place where.you.originate.from
‘Where are you from?’
b. … nǫtgé:nǫ:
… where.I.originate.from
‘I am from …’

(44) a. Gaę hǫ́: disahdęgyǫ:?

which place you.come.from.there
‘Where are you from?’

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D Thematic dictionary

b. … dwagáhdęgyǫ:
… I.come.from.there
‘I am from …’

(45) a. Gaę hǫ́: tsiˀdrǫˀ?

which place you.dwell.there
‘Where do you live?’
b. … shęh tgiˀdrǫˀ
… that I.dwell.there
‘… is where I live.’

D.15 Numbers and money

The information in this section is mainly from chapter 7 of Mithun & Henry (1984: 73–
80).

D.15.1 Counting to 10

sga:t ‘one’ hyéiˀ ‘six’

dekni: ‘two’ já:dahk ‘seven’
ahsęh ‘three’ degrǫˀ ‘eight’
géi ‘four’ gyo̱hdǫ: ‘nine’
hwíhs ‘five’ wa̱hshę: ‘ten’

D.15.2 Multiples of 10

wa̱hshę: ‘10’, ‘ten’ ⌊w-ahsh-ę:⌋ 3s.a- géi niwáhshę: ‘40’, ‘four tens’
count.stat hwíhs niwáhshę: ‘50’, ‘five tens’
dewáhshę: ‘20’, ‘two tens’ ⌊de-w-áhsh-
hyéiˀ niwáhshę: ‘60’, ‘six tens’
ę:⌋ du-3s.a-count.stat
ja:dáhk niwáhshę: ‘70’, ‘seven tens’
niwáhshę: ‘some tens’ ⌊ni-w-áhsh-ę:⌋
part-3s.a-count.stat degrǫ́ˀ niwáhshę: ‘80’, ‘eight tens’
ahsę́ niwáhshę: ‘30’, ‘three tens’ gyo̱hdǫ́: niwáhshę: ‘90’, ‘nine tens’

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 D.15 Numbers and money

D.15.3 Multiples of 100

sgá:t dewę́ˀnyawe:ˀ ‘100’, ‘one hundred’ géi na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘400’, ‘four hun-
sgá:t ‘one’ ⌊de-w-ę́-ˀny-a-we:ˀ⌋ du- dreds’
3s.a-srf-finger-joinerA-verb.stat hwíhs na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘500’, ‘five
dekní: dewę́ˀnyawe:ˀ ‘200’, ‘two hun- hundreds’
dred’ dekní: ‘two’ ⌊de-w-ę́-ˀny-a- hyeíˀ na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘600’, ‘six hun-
we:ˀ⌋ du-3s.a-srf-finger-joinerA- dreds’
verb.stat ja:dáhk na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘700’, ‘seven
na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘some hundreds’ hundreds’
⌊na̱ˀde-w-ę̱ -ˀny-á:-we:ˀ⌋ part.du-3s.a- degrǫ́ˀ na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘800’, ‘eight
srf-finger-joinerA-verb.stat hundreds’
ahsę́ na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘300’, ‘three gyo̱hdǫ́: na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘900’, ‘nine
hundreds’ hundreds’

D.15.4 Multiples of 1000

na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘some hundreds’ [hwíhs niwahshę́:] na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ

‘5000’, ‘fifty hundreds’
wa̱hshę́: na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘1000’, ‘ten
hundreds’ [hyéiˀ niwahshę́:] na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ
‘6000’, ‘sixty hundreds’
dewahshę́: na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ ‘2000’,
[ja:dáhk niwahshę́:] na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ
‘twenty hundreds’
‘7000’, ‘seventy hundreds’
[ahsę́ niwahshę́:] na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ [degrǫ́ˀ niwahshę́:] na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ
‘3000’, ‘thirty hundreds’ ‘8000’, ‘eighty hundreds’
[géi niwahshę́:] na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ [gyo̱hdǫ́: niwahshę́:] na̱ˀdewę̱ˀnyá:we:ˀ
‘4000’, ‘fourty hundreds’ ‘9000’, ‘ninety hundreds’

D.15.5 Ordinal numbers

Ordinal numbers describe a position in a series of numbers.

dawá:gyę:ht ‘first’ ⌊d-a-w-á:gyę:ht⌋ cis- srf-resemble-caus-hab

fac-3s.a-start.with.ø.punc dekní: wadǫ́ˀtaˀ ‘second’
gyogyę́hdǫh ‘first’ ⌊g-yo-gyę́:hd-ǫh⌋ ahsę́h wadǫ́ˀtaˀ ‘third’
cis-3s.p-start.with-stat hesgá:gǫ:t ‘last’ ⌊hes-gá:-gǫ:t⌋
wadǫ́ˀtaˀ ‘second’ ⌊w-ad-ǫ́-ˀt-ha⌋ 3s.a- transl.rep-3s.a-persevere. stat

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D.15.6 Once, twice, three times

The following words functioning as “adverbs of time” are thematically related to the
ordinal numbers presented in §D.15.5.

hęwá:dra:s ‘times’ ⌊h-ę-w-adraˀ-hs⌋ cis- dekní: hęwá:dra:s ‘twice’, ‘two times’

fut-3s.a-meet-caus.ø.punc
sgá:t hęwá:dra:s ‘once’, ‘one time’ ahsę́h hęwá:dra:s ‘thrice’, ‘three times’

D.15.7 Money

gwę́:nihs ‘penny’ degahsiǫ́ˀtrage: ‘25¢’, ‘twenty-five

gwęni̱hsǫ́:ˀǫh ‘change’ ⌊gwęni ̱hs- cents’, ‘a quarter’ ⌊de-ga-hsiǫ́ˀtr-age:⌋
shǫ́:ˀǫh⌋ penny-plrz du-3s.a-bit-three.or.more. stat
sgagwéni̱ˀda:t ‘1¢’, ‘one penny’, ‘one geí: nigahsiǫ́ˀtrage: ‘50¢’, ‘fifty cents’
cent’ ⌊s-ga-gwéni ̱-ˀd-a:-t⌋ rep-3s.a- ⌊ni-ga-hsiǫ́ˀtr-age:⌋ part-3s.a-bit-
penny-nmlz-joinerA-stand.stat three.or.more. stat
hwíhs niyogwęníˀdage: ‘5¢’, ‘five pen- hyeíˀ nigahsiǫ́ˀtrage: ‘75¢’, ‘seventy-
nies’ ⌊ni-yo-gwęníˀd-age:⌋ part-3s.p- five cents’
penny-three.or.more. stat ohwíhsdaˀ ‘money’ ⌊o-hwíhsd-aˀ⌋ 3s.p-
hwíhsgwę́:nihs ‘5¢’, ‘a nickel’ ⌊hwíhs- money-nsf
gwę́:nihs⌋ five-penny sga̱hwíhsda:t ‘one dollar’ ⌊s-ga̱-hwíhsd-
wa̱hshę́:gwę́:nihs ‘10¢’, ‘a dime’ a:-t⌋ rep-3s.a-money-joinerA-
⌊wa̱hshę́:-gwę́:nihs⌋ ten-penny stand.stat
hwíhsga̱héˀgwę́:nihs ‘15¢’, ‘15 cents’ degahwi̱hsdá:ge: ‘two dollars’ ⌊de-
⌊hwíhs-sga̱héˀ-gwę́:nihs⌋ five-teen- ga-hwi ̱hsd-á:ge:⌋ du-3s.a-money-
penny three.or.more. stat
dewahshę́:gwę́:nihs ‘20¢’, ‘twenty ahsę́h nigahwi̱hsdá:ge: ‘three dol-
cents’ ⌊dewahshę́:-gwę́:nihs⌋ twenty- lars’ ⌊ni-ga-hwi ̱hsd-á:ge:⌋ part-3s.a-
penny money-three.or.more. stat

D.16 Government and business

Thematic headwords (in small caps) either provide the English name for a Canadian gov-
ernment organization or constitute a thematic category for grouping related words. For
single-word entries such as haihwahę́:deˀ (see below), both morpheme breakdowns and
translations are provided. In contrast, for compound entries such as Ǫgwehǫwéh Oih-
wagéhsǫˀ (see below), only the approximate translations of each word of the compound
are provided.

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 D.16 Government and business

aboriginal affairs 3ns.m.a.-matter-joinerA-set.straight-

Ǫgwehǫwéh Oihwagéhsǫˀ hab
Ǫgwehǫ:weh ‘First Nations people’ affairs
Oihwagehsǫˀ ‘affairs, statistics’ hęnahshe:dáhs oihwagéhsǫˀ ‘affairs,
statistics’
aboriginal trappers’ federation
hęnahshedahs ‘they (males) count’
Ǫgwehǫwéh Honęnigyohgwaę́ˀ Hę-
nadri̱hsdáęhęˀ oihwagehsǫˀ ‘matters’
Ǫgwehǫ:weh ‘First Nations people’ agency
honęnigyohgwaęˀ ‘their (males) crowd, gęgyohgwagéhǫˀ ‘associations’, ‘coun-
group, association’ cils’, ‘agencies’, ‘groups’ ⌊ga-igyohgw-
a-géhǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-crowd-joinerA-
hęnadri ̱hsdaęhęˀ ‘they (males) are trap-
lie.about.stat
pers’
ambassador
aboriginal education council
gonhaˀtráˀ shagogya̱ˀdanǫ̱hgwá:nih
Ǫgwehǫwéh Gaihǫnyá:ni:ˀ Hęná- ‘ambassadors’, ‘commissioners’
gye̱hęˀ
gonhaˀtraˀ ‘someone’s assistant’
Ǫgwehǫ:weh ‘First Nations people’
shagogyaˀdanǫ̱hgwa:nih ‘he represents
gaihǫnya:ni:ˀ ‘education’ people’
hęnagye̱hęˀ ‘they (males) do it’ arbitration
administer dę̱hadi:hwagé:nhaˀ ‘arbitration’
hadi:hwahę́:deˀ ‘an administration’ ⌊dę̱ -hadi-ihw-a-gé:nh-a-ˀ⌋ du.fut-
⌊hadi-ihw-a-hę:d-e-ˀ⌋ 3ns.m.a-matter- 3ns.m.a-matter-joinerA-advocate.for-
joinerA-ahead-go-stat joinerA-hab
haihwahę́:deˀ ‘he is an administra- archive
tor’ ⌊3s.m.a-matter-joinerA-ahead- oihwagá:yǫh, oihwagáyǫ̱hsǫˀ
go-stat⌋ ‘archives’ ⌊o-ihw-a-gá:y-ǫ-(hsǫˀ)⌋ 3s.p-
eihwahę́:deˀ ‘she is an administra- matter-joinerA-old.item-stat-(plrz)
tor’ 3s.fi.a-matter-joinerA-ahead-go- arm (of an organization)
stat
heganętsá:deˀ ‘an arm/branch/division’
administration building (of an organization), ‘a municipality’
ganǫhsagwę:ní:yoˀ ⌊ga-nǫhs-a- ⌊he-ga-nęts-á:deˀ⌋ transl-3s.a-arm-
gwęniyoˀ⌋ 3s.a-house-joinerA- exist.stat
principal.stat heganętsa:déˀ deyǫkiyǫhwęjáˀnya:ˀ
advisory council ‘an arm/branch/division’ (of an orga-
Tęnęˀnigǫhó:taˀ ‘they (males) make sug- nization)
gestions’ ⌊t-hęn-ę-ˀnigǫhot-haˀ⌋ cis- deyǫkiyǫhwęjaˀnya:ˀ ‘they look after
3ns.m.a-srf-suggest-habitual.stat our land’
Hadi:hwadogę́hstaˀ ‘they (males) make heganętsa:déˀ deyodekahsǫgwáhǫˀ ‘di-
things right’ ⌊hadi-ihw-a-dogę́hst-haˀ⌋ visions’ (of an organization)

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D Thematic dictionary

deyodekahsǫgwahǫˀ ‘they (objects) are assurance

divided’ adrihwagyaǫhsráˀ hadíganyaˀs ‘insur-
arts ance, assurance’
hęnagyenáhtaˀ ‘the Arts’ ⌊hęn-ag- adrihwagyaǫhsraˀ ‘disaster’
yenáht-haˀ⌋ 3ns.m.a-srf-perform-hab hadiganyaˀs ‘they (males) pay’
arts council Attorney General
Hęnagyenahtáˀ Gęgyóhgwaęˀ De̱haihwagenhasgó:wah ‘he is the At-
torney General’, ‘he is the princi-
hęnagyenahtaˀ ‘they (males) perform’
pal lawmaker’ ⌊de̱-ha-ihw-a-genha-s-
gęgyohgwaęˀ ‘association’ gó:wah⌋ du-3s.m.a-matter-joinerA-
arts foundation argue.for-hab-aug
Oihwagwe:gǫ́h Hadiya̱ˀdahsda̱hnǫ́h auditor
Honahsdí:hsdǫh hęnatwi̱hsda:nǫ́h hadíkdǫ̱haˀ
oihwagwe:gǫh ‘the whole idea’ hęnatwihsdanǫh ‘they (males) guard
the money’
hadiya̱ ˀdahsda̱ hnǫh ‘they (males)
make things’ hadikdǫ̱haˀ ‘they (males) examine it’
honahsdi:hsdǫh ‘foundation’ hęnatwi̱hsda:nǫ́h honátga̱ha:ˀ
honatga̱ ha:ˀ ‘they (males) are watch-
assembly
ing’
Honǫhwęjagwę:ní:yoˀ ‘they (males)
Auditor General
lead the land’ ⌊hon-ǫhwęj-a-
gwę:ni:yoˀ⌋ 3ns.m.p-land-joinerA- Hatwihsdanǫhgó:wah (ohę́:dǫ:) ⌊h-at-
principal.stat hwihsd-a-nǫh-gó:wah⌋ ‘he is the chief
money-guarder’ 3s.m.a-srf-money-
Assembly of First Nations joinerA-guard.stat-aug
Honǫhwęjagwę:ni:yóˀ Honęnigyohg- ohę́:dǫ: ‘ahead’
wa̱hsrǫ́:ni:
Better Business Bureau
honǫhwęjagwę:ni:yoˀ ‘assembly’ Honahdęgyaˀdǫ́h Tadidagwáihshǫhs
honęnigyohgwa̱ hsrǫ:ni: ‘they (males) honahdęgyaˀdǫh ‘business’, ‘industry’
fix groups’
tadidagwaihshǫhs ‘where they (males)
assistant keep things straight’
ęyagoyęnawáˀsyagyeˀ ‘she will go bailiff
along helping’ ⌊ę-yago-yęnawáˀsy- hǫwaihwáwa̱ˀseˀ ‘he goes and sup-
a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ fut-3s.fi.a-help-joinerA- ports him’ ⌊hǫwa-ihw-á-wa̱ˀs-e-ˀ⌋
prog-go-punc 3sg.m.hum>3sg.m-matter-joinerA-
association reinforce-go-stat
gęgyohgwagéhǫˀ ‘associations’, ‘coun- bank
cils’, ‘agencies’, ‘groups’ ⌊ga-igyohgw- ehwihsdáęda̱hkwaˀ
a-géhǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-crowd-joinerA- ⌊e-hwihsd-á-ęd-a̱-hkwaˀ⌋ 3s.fi.a-
lie.about.stat money-joinerA-put-joinerA-instr

