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Culture, Health & Sexuality: An

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Pornography consumption and non-

marital sexual behaviour in a sample of
young Indonesian university students
a b
Gert Martin Hald & Teguh Wijaya Mulya
a
Department of Public Health, Clinic of Sexology, Copenhagen
University Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
b
Faculty of Psychology, University of Surabaya, Indonesia
Published online: 20 Jun 2013.

To cite this article: Gert Martin Hald & Teguh Wijaya Mulya (2013) Pornography consumption and
non-marital sexual behaviour in a sample of young Indonesian university students, Culture, Health
& Sexuality: An International Journal for Research, Intervention and Care, 15:8, 981-996, DOI:
10.1080/13691058.2013.802013

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 Culture, Health & Sexuality, 2013
Vol. 15, No. 8, 981–996, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2013.802013

Pornography consumption and non-marital sexual behaviour

in a sample of young Indonesian university students
Gert Martin Halda* and Teguh Wijaya Mulyab
a
Department of Public Health, Clinic of Sexology, Copenhagen University Hospital, University of
Copenhagen, Denmark; bFaculty of Psychology, University of Surabaya, Indonesia
(Received 5 October 2012; final version received 30 April 2013)
Downloaded by [Washington University in St Louis] at 22:46 14 January 2015

Using a sample of Indonesian university students and a cross sectional design, this
study investigated prevalence rates and patterns of pornography consumption in
Indonesia, a religious, sexually conservative, Muslim-majority nation with strict anti-
pornography laws. Further, the association between pornography consumption and
common non-marital sexual behaviours was explored. The study found that in this
sample, pornography is as widely and readily consumed as in comparable international
studies predominantly utilising Western background samples from more sexually
liberal and less religious countries with very few laws on pornography. Gender
differences in patterns of pornography consumption were pronounced and comparable
with findings in international counterpart studies. For men only, pornography
consumption was found to significantly predict common sexual behaviours in non-
marital relations. The study is the first to provide insights into prevalence rates and
patterns of pornography consumption and its association with common non-marital
sexual behaviours in a sexually conservative, Muslim-majority nation with strict anti-
pornography laws.
Keywords: pornography; sexually explicit materials; sexual behaviour; Indonesia

Introduction
Is pornography as widely and readily consumed among university students in a
religious, sexually conservative, Muslim-majority nation with strict anti-pornography
laws as in the Western world? And is this consumption associated with common
sexual behaviours in non-marital relationships over and above relevant control variables? We
first provide a brief overview of sexuality and pornography in Indonesia. We then review
existing literature on pornography consumption and its association with a variety of sexual
behaviours. Finally, we outline the theoretical framework and aims of the study.

Sexuality and pornography in Indonesia

Indonesia has roughly 240 million inhabitants and is the world’s most populous Muslim-
majority nation, with approximately 90% of the population being Muslim (BPS– Statistics
Indonesia 2010). Indonesian Muslims are diverse, ranging from liberal to conservative,
with most being fairly moderate compared to Muslims in the Middle East (Houben 2003).
Religion plays a big role in Indonesian society and everyday life and Indonesians are
required to have their religious affiliation written on their national ID card (BPS– Statistics
Indonesia 2010; Ministry of Religious Affairs 2005).

*Corresponding author. Email: gertmartinhald@gmail.com

q 2013 Taylor & Francis

 982 G.M. Hald and T.W. Mulya

Sexuality in Indonesia is generally assumed to be conservative and sex is socially

