SUBJECT INDEX
Adhesion theory, 199 Cetex fabric, 179, 180, 182, 196, 197, 211-214
Admissible stress fields, 379-380 Clamping pressure, 141, 145
Aerodynamic fairing, 230 Coefficient of friction, 200, 205, 213
Amorphous structures, 33, 34, 35, 78, 104 versus sliding velocity, 209
Angular displacement, 129-130 Coefficient of thermal conductivity (CTC), 52
Anisotropic biomaterials, 404-405 Commingled fibres, 93
Anisotropic flow rules, 6 Commingled materials, 59
Anisotropic materials, yielding, 3-4 Commingled reinforcement, 47
Anisotropy, 412-4 13 Composites, 29, 55-60
APC-2, 172, 173, 181, 182, 184, 187, 192-195, applications, 37
197, 200, 201,203,204, 206, 208, 210-214, mechanical properties, 56-60
286 thermal properties, 55-58
Arrow diagram, 225, 229, 233-237, 241,243 Compression moulding, 93
Aspect ratio, 339, 340 Compressive strain contour map, 242, 244
Axial intra-ply shear deformation, 361-362 Computer-aided design in roll forming, 489-491
Axial stress, 272, 278, 280, 282, 283, 291,296-298 Computer simulation of thermoforming, 75-89
Consistency index, 390
Barrelling effect, 166 Consolidation quality and lay-up, 172
Bend angle and stamping time, 119 Constitutive relationships, 11, 86, 256
Bend forming, 489 Continuous fibre-reinforced composites, 164
Bending, 19, 80, 371-401,487-489 Continuous fibre-reinforced pre-consolidated
constraint conditions and kinematics, 374-376 laminates, 97
idealised viscous model, 374-376 Continuous fibre-reinforced thermoplastics
under tension, 22-23 (CFRT), 92, 100, 125, 147, 227
without tension, 19-20 formability, 372
Bending angle, 123, 127-130 rheological behaviour of, 371-401
Bends, sequencing, 486 sheets, 91-162, 218, 233, 498-512
Bi-cubic Hermite element, 222 Continuous glass-fibre reinforced thermoplastic
Biocompatibility, 434-435 composite, 96
Blister fairing, 230-234 Continuum mechanics analysis, 254
Buckling, 112, 116, 146, 239, 252, 383, 460, 483 Contour maps, 225
Contrary knitting technique, 435
CAD/CAM systems, 489-491 Controlled strain rate forming, 364
CAEDS(I-DEAS), 425 Couette flow, 311,329
Calendering, 78 Coulomb friction, 198
Capillary rheometer, 350-352 Covalent bonds, 32, 34
Carbon-black-filled polystyrene, 343 Crosslinks, 34
Carbon fibre/PEEK composites, 57, 58, 60 Crystal conformation, 32
Carbon fibre/PEEK laminates, 130, 132 Crystal structure, 4
Carbon fibre/PP laminates, 109, 110, 133, 134 Crystalline melting point, 49
Carbon fibres, 40, 43, 97, 164, 181,328 Crystallinity and stamping velocity, 131
Carreau relation, 332 Crystallinity degree, 33, 34
Cauchy-Green deformation tensor, 81, 85 Cubic Hermite basis functions, 222
Cauchy-Green strain tensor, 220
C-channels, 451-454, 466, 467, 468 Darcy's law, 358
525
526 Subject &dex
Deep drawing, 17-19, 68 Explicit finite element method, 250
knitted-fibre-reinforced organo-sheets, Extensional deformation, 364
428-432 Extra stress, 256
Deformation, principal element, 4-5 Extrusion, 78
Deformation analysis of roll forming, 491-498
Deformation behaviour and rheological Fabrics, 123, 328
properties, 329 draping theory, 234-238
Deformation gradient tensor, 225 inter-ply slip, 179, 189, 190
Deformation length, 492, 511-512 intra-ply shear, 174-175
Deformation modes in thermoset composite transverse flow, 166
forming, 446-455 Failure criterion, 418
Deformation processes, 232, 373 Failure model, 418
Deformation theory, 199 FEFORM, 263, 264, 291,310
Degree of crystallinity, 33, 34 Fibre architecture, 407-409
Deviatoric stresses, 5 Fibre distribution, 114
Diaphragm failure, 254 Fibre-filled melts, 344
Diaphragm forming, 69, 94, 95, 146-159, 169, Fibre migration, 382
249, 250, 252 Fibre movement studies, 133-135
assessment and characterisation of Fibre orientation, 186, 198, 210, 236
thermoformed parts, 148-152 Fibre orientation distribution (FOD), 406,
experimental comparisons, 286-303 407-409, 415, 431
experimental details and procedures, 96-100, Fibre-reinforced fluid constitutive model, 176