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 D.16 Government and business

Bank of Canada bureau

Ehwihsdaęda̱hkwaˀgowáhneh ⌊e- honadrihwahsdí:hsdǫh ‘board’, ‘bu-
hwihsd-a-ęd-a̱-hkwaˀ-gowá-hneh⌋ reau’, ‘office’, ‘department’, ‘founda-
3s.fi.a-money-joinerA-put-joinerA- tion’, ‘institute’, etc. ⌊hon-ad-rihw-
instr-aug-at/on a-hsdí:hsd-ǫh⌋ 3ns.m.p-srf-matter-
joinerA-care.for-stat
bilingualism
business
degawęná:ge: ⌊de-ga-węn-á:ge:⌋ du-
3s.a-voice-certain.number.stat honahdęgyáˀdǫh ‘business’, ‘indus-
try’ ⌊hon-ahdęgyáˀd-ǫh⌋ 3ns.m.p-
Bill of Rights, Charter of Rights cause.to.leave-stat
and Freedoms
business association
Tǫwa:na:wí: Gayaˀdagęnhahsráˀ
honahdęgyaˀdǫ́h gęgyóhgwaęˀ
Gayáne̱hsraˀ
honahdęgyaˀdǫh ‘business’, ‘industry’
tǫwa:na:wi: ‘he has given us rights’
gęgyohgwaęˀ ‘association’, ‘council’,
gayaˀdagęnhahsraˀ ‘helpfulness’ ‘agency’, ‘group’
gayane̱hsraˀ ‘rights’, ‘laws’, ‘code’ Cabinet
board Gwago:wáh Gaǫgweˀdáˀ Gęgyohg-
honadrihwahsdí:hsdǫh ‘board’, ‘bu- wagéhǫˀ
reau’, ‘office’, ‘department’, ‘founda- Gwa:go:wah ‘royalty’
tion’, ‘institute’, etc. ⌊hon-ad-rihw- gaǫgweˀdaˀ ‘people’
a-hsdí:hsd-ǫh⌋ 3ns.m.p-srf-matter-
gęgyohgwagehǫˀ ‘associations’, ‘coun-
joinerA-care.for-stat
cils’, ‘agencies’, ‘groups’
bonds Canada Act
sayę́:dǫˀ ‘you own things’ ⌊sa-yę́:-d-ǫˀ⌋ Gayane̱hsráˀ Ǫgwahsháineˀ
2s.p-have-euph.d-distr.stat
gayane̱hsraˀ ‘rights’, ‘laws’, ‘code’
branch ǫgwahshaineˀ ‘they govern us’
heganętsá:deˀ ‘an arm, branch, divi- Canada Council
sion (of an organization)’, ‘a munici-
Ohwihsdáˀ Tęnáhtgaˀs
pality’ ⌊he-ga-nęts-á:deˀ⌋ transl-3s.a-
arm-exist.stat ohwihsdaˀ ‘money’
heganętsa:déˀ deyǫkiyǫhwęjáˀnya:ˀ tęnahtgaˀs ‘they (males) forfeit, let go
‘an arm, branch, division of an orga- of it’
nization’ Canada Post Corporation
deyǫkiyǫhwęjaˀnya:ˀ ‘they look after Ga̱hyadǫ̱hsranę̱hgwíh Gęgyóhgwaęˀ
our land’ ga̱ hyadǫ̱hsranęhgwih ‘post office’
heganętsa:déˀ deyodekahsǫgwáhǫˀ di- gęgyohgwaęˀ ‘corporation’
visions (of an organization) candidate
deyodekahsǫgwahǫˀ ‘they (objects) are dęhę́hda:t ⌊dę-h-ę́hda:t⌋ ‘he will run’
divided’ du.fut-3s.m.a-run.ø.punc

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D Thematic dictionary

capital city children’s aid office

Ganadagwę:ní:yoˀ ⌊ga-nada-gwę:ní:yoˀ⌋ hadiksashǫˀǫ́h de̱hǫwadíhsnyeˀ
3s.a-town-principal.stat hadiksaˀshǫ:ˀǫh ‘they (males) are chil-
census dren’
hęnadǫgweˀda̱hshé:dahs‘they (males) de̱hǫwadihsnyeˀ ‘they care for them’
count people’ ⌊hęn-ad-ǫgweˀd-a̱- citizenship
hshé:d-a-hs⌋ 3ns.m.a-srf-people-
joinerA-count-joinerA-hab de̱hǫwadídenyeˀs ‘they change
them’ ⌊de̱-hǫwadi-denyé-ˀs⌋ du-
chairman 3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-change-hab
hodrihwahsdíhsdǫh ‘he looks after mat- de̱hǫwadidenyéˀs tsę́h ni̱honǫ̱h-
ters’, ‘he takes care of business’ ⌊ho-d- wę́jo̱ˀdę:
rihw-a-hsdíhsd-ǫh⌋ 3s.m.p-srf-matter-
joinerA-care.for-stat tsę́h ‘that, what’
ni ̱honǫ̱hwę́jo̱ˀdę: ‘their kind of land’ ⌊ni ̱-
hokyęda̱hkwáhsdihsdǫh ‘he cares for
hon-ǫ̱hwę́j-o̱ˀdę:⌋ part-3ns.m.p-land-
the chair’ ⌊ho-kyęda̱hkw-á-hsdihsd-
type.of.stat
ǫh⌋ 3s.m.p-chair-joinerA-care.for-
stat coalition
Charter of Rights and Freedoms, sgęgyohgwá:t odǫ́ˀǫh
Bill of Rights sgęgyohgwa:t ‘one group’
Tǫwa:na:wí: Gayaˀdagęnhahsráˀ odǫˀǫh ‘it has become’
Gayáne̱hsraˀ
sga̱ˀnigǫ̱há:t odǫ́ˀǫh
tǫwa:na:wi: ‘he has given us rights’
sga̱ ˀnigǫ̱ha:t ‘one mind’
gayaˀdagęnhahsraˀ ‘helpfulness’
de̱hodi:hwáęda̱ˀseh ‘coalition’ ⌊de̱-
gayane̱hsraˀ ‘rights’ hodi-ihw-á-ęd-a̱-ˀse-h⌋ du-3ns.m.p-
chief matter-joinerA-lie-joinerA-distr-
hadigowá:nęˀs ‘they (males) are big’ hab
⌊hadi-gowá:n-ę-ˀs⌋ 3ns.m.a-big-stat- code
pl gayáne̱hsraˀ ‘rights’, ‘laws’, ‘code’ ⌊ga-
Chief Justice yáne̱hsr-aˀ⌋ 3s.a-rights-nsf
Shagodęnyéhtaˀgo:wah ‘he is our prin- gayane̱hsráˀgeh ‘rights’, ‘laws’, ‘code’
ciple judger’ ⌊shago-dęnyéht-haˀ- ⌊ga-yáne̱hsr-aˀgeh⌋ 3s.a-rights-on
go:wah⌋ 3ms:3fi/3p.p-judge-hab-aug commissioner
child welfare gonhaˀtráˀ shagogya̱ˀdanǫ̱hgwá:nih
eksaˀshǫ:ˀǫ́h hǫwadihswáˀnetaˀ ‘ambassadors’, ‘commissioners’
eksaˀshǫ:ˀǫh ‘they (fe/males) are chil- gonhaˀtraˀ ‘someone’s assistant’
dren’ shagogyaˀdanǫ̱hgwa:nih ‘he represents
hǫwadihswaˀnetaˀ ‘they support them’ people’

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 D.16 Government and business

consensus council
degaihwáędaˀs ⌊de-ga-ihw-á-ęd-a-ˀs⌋ gęgyóhgwaęˀ ‘association’, ‘council’,
du-3s.a-matter-joinerA-lie.down- ‘agency’, ‘group’ ⌊ga-igyóhgw-a-ęˀ⌋
joinerA-hab 3s.a-crowd-joinerA-lie.stat
conservation gęgyohgwagéhǫˀ ‘associations’, ‘coun-
dehęnǫhwę́ja̱hsnyeˀ ‘they (males) care cils’, ‘agencies’, ‘groups’ ⌊ga-igyohgw-
for the land)’ a-géhǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-crowd-joinerA-
⌊de-hęn-ǫhwę́j-a̱-hsnye-ˀ⌋ du-3ns.m.a- congregate.stat
land-joinerA-care.for-hab country
honǫhwęjátga̱ha:ˀ ‘they (males) odǫhwęjá:deˀ ‘existing land’ ⌊o-d-
look after the land’ ⌊hon-ǫhwęj- ǫhwęj-á:deˀ⌋ 3s.p-srf-land-exist.stat
á-tga̱h-a:ˀ⌋ 3ns.m.p-land-joinerA- courts
pay.attention.to-hab Hadihahsęˀda̱hkwaˀgowáhgeh ‘where
Constitution the main counsellors are’ ⌊hadi-
Gayane̱hsraˀgó:wah ⌊ga-yane̱hsr-aˀ- hahsęˀd-a̱-hkwaˀ-gowá-hgeh⌋
gó:wah⌋ 3s.a-law-nsf-aug 3ns.m.a-counsel-joinerA-instr-aug-
at/on
Constitution Act
hadihahshę́ˀda̱hkwaˀ ⌊hadi-hahsęˀd-
Ga̱hyadǫhsragwę:ní:yoˀ ⌊ga̱-hyadǫhsr- a̱-hkwaˀ⌋ 3ns.m.a-counsel-joinerA-
a-gwę:ní:yoˀ⌋ 3s.a-paper-joinerA- instr
principal.stat
courthouse
Consumer’s Affairs
de̱hadihahsędáhkwaˀ ⌊de̱-hadi-
Ga̱hninǫ̱hnyǫ́ˀ Odedagwaihsǫ́hagyeˀ hahsęˀd-a̱-hkwaˀ⌋ du-3ns.m.a-
ga̱ hninǫhnyǫˀ ‘consumption, pur- counsel-joinerA-instr
chased items’ crown
odedagwaihsǫhagyeˀ ‘it is being gwa:gó:wah ‘royalty’, ‘king’, ‘queen’,
straightened out’ ‘the crown’
corporation Crown corporation
de̱honagyéhsdǫh ‘they (males) stir Gwa:go:wáh De̱honagyéhsdǫh
things together’ ⌊de̱-hon-ag-yéhsd- gwa:go:wah ‘royalty’
ǫh⌋ du-3ns.m.p-srf-mix.together- de̱honagyehsdǫh ‘a corporation’
stat
Crown Council
correctional services
Gwa:go:wáh Deshagodihwagé:nhahs
ǫdadęnhodǫ̱hkwáˀ oíhwa̱ˀgeh gwa:go:wah ‘royalty’
ǫdadęnhodǫ̱hkwaˀ ‘jail’, ‘prison’ deshagodihwage:nhahs ‘they argue for
oihwa̱ ˀgeh ‘the reason/idea for some- us’
thing’ CSIS (canadian security intelli-
counselor gence service)
haháhshęhęˀ ‘he gives advice’ ⌊ha- dehadinęhędá:s honadri̱hwahse̱hdǫ́h
háhshę-hęˀ⌋ 3s.m.a-give.advice-hab ohwęjáę:dǫnyǫˀ ‘intelligence agency’,

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D Thematic dictionary

‘spy agency’ director

dehadinęhęda:s ‘they (males) are gohsdíhsdǫh ‘she is a director, principal,
guards’ head’ ⌊go-hsdíhsd-ǫh⌋ 3s.fi.a-care.for-
honadri ̱hwahse̱hdǫh ‘they are secre- stat
tive’ hohsdíhsdǫh ‘he is a director, principal,
ohwęjaę:dǫnyǫˀ ‘lands’, ‘countries’ head’ ⌊ho-hsdíhsd-ǫh⌋ 3s.m.a-care.for-
stat
Cultural Affairs
gaihǫnya:ní:ˀ gohsdíhsdǫh ‘she is an ed-
Tiyǫgweˀdadejíh Goíhwageh ucation director’
Tiyǫgweˀdadejih ‘culture’ gaihǫnya:ni:ˀ ‘education’
goihwageh ‘someone’s affairs’ owę:náˀ hohsdíhsdǫh ‘he is a language
culture director’
Tiyǫgweˀdadejíh ⌊ti-y-ǫgweˀd-ade-jíh⌋ owę:naˀ ‘word’
contr-3s.p-person-exist.stat-ints degahsnyeˀǫ́:ˀ hosdíhsdǫh ‘he is a main-
curator tenance director’
ekdǫda̱hkwaˀgéh hohsdíhsdǫh degahsnyeˀǫ:ˀ ‘it cleans up’

ekdǫda̱ hkwaˀgeh ‘museum’ degaǫdohdá:s ohę́:dǫ: ‘maintenance di-

rector’
hohsdihsdǫh ‘he is a director’
degaǫdohda:s ‘they (fe/males) tidy up’
department
ohę:dǫ: ‘head’, ‘lead’
honadrihwahsdí:hsdǫh ‘board’, ‘bu-
gaihwaohǫ́:ˀ hohsdíhsdǫh ‘he is a re-
reau’, ‘office’, ‘department’, ‘foun-
search director’
dation’, ‘institute’ ⌊hon-ad-rihw-
a-hsdí:hsd-ǫh⌋ 3ns.m.p-srf-matter- gaihwaohǫ:ˀ ‘gathered news or ideas’
joinerA-care.for-stat division (of an organization)
Department of Energy and Mines heganętsá:deˀ ‘an arm, branch, divi-
Ohwęjagéh Wahdęgyˀatáˀ Ohwęjagǫh- sion (of an organization)’, ‘a munici-
sǫ́ˀ Honadrihwahsdí:hsdǫh pality’ ⌊he-ga-nęts-á:deˀ⌋ transl-3s.a-
arm-exist.stat
ohwęjageh ‘on earth’
heganętsa:déˀ deyǫkiyǫhwęjáˀnya:ˀ
wahdęgyaˀtaˀ ‘a starter’
‘an arm, branch, division of an orga-
ohwęjagǫhsǫˀ ‘under the earth’ nization’
honadrihwahsdi:hsdǫh ‘department’ deyǫkiyǫhwęjaˀnya:ˀ ‘they look after
development our land’

hodisrǫníhagyeˀ ‘they (males) are de- heganętsa:déˀ deyodekahsǫgwáhǫˀ ‘di-

veloping it’ ⌊hodi-hsrǫní-h-a-gy-e-ˀ⌋ visions (of an organization)’
3ns.m.p-make-euph.h-joinerA-prog- deyodekahsǫgwahǫˀ ‘they (objects) are
go-stat divided’