acceptable only within monogamous, heterosexual, religiously recognised marriages
(President of the Republic of Indonesia 1974; Situmorang 2003). Cohabitation is not
officially permitted by government or sanctioned by society (Bennett 2005a).
Premarital sexual activities are sanctioned by society and considered to bring shame on
the person and family involved, particularly if the individual concerned is female
(Padang 2012).
Sexuality in Indonesia is enmeshed in religious (Bennett 2005b), cultural (Davies
2010; Jennaway 2003; Withers and Browner 2012), racial (Munro 2012), legal (Wieringa
2010), political (Wieringa 2000), educational (Utomo 1997) and health (Jacubowski 2008)
discourses. Consequently, official political opinions, attitudes, policies and laws
concerning sexuality are widely contested. For instance, Utomo and McDonald (2009)
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reported how the implementation of sexual and reproductive health policies in Indonesia
in the last two decades have been struggling within the conflicting forces of traditional
values, Westernisation and Islamic fundamentalism. Other examples may be found in the
works of Blackwood (2007), Boellstorff (2007) and Wright-Webster (2008) which reveal
the complex dynamics of sexual diversity beyond dominant heteronormative discourses in
Indonesia.
The effects of socio-economic change, modernisation and globalisation among
Indonesian youth have resulted in greater freedom and autonomy during the past two
decades, presumably contributing to a more open and liberal expression of sexual identity,
attitudes and behaviours (Harding 2008; Utomo 1997; Utomo and McDonald 2008).
Nevertheless, young people’s awareness of risky sexual behaviour related to sexually
transmitted infections (STIs) and unwanted pregnancies is still relatively limited (Ford,
Shaluhiyah, and Suryoputro 2007; Simon and Paxton 2004), presumably due to a strong
prohibitive discourse among sexuality educators and religious leaders (Holzner and
Oetomo 2004). This has given rise to recent studies focusing on sexual education and HIV-
prevention programmes (e.g. Diarsvitri et al. 2011).
Regarding pornography in Indonesia, scholars have paid considerable attention to the
controversy of the anti-pornography law passed in 2008. This law prohibits Indonesians to
‘produce, make, copy, distribute, broadcast, import, export, offer, trade, lease, provide,
show, utilise, own, or save’ pornography (President of the Republic of Indonesia 2008).
Violation of the anti-pornography law carries sentences of between 6 months and 12 years
of imprisonment. The anti-pornography law has been discussed extensively in the
academic literature in relation to religious conservatism and gender activism (Allen 2007),
legal process (Sherlock 2008) and human rights (Nilsson 2010).
Beside the anti-pornography law controversy, another strand of research on
pornography in Indonesia has involved media analyses of pornographic videos and
magazines (Kitley 2008). However, in-depth studies focusing on Indonesian youth
engagement with pornography are few, problematic with regard to methodology and data
analysis, not available in English and not published in peer-reviewed journals.

Prevalence rates and patterns of pornography consumption

With few exceptions (see also Wright 2013), international studies have
reported consumption rates in the range of 50 –99% amongst men and 30 –86% amongst
women (Hald et al. 2013). However, these rates have been found to be heavily influenced
by sample characteristics (e.g. age), time period assessed (e.g. pornography consumption
in the past six months, year, ever), definition of pornography and study methodology and
 Culture, Health & Sexuality 983

design. In an Indonesian context, using a sample of 395 junior high school students,
Supriati and Fikawati (2009) found that 83% of respondents had been exposed to
pornography.
Compared to women, men have been found to use pornography more frequently, spend
more time on pornography consumption, be exposed to pornography at a younger age, use
pornography more often during masturbation (Hald 2006), prefer pornography with many
different actors as compared to pornography with the same actors performing different
acts, be more attracted to both a wider range of hardcore pornography and hardcore
pornography devoid of relationship context and emotional attachments and generally be
more sexually aroused by pornography (Chivers et al. 2010; Hald and Malamuth 2008).
Scandinavian, US and Italian studies all reveal significant gender differences in
attitudes towards pornography, with women being significantly more likely than men to
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describe pornography as dull, not exciting or repulsive and favour restrictions on