147-148 Fibre reinforcement, 42, 327, 328, 382
friction, 197-213 Fibre rotation, 255
inflated tool, 470-471 Fibre straightening factor (FSF), 179
large strain analysis technique, 148-150 Fibre volume fraction, 116-118
materials employed, 96-97 Fibre wrinkling, 383, 384
occurrence of defects and thickness variations, Filled polymers, 351-352
150-152 Filled systems, 341,343
pre-consolidated laminates, 98-99 Filled viscous fluids, 338-348
recommendations, 157-159 Filler aspect ratio, 339
reinforced, 469-470 Film stacked prepregs, 93
thermoset composites, 443 Finger strain tensor, 85
variation of forming parameters and rating of Finite element analysis
part quality, 152-157 osteosynthesis plates, 425-428
Diaphragm stiffness, 461-463 roll forming, 498
Diaphragm viscosity, 270-273, 275-279, 281 Finite element equations, 83
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), 106, Finite element formulations, 80-83
130, 132, 133, 506 Finite element methods, 75, 79
Diffuse neck, 13 explicit, 250
Digitised mesh diagram, 242 implicit, 247-322
Double-belt press (DBP), 45, 63-64 osteosynthesis plates, 425-428
Drape forming, 443 simulation code, 254
Draping theory of textile fabrics, 234-238 strain analysis, 224
Finite element software package, 86
Effective strain, 6 Finite element solution technique
Effective stress, 6 plane deformation, 308-309
Elastic limit, 7 plane stress problems, 261-263
Elastic modulus, 83 Flow behaviour, 210, 429
Elastic-perfectly plastic model, 11 Flow mechanism, 100, 311
Elongational flows, 336-337, 343-348 Flow rules, 5
Elongational rheometers, 355 anisotropic, 6
Elongational velocity, 338 Flow stress, 24
Elongational viscosity, 354-355 Flower diagram, 485
Subject index 527
Folding, 70 Image processing, 408
Forming characteristics of sheet metals, 6-12 Implant materials, 404-405, 419-428
Forming limit diagram, 14, 15, 464-468 Implicit finite element modelling, 247-322
Forming limits for sheet metal, 12-15 Incompressibility constraint, 257
Forming pressure, 156 Inextensibility condition, 257
Forming ratio, 154-156 Inflated tool forming, 443, 470-471
Forming temperature, 110-115, 153-154 Injection moulding, 326
Forming velocity, 156 In-plane fibre movement, 106
Friction, 197-213 In-plane shear, 449, 451-454
diaphragm forming, 197-213 Integrated Finite Element Solver (IFES), 425
effects of surface temperature, 204 Interface temperature, 198
influence of normal load, 205 Inter-laminar rotation, 101
mechanisms, 199 Intermittent matched-die consolidation, 65
theories, 199 Intermolecular structure, 32
Friction power-law model parameters, 214 Inter-ply forming mechanisms, 251
Friction sled, press forming, 201-202 Inter-ply shear, 373, 386, 447, 448, 450, 454-455
Friction tests, 200-213 deformation, 362-364
twin platen arrangement, 202 mechanism, 307
Frictional behaviour, 163-216 Inter-ply slip, 100, 113, 114, 167-168, 177-197,
Frictional forces in press forming, 169-170 305, 306, 314, 317
effect of lay-up variation, 187
Gauss-Bonnet theorem, 450 effect of normal pressure, 186
Giesekus model, 335 effect of processing temperature, 190
Glass fibre fabric/PEI laminates, 97, 125, 126, effect of temperature, 184
141-143 fabrics, 179, 189, 190
Glass fibre/PP laminates, 109, 143-144, 146-159 laminates, 191
Glass fibres, 39, 43, 96, 97, 328 mechanism, 201
Glass-mat-reinforced thermoplastics (GMT), 48, power-law model parameters, 197
71-72, 95 test set-up, 182
Glass transition temperature, 49, 83, 86 velocity increments, 183
Glass/PA composites, 58, 59 Intramer structure, 31
Glass/PP composite, 58 Intramolecular structure, 31
Green-Lagrange strain tensor, 81 Intra-ply shear, 101, 166, 173-177
Green-Lagrange strains, 84 Isotropic materials, yielding, 2-3
Grid strain analysis, 217-245
application, 219 Jeffreys fluid, 335, 336
diagnostic applications, 238-241 Joining, 93
technique, 241