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 D.16 Government and business

economic development (office) employee

ohę:dǫ́: haˀwatahi:néˀ gotganǫ- senháˀtraˀ ‘you are an employee’ ⌊s-e-
níhagyeˀ nháˀtr-aˀ⌋ 2s.a-joinerE-hired.person-
ohę:dǫ: ‘ahead’, ‘lead’ nsf
haˀwatahi:néˀ ‘it is walking there’ Employment and Immigration, Hu-
man Resources Development
gotganǫníhagyeˀ ‘prosperity’
Hęnadęnháˀs De̱hęnadǫgwˀedá-
education (postsecondary)
denyeˀs
he:tgę́h tga:déh hęnadewáyę̱hstaˀ
hęnadęnhaˀs ‘they (males) order it’
‘higher learning’, ‘postsecondary ed-
ucation’ de̱hęnadǫgwˀedadenyeˀs ‘human devel-
opment’, ‘people are changed’
he:tgęˀ tga:deˀ ‘it is superior’
employment office
hęnadewayęhstaˀ ‘they (males) are
learners’ De̱hadihoˀdę̱hsragwęní:yoˀ ‘their
(males) main work place’ ⌊de̱-hadi-
elect, election
hoˀdę̱ hsr-a-gwęní:yoˀ⌋ du-3ns.m.a-
dęhęnęnigyo̱hgwagę́:niˀ ‘they will have work.place-principal.stat
an election’ ⌊dę-hęn-ęn-igyo̱hgw-a-
environment
gę́:ni-ˀ⌋ du.fut-3ns.m.a-srf-crowd-
joinerA-compete-punc tsę́h niyohdǫ̱hǫgyéˀ tsę́h hǫhwę-
jadá:dǫh
dęhsęnigyohgwagę́:niˀ ‘you will vote,
cast lots’ ⌊dęhsęnigyohgwagę́:niˀ⌋ tsęh niyohdǫ̱hǫgyeˀ ‘what it is like’
du.fut-2s.a-srf-crowd-joinerA- tsęh hǫhwęjadadǫh ‘that he has created
compete-punc the earth’
hǫsáˀhǫwadiyáˀdinyǫ:t ‘they re- federal
elected him, them’ ⌊hǫsáˀ- hadigowáhsǫˀ ‘they (males) are big’
hǫwadi-yáˀd-inyǫ:t⌋ cis.rep.fac- ⌊hadi-gowáh-shǫˀ⌋ 3ns.m.a-big.stat-
3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-body-put.in.ø.punc plrz
sahǫwaditsgó:dęˀ ‘they re-elected him, federation
them’ ⌊sa-hǫwadi-tsg-ó:d-ęˀ⌋ rep.fac-
degęnadawęnyeˀtaˀgéh ‘place where
3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-lower.body-
things are stirred up’ ⌊de-gęn-
put.in-punc
ad-awęnyeˀt-haˀ-géh⌋ du-3p.a-srf-
ahǫwaditsó:dęˀ ‘they elected him, get.stirred-up-hab-on
them’ ⌊ahǫwaditsó:dęˀ⌋ fac-
fish and wildlife
3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-lower.body-
put.in-punc ganadadwę:ni:yóˀ gadí:nyo:ˀ
haˀha:yǫ́ˀ né:ˀ tó ahǫwadi:tsgó:dęˀ ‘they gęnadadwę:ni:yoˀ ‘they (animals) are
elected him, them’ wild’
haˀha:yǫ́ˀ ‘he scored’ gadi:nyo:ˀ ‘wild animals’
ne:ˀ tó ahǫwadi:tsgó:dęˀ ‘it is that they forest industry
(males) elected him, them’ hadiˀnhahgyáˀs honahdęgyáˀdǫh

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D Thematic dictionary

hadiˀnhahgyaˀs ‘they (males) cut down oihwa̱ ˀgeh ‘the reason, the idea for
the forest’ something’
honahdęgyaˀdǫh ‘industry’ Health Canada
foundation adaˀgaedę̱hsráˀ dehodí:hwa̱hja:ˀ
honadrihwahsdí:hsdǫh ‘board’, ‘bu- adagaide̱hsraˀ ‘health’
reau’, ‘office’, ‘department’, ‘founda- dehodi:hwa̱ htsˀa:ˀ ‘they (males) are
tion’, ‘institute’, etc. ⌊hon-ad-rihw- earning, fulfilling it’
a-hsdí:hsd-ǫh⌋ 3ns.m.p-srf-matter-
higher education
joinerA-care.for-stat
he:tgę́h tga:déh hęnadewáyę̱hstaˀ
govern
‘higher learning’, ‘postsecondary ed-
ǫgwahsháineˀ ‘we all are governed’ ucation’
⌊ǫgwa-sháineˀ⌋ 1p.p-governed.stat
he:tgęˀ tga:deˀ ‘it is superior’
government
hęnadewayęhstaˀ ‘they (males) are
deyǫkiyǫhwęjáˀnya:ˀ ‘they look after learners’
our land’, ‘they take care of business’
House of Commons, Legislature
(refers to a title, an office) ⌊de-yǫki-
y-ǫhwęj-á-ˀnya-:ˀ⌋ du-3fis/3ns:1ns- hęnagyędahkwáˀ hadiyanęhsrǫ́:nih
euph.y-land-joinerA-govern-hab hęnagyędahkwaˀ ‘their (males) chair’
Governor General, Prime Minis- hadiyanęhsrǫ:nih ‘they (males) make
ter the laws’
gwa:go:wáh gonháˀtraˀ Human Resources Development,
gwa:go:wah ‘royalty’ Employment and Immigration
gonhaˀtraˀ ‘someone’s assistant’ Hęnadęnháˀs De̱hęnadǫgwˀedá-
denyeˀs
grant
hęnadęnhaˀs ‘they (males) order it’
hǫwadi̱hwíhsdawihs ‘a subsidy’,
‘a grant’ ⌊hǫwadi ̱-hwíhsd-awi-hs⌋ de̱hęnadǫgweˀdadenyeˀs ‘human devel-
3ms/fis:3m,3ns:3m-money-give-hab opment’, ‘people are changed’
group Human Rights Commission
gęgyohgwagéhǫˀ ‘associations’, ‘coun- Heyǫgweˀda:gwe:gǫ́h Goyane̱hsraę́ˀ
cils’, ‘agencies’, ‘groups’ ⌊ga-igyohgw- Gęgyóhgwaęˀ
a-géhǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-crowd-joinerA- heyǫgweˀda:gwe:gǫh ‘all humans ev-
congregate.stat erywhere’
honęnigyóhgwaęˀ ‘their groups lying goyane̱hsraęˀ ‘someone’s laws, rights’
there’ ⌊hon-ęn-igyóhgw-a-ęˀ⌋ 3ns.m.p- gęgyohgwaęˀ ‘association’ (etc.)
srf-group-joinerA-lie.stat
industry
health
honahdęgyáˀdǫh ‘business’, ‘indus-
Adaˀgaidę̱hsráˀ Oíhwa̱ˀgeh try’ ⌊hon-ahdęgyáˀd-ǫh⌋ 3ns.m.p-
adagaide̱hsraˀ ‘health’ cause.to.leave-stat

1078
 D.16 Government and business

Inspector General justice

Hakdohaˀgó:wah ‘he is the main in- gaihwa̱hsrǫ́:nih ‘justice’, ‘rules’
spector’ ⌊ha-kdo-haˀ-gó:wah⌋ 3s.m.a- ⌊ga-ihw-a̱-hsrǫ́:ni-h⌋ 3s.a-matter-
examine-hab-aug joinerA-fix-hab
institute king
honadrihwahsdí:hsdǫh ‘board’, ‘bu- gwa:gó:wah ‘royalty’, ‘king’, ‘queen’,
reau’, ‘office’, ‘department’, ‘founda- ‘the crown’
tion’, ‘institute’, etc. ⌊hon-ad-rihw- hǫwadigwa:gó:wah ‘their king’
a-hsdí:hsd-ǫh⌋ 3ns.m.p-srf-matter- ⌊hǫwadi-gwa:gó:wah⌋ 3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-
joinerA-care.for-stat king
insurance labour board
adrihwagyaǫhsráˀ hadíganyaˀs ‘insur- gaihoˀdęhsráˀ gayane̱hsráˀ hadíhsreˀ
ance’, ‘assurance’
gaihoˀdęhsraˀ ‘work’
adrihwagyaǫhsraˀ ‘disaster’
gayane̱hsraˀ ‘rights, laws’, etc.
hadiganyaˀs ‘they (males) pay’
hadihsreˀ ‘they (males) follow’
intelligence agency
labour relations board
ohsǫdagǫ́hsǫˀ ‘an intelligence agency’
⌊o-hsǫd-agǫ́-hsǫˀ⌋ 3s.p-darkness-in- gaihoˀdęhsráˀ gayane̱hsráˀ honádihs-
plrz dǫh
dehadinęhędá:s honadri̱hwahse̱hdǫ́h gaihoˀdęhsraˀ ‘work’
ohwęjáędǫnyǫˀ ‘intelligence agency’, gayane̱hsraˀ ‘rights’, ‘laws’, etc.
‘spy agency’ honahsdi:hsdǫh ‘foundation’, ‘board’,
dehadinęhęda:s ‘they (males) are etc.
guards’ land
honadri ̱hwahse̱hdǫh ‘they (males) are sa̱hwę́:jaˀ, sǫ̱hwę́:jaˀ, saǫhwę́:jaˀ
secretive’ ‘your land/property/real estate’ ⌊s(a)-
ohwęjáędǫnyǫˀ ‘various lands, coun- (ǫ)hwę́:j-aˀ⌋ 2s.p-land-nsf
tries’ land claim
jail hęnǫhwęjáhsgenhahs ‘they (males)
ǫdadęnhódǫ̱hkwaˀ ‘jail’, ‘prison’ ⌊ǫ- contest land’ ⌊hęn-ǫhwęj-á-
dadę-nhódǫ̱hkw-haˀ⌋ 3s.fi.a-refl- hsgenh-a-hs⌋ 3ns.m.a-land-joinerA-
locked.up-hab compete.for-joinerA-hab
judge land owner, land title
shagodęnyéhtaˀ ‘he judges us’ ⌊shago- honǫhwęjáę:dǫˀ ‘land owners’,
dę-nyéht-haˀ⌋ 3ms:3fi/3p.p-srf-judge- ‘land titles’ ⌊hon-ǫhwęj-á-ę:-d-ǫˀ⌋
hab 3ns.m.p-land-joinerA-have-euph.d-
jury distr.stat
deshagodiya̱ˀdówe̱htaˀ ‘they think honǫhwęjáhsnǫˀ ‘land titles’ ⌊hon-
about us’ ⌊de-shagodi-ya̱ˀdówe̱ht-haˀ⌋ ǫhwęj-á-hsn-ǫˀ⌋ 3ns.m.p-land-
du-3ns(nfi):3fi-think.about-hab joinerA-look.after-distr.stat

1079
D Thematic dictionary

law hęnagyędahkwaˀ ‘their (males) chair’

gayáne̱hsraˀ ‘rights’, ‘laws’, ‘code’ ⌊ga- hadiyanęhsrǫ́:nih ‘they (males) make
yáne̱hsr-aˀ⌋ 3s.a-rights-nsf the laws’
gayane̱hsráˀgeh ‘rights’, ‘laws’, ‘code’ licensing and control board
⌊ga-yáne̱hsr-aˀgeh⌋ 3s.a-rights-on hǫwadi̱hyadǫhsra:wíhs gayane̱h-
lawmaker sráˀgeh
gaeyanehsrǫ́:nih ‘lawmakers’ ⌊gae- hǫwadi ̱hyadǫhsra:wihs ‘licensing
yanehsr-ǫ́:ni-h⌋ 3ns.fi.a-laws-make- body’
hab gayane̱hsraˀgeh ‘rights’ (etc.)
swayane̱hsrǫ́:nih ‘you’re a lawmaker’
licensing body
⌊swa-yane̱hsr-ǫ́:ni-h⌋ 2s.a-laws-make-
hab hǫwadi̱hyadǫhsrá:wihs ⌊hǫwadi ̱-
hyadǫhsr-á:wi-hs⌋ ‘they (males) give
lawyer, attorney
them (males) paper’ 3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-
de̱haihwágenhahs ‘he is a lawyer’ paper-give-hab
⌊de̱-ha-ihw-á-genh-a-hs⌋ du-
Member of Parliament, MLA, etc.
3s.m.a-matter-joinerA-advocate.for-
joinerA-hab Hanháˀtraˀ ⌊ha-nháˀtr-aˀ⌋ ‘he is
de̱hadihwágenhas ‘they (males) a member of parliament’ 3s.m.a-
are lawyers’ ⌊de̱-hadi-hw-á-genh- employed.person-nsf
a-hs⌋ du-3ns.m.a-matter-joinerA- Hadinhaˀtraˀsǫ́:ˀǫh ‘they (males) are
advocate.for-joinerA-hab employees’, etc. ⌊hadi-nhaˀtr-aˀ-
de̱haihwagenhahsgó:wah ‘he is the shǫ́:ˀǫh⌋ 3ns.m.a-employed.person-
Attorney General’ ⌊de̱-ha-ihw-a- nsf-plrz
genh-a-hs-gó:wah⌋ du-3s.m.a-matter- minister
joinerA-advocate.for-joinerA-hab- gonháˀtra̱ˀsǫˀ ‘they (fe/males) are min-
aug isters’ ⌊go-nháˀtr-a̱ˀ-shǫˀ⌋ 3s.fi.a-
leader employed.person-nsf-plrz
hǫwadigówanęh ‘their leader’ ⌊hǫwadi- hadinhaˀtráˀshǫˀ ‘they (males) are min-
gówan-ęh⌋ 3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-big- isters or aides’ ⌊hadi-nhaˀtr-áˀ-shǫˀ⌋
stat 3ns.m.a-employed.person-nsf-plrz
shedwagowá:nęh ‘he is our leader’ gwa:go:wáh gonháˀtraˀ ‘Governor Gen-
⌊shedwa-gowá:n-ęh⌋ 1inp:3ms-big- eral’, ‘Prime Minister’
stat gwa:go:wah ‘royalty’, etc.
shagohę:dǫ́: (gyohwę́jadeˀ) ‘leader’ (of
gonhaˀtraˀ ‘someone’s assistant’
a land, country, or territory)
ministry
shagohę:dǫ: ‘a leader’
hǫwadishahsdęhsrá:wi: ‘they (males)
gyǫhwęjadeˀ ‘existing land’
give them power’ ⌊hǫwadi-
Legislature, House of Commons shahsdęhsr-á:wi-:⌋ 3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-
Hęnagyędahkwáˀ Hadiyanęhsrǫ́:nih power-give-stat