pornography (e.g. Flood 2010; Herrman and Bordner 1983; Sabina, Wolak, and Finkelhor
2008; Træen, Spitznogle, and Beverfjord 2004). In an Indonesian context, Puspa (2010),
using a sample of 98 Indonesian college students, found that attitudes toward pornography
and common sexual behaviour (i.e., holding hands, hugging, kissing, petting and coitus)
were positively correlated.
Up until the 1990s, the dominant media outlets for pornography consumption were
magazines, videos/DVDs and television. However, this changed in the wake of the
Internet and Smartphone revolution, where high-speed Internet connections increasingly
allow for easy, cheap and convenient access to all types of pornography (Edelman 2009).
Today, the predominant media outlets of pornography consumption are the Internet,
videos/DVDs, television and magazines (Morgan 2011).
Few studies have examined the situational and interpersonal characteristics of
pornographic consumption. In the studies done, however, for both men and women the
main place of use has been found to be ‘home’ and the interpersonal context of use being
either ‘alone’ or with a ‘regular sexual partner’ (e.g. Hald 2006; Svedin, Akerman, and
Priebe 2011; Træen, Nilsen, and Stigum 2006).
Perceived realism of pornography, that is, the extent to which the consumer perceives
the pornographic content as realistic (see also Peter and Valkenburg 2010; Stulhofer,
Busko, and Schmidt 2012), has rarely been investigated in pornography research.
However, in the studies conducted, perceived realism has been found to be significantly
positively correlated with pornography consumption (Hald 2007), a mediator of the
impact of internet pornography consumption on young people’s instrumental attitudes
toward sex (Peter and Valkenburg 2010) and a predictor of relationship intimacy
(Stulhofer, Busko, and Schmidt 2012). Therefore, we think it of interest to also assess
perceived realism of pornography in this sample.

Pornography consumption and sexual behaviours

Previous research in a range of cultural contexts has consistently found associations
between pornography consumption and a variety of sexual behaviours. These include
having pre-coital sexual behaviours, lower age at first intercourse, number of sexual
partners, extramarital sex, having engaged in oral, anal or group sex, engaging in a larger
range of sexual practices, not having used contraception during the last intercourse and
having had a sexually transmitted infection (Braun-Courville and Rojas 2009; Brown
and L’Engle 2009; Morgan 2011; Stulhofer, Busko, and Landripet 2010; Træen, Nilsen,
and Stigum 2006; Wingood et al. 2001). In an Indonesian context, Novita, Hasanat, and
 984 G.M. Hald and T.W. Mulya

Supriyati (2006) found that increased exposure to pornography was significantly

associated with increases in young people’s sexual behaviours. Reflecting the findings of
this research, concerns have been raised that pornography may exert a potentially strong
and adverse influence on sexual behaviours and increase sexual vulnerability and risk
(Hald et al. 2013).
However, as Wright’s (2012) review of the literature demonstrates, much of this
previous research has failed to adequately assess and control for the combined influence of
relevant controls and/or focus almost exclusively on STI-related sexual behavioural
outcomes, e.g. condom use (e.g. Luder et al. 2011; Peter and Valkenburg 2011; Sinkovic,
Stulhofer, and Bozic 2012; Wright 2012, 2013; Wright and Randall 2012). Both separately
and combined, these limitations may result in overestimating or overstating the influence
of pornography on sexual behaviours (Hald et al. 2013). Thus, to address these limitations
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of previous cross-sectional research, a more robust assessment of the associations between

pornography and a broader range of sexual behaviours, controlling for other relevant
covariates, is needed.

Theoretical framework
Theoretically, Sexual Script Theory has only recently emerged as a theoretical perspective
to guide research and analyses of quantitative data pertaining to pornography. According
to Frith and Kitzinger (2001), sexual scripts may be understood as ‘culturally available
messages that define what “counts” as sex, how to recognise sexual situations, and what to
do in sexual encounters’ (210). Repeated exposure to pornography may influence the
scripting process, the sexual scripts or the evaluation of sexual relations (Hald, Malamuth
and Lange, forthcoming). Consequently, the explicit imagery, underlying messages,
symbolic normative nature and order of sexual behaviors as portrayed in pornography may
influence the affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects of sexuality (Stulhofer, Busko,
and Landripet 2010) and the perceptions of sexuality (e.g. what is sex), sexual situations
(e.g. when is a situation sexual), sexual behaviours (e.g. what to do when having sex) and
evaluations of sexual relations (e.g. what constitutes good sex).
On this basis, Wright and colleagues have proposed the 3AM model, a sexual-script-
based theory specifically developed to explain effects of media sex such as pornography
(e.g. Wright 2013; Wright and Randall 2012). According to this model, pornography,
through culturally available messages and social learning processes, may be written into
the sexual scripts. However, the acquisition, activation and application of these sexual
scripts is subject to a number of content, audience, and situational factors and do not
happen automatically or uniformly across individuals (see also Wright 2013; Wright and
Randall 2012). Based on previous research on pornography and sexual behaviours as well
as on the 3AM model, we hypothesise that pornography consumption will be significantly
associated with common sexual behaviours in non-marital relationships (specified below)
over and above included control variables (also specified below).
By common sexual behaviours we refer to kissing, petting, oral sex and coitus
(de Graaf et al. 2009; Herbenick et al. 2010; Smiler, Frankel, and Savin-Williams 2011).
By non-marital relationships we refer to all relationships, whether casual or committed, in
which consenting parties are not married. We focused on non-marital relationships as sex
in Indonesia is normatively located within the institution of marriage (Nilan 2008).
Consequently, asking participants about their attitudes toward marital sex or sexual
behaviours within marital relations would most likely yield little response variation in
 Culture, Health & Sexuality 985