Heat conduction model, 108 K-BKZ model, 86-88
Heat transfer, 52 Kevlar, 41,328
Heating temperature profile, 109 Knitted-carbon-fibre-reinforced composite
Heating time in relationship to laminate materials, 405-419
thickness, 110 Knitted-fabric-reinforced thermoplastics,
Hemispherical dome, 235, 238 403-440
Hooke's laws, 11 Knitted fabrics, net-shape forming, 419-428
Hot stamping, 326 Knitted-fibre-reinforced composites, mechanical
Hydrocarbon polymers, 30 properties, 412-4 19
Hydrodynamic friction, 198-199 Knitted-fibre-reinforced organo-sheets, deep
Hydroforming, 68 drawing, 428-432
Hydrostatic stress, 5
Lagrangian strain tensor, 220
Ideal fibre-reinforced fluid (IFRF), 255-258, 308, Laminate dimensions, 141-142
309, 311,313 Laminate stacking sequence, 115, 143
528 Subject index
Laminate thickness Ogden model, 84, 86-88
and lay-up, 157 Optical microscopy, 105
and stamper radius, 126 Order-of-magnitude analysis, 463-464
and stamping pressure, 118-119 Organic fibres, 41-43, 328
Laminate wrinkling, 455-458, 464--465 Organo-sheets, 428-432, 434
Large strain analysis, 218-224 Oscillatory shear experiments, 373
Lay-up Osteosynthesis plates
and consolidation quality, 172 finite element analysis (FEA), 425-428
inter-ply slip, 187 finite element modelling (FEM), 425-428
and laminate thickness, 157 Oven bags, 99
Least squares fitting, 224-226
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), Parallel-plate "squeeze flow" apparatus, 170
170, 191,286, 287 Penalizing, 313-314
Long discontinuous fibres (LDF), 46, 240 Petroleum pitch, 40
Long fibre-reinforced composites, rheological Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, 84
properties, 323-369 Plane deformation
finite element solution technique, 308-309
Manufacturing techniques, 60-72 modelling, 307-308
Matched-die consolidation, 62-63 numerical solution, 305-315
Matched-die forming, 250, 252, 259, 364-365 Plane stress problems, 258-263
Matched-die moulding, 66-67, 71-72 analysis application, 303-305
Material behaviour in thermoforming, 83-86 finite element solution technique, 261-263
Material functions, 329 problem formulation and solution scheme,
Mathematical modelling, 79 260-261
Matrices, 29-38, 48-53, 327 Plastic flow, 2-6, 431
mechanical properties, 52-53 Plastic strain, 4
migration, 114 Plastic work, 6
thermal and rheological properties, 49-52 Plastic yielding, 2-3
thinning, 239 Platen angle, 389, 396
Maxwell equation, 333 Ploughing of asperities, 199
Melt impregnation, 45-46 Plug-assisted forming, 76
Membrane formulations, 80-82 Ply contact formulation, 311-315
Memory effect, 119 Plytron, 95, 96, 99, 153, 226-230, 238, 239, 241,
Mesh sensitivity, 291-293 242, 380, 387, 389-391,395, 396, 398
Mooney-Rivlin model, 84 Poisson's ratio, 11, 57
Mould geometry and stamping time, 120 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN), 40
Mould surface finish, 200 Polyamide (PA), 36, 41,328, 339, 340, 407, 414
Mould surface/release agent, 198 Poly(amide imide) (PAl), 38
Moulding compounds, 48 Poly(aryl sulfone) (PAS), 38
Multi-axial stress conditions, 11 Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT), 36
Multi-directional sheet analysis, 282-283 Polyesters, 36
Multi-ply laminates, 311 Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK), 33, 38, 50, 51,
Multi-valued function, 221 59, 70, 95, 205, 212, 328, 407, 410, 415,
417, 418, 421
Navier-Stokes equation, 359 Poly(ether imide) (PEI), 38, 114, 123, 328
Necking, 13, 14 Poly(ether ketone) (PEK), 38
Net-shape forming, 433, 434 Poly(ether ketone ketone) (PEKK), 38, 95, 328,
Newton-Raphson method, 82 343
Newtonian fluid, 330, 332, 338, 359 Poly(ether sulfone) (PES), 38, 328
Newtonian viscosity, 330 Polyethylene (PE), 30, 33, 36, 42
Non-linear elastic models, 83 Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), 36
Normal loading effects, 212 Polyethylmethacrylate (PEMA), 407, 410,
Normal pressure, 198 414--416
Nylons, 36 Polyimide (PI), 38