1080
 D.16 Government and business

multilingualism to a title, an office) ⌊de-yǫki-y-ǫhwęj-

taˀdegawę́nage: ‘all kinds of languages’, á-ˀnya-:ˀ⌋ du-3fis/3ns:1ns-euph.y-
‘multilingualism’ ⌊taˀde-ga-wę́n-age:⌋ land-joinerA-watch.over-hab
contr.du-3s.a-voice-number.of.stat ombudsman
municipal enháˀtraˀ ‘ombudsman’, etc. ⌊e-nháˀtr-
aˀ⌋ 3s.fi.a-employed.person-nsf
hadihahshę́hęˀ ‘they (males) are mu-
nicipal’ ⌊hadi-hahshę́-hęˀ⌋ 3ns.m.a- Parliament
counsel-hab Ganǫhsowanę̱hgó:wah ‘great, princi-
municipality pal house’ ⌊ga-nǫhs-owan-ę̱ h-gó:wah⌋
3s.a-house-big-stat-aug
heganętsá:de ‘an arm/branch/division’
(of an organization), ‘a municipality’ hadiyanehsrǫ́:nih ‘a governing body’,
⌊he-ga-nęts-á:deˀ⌋ transl-3s.a-arm- ‘Parliament’ ⌊hadi-yanehsr-ǫ́:ni-h⌋
exist.stat 3ns.m.a-law-make-hab
national people’s council
heyǫhwęja:gwé:gǫh ‘lands everywhere’ ǫgwéh heyeihwa̱hwinyǫ́ˀta̱ˀgeh
⌊he-y-ǫhwęj-a:-gwé:g-ǫh⌋ transl- ǫ:gweh ‘person’
3s.a-land-joinerA-all-stat heyeihwa̱ hwinyǫ́ˀta̱ ˀgeh ‘someone puts
natural resources in ideas’
gawayęnahtá:ˀ ohwęjagéhge̱ha:ˀ postsecondary education,
higher learning
gawayęnahta:ˀ ‘resources’
he:tgę́h tga:déh hęnadewáyę̱hstaˀ
ohwęjagehge̱ha:ˀ ‘earthly things’
‘higher learning’, ‘postsecondary ed-
nature ucation’
nahawayę́nanheˀ ‘his finished creation’ he:tgęˀ tga:deˀ ‘it is superior’
⌊na-ha-wayę́n-a-nh-e-ˀ⌋ part.fac- hęnadewayęhstaˀ ‘they (males) are
3s.m.a-finish-joinerA-disl-go-punc learners’
office Premier
honadrihwahsdí:hsdǫh ‘board’, ‘bu- Ohędǫ̱hgó:wah (neˀ) ‘Premier (of)’ ⌊o-
reau’, ‘office’, ‘department’, ‘founda- hęd-ǫ̱h-gó:wah⌋ 3s.p-lead-stat-aug
tion’, ‘institute’, etc. ⌊hon-ad-rihw-
neˀ ‘the’
a-hsdí:hsd-ǫh⌋ 3ns.m.p-srf-matter-
joinerA-care.for-stat preservation, conservation
deyǫkiyǫhwęhjáhsnyeˀ ‘they look after de̱hęnǫhwę́ja̱hsnyeˀ ‘land preserva-
our land’ (refers to a title, an office) tion’, ‘land conservation’ ⌊de̱-hęn-
⌊de-yǫki-y-ǫhwęhj-á-hsnye-ˀ⌋ du- ǫhwę́j-a̱-hsnye-ˀ⌋ du-3ns.m.a-land-
3fis/3ns:1ns-euph.y-land-joinerA- joinerA-care.for-hab
care.for-hab president
deyǫkiyǫhwęjáˀnya:ˀ ‘they look after shagohę:dǫ́: gyohwę́jadeˀ ‘leader’ (of a
our land, take care of business’ (refers land, country, or territory)

1081
D Thematic dictionary

shagohę:dǫ: ‘he leads us’ provincial

gyǫhwęjadeˀ ‘existing land’ hadi:gó:wahs ‘they (males) are
Hanadagá:nyahs ‘the President of the provincial’ ⌊hadi:-gó:wa-ˀs⌋ 3ns.m.a-
United States’ ⌊ha-nada-gá:ny-a-hs⌋ big.stat-pl
3s.m.a-town-destroy-joinerA-hab re-elect
Prime Minister, Governor Gen- hǫsáˀhǫwadiyáˀdinyǫ:t ‘they re-
eral elected him, them’ ⌊hǫsáˀ-hǫwadi-
gwa:go:wáh gonháˀtraˀ yáˀd-inyǫ:t⌋ cis.rep.fac-3ms/fis:-
gwa:go:wah ‘royalty’, etc. 3mns,3ns:3m-body-put.in.ø.punc
gonhaˀtraˀ ‘someone’s assistant’ real estate
shagohę:dǫ́: gyohwę́jadeˀ ‘leader’ (of a sa̱hwę́:jaˀ, sǫ̱hwę́:jaˀ, saǫhwę́:jaˀ
land, country, or territory) ‘your land/property/real estate’ ⌊s(a)-
(ǫ)hwę́:j-aˀ⌋ 2s.p-land-nsf
shagohę:dǫ: ‘he leads us’
Receiver General
gyǫhwęjadeˀ ‘existing land’
Hatwihsdanǫhgó:wah (ohę́:dǫ:) ⌊h-at-
principal
hwihsd-a-nǫh-gó:wah⌋ 3s.m.a-srf-
gohsdíhsdǫh ‘director’, ‘principal’, money-joinerA-guard.stat-aug
‘head’, etc. ⌊go-hsdíhsd-ǫh⌋ 3s.fi.p-
ohę́:dǫ: ‘ahead’
care.for-stat
prison resources

ǫdadęnhódǫ̱hkwaˀ ‘jail’, ‘prison’ ⌊ǫ- ǫhwęja̱ˀgéhge̱ha:ˀ ‘earthly things’,

dadę-nhódǫ̱hkw-haˀ⌋ 3s.fi.a-refl- ‘resources’ ⌊ǫhwęj-a̱ˀgéh-ge̱ha:ˀ⌋
locked.up-hab ø.prefix.land-on-typ
Privy Council right
Gwa:go:wáh Hǫwadi̱hnyaˀsodáhǫh tsǫgwá:wi: ‘what he has given us’,
‘rights’ ⌊tsǫgw-á:wi-:⌋ rep.3ms:1p-give-
Gwa:go:wah ‘royalty’, etc.
stat
Hǫwadi ̱hnyaˀsodáhǫh ⌊hǫwadi ̱-
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
hnyaˀs-odah-ǫh⌋ ‘they(males)
put a responsibility on them Shagodiyena̱hsgó:wah ⌊shagodi-yen-
(males)’ 3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-neck- a̱-hs-gó:wah⌋ 3ns(nfi):3fi-help-
drape.over-stat joinerA-hab-aug
property royalty
sa̱hwę́:jaˀ, sǫ̱hwę́:jaˀ, saǫhwę́:jaˀ ‘your gwa:gó:wah ‘royalty’, ‘king’, ‘queen’,
land, property, real estate’ ⌊s(a)- ‘the crown’
(ǫ)hwę́:j-aˀ⌋ 2s.p-land-nsf hǫwadigwa:gó:wah ‘their king’
province ⌊hǫwadi-gwa:gó:wah⌋ 3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-
deyǫhwęjakahsǫ́:gwęh ⌊de-y-ǫhwęj-a- royalty
kahsǫ́:gw-ęh⌋ du-3s.p-land-joinerA- gaegowáhsǫˀ ‘they are royalty’ ⌊gae-
divide-stat gowáh-shǫˀ⌋ 3ns.fi.a-big.stat-plrz

1082
 D.16 Government and business

rules hwajiy-atgáha:-ˀ⌋ 3ns.fi.p-srf-family-

gaihwa̱hsrǫ́:nih ‘justice’, ‘rules’ watch.over-stat
⌊ga-ihw-a̱-hsrǫ́:ni-h⌋ 3s.a-matter- spy
joinerA-fix-hab honatgwę̱hę́:gyeˀs ‘they (males) gather
sales tax along (information)’ ⌊hon-at-gw-ę̱ h-
ę́:-gy-e-ˀs⌋ 3ns.m.p-srf-pick.up-stat-
hadigá:hehaˀ ⌊hadi-gá:-he-haˀ⌋ 3ns.m.a-
joiner-prog-go-hab
price-place.on.top.of-hab ‘they
(males) put a price on it’ statistics, Statistics Canada
ǫkigá:gwahs ‘they gather our money’ hęnahshe:dáhs oihwagéhsǫˀ ‘affairs’,
⌊ǫki-gá:-gw-ahs⌋ 3fis/3ns:1ns-price- ‘statistics’
gather-hab hęnahshedahs ‘they (males) count’
Secretary of State oihwagehsǫˀ ‘matters’
Shagohyadǫhsehgó:wah ‘he is our stock exchange, stock market
main paper-getter’ ⌊shago-hyadǫ-hs- de̱hęnatwihsdadé:nyǫhs ‘a stock ex-
e-h-gó:wah⌋ 3ms:3fi/3p.p-paper-disl- change’, ‘stock market’, ‘the Dow
go-hab-aug Jones’, ‘the Toronto Stock Exchange’,
Senate etc. ⌊de̱-hęn-at-hwihsd-a-dé:ny-ǫhs⌋
du-3ns.m.a-srf-money-joinerA-
Gwa:go:wáh Hǫwadi̱hnyaˀsodáhǫh change-hab
Gwa:go:wah ‘royalty’, etc. subsidy
Hǫwadi ̱hnyaˀsodáhǫh ‘they (males) hǫwadi̱hwíhsdawihs ‘a subsidy’,
have placed a responsibility on ‘a grant’ ⌊hǫwadi ̱-hwíhsd-awi-hs⌋
their (males) necks’ ⌊hǫwadi ̱-hnyaˀs- 3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-money-give-
odah-ǫh⌋ 3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-neck- hab
drape.over-stat
tax
services ǫkigá:gwahs ‘they gather our money’
hǫwadiyenawáˀseh ‘they (males) help ⌊ǫki-gá:-gw-a-hs⌋ 3fis/3ns:1ns-price-
them (males)’ ⌊hǫwadi-yenawáˀs-eh⌋ gather-joinerA-hab
3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-help-hab taxation department
social work(ers) hadiga:heháˀgeh ‘they (males) put a
gaehwajiyatgáha:ˀ ‘they (fe/males) price on things’ ⌊hadi-ga:-he-há-ˀgeh⌋
watch over families’ ⌊gae-hwajiy- 3ns.m.a-price-put.up.on.top-hab-on
atgáha-:ˀ⌋ 3ns.fi.a-family-watch.over- title
hab deyǫkiyǫhwę̱hjáhsnyeˀ ‘they look after
gaehwajiyatgáǫhaˀ ‘they (fe/males) our land’ (referring to a title, an office)
watch over families’ ⌊gae-hwajiy- ⌊de-yǫki-y-ǫhwę̱ hj-á-hsnye-ˀ⌋ du-
atgáǫ-haˀ⌋ 3ns.fi.a-family-watch.over- 3fis/3ns:1ns-euph.y-land-joinerA-
hab care.for-hab
gonatwajiyatgáha:ˀ ‘they (fe/males) deyǫkiyǫhwęjáˀnya:ˀ ‘they look after
watch over families’ ⌊gon-at- our land’, ‘they take care of business’

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D Thematic dictionary

(refers to a title, an office) ⌊de-yǫki- vote

y-ǫhwęj-á-ˀnya-:ˀ⌋ du-3fis/3ns:1ns- dęhsęnigyohgwagę́:niˀ ‘you will vote,
euph.y-land-joinerA-govern-hab cast lots’ ⌊dęhsęnigyohgwagę́:niˀ⌋
Trans-Canada Highway du.fut-2s.a-srf-crowd-joinerA-
compete-punc
Deyǫhwęjíya̱ˀgǫh ‘it cuts across the
land’ ⌊de-y-ǫhwęj-íya̱ˀg-ǫh⌋ du-3s.a- dęhęnęnigyo̱hgwahgę́:niˀ ‘they (males)
land-cut.across-stat will vote, cast lots’ ⌊dę-hęn-ęn-
igyo̱hgw-a-gę́:ni-ˀ⌋ du.fut-3ns.m.a-
urban design and development
srf-group-joinerA-compete-punc
enagrehsraę́ˀ hodisrǫníhagyeˀ welfare office
enagrehsraęˀ ‘urban’ tonadęnídęˀǫh ‘place where they
hodisrǫnihagyeˀ ‘they (males) are de- (males) show pity’ ⌊t-hon-adę-nídęˀ-
veloping it’ ǫh⌋ cis-3ns.m.p-srf-be.kind-stat