relation to the common sexual behaviours studied. Further, most pornography portrays
sexual relationships outside the marital context (Wright 2012).
By relevant control variables, we refer to variables previously shown or hypothesised
to affect associations between pornography consumption and sexual behaviours. In our
study these include socio-demographic characteristics (i.e., age, relationship status and
religiosity) (Morgan 2011; Peter and Valkenburg 2011; Wright 2012; Wright and Randall
2012), personality characteristics (i.e., sensation seeking) (Luder et al. 2011; Peter and
Valkenburg 2011), sexual background variables (i.e., sexual attitudes) (Luder et al. 2011),
media use characteristics (i.e., Internet consumption per week) (Morgan 2011; Træen,
Nilsen, and Stigum 2006) and parental involvement (Lam and Chan 2007; Sinkovic,
Stulhofer, and Bozic 2012).
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Study aims and hypothesis

The study aimed to investigate prevalence rates and patterns of pornography consumption
using a large university sample of Indonesian young adults and a cross sectional design.
Further, using this sample and design, the association between pornography consumption
and sexual behaviours is investigated. In this regard, it is hypothesised that pornography
consumption will be significantly associated with sexual behaviours over and above
included controlling variables.

Method
Participants
Participants included 556 Indonesian college students aged 18– 23 years from a well-
known private university in Surabaya, the second-largest city of Indonesia. Students at the
university are ethnically and religiously diverse but predominantly middle class. Most
students come from the greater Surabaya area (East Java) or other cities/islands in the
central and eastern part of Indonesia, such as Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, Bali and
Nusa Tenggara. The mean age of male subjects was 20.28 years (SD ¼ 1.27). The mean
age of female subjects was 19.96 (SD ¼ 1.29; p ¼ 0.02; independent t-test). For socio-
demographic sample characteristics, see Table 1.

Procedures
The study protocol was approved by the Dean of the Faculty of Psychology and the Head
of the Research and Community Service Board, University of Surabaya, Indonesia. Data
were collected during June 2011. Four research assistants, three females and one male,
randomly approached potential participants on the campus area of the university. A total of
578 potential participants were approached, of which 556 consented to participate in the
study (96.2%). After a short oral and written explanation of the study, consenting
participants were asked to complete a formal form of consent followed by the study
questionnaires. To guarantee participants’ anonymity, consent forms were initially
separated from the anonymous study questionnaires, which, upon completion, were
dropped in a separate closed box. Due to the potentially sensitive nature of the topic,
research assistants made sure that participants were alone during the questionnaire
response phase. Further, participants were carefully instructed to leave items blank rather
than giving dishonest answers to items they felt uncomfortable answering.
 986 G.M. Hald and T.W. Mulya

Table 1. Background measures stratified by gender (N ¼ 556).