Subject index 529
Polyisoprene, 31 impregnation, 35
Polymer matrix. See Matrices mechanical properties, 54
Polymer morphology, 30 thermal properties, 54
Polymer structures, influencing properties, 31-34 Relaxation, 332, 339-343
Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS), 38, 328 Relaxation modulus, 49
Polypropylene (PP), 30-33, 36, 96, 328 Relaxation parameter, 334
Polystyrene (PS), 49, 338, 343, 344 Relaxation phenomena, 329-336
Polysulfone (PSU), 38 Relaxation time, 333
Powder impregnation, 46-47, 94 Release agent, 198, 201, 210-211
Power hardening law, 11 Residual stresses, 22
Power-law strain rates, 332 Resin interlayer, 208
Pre-consolidated laminates, 97-100 Resin percolation, 100, 165, 357-358
diaphragm forming, 98-99 Resin thickness measurements, 207
Preheating time, 107-109 Resin transfer moulding (RTM), 324, 406
Preimpregnated reinforcement. See Prepregs Rheological measurement of composite shear
Prepreg lay-up, 61 viscosities, 258
Prepregs, 43-44 Rheological parameters in thermoforming,
comparison of types, 47 364-366
consolidation, 61 Rheological properties
film stacked, 93 application in sheet forming, 356-366
Press forming, 14, 203-204, 249, 250 continuous fibre-reinforced thermoplastic,
friction sled, 201-202 371-401
frictional forces in, 169-170 and deformation behaviour, 329
Pressure loading, 275-282 long fibre-reinforced composites, 323-369
Principal element, 2, 6 measurement techniques, 348-355
deformation, 4-5 Roll angles, 487
Principal strain, 5 Roll forming, 70, 473-515
Principal stresses, 2, 3, 5 computer-aided design, 489-491
Processing temperatures, 50 defects, 482-483
Pull-out tests, 189, 373 deformation analysis, 491-498
Pultruded bands, 94 equipment and procedures, 500--501
Pultruded continuous carbon fibre (CF) equipment and tooling, 476--483
polypropylene (PP)-tape, 97 finite element analysis, 498
Pultruded continuous glass fibre (GF) form roll design, 483-489
polypropylene (PP)-tape, 97 operating conditions, 481
Pultrusion, 93, 326 quality assessment, 501-506
Punch deformation experiments, 266 section orientation, 485-486
Punch experiments with circular unidirectional strain distribution during, 495-498
sheets, 264-265 temperature control, 506-510
thermoplastic material, 498-512
Quasi-isotropic laminates, 284, 285, 289, 290, Roll lubrication, 481
299, 300 Roll quality, 481
Quasi-isotropic preforms, 289 Roll schedule, 484-485
Quasi-isotropic sheet, 301 Roll setting, 482
Rolling mills, 479-480
r-value, 8 auxiliary equipment, 480
Radial pressure, 273-275 Rotational rheometer, 351
Radial velocity, 265-273 Rotational viscometers, 348-350
Rayon, 40 Rubber-die moulding, 67
Reaction injection moulding (RIM), 324
Reaction stress, 256 Scaling laws, 458-460, 464
Reinforced diaphragm forming, 469-470 Semicrystalline polymers, 33-36
Reinforcement-matrix interaction, 42-43 Semicrystalline thermoplastics, 49
Reinforcements, 38-43 Shear buckling, 249, 251,253, 263-285
530 Subject index
Shear deformation, 311 and bend angle, 119
Shear flows, 329-336, 339-343 and mould geometry, 120
Shear magnification effect, 346 and stamper radius, 122
Shear modes, 342, 447 and stamping pressure, 120, 121
Shear rate, 342, 389, 390 Stamping velocity, 112
modified constant shear rate tests, 392-399 and crystallinity, 131
Shear rheometers, 353 and stamping pressure, 115, 123-124
Shear stress, 270, 275,276, 279, 281,282, 332, 339 Stokes flow, 262
Shear thinning, 206, 330-331,339, 347 Strain analysis technique, 148-150
Shear viscosity, 51,353, 389, 391 Strain distribution, 236
Shearing characterisation, 163-216 during roll forming, 495-498
Shearing velocity/shear stress relationship, 186 Strain energy function, 84
Sheet forming, 65-72 Strain-hardening, 13
implicit finite element modelling, 247-322 Strain measurement, 51 0-511
mechanisms, 250 Strain rate, 83, 336
philosophy, 325-327 sensitivity index, 24