D.17 High language

Gayogo̱ho:nǫˀnéha:ˀ speakers use the term “high language” when referring to words or
phrases used in oratory or in Longhouse “doings” (ceremonies). Thematic headwords (in
small caps) constitute a thematic category for grouping related words.

accomplish a ceremonial task consider

ahaihwá:is ‘he accomplished or com- ęgátgǫdrahk ‘I will sleep on it, con-

pleted a task’ (for example, a speech), sider it’ ⌊ę-g-át-gǫdr-ahk⌋ fut-1s.a-
‘he carried out a responsibility’ srf-pillow-lift.up.punc
⌊a-ha-ihwá:-is⌋ fac-3s.m.a-matter- cookhouse
finish.punc
Ǫtgahdę̱hsdáhkwaˀgeh ‘Cookhouse’
amulet ⌊ǫ-t-gah-dę̱ hsd-á-hkwa-ˀgeh⌋ 3s.fi.a-
srf-eye-string.up-joinerA-instr-on
goyáˀdanǫh ‘amulet’ ⌊go-yáˀda-nǫh⌋
3s.fi.p-doll-guard.stat gahsdǫ́hgwage: ‘Cookhouse’ ⌊ga-
hsdǫ́hgw-age:⌋ 3s.a-endure-on
charm society, charm ganǫhsáǫ:weh ‘the cookhouse’ (at the
Longhouse) ⌊ga-nǫhsá-ǫ:weh⌋ 3s.a-
otsinǫ̱hgę́ˀdaˀ ⌊o-tsinǫ̱hgę́ˀd-aˀ⌋ 3s.p-
house-typ
charm-nsf
sadáhgahsdǫ: ‘go and cook in the
consensus cookhouse’ ⌊s-ad-áhgahsdǫ:⌋ 2s.a-srf-
endure.no_aspect
sgaíhwa:t ‘one mind’ (said when con-
sensus is reached in the High Coun- ęgaǫdáhgahsdǫ: ‘go and cook in the
cil), ‘one idea’ ⌊s-ga-íhw-a:-t⌋ rep-3s.a- cookhouse’ ⌊ę-gaǫ-d-áhgahsdǫ:⌋ fut-
matter-joinerA-stand.stat 3ns.fi.a-srf-endure.ø.punc

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 D.17 High language

death funeral
ęsatahí:tˀa:ˀ ‘you will earn the heav- ahaya̱ˀgyé:nęˀ ‘he fell over’ (refers to
enly road’ ⌊ę-s-at-hah-í:tˀa:-ˀ⌋ fut- passing on) ⌊a-ha-yaˀg-yé:nę-ˀ⌋ fac-
2s.a-srf-road-take-punc 3s.m.a-body-fall.over-punc

aˀǫtahí:tˀaˀ ‘she went on the heavenly aˀǫgwaˀhnyé:nęˀs ‘we all are experienc-
road’ (refers to a woman who is done ing the passing of a chief’ ⌊aˀ-ǫgwa-
with this world) ⌊aˀ-ǫ-t-hah-í:tˀa:-ˀ⌋ ˀhny-é:nę-ˀs⌋ fac-1p.p-noun-fall.over-
fac-3s.fi.a-srf-road-take-punc hab
ęhǫwadínǫ̱hda: ‘there will be a fu-
dejagǫhwíhsra:t ‘she no longer has
neral for him’ ⌊ę-hǫwadí-nǫ̱hda:⌋ fut-
breath’, ‘she’s dead’ ⌊dej-ag-ǫhwíhsr-
3ms/fis:3m,3ns:3m-put.in.punc
a:-t⌋ neg-rep-3s.fi.a-breath-joinerA-
stand.stat deyǫtnǫ̱hsǫ́:goht ‘she will go by the
Longhouse’ (referring to a funeral)
die out ⌊de-yǫ-t-nǫ̱hs-ǫ́:goht⌋ du-3s.fi.a-srf-
awadri̱hwáhdǫˀ ‘it (an idea) died house-surpass.punc
out/faded away’ ⌊a-w-ad-ri ̱hw-áhdǫ-ˀ⌋ ęsatga̱hóha:t ‘you will cleanse your
fac-3s.a-srf-matter-disappear-punc eyes with something’ (that is, wash
death off of you before or after a fu-
agaihwáhdǫˀ ‘it became extinct/died
neral so nothing will happen to your
out’ (archaic word) ⌊a-ga-ihw-áhdǫ-ˀ⌋
baby) ⌊ę-s-at-ga̱h-óha:t⌋ fut-2s.a-srf-
fac-3s.a-matter-disappear-punc
eye-wash.punc
dęgaihwagǫ́:dǫ:ˀ ‘it will smother it- oˀwahsdǫdáhkwaˀ ‘small sticks made
self/die out slowly on its own/peter for a funeral ceremony’ ⌊o-ˀwahsd-
out’ (for example, a language at ǫd-á-hkwaˀ⌋ 3s.p-pin-put.in-joinerA-
a critical state) ⌊dę-ga-ihw-a-gǫ́:d- instr
ǫ:ˀ⌋ du-3s.a-matter-joinerA-endure-
distr.punc dehadihsda:téˀda̱hkwaˀ ‘wax for small
sticks made for a funeral ceremony’
tagaihwagǫ́:dǫ:ˀ ‘it smothered it- ⌊de-hadi-hsda:-téˀd-a̱-hkwaˀ⌋ du-
self/died out slowly on its 3ns.m.a-shiny.object-polish-joinerA-
own/petered out’ ⌊ta:-ga-ihw-a-gǫ́:d- instr
ǫ:ˀ⌋ contr.fac-3s.a-matter-joinerA-
honour ahayęgwahsǫ́:nyeht ‘he hon-
endure-distr.punc
oured them with tobacco’ ⌊a-ha-yęgw-
agaihwagǫ́:dǫ:ˀ ‘it died out’ ⌊a-ga-ihw- a-hsǫ́:nyeht⌋ fac-3s.m.a-tobacco-
a-gǫ́:d-ǫ:ˀ⌋ fac-3s.a-matter-joinerA- joinerA-honour.punc
endure-distr.punc hoop
forsake węˀnihsga:ní:yǫ:t ‘a hanging hoop’
ǫgwátsǫˀnyo:t ‘we all turned our backs ⌊w-ęˀnihsga:-ní:yǫ:t⌋ 3s.a-wheel-
to the bush’, ‘we all forsook religion, hang.stat
family ’ ⌊ǫgwá-t-hs-ǫˀ-ny-o:t⌋ 1p.p-srf- węˀníhsgaę:ˀ ‘a hoop’ (lying down) ⌊w-
lower.back-distr-distr-stand.stat ęˀníhsga-ęˀ⌋ 3s.a-wheel-lie.stat

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D Thematic dictionary

węˀníhsga:ˀ, ęˀníhsga:ˀ ‘a circle hoop’, ‘a rattle

wheel’ ⌊(w)-ęˀníhsga:-ˀ⌋ (3s.a)-wheel- ga̱hsdáwę̱ˀdraˀ ‘rattle’, ‘horn rattle’ ⌊ga̱-
nsf hsdáwęˀdr-aˀ⌋ 3s.a-rattle-nsf
invitation aˀǫkinę́:tsa:ˀ ‘a nation- owaji̱hsdáˀ ga̱hsdáwˀędraˀ ‘bark rattle’
to-nation invitation’ (preceded by ⌊o-waji ̱hsd-áˀ⌋ 3s.p-bark-nsf
a speech) ⌊aˀ-ǫki-nę́:ts-a:-ˀ⌋ fac-
3fis/3ns:1ns-arm-hold-punc ǫtǫwisada̱hkwáˀ ga̱hsdáwę̱ˀdraˀ ‘box
turtle rattle’ ⌊ǫ-t-hǫwisad-a̱-hkwáˀ⌋
Longhouse 3s.fi.a-srf-make.seed.songs-joinerA-
Ganǫ́hse:s ‘Longhouse’ ⌊ga-nǫ́hs-e:s⌋ instr
3s.a-house-long.stat onaˀgá:ˀ ga̱hsdáwę̱ˀdraˀ ‘horn rattle’ ⌊o-
Ganǫhsé:sǫˀs ‘Longhouses’ ⌊ga-nǫ́hs- naˀgá:-ˀ⌋ 3s.p-horn-nsf
e:s-ǫˀs⌋ 3s.a-house-long.stat-pl okdáˀ ga̱hsdáwę̱ˀdraˀ ‘nut rattle’, ‘shell
man hodihsgęˀáge̱hdah ‘men’ (high rattle’ ⌊o-kd-aˀ⌋ 3s.p-nutshell-nsf
language) ⌊hodi-hsgęˀ-á-ge̱hd-eh⌋ ganyahdęgo:wáh ga̱hsdáwę̱ˀdraˀ ‘snap-
3ns.m.p-bones-joinerA-tie-stat ping turtle rattle’ ⌊ga-nyahdę-go:wáh⌋
marry shagodi:hwahníyadǫh ‘they 3s.a-turtle-aug
got married by the Chiefs’ (a ohnyohsaǫ:wéh ga̱hsdáwę̱ˀdraˀ
marriage ceremony sanctioned by ‘squash rattle’ ⌊o-hnyohs-a-ǫ:wéh⌋
the Chiefs) ⌊shagodi-ihw-a-hníya̱ˀd- 3s.p-squash-joinerA-typ
ǫh⌋ 3ns(nfi):3fi-matter-joinerA-
toughen-stat gaihsdáˀ ga̱hsdáwę̱ˀdraˀ ‘tin rattle’ ⌊ga-
ihsd-áˀ⌋ 3s.a-tin-nsf
message
ganyahdę́: ga̱hsdáwę̱ˀdraˀ ‘turtle rattle’
gaihwawehtá:hǫh ‘an inserted mes- ⌊ga-nyahdę́:⌋ 3s.a-turtle
sage’ ⌊ga-ihw-a-wehtá:h-ǫh⌋ 3s.a-
matter-joinerA-insert-stat recognize
ęhatehnáhtge̱hda:t ‘he will carry deyetinǫ́hǫhkwaˀ ‘we refer to them
a large load or bundle’, ‘he will as’ (recognize as kin) ⌊de-yeti-
carry a message’ ⌊ę-ha-t-hehn-á- nǫ́hǫhkw-haˀ⌋ du-1inns:3fis/3ns-
htge̱hda:t⌋ fut-3s.m.a-srf-bundle- recognize.as.kin-hab
joinerA-charge.with.punc deshedwanǫ́hǫhkwaˀ ‘we refer to
ękéhnǫnyęˀ ‘I will put a load on him, him as’ (recognize as kin) ⌊de-
put a bundle on him’ (that is, give him shedwa-nǫ́hǫhkw-haˀ⌋ du-1inp:3ms-
a message to convey) ⌊ę-k-héhn-ǫny-ę- recognize.as.kin-hab
ˀ⌋ fut-1s.a-bundle-make-ben-punc dęgakenǫ́hǫhkwa:k ‘I will recognize
ęhǫwadihehnǫ́:nyęˀ ‘they will make them as my kin’ ⌊dę-gake-nǫ́hǫhkw-
him a load or bundle to carry’, ha:-k⌋ du-1s:3ns-recognize.as.kin-
‘they will send him with a mes- hab-modz
sage’ ⌊ę-hǫwadi-hehn-ǫ́:ny-ę-ˀ⌋ fut- dedwanǫ̱hǫ́hkwaˀ ‘we all refer to it as’
3ms/fis:3m,3ns:3m-bundle-make-ben- (recognize as kin) ⌊de-dwa-nǫ̱hǫ́hkw-
punc haˀ⌋ du-1p.in.a-recognize.as.kin-hab

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 D.18 Betting

righteous speech’ ⌊de-yo-ihw-a-dogę́hd-ǫh⌋ du-

3s.p-matter-joinerA-make.right-stat
oyaˀdawá:dǫh ‘a righteous person’ ⌊o-
yaˀd-a-wá:d-ǫh⌋ 3s.p-body-joinerA- tidy up
verb-stat desadadéhsnyeh ‘tidy up’, ‘groom
yourself’, ‘prepare yourself mentally’
speech
⌊de-s-adad-é-hsnyeh⌋ du-2s.a-refl-
deyoihwadogę́hdǫh ‘a shortened joinerE-groom.no_aspect

D.18 Betting
Words having to do with the ceremonial betting game.

aˀehędáę:ˀ ‘she won the throw’ (refers ⌊ę-yǫ-d-e-hsaheˀd-a-nǫ́:-n-a:-ˀ⌋ fut-

to a betting game and a perfect 3s.fi.a-srf-joinerE-bean-joinerA-
score, when all the stones come up guard-disl-joinerA-punc
the same) ⌊aˀ-e-hęd-á-ę-:ˀ⌋ fac-3s.fi.a- hahsaheˀdá:gwahs ‘he picks out the
field-joinerA-lie-punc beans’ (for a betting game) ⌊ha-
aˀehędaędǫ́:nyǫ:ˀ ‘she won the throw hsaheˀd-á:-gw-a-hs⌋ 3s.m.a-bean-
repeatedly, one right after the other’ joinerA-pick-joinerA-hab
(refers to a betting game and a per-
háohe:s ‘he collects the bets’, ‘he gath-
fect score, when all the stones come
ers’ (referring to a betting game activ-
up the same) ⌊aˀ-e-hęd-a-ęd-ǫ́:-nyǫ:ˀ⌋
ity) ⌊há-ohe:-s⌋ 3s.m.a-gather-hab
fac-3s.fi.a-field-joinerA-lie.euph.d-
distr-distr.punc hehoˀęnǫ́:gyeˀs ‘he throws the sticks’
ahahędáę:ˀ ‘he won the throw’ (in a (referring to a betting game activity)
betting game) ⌊a-ha-hęd-á-ę-:ˀ⌋ fac- ⌊he-ho-ˀęn-ǫ́:gy-eˀs⌋ transl-3s.m.p-
3s.m.a-field-joinerA-lie-punc stick-throw-hab
deyǫdetsgęˀihdréhda̱hkwaˀ ⌊de-yǫ-d- ohę́:daˀ ‘the field’ (of Iroquois origin
e-tsgęˀ-ihdréhd-a̱-hkwaˀ⌋ du-3s.fi.a- only, refers to the Dish Game) ⌊o-hę́:d-
srf-joinerE-bone-drive-joinerA- aˀ⌋ 3s.p-field-nsf
instr shędáę ‘you lay the field’ (referring
ęyǫde̱hsaheˀdanǫ́:na:ˀ ‘she will be the to taking bets) ⌊s-hęd-á-ę⌋ 2s.a-field-
bean watcher’ (for a betting game) joinerA-lie.no_aspect

D.19 Ceremonies
Thematic headwords (in small caps) either provide the English name for a ceremony or
constitute a thematic category for grouping related ceremonies and words.