Variable Men % Women % Tests df Cohen’s d

Gender 26.6 (148) 73.4 (408)
Age x 2 ¼ 8.49* 2 0.26
18 – 19 30.0 (42) 44.1 (171)
20 – 21 55.0 (77) 44.3 (172)
22 – 23 15.0 (21) 11.6 (45)
Relationship status x 2 ¼ 2.36 1 0.13
Not in a relationship 60.0 (87) 52.6 (213)
In a relationship 40.0 (58) 47.4 (192)
Average hours of religious t ¼ 2 0.54 517 2 0.05
attendance per week
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M 6.3 7.2
SD 15.7 16.7
N 137 382
Sensation seeking x 2 ¼ 7.54 3 0.23
Very high 17.6 (26) 12.3 (50)
High 52.0 (77) 47.1 (192)
Low 25.7 (38) 37.3 (152)
Very low 4.7 (7) 3.4 (14)
Average hours of internet x 2 ¼ 13.36* 4 0.32
use per week
0 – 10 57.3 (82) 66.5 (264)
11 – 20 14.7 (21) 14.9 (59)
21 – 30 12.6 (18) 12.6 (50)
31 – 40 4.9 (7) 2.8 (11)
More than 40 10.5 (15) 3.3 (13)
Parental involvement x 2 ¼ 4.45 3 0.18
Very high 25.3 (37) 33.8 (137)
High 58.9 (86) 54.3 (220)
Low 15.1 (22) 11.6 (47)
Very low 0.7 (1) 0.2 (1)
Sexual attitudea t ¼ 3.34** 552 0.28
M 10.8 9.8
SD 3.3 3
N 146 408
Sexual behaviourb t ¼ 0.80 548 0.11
M 1.4 1.3
SD 1.7 1.3
N 147 402
Note: Missing values excluded; numbers in parentheses represent n/cell; *p , 0.05; **p , 0.01.
a
Sexual attitude scores ranged from 5 to 20, with 5 indicating a strong negative attitude towards non-marital
sexual behaviours and 20 indicating a strong positive attitude towards common non-marital sexual behaviours.
b
Sexual behaviour scores ranged from 0 to 5, with higher scores indicating having engaged in a larger range of
non-marital sexual activities.

Measures
Main outcome measures
Pornography consumption. Pornography related variables were measured using a
modified version of the Pornography Consumption Questionnaire developed by Hald
(2006). Items were related to prevalence rates of pornography consumption, the situational
and interpersonal context of pornography consumption, pornography consumption outlets,
acceptance of pornography consumption (i.e., the extent to which the viewing of
pornography is acceptable for adults above 18 years of age), perceived realism of
 Culture, Health & Sexuality 987

pornography (i.e., the extent to which the consumer perceives the pornographic content as
realistic) and partner knowledge of and reactions to participant’s pornography consumption
(Carroll et al. 2008; Hald 2006; Hald and Malamuth 2008; Stulhofer, Busko, and Schmidt
2012). Following Hald (2006), participants were told to refer to the following definition of
pornography whenever the term was used throughout the questionnaire:
Any kind of material aiming at creating or enhancing sexual feelings or thoughts in the
recipient and, at the same time, containing explicit exposure and/or descriptions of the
genitals and clear and explicit sexual acts such as vaginal intercourse, anal intercourse, oral
sex, masturbation, bondage, sadomasochism, rape, urine sex, animal sex, etc. (579)
To yield a better overall estimate of pornography consumption, following Hald (2006)
and Hald and Malamuth (2008), several indicators of pornography consumption (time
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since last consumption, frequency of consumption, duration of consumption) were

collapsed into a ‘pornography consumption composite’ measure, using the average
standardised score of the indicators. The pornography consumption composite was used in
all subsequent analyses.

Non-marital sexual behaviours. Non-marital sexual behaviours (sexual behaviours) were

measured using five sexual behavioural items indicating whether participants had engaged
in certain sexual activities in non-marital relationships. These included dry kissing
(mouth-to-mouth kiss without involving saliva), deep kissing (mouth-to-mouth kiss
involving saliva), petting (manual stimulation of erogenous zones), oral sex (oral-genital
stimulation) and coitus (penetration with the penis) (Herbenick et al. 2010). Responses
were given in a ‘yes’ and ‘no’ manner (0 ¼ no/never engaged in the activity, 1 ¼ yes/have
engaged in the activity). A ‘sexual behaviour score’ was computed by summing scores
across items. Higher scores indicate having engaged in more sexual behaviours outside
marital relationships.