processing methods, 327 Strain space diagram, 225, 226, 229, 230, 233,237
Sheet metal forming Strain tensor, 335
characteristics of, 6-12 Stress equilibrium, 377
limits for, 12-15 Stress growth, 334
mechanics of, 1-25 Stress-strain characteristics, 7
Sheet stamping, 325 Stress-strain curve, 7-13
Single-curvature forming, 305-307 Stress-strain equations, 129
Sliding velocity versus coefficient of friction, 209 Stress-strain properties, 11
Solvent impregnation, 44-45 Stress-strain relationship, 19
Specialty fibres, 42 Stress tensor, 376
Specific heat, 108 Stretch forming, 15-17
Spherical dome, 226-230 Structure-properties relationship, 415-4 19,
Spring-back, 19, 119, 193, 504-506 432-433
Spring-forward, 504-506 Superplasticity, 23-24
Squeeze flow viscometers, 353-354 Surface coatings, 200
Stability considerations, 285 Surface fibre orientation, 200, 209
Stamp forming, 94, 95, 97, 100-146 Surface release agent, 201
characterisation methods, 105-107 Surface resin layer, 208
description of stamping process, 104-105 Surface roughness measurements, 201
experimental details and procedures, 96-100,
102-104, 139-140 Tangential stress, 280, 283-285, 300-302
experimental set-up, 138-139 Tape laying, 64-65, 326
force analysis, 141 Tape winding, 93
forming temperature, 110-115 Tear drop region, 232
materials employed, 96-97 Tensile failure behaviour, 413-415
mechanisms, 140-141 Tensile strain contour map, 238
optimised processing window, 135-137 Tensile test, 6, 11, 12
processing parameters, 103 Tension mass matrix, 263
recommendations, 145-146 Tepex, 95
Stamper radius Textile fabrics. See Fabrics
and laminate thickness, 126 Thermal analysis, 106-107, 130-133
and stamping time, 122 Thermal conductivity, 108
Stamping pressure Thermal expansion coefficients, 128
and laminate thickness, 118-119 Thermal Mechanical Analysis (TMA), 107, 128,
and stamping time, 120, 121 130
and stamping velocity, 115, 123-124 Thermoforming, 93, 326
and weaving of tracer wires, 135 rheological parameters in, 364-366
Stamping time Thermoplastics, 34
Subject index 531
Thermoplastics (continued) Updated Lagrangian (UL) formulation, 81
composite sheet forming, 27-73
constituents, 29-48 Vacuum bag, 61-62, 148
polymer matrices, 34-38 Vacuum forming, 76, 326
sheet production, 77-78 van der Waals forces, 199
Thermosets, 34 Vee-bending, 374
composite forming, 441-472 experimental procedures, 380-382
background, 442-446 kinematic model, 378-379
deformation modes, 446-455 modified test, 392
kinematics, 446-455 tests, 373
forming experiments, 464-468 transverse shear behaviour, 393-394
Thick sheet formulations, 82-83 Viscoelastic behaviour, 388
Time to surface degradation, 51 Viscoelastic fluids, 333
Tolerance to degradation, 51
Viscoelastic models, 85
Total Lagrangian (TL) formulation, 80
Viscoelastic response, 334
Tow straightening effect, 189
Viscoelasto-plastic constitutive relation, 86
Transition temperatures, 49, 50
Viscosity, 50, 329-336, 339-348
Transverse flow, 165, 170-173, 306
in elongational flows, 336-337
fabrics, 166
mechanism, 125 Viscosity ratio, 275, 279, 280, 398
process, 100 von Mises yield criterion, 3
Transverse shear behaviour, 392
vee-bending test, 393-394 Wall thickness distribution, 142-143, 144
Transverse shear viscosity tests, 395-399 White-Metzner equation, 333
Transverse squeeze flow, 358-361 Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) transform, 200,
Transverse stress, 274, 277 458
Trellis angle, 174, 175 Work-hardening, 8
Trellis deformation, 232 Woven fabric, 122
Trellis effect, 141, 167, 228
Trellis structure, 228, 230 Yield locus, 18
Tresca yield criterion, 3 Yield point, 7, 8
Trouton relation, 338 Yield strength, 8
Yield stress, 194-195
Ulnar osteosynthesis plate, 419-428 Yielding, anisotropic materials, 3-4
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), 8 Young's modulus, 11, 412, 417, 418
Unfilled polymer melts, 329
Uniaxial elongation, 337 Zero shear rate viscosity, 331