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D Thematic dictionary

All Eaten Up ⌊hęn-ad-ǫwíhsr-ę̱ ht-haˀ⌋ 3ns.m.a-srf-

Ga̱hsǫ:ˀ (restricted ceremony for breath-hit-hab
charms) ⌊ga̱-hsǫ:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-eaten.up.stat Gayędowa:nę́h Gajęˀ ‘Peach Pit
Clean Up (ceremony) Dish game’ ⌊ga-yęd-owá:n-ęh⌋ 3s.a-
Deyakwetnǫ́hsǫtaˀ ⌊de-yagwa-t- firewood-big-stat ⌊ga-ję-ˀ⌋ 3s.a-dish-
nǫ́hs-ǫt-haˀ⌋ du-1p.ex.a-srf-house- nsf
clean.up-hab Ohsdowagó:wah ‘Great Feather Dance’
Devil Dance ⌊o-hsdow-a-gó:wah⌋ 3s.p-feather-
joinerA-aug
Gaˀnogęyǫ:ˀ ‘Grinding the Arrow’ (for-
bidden ceremony) ⌊ga-ˀno-gęyǫ:ˀ⌋ Sdáohs ‘Great Feather Dance’
3s.a-arrow-grind.stat Ganéhǫ:ˀ ‘Drum Dance’ ⌊ga-néhǫ:-ˀ⌋
Eagle Feather 3s.a-noun-nsf
Ganréˀaˀ ‘Eagle Feathers’ (For making Gathering of Fruit, Strawberry
ceremonial friends. The one who asks Ceremony
for the friendship holds the feathers.) Adahyáohǫ:ˀ ‘Gathering of Fruit Cer-
⌊ga-nréˀ-aˀ⌋ 3s.a-eagle.feather-nsf emony’ (done during the Straw-
False Face berry Ceremony) ⌊ad-ahy-á-ohǫ:ˀ⌋
ø.prefix.srf-fruit-gather.stat
Gajíhsaˀ ‘Husk Face’, ‘False Face’ ⌊ga-
jíhs-aˀ⌋ 3s.a-corn.husk-nsf Gathering of the Sugar
Finish Planting (ceremony) Ędwanawęˀdáohe:k ‘Gathering of the
Gotędihsˀánhǫˀ ⌊go-t-hęd-ihsˀ-á-nh-ǫˀ⌋ Sugar Ceremony’ (done during Dry-
3s.fi.p-srf-field-finish-joinerA-disl- ing Up the Trees) ⌊ę-dwa-nawęˀd-
distr.stat á-ohe:k⌋ fut-1p.in.a-sugar-joinerA-
gather.punc
Four Main Ceremonies
Green Bean Ceremony
Gayędowá:nęh ‘Peach Pit Game’ ⌊ga-
yęd-owá:n-ęh⌋ 3s.a-firewood-big- Ęhęnadehsaheˀdáohe:k ‘they (males)
stat gather the green beans’ ⌊ę-hęn-ad-
e-hsaheˀd-á-ohe:k⌋ fut-3ns.m.a-srf-
Geí: Niwahsǫdá:ge: ‘Four Nights
joinerE-bean-joinerA-gather.punc
Ceremony’ (part of Sustenance
dances or gaęna̱hsǫ́:ˀǫh) gei ‘four’ Husk Face
⌊ni-w-ahsǫd-á:ge:⌋ part-3s.a-night- Gajíhsaˀ ‘Husk Face’, ‘False Face’ ⌊ga-
number.of.stat jíhs-aˀ⌋ 3s.a-corn.husk-nsf
Geí: Niyoihwá:ge: ‘Four Ceremonies’ Maple Sap Ceremony
gei ‘four’ ⌊ni-yo-ihw-á:ge:⌋ part-3s.p- Haditsehsdǫ́:da:s ‘they (males) are
matter-number.of.stat putting the sap in the tree’ ⌊hadi-
ahadǫ́:dęˀ ‘men’s chant’, ‘he is singing tsehsd-ǫ́:da:-s⌋ 3ns.m.a-sap-put.in-
adǫ́:waˀ’ ⌊a-ha-d-ǫ́:dę-ˀ⌋ fac-3s.m.a- hab
srf-put.in-punc Odehadǫ́:ni: ‘Maple Sap Ceremony’,
hęnadǫwíhsrę̱htaˀ ‘they are accompa- ‘the woods’ ⌊o-d-e-had-ǫ́:ni:⌋ 3s.p-srf-
nying adǫ́:waˀ’ (singing heˀ heˀ heˀ) joinerE-woods-make.stat

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 D.19 Ceremonies

Ęhadiyaǫdá:taˀt ‘Drying Up the Trees ihw-a-yáǫni:⌋ 3s.a-matter-joinerA-

Ceremony’ (performed at the ending make.stat
of the maple sap run) ⌊ę-hadi-yaǫd- ętadinaˀdá:gwa̱heˀ ‘they (Corn Husk
á:-taˀt⌋ fut-3ns.m.a-log-joinerA- Mask society members) will come af-
dry.up.punc ter their (males) bread’ ⌊ęt-hadi-naˀdá:-
Shadiyáǫdataˀ ‘Dry Up the Trees’ (per- gw-a̱-h-e-ˀ⌋ fut.du-3ns.m.a-bread-
formed at the end of the maple sap pick.up-joinerA-disl-go-punc
run) ⌊s-hadi-yáǫd-a-taˀ⌋ rep-3ns.m.a- dętadijihgwagwáheˀ ‘they (males) will
log-joinerA-dry.up.stat come back for their mush (said of False
Otshesdadǫ́:da:s ‘Tree or Sap Dance’ ⌊o- Faces)’ ⌊dęt-hadi-jihgw-a-gw-á-h-e-
tshesdad-ǫ́:da:-s⌋ 3s.p-sap-put.in-hab ˀ⌋ cis.fut.du-3ns.m.a-mush-joinerA-
pick.up-joinerA-disl-go-punc
Medicine Mask
Moon Ceremony
Ojihsgwagwáhaˀ ‘they come after their
mush’ (Seneca ceremony) ⌊o-jihsgw- Ahsǫhehká: Etíhso:t ‘Moon Ceremony’
a-gw-á-h-a-ˀ⌋ 3s.p-mush-joinerA- ⌊ahsǫheh-ká:ˀ⌋ night-typ ⌊etí-hso:t⌋
pick.up-joinerA-disl-joinerA-stat 1inns:3fis/3ns-grandmother
Ęshagodiwęnǫ:góht Ahsǫhehká:ˀ Ęh-
Midwinter
níˀdagyeˀs ‘Moon Ceremony’ (lit-
Ganaháowi:ˀ ‘Midwinter Ceremony’ erally, ‘uplifting the stature of
⌊ga-nah-á-owi:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-scalp-joinerA- the moon’) ⌊ę-shagodi-węn-ǫ:góht⌋
water.drum.stat fut-3ns(nfi)>3fi-voice-surpass.punc
Gaihwanǫhsgwaˀgó:wah/Gaihwa- ⌊ahsǫheh-ká:ˀ⌋ night-typ ⌊ęhníˀd-a-
nahsgwaˀgó:wah ‘Midwinter Cere- gy-e-ˀs⌋ month-joinerA-prog-go-
mony’ ⌊ga-ihw-a-nǫhsgwaˀ/nahsgwaˀ- hab
gó:wah⌋ 3s.a-matter-joinerA-verb- dęyagoˀnya:gwę́hęgyeˀ ‘she will have a
aug hand in it’ ⌊dę-yago-ˀnya:-gw-ę́h-ę-gy-
Hodina̱háowih ‘they (males) are having e-ˀ⌋ du.fut-3s.fi.p-hand-put.in-stat-
the Midwinter Ceremony’ ⌊hodi-na̱h- joinerA-prog-go-punc
á-owi-h⌋ 3ns.m.p-scalp-water.drum- Our Uncles Ceremony
stat Etinoˀsę́h Ęhęnatnoˀáo:wanaht ‘Our
Ęyǫgwanaháowiˀ ‘we all will have Uncles Ceremony’ (literally, ‘they
the Midwinter Ceremony’ ⌊ę-yǫgwa- (males) become bigheads’) ⌊etinoˀsę́h⌋
nah-á-owi-ˀ⌋ fut-1p.p-scalp-joinerA- you(se).and.I:her/them.uncle ⌊ę-hęn-
water.drum-punc at-noˀá-o:wanaht⌋ fut-3ns.m.a-srf-
Ǫgwana̱háowih ‘we all are having head-get.big.punc
the Midwinter Ceremony’ ⌊ǫgwa- Shake Pumpkin Ceremony
na̱h-á-owi-h⌋ 1p.p-scalp-joinerA- Ga̱hídǫ̱hǫ: ⌊g-a̱hídǫ̱-h-ǫ:⌋ 3s.a-shake-
water.drum-hab dislocative-stat
Tsaˀdego̱hsráhęh Gaihwayáǫni: ‘Mid- Hęnahiˀdóhs Hodihsdawęˀdráˀ ahsę́h
winter Ceremony’ ⌊tsaˀde-g-o̱hsrá- sgaéˀ niyodihsyá:ge: ‘Shake Pumpkin
hęh⌋ coin.du-3s.a-year-mid.stat ⌊ga- Rattle Ceremony, thirteen types’

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D Thematic dictionary

Hęnahiˀdóhs ⌊hęn-ahiˀdǫ-hs⌋ 3ns.m.a- Thanksgiving Ceremony

shake-hab Ganǫ́hǫnyǫhk ⌊ga-nǫ́hǫny-ǫh-k⌋ 3s.a-
Hodihsdawęˀdráˀ ⌊hodi-hsdawęˀdr-áˀ⌋ thank-stat-modz
3ns.m.p-rattle-nsf Thanksgiving Opening
ahsę́h sgaéˀ ‘thirteen’ Ohędǫ́: Gaihwa̱hdehgǫ́h Ganǫ́hǫ-
niyodihsyá:ge: ⌊ni-yodi-hsy-á:ge:⌋ nyǫhk
part-3ns.o-herd/clan-number.of.stat Ohędǫ́ ⌊o-hęd-ǫ́:⌋ 3s.p-ahead-stat
Hęnáhiˀdohs ‘Gourd Society Dance’ Gaihwa̱ hdehgǫ́h ⌊ga-ihw-a̱hdehg-ǫ́h⌋
(part of Shake Pumpkin) ⌊hęn-ahiˀdǫ- 3s.a-matter-verb-stat
hs⌋ 3ns.m.a-shake-hab Ganǫ́hǫnyǫhk ‘Thanksgiving’ 3s.a-
thank-stat-modz
Ga̱hadiyáˀgǫˀ ‘Crossing the Forest
Song’ (part of Shake Pumpkin, re- Thunder Ceremony
stricted) ⌊ga̱-had-iyáˀg-ǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-forest- Hǫwadiwęnǫgohtáˀ Hadiwęnódagyeˀs
cross-stat Hǫwadiwęnǫgohtáˀ ⌊hǫwadi-węn-
Sun Ceremony ǫgoht-háˀ⌋ 3s.m/3s.fi>3ns.m,3ns>3m-
voice-surpass-hab
Ęhǫwadiwanǫ:góht Ędehká:ˀ Gá:gwa:ˀ
Hadiwęnódagyeˀs ⌊hadi-węn-ód-a-
Ęhǫwadiwanǫ:góht ⌊ę-hǫwadi- gy-e-ˀs⌋ 3ns.m.a-voice-stand.stat-
węn-ǫ:góht⌋ fut-3s.m/3s.fi>3ns.m, joinerA-prog-go-hab
3ns>3m-voice-surpass.punc
White Dog Feast
Ędehge̱há:ˀ ⌊ędeh-ká:ˀ⌋ day-typ Ganíyǫdǫˀ ⌊ga-níyǫd-ǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-hang-
Gá:gwa:ˀ ⌊gá-agwa:-ˀ⌋ 3s.a-sun-nsf distr.stat

D.20 Gaihwí:yo:
Special words from Gaihwí:yo: ‘the Code of Handsome Lake’.

ahǫwadihsa̱hǫ́:dęˀ ‘they committed the News’ (refers to Handsome

him to the main fire’ (refers to send- Lake) ⌊dǫsa-ha-ihw-á-ętwaht⌋
ing a delegate to the Gaihwi:yo: du.factual.repetitive-3s.m.a-
convention) ⌊a-hǫwadi-hsa̱h-ǫ́:d-ęˀ⌋ matter-joinerA-spread.stat
fac-3ms/fis:3mns,3ns:3m-lower.back- ęhseji̱hstáˀdraˀ ‘you will go with the
put.in-punc fire’ (refers to going to the Gaihwi:yo:
De̱hahsǫwáhgyaˀs ‘He Breaks the convention) ⌊ę-hs-e-ji ̱hsd-áˀdra-ˀ⌋
Wires’ (refers to Handsome Lake’s fut-2s.a)-joinerE-fire-meet-punc
nephew) ⌊de̱-ha-hsǫwáhg-yaˀ-s⌋ du- Gajihsdagwę:ní:yoˀ ‘the Main Fire’ ⌊ga-
3s.m.a-wire-break-hab jihsd-a-gwę:ní:yoˀ⌋ 3s.a-fire-joinerA-
Dǫsahaihwáętwaht ‘He Who Seeded principal.stat
the News’, ‘He Who Spread Honadejíhsdane:t ‘Fire Keepers’

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 D.21 Games

⌊hon-ad-e-jíhsd-a-ne:t⌋ 3ns.m.p-srf- joinerA-guard.stat

joinerE-fire-joinerA-guard.stat Sganyadáiyoˀ ‘Handsome Lake’
Hodeji̱hsdá:ne:t ‘Fire Keeper’ ⌊ho-d-e- ⌊s-ga-nyadá-iyoˀ⌋ rep-3s.a-lake-
jíhsd-a-ne:t⌋ 3s.m.p-srf-joinerE-fire- beautiful.stat

D.21 Games
Miscellaneous terms relevant for games.

Atęna̱hdáhgwaę:ˀ ‘Horseshoes’, ‘Moc- crossed.stat

casin Game’ ⌊at-hęn-a̱hdáhgwa-ę-ˀ⌋ Gaję́ˀge̱ha:ˀ ‘Bowl Game’, ‘Dish Game’
fac.du-3ns.m.a-shoe-lay.down-punc ⌊ga-ję́ˀ-ge̱ha:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-dish-typ
Dewęˀnhotrána̱hsǫ:t ‘Dingball’, ‘Dou-
Hadiyę̱hdáhkwaˀ ‘Pitch Hole’ (a term
ble Ball Game (a medicine game)’ ⌊de-
used with the snowsnake game) ⌊hadi-
w-ęˀnhotr-á-na̱hsǫ:t⌋ du-3s.a-hoop-
yę̱ hd-á-hkwaˀ⌋ 3ns.m.a-hit-joinerA-
join.stat
instr
Deyǫhsˀidádihahs ‘Door Keepers’
Honadenhohatgáha:ˀ ‘they (males) are
Dance’, ‘every other step dance’ (a
the Keepers of the Door’ (referring
medicine dance; the Hadoˀi:s ‘False
to the Mohawks) ⌊hon-ad-e-nhoh-
Faces’ also dance this with their grand-
atgáha:ˀ⌋ 3ns.m.p-srf-joinerE-door-
children.) ⌊de-yǫ-hsˀid-á-di-h-a-hs⌋
look.after.stat
du-3s.fi.a-foot-joinerA-side-euph.h-
joinerA-hab Jaga:wé:nih ‘Hoop and Javelin Game’
Ga̱hnegá:hǫh ‘Head Lead on a Stick’ Wę́:sęhtwahs ‘football’ (a medicine
(a term used with the snowsnake game) ⌊w-ę́:sęhtw-a-hs⌋ 3s.a-kick-
game) ⌊ga̱-hneg-á:hǫh⌋ 3s.a-water- joinerA-hab

D.22 Medicine
Miscellaneous terms relevant for medicines.

atadi̱hnyó:da: ‘they (males) had a tug o’ a-gá:nye:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-dish-joinerA-

war’ (a ceremony or healing ritual) ⌊at- shuffle.stat
hadi ̱-hny-ó:da:⌋ fac.du-3ns.m.a-stick- Okdehatgiˀgó:wah ‘Great Distorted
put.in.punc Root’ (a type of medicine) ⌊o-kdeh-
dęhadi̱hnyó:da:s ‘Tug O’ War’ (a cere- a-tgiˀ-gó:wah⌋ 3s.p-root-joinerA-
mony or healing ritual) ⌊dę-hadi ̱-hny- ugly.stat-aug
ó:da:-s⌋ du.fut-3ns.m.a-stick-put.in- Onrahdajiˀgó:wah ‘Great Black
hab Leaves’ (a type of medicine) ⌊o-nrahd-
Gaksagá:nye:ˀ ‘Grinding Dishes’ a-jiˀ-gó:wah⌋ 3s.p-leaf-joinerA-
(a medicine ceremony) ⌊ga-ks- dark.coloured.stat-aug

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D Thematic dictionary

Onǫ́hweht ‘Love Medicine’ (a re- Wę́:sęhtwahs ‘football’ (a medicine

stricted ceremony) ⌊o-nǫ́hweht⌋ 3s.p- game) ⌊w-ę́:sęhtw-a-hs⌋ 3s.a-kick-
cause.to.love.stat joinerA-hab

D.23 Songs
Miscellaneous terms relevant for medicines.

ahaęnáganye: ‘he chanted’, ‘he trilled haęnagá:nyeh ‘he is trilling the

the music’ ⌊a-ha-ęn-á-ganye:-ˀ⌋ fac- song’ ⌊ha-ęn-a-gá:nye-h⌋ 3s.m.a-song-
3s.m.a-song-joinerA-make.noises- joinerA-make.noises-hab
punc
hehsgaęná:gǫ:t ‘the last song’ ⌊hehs-
Atadadí:trahk ‘Roll Call Chant’ ⌊at- ga-ęn-á:-gǫ:t⌋ transl.rep-3s.a-song-
ha-dad-í:tr-a-hk⌋ fac-du-3s.m.a-refl- joinerA-last.stat
cane-joinerA-pick.up.ø.punc
ędwaęnagé:tsgoˀ ‘we all will raise Ohwęja̱ˀgehge̱há:ˀ Gaęnasǫ́:ˀǫh ‘earth
the song’ ⌊ę-dwa-ęn-a-gé:tsgo-ˀ⌋ fut- songs’
1p.in.a-song-joinerA-raise.up-punc Ohwęja̱ ˀgehge̱há:ˀ ⌊o-hwęj-aˀgeh-
ęhaęnáganyeˀ ‘he will trill the song’ ge̱há:ˀ⌋ 3s.p-earth-on-typ
⌊ę-ha-ęn-á-ganye:-ˀ⌋ fut-3s.m.a-song- Gaęnasǫ́:ˀǫh ⌊ga-ęn-a-shǫ́:ˀǫh⌋ 3s.a-
joinerA-make.noises-punc song-joinerA-plrz
ęhswaęnáganye: ‘you all will sing’ ⌊ę-
o:nę́h diˀ ęwaęnagáe: ‘let the song be-
hswa-ęn-á-ganye:-ˀ⌋ fut-2p.a-song-
gin’
joinerA-make.noises-punc
gaęnaweˀdá:hoh ‘an inserted song’ o:nęh ‘now’ diˀ ‘then’
⌊ga-ęn-aweˀdá:hǫh⌋ 3s.a-song- ęwaęnagáe: ⌊ę-wa-ęn-a-gáe:⌋ fut-3s.a-
inserted.stat song-make.noise.punc

D.24 Social dances and songs

Dakshaeˀdohsge̱ha:ˀ ‘Chicken Dance’ nǫhǫnyǫ́ˀd-a̱-hkwaˀ⌋ du-3s.fi.a-refl-

⌊dakshaeˀdohs-ge̱ha:ˀ⌋ chicken-typ cause.to.be.thankful-joinerA-instr
Degaˀnǫdǫ́tge̱ha:ˀ ‘Alligator Dance’ Ęsga:nyé:ˀ Gaęnagáyǫ̱hka:ˀ ‘Women’s
⌊degaˀnǫdǫ́t-ge̱ha:ˀ⌋ alligator-typ Old Shuffle Dance’
Daˀnusdaˀge̱ha:ˀ ‘Naked Dance’ ⌊da- Ęhsga:nyé:ˀ ⌊ęhs-ga:nyé:-ˀ⌋ foot-
ˀnusdaˀ-ge̱ha:ˀ⌋ prefix-naked.stat- shuffle-stat
typ Gaęnagáyǫ̱hka:ˀ ⌊ga-ęn-a-gáy-ǫ̱h-
Deyǫdatnǫhǫnyǫ́ˀda̱hkwaˀ ‘Friend- ka:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-song-joinerA-old.item-
ship Dance’ (a social dance, a stat-typ
welcoming dance) ⌊de-yǫ-dat- Ęhsga:nyé:ˀ Gáę:nase:ˀ ‘Women’s New

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 D.24 Social dances and songs

Shuffle Dance Song’ Jihsgogoˀge̱ha:ˀ ‘Robin Dance’

Ęhsga:nyé:ˀ ⌊ęhs-ga:nyé:-ˀ⌋ foot- ⌊jihsgogoˀ-ge̱ha:ˀ⌋ robin-typ
shuffle-stat Ǫdade̱hnyóhaˀ ‘Ferrying Dance’
Gáę:nase:ˀ ⌊gá-ęn-ase:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-song- ⌊ǫ-dad-e̱-hny-ó-haˀ⌋ 3s.fi.a-refl-
new.stat joinerE-stick-submerge-hab
Ęhsga:nyé:ˀ Sgadigají:nah Deyéhny- Odehswadé:nyo:ˀ ‘Changing Rib Tum-
otaˀ ‘One Side Male Dance, Male bling Dance’ ⌊o-dehsw-adé:nyo:-ˀ⌋
Dance’ (a dance or ceremony done 3s.p-blouse-change-stat
with a paternal cousin, uncle, etc.) Otowegéha:ˀ ‘Northern Dance’ ⌊otoweˀ-
Ęhsga:nyé:ˀ ⌊ęhs-ga:nyé:-ˀ⌋ foot- géha:ˀ⌋ cold.typ
shuffle-stat Otsínhahǫˀ ‘Gartered Dance’ ⌊o-t-
Sgadigají:nah ⌊s-gadi-gají:nah⌋ rep- hsín-a-hǫˀ⌋ 3s.p-srf-leg-joinerA-
3p.a-brave.stat lie.across.stat
Deyéhnyotaˀ ⌊de-yé-hny-ot-haˀ⌋ du- Ǫtwadaséˀtaˀ ‘Round Dance’
3s.fi.a-stick-stand-hab ⌊ǫ-t-hwadaséˀt-haˀ⌋ 3s.fi.a-srf-
Ga̱ˀdá:tro:t ‘Standing Quiver Dance’ cause.to.circle.round-hab
⌊ga̱-ˀdá:tr-o:t⌋ 3s.a-quiver-stand.stat Oyadagéha:ˀ ‘Cherokee Stomp Dance’
Gahsgoháǫ:ˀdadǫˀ ‘Shake The Bush ⌊o-yad-aˀ-géha:ˀ⌋ ditch-typ
Dance’ ⌊ga-hsgoh-á-ǫˀdad-ǫˀ⌋ 3s.a- Sanoge̱ha:ˀ ‘Raccoon Dance’ ⌊sa:no:ˀ-
branch-joinerA-shake-distr.stat ge̱ha:ˀ⌋ raccoon-typ
Ganéhwˀae:ˀ ‘Delaware Skin Dance’ Sgadigají:nah ‘One Side Male Dance’
⌊ga-néhw-a-e:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-skin-joinerA- (a social dance done with a paternal
strike.stat cousin, uncle, etc.) ⌊s-gadi-gají:nah⌋
Gayó:wah ‘Moccasin Dance’ ⌊ga-yó:w- rep-3p.a-brave.stat
a-h⌋ 3s.a-moccasin-joinerA-verb Tsahgowaˀge̱ha:ˀ ‘Pigeon Dance’
Gayowagá:yǫh ‘Old Moccasin Dance’ ⌊tsahgowaˀ-ge̱ha:ˀ⌋ pigeon-typ
⌊ga-yow-a-gá:y-ǫh⌋ 3s.a-moccasin- Twętwę́tge̱ha:ˀ ‘Duck Dance’ ⌊twętwę́t-
joinerA-old.object-stat ge̱ha:ˀ⌋ duck-typ
Gwaˀyǫ́ge̱ha:ˀ ‘Rabbit Dance’ ⌊gwaˀyǫ́ˀ- Waˀęnotí:yǫˀ ‘Sharpened Stick Dance’
ge̱ha:ˀ⌋ rabbit-typ ⌊wa-ˀęn-otí:yǫˀ⌋ 3s.a-stick-sharp.stat

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D Thematic dictionary

D.25 Restricted dances

Deyoda̱hsǫdáegǫh ‘Dark Dance’ (for hab

the Little People) ⌊de-yo-d-a̱hsǫd-á-
egǫh⌋ du-3s.p-srf-darkness-joinerA- Gajíhayaˀ ‘Taking out the Cork’ ⌊ga-
verb.stat jíhay-aˀ⌋ 3s.a-devil-nsf
Deyǫdanę́tsǫtaˀ ‘Linking Arm Dance’, Ganaˀjitgę́hǫh ‘Taking Out Kettle’
‘Devil Dance’ ⌊de-yǫ-d-e-nę́ts-ǫt-haˀ⌋ ⌊ga-naˀj-itgę́ˀ-ǫh⌋ 3s.a-pot-issue.from-
du-3s.fi.a-srf-joinerE-arm-put.in- stat

D.26 Miscellaneous dances

Awadanúkdanǫ: ‘Medicine Dance’ (a stick-submerge-hab

Seneca dance) ⌊a-w-ad-e-núkd-a-nǫ:⌋ Odagwohóh Nigakwá:ˀah ‘Small Green
fac-3s.a-srf-joinerE-noun-joinerA- Corn Dance’
cold.stat
Odagwohóh (no translation provided)
Dehę́:gwis ‘Harvest Dance’ ⌊de-h-ę́:gwi-
s⌋ du-3s.m.a-harvest-hab Nigakwá:ˀah ⌊ni-ga-kw-á:ˀah⌋ part-
3s.a-food-small.stat
Ęsgá:nye:ˀ ‘Women’s Dance’ ⌊ęhs-
gá:nye:ˀ⌋ foot-shuffle.stat Ohstnǫ́hsǫtaˀ ‘Great Leather Dance’ ⌊o-
Gaditseˀdǫ́dˀadǫˀ ‘Shaking the Bot- hst-nǫ́hsǫt-haˀ⌋ 3s.p-noun-join-hab
tle’ ⌊gadi-tseˀd-ǫ́da̱ˀd-ǫˀ⌋ 3p.a-bottle- Owę́ˀnaę:ˀ ‘Strike the Stick’, ‘Little
shake-distr.stat Horses Dance’ ⌊aw-ˀę́n-a-ęˀ⌋ 3s.p-
Gakówanęh ‘Big Green Corn Dance’ spear-joinerA-strike.stat
⌊ga-k-ówan-ęh⌋ 3s.a-food-big-stat Wasá:seh ‘Thunder Ceremony’, ‘Rain
Ganǫnyowá:nęh ‘Big Dance’, ‘Cre- Dance’, ‘War Dance’ (of the Osage)
ator’s Dance’ ⌊ga-nǫny-owá:n-ęh⌋ Wasá:seh ‘Osage’
3s.a-dance-big-stat Honę́niˀje: ‘they (males) are doing the
Ǫdade̱hnyóhaˀ ‘Fishing Dance’ ⌊ǫ-dad- War Dance’ ⌊hon-ę́-niˀj-e:⌋ 3ns.m.p-
e̱-hny-ó-haˀ⌋ 3s.fi.a-refl-joinerE- srf-lower.body-strike.stat

D.27 Curing dances

Deyodinaˀgáǫdǫˀ ‘Buffalo Dance’ ⌊de- Ęsga:nyé:ˀ ‘Shuffle Dance’

yodi-naˀg-á-ǫd-ǫˀ⌋ du-3ns.o-horn-
joinerA-stand-distr.stat Gaęnagáyǫ̱hka:ˀ ⌊ga-ęn-a-gáy-ǫ̱h-
Ęsga:nyé:ˀ Gaęnagáyǫ̱hka:ˀ ‘Women’s ka:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-song-joinerA-old.object-
Old Shuffle Dance’ stat-typ

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 D.28 Sacred Society dances

Ganeˀgwá:ˀe:ˀ, Ganreˀgwá:ˀe:ˀ ‘Eagle Waˀę́na̱ˀe:ˀ ‘Little Horses Dance’

Dance’, ‘Strike the Stick’ ⌊ga-nreˀgwá:- ⌊wa-ˀę́n-a̱-ˀe:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-spear-joinerA-
ˀe:ˀ⌋ 3s.a-eagle.feather-strike.stat strike.stat
Hnyagwái:ˀge̱ha:ˀ ‘Bear Dance’ Wasá:seh ‘Rain Dance’, ‘War Dance’ (of
⌊hnyagwái:ˀ-ge̱ha:ˀ⌋ bear-typ the Osage) Wasá:seh ‘Osage’

D.28 Sacred Society dances

Hęnáhiˀdǫhs ‘Gourd Society Dance’ yaˀd-a-hsrǫ́:nih⌋ 3s.fi.a-srf-body-

(part of Shake Pumpkin) ⌊hęn-áhiˀd- joinerA-make.stat
ǫhs⌋ 3ns.m.a-shake-hab Ohgí:we: ‘Ghost Society Dance’ (takes
Ǫdęyaˀdahsrǫ́:nih ‘Dress-up Society place in spring and fall, but only in fall
Dance’ (a Tutelo Ceremony) ⌊ǫ-dę- at Sour Springs) ⌊o-hgí:we:⌋ 3s.p-stem

D.28.1 Sustenance songs

Miscellaneous terms relevant for Sustenance songs.

Atǫ:wí:sę:ˀ ‘Seed Blessing Songs’ Gyonhehgǫ́h odiáę:naˀ ‘what we all

⌊atǫ:wí:s-ę:ˀ⌋ ø.prefix.sing.seed.songs- live on’, ‘Our Sustenance’, ‘Women’s
nsf Old Shuffle Dance Song’, ‘Sustenance
ęgaǫtǫ́:wi:s ‘they (fe/males) will sing Songs’
the seed songs’ (songs which are also Gyonhehgǫ́h ⌊g-y-onhehg-ǫ́h⌋ cis-3s.p-
used as lullabies) ⌊ę-gaǫ-tǫ́:wi:s⌋ fut- live.on-stat
3ns.fi.a-sing.seed.songs.ø.punc odiáę:naˀ ⌊odi-aę:n-aˀ⌋ 3ns.o-song-nsf
Gaę:naˀsǫ́:ˀah, Gaę:naˀsǫ́:ˀǫ́h ‘songs’, Ǫtǫ:wí:sas ‘Seed Songs’ (sung by
‘songs for Our Sustenance’ ⌊ga-ęn-aˀ- women) ⌊ǫ-tǫ:wí:s-a-s⌋ 3s.fi.a-
shǫ́:ˀǫ́h⌋ 3s.a-song-nsf-plrz sing.seed.songs-joinerA-hab

D.28.2 Sustenance dances and songs

Ęsga:nyé:ˀ Gaęnagáyǫ̱hka:ˀ ‘Women’s nance dances’)
Old Shuffle Dance’ gei ‘four’
ęsga:nyé:ˀ ⌊ęhs-gá:nye:ˀ⌋ foot- Niwahsǫdá:ge: ⌊ni-w-ahsǫd-á:ge:⌋
shuffle.stat part-3s.a-night-number.of.stat
gaęnagáyǫ̱hka:ˀ ⌊ga-ęn-a-gáy-ǫ̱h-ka:ˀ⌋
odiáę:naˀ ‘dance, song’ ⌊odi-aę:n-aˀ⌋
3s.a-song-joinerA-old.object-stat-
3ns.o-song-nsf
typ
Geí: Niwahsǫdá:ge: ‘Four Nights Cer- Ohnyǫhsáˀ odiáę:naˀ ‘Squash Dance’
emony’ (part of gaęna̱ ˀsǫ:ˀǫh ‘Suste- Ohnyǫhsáˀ ⌊o-hnyǫhs-áˀ⌋ 3s.p-squash-

1095
D Thematic dictionary

nsf odiáę:naˀ ⌊odi-aę:n-aˀ⌋ 3ns.o-song-nsf

odiáę:naˀ ⌊odi-aę:n-aˀ⌋ 3ns.o-song-nsf Osaheˀdáˀ odiáę:naˀ ‘Bean Dance’
Onęhę́:ˀ odiáę:naˀ ‘Corn Dance’, ‘Corn osaheˀdáˀ ⌊o-hsaheˀd-áˀ⌋ 3s.p-bean-
song’ nsf
Onęhę́:ˀ ⌊o-nęhę́:-ˀ⌋ 3s.p-corn-nsf odiáę:naˀ ⌊odi-aę:n-aˀ⌋ 3ns.o-song-nsf

D.29 Important and mythical figures

Shǫgwaya̱ˀdíhsˀǫh ‘the Creator’ (of our Onę́hętgǫˀ ‘Corn Bug’ (a bug with
bodies) ⌊shǫgwa-ya̱ˀd-íhsˀ-ǫh⌋ 3ms:1p- evil power) ⌊o-nę́hę-tgǫˀ⌋ 3s.p-corn-
body-finish-stat evil.power.stat
Dewatnǫ̱hsó:węhs ‘Exploding Wren’ Ohsinatí:yeht ‘Sharp Legs’ (legendary
(legendary figure) ⌊de-wa-t-nǫ̱hsó:wę- figure) ⌊o-hsin-a-tí:yeht⌋ 3s.p-leg-
hs⌋ du-3s.a-srf-explode-hab joinerA-sharp.stat
Gajíhayaˀ ‘the Devil’ ⌊ga-jíhay-aˀ⌋ 3s.a- Ohsohdatę́:ˀah ‘Little Dry Hand’ (leg-
devil-nsf endary figure) ⌊o-hsohd-a-tę́:-ˀah⌋
3s.p-hand-joinerA-dry.stat-dim
Ganéhwa:s ‘Stone Giant’ (legendary
figure) ⌊ga-néhw-a:-s⌋ 3s.a-leather- Ohsǫdowahgó:wah ‘Angel of Death’,
joinerA-eat.hab ‘Spirit of Death’ ⌊o-hsǫd-owah-
gó:wah⌋ 3s.p-blackness-verb-aug
Hadiwęnódagyeˀs ‘Thunderers’ ⌊hadi-
węn-ód-a-gy-e-ˀs⌋ 3ns.m.a-voice- Oˀnyá:tę: ‘Dry Fingers’ (legendary
put.in-joinerA-prog-go-hab figure) ⌊o-ˀny-á:-tę:⌋ 3s.p-finger-
joinerA-dry.stat
Hawę:ní:yo: ‘beautiful words’ (the
Shagodá:da̱hgwahs ‘He Takes Out Peo-
Devil’s own name for himself; you can
ple’s Feces’ (legendary figure) ⌊shago-
hear this word in Gaihwi:yo:) ⌊ha-wę:n-
ˀdá:-da̱hgw-a-hs⌋ 3ms:3fi/3p.p-feces-
í:yo:⌋ 3s.m.a-word-good.stat
remove-joinerA-hab
Hnyagwaiˀgó:wah ‘Great Bear’ (leg-
Shagogawé:haˀ ‘He Paddles or Fer-
endary figure) ⌊hnyagwaiˀ-gó:wah⌋
ries People’ (legendary figure) ⌊shago-
bear-aug
gawé:-haˀ⌋ 3ms:3fi/3p.p-paddle-hab
Honǫhsoní:dǫh ‘the Peacemaker’, ‘He Shagohewáhtaˀ ‘The Punisher’ (a name
Strengthens the Longhouse’ (refers for the Devil) ⌊shago-hewáht-haˀ⌋
to the Creator’s Messenger for the 3ms:3fi/3p.p-punish-hab
Great Law) ⌊ho-nǫhs-ǫní:d-ǫh⌋ 3s.m.p-
Shagonǫ:ˀaęˀyę́htaˀ ‘He Hits With A
house-strengthen-stat
Head’ (legendary figure) ⌊shago-nǫˀaę-
Jigáhęh ‘the Little People’ (legendary yę́ht-haˀ⌋ 3ms:3fi/3p.p-head-strike-
figures) hab
Nagányagę:t ‘White Beaver (legendary Shagoyehwáhtaˀ ‘Red Jacket’ ⌊shago-
figure)’ ⌊nagány-a-gę:t⌋ beaver- yehwáht-haˀ⌋ 3ms:3fi/3p.p-arise.early-
joinerA-white.coloured.stat hab

1096
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1100
Name index

Andersen, Gisle, 623 856, 866, 867, 880, 883, 884,

886, 888, 895, 897–899, 904,
Bakker, Peter, 3 906, 907, 910, 919, 923, 931,
Baldwin, Wendy, 621 934, 940, 941, 943, 948, 970,
975, 987, 992, 994, 996, 1001,
Carrier, Nora, xxii, 585, 597, 599, 612, 617,
1006, 1009, 1012, 1015, 1021,
625–627, 632, 823, 827, 830,
1022, 1030, 1034, 1035
837, 843, 844, 854, 856, 870,
Henry, Reginald, xxii, 15, 27, 31, 33, 34,
871, 874, 876, 877, 881, 885, 888,
38, 57, 60, 68, 75, 167, 253, 262,
894, 895, 898, 900, 910, 914,
274, 288, 323, 397, 487, 573,
921, 922, 925, 932, 938, 948,
583, 585, 587–589, 592, 595,
949, 960, 964, 965, 968, 970,
596, 612, 613, 625, 629, 631, 815,
973, 979, 994, 995, 997, 1000,
820, 821, 829, 835, 839, 840,
1001, 1006, 1008, 1035, 1037
842, 844, 846–850, 852, 853,
Chafe, Wallace L., 80, 613, 616, 657, 918
856, 860, 861, 867, 870, 872,
Charles, Julian, 647
874, 875, 877–881, 884, 885,
Decaire, Ryan, 616 889, 890, 897, 900, 901, 903,
Deer, Tom, 487, 572 905, 906, 908, 913–916, 919,
Deer, Tracy, 487, 572 921, 924, 925, 931–933, 935–
Doherty, Brian, 29 940, 945, 947–951, 954–961,
Doxtator, Mercy A., 651 968, 971–974, 979, 981, 987–
989, 991, 993, 995, 998–1000,
Eberhard, David M., 10 1002, 1003, 1007, 1009, 1013,
1014, 1021, 1024–1028, 1030,
Fenton, William Nelson, 4 1032, 1034, 1035, 1058, 1062,
Foster, Michael K., xxii, 6, 29, 33, 82, 1068
212, 273, 274, 276, 283, 288, 415, Hill, Susan M., 6
487, 820, 896, 897
Froman, Frances, xxi, 15, 212, 487, 1062 Keusen, Anna, 943
Keye, Alfred, xxii, 212, 309, 311, 314, 327,
Gibson, John Arthur, 3, 5 343, 449, 487, 651, 654–656,
716, 718, 722, 724–731, 733–
Hatcher Jr, Richard John, 33 741, 745–762, 764–769, 771–
Henry, Marg, 34, 173, 338, 584, 592, 774, 776, 778–784, 786–795,
593, 611, 613, 619, 620, 622– 797, 798, 854
625, 809, 816, 823, 824, 826, Keye, Lottie, xxii, 584, 614–616, 621, 623,
832, 837, 839, 843, 849, 851,
Name index

815, 900, 917, 919, 946, 960, 971, Woodbury, Hanni, 651
973, 982, 1007, 1022
Koenig, Jean-Pierre, 53

Lounsbury, Floyd Glenn, 319, 415, 651

Michelson, Karin, xxii, 3, 6, 53, 174, 236,

327, 596, 607, 651, 805, 807,
857, 886, 909, 933, 1014
Mithun, Marianne, xxii, 6, 11–13, 15, 27,
31, 33, 34, 38, 57, 60, 68, 75,
167, 253, 262, 274, 288, 323,
397, 487, 573, 583, 585, 587–
589, 592, 595, 596, 612, 613, 615,
616, 625, 629, 631, 815, 820, 821,
829, 835, 839, 840, 842, 844,
846–850, 852, 853, 856, 860,
861, 867, 870, 872, 874, 875,
877–881, 884, 885, 889, 890,
897, 900, 901, 903, 905, 906,
908, 913–916, 919, 921, 924,
925, 931–933, 935–940, 945,
947–951, 954–961, 968, 971–
974, 979, 981, 987–989, 991,
993, 995, 998–1000, 1002, 1003,
1007, 1009, 1013, 1014, 1021,
1024–1028, 1030, 1032, 1034,
1035, 1058, 1062, 1068

Rudes, Blair A., 890, 976

Rueentan, Behak, 17, 34

Sasse, Hans-Jürgen, xxii, 212, 309, 311,

314, 327, 343, 449, 487, 651,
654–656, 716, 718, 722, 724–
731, 733–741, 745–762, 764–
769, 771–774, 776, 778–784,
786–795, 797, 798, 854
Schillaci, Michael A., 10
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, 4
Shimony, Annemarie Anrod, 4, 5
Six Nations Council, 6
Steckley, John, 357

Vendler, Zeno, 654, 657

1102
A grammar and dictionary of
Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ (Cayuga)
This work describes the grammar of Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ (Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀnéha:ˀ, Cayuga), an Ǫgwe-
hǫ́weh (Iroquoian) language spoken at Six Nations, Ontario, Canada. Topics include Gayo-
go̱hó:nǫˀnéha:ˀ morphology (word formation); pronominal prefix selection, meaning, and pro-
nunciation; syntax (fixed word order); and discourse (the effects of free word order and noun
incorporation, and the use of particles). Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀnéha:ˀ morphophonology and sentence-
level phonology are also described where relevant in the grammar. Finally, the work includes
noun, verb, and particle dictionaries, organized according to the categories outlined in the gram-
matical description, as well as lists of cultural terms and phrases.