Controlling variables (covariates)

Socio-demographic variables. Sociodemographic variables included gender, age (in
years), relationship status (0 ¼ not in a relationship; 1 ¼ in a relationship) and religious
attendance. Religious attendance was assessed as the average time per week in hours spent
on religious activities, whether individually or communally (see also Rohrbaugh and
Jessor 1975).

Internet consumption. Internet consumption was measured by the average number of hours
of internet use per week during the previous 12 months.

Parental involvement. Parental involvement was measured by six items taken from Lam and
Chan (2007). Parental involvement refers to the degree of ‘participation of parents/guardians
in the children’s life and their dedication in trying to help solve their children’s problems’
(Lam and Chan 2007, 592). Responses ranged from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 4 ¼ strongly
agree. Higher scores indicate more parental involvement in the participants’ life. The
internal consistency of the scale was satisfactory (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.76).

Sensation seeking. Sensation seeking was assessed using the eight-item Brief Sensation
Seeking Scale developed by Stephenson et al. (2007). Responses ranged from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicate higher sensation seeking. Internal
consistency of the scale was satisfactory (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.74).
 988 G.M. Hald and T.W. Mulya

Attitude towards non-marital sexual behaviours. Attitude towards non-marital sexual

behaviours (sexual attitude) was assessed using five items measuring participants’ attitude
towards certain sexual activities in non-marital relationships. Items included dry kissing
(mouth-to-mouth kisses without involving saliva), deep kissing (mouth-to-mouth kiss
involving saliva), petting (manual stimulation of erogenous zones), oral sex (oral-genital
stimulation) and coitus (sex involving penetration with the penis) (Herbenick et al. 2010).
These items were chosen to align with the study outcome measure of ‘non-marital sexual
behaviours’ described below. Responses were given on a four-point scale (1 ¼ highly
unacceptable; 2 ¼ unacceptable; 3 ¼ acceptable; 4 ¼ highly acceptable). A sexual
attitude composite score was created by summing scores on each item. Higher scores
indicate a more positive attitude towards sexual activities in non-marital relationships. The
internal consistency of the scale was good (Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.85).
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Results
Missing data
Gender stratified missing value analyses were performed for all included variables due to
the sensitive nature of the topic. Except for variables related to ‘partner’s knowledge of
participant’s pornography consumption’ and ‘type of sexual activity accompanying
pornography consumption’, missing values ranged from 0 to 8%, with the vast majority of
missing values being below 5%. For the two items noted above, missing values ranged
from 7 to 18%. No systematic differences between respondents and non-respondents were
found across missing values (see also Howell 2007).

Background variables
No significant gender differences were evident for relationship status, sensation seeking,
parental involvement, religious attendance or sexual behaviours. However, compared to
women, men were found to be significantly older, spend significantly more time on
Internet use per week and hold significantly more positive sexual attitudes ( p , 0.05). The
magnitude of these differences was found to be small to moderate (Cohen’s d range: 0.26 –
0.32, see also Table 1).

Patterns of pornography consumption

With two exceptions, noted below, significant gender differences were found across all
measures of pornography consumption (see Table 2). The magnitude of these differences
were predominantly found to be large (Cohen’s d . 0.8).
Significantly more men than women were found to have ever consumed pornography
( p , 0.01). Men were also found to have been exposed to pornography at a significantly
younger age than women, spend significantly more time on pornography consumption,
consume pornography significantly more often and have consumed pornography
significantly more recently than women ( p , 0.01). Further, men’s consumption of
pornography was significantly more often accompanied by solitary sexual activity than
women’s ( p , 0.05). Significantly more women (34.9%) than men (7.8%) reported to
have had sexual activity with a partner during pornography consumption ( p , 0.01). For
both genders, pornography was most often accessed from home, through the Internet, a
Mobile phone or a DVD/VCD and used in solitude. No significant gender differences were
found in the acceptance of pornography, with the majority of both men and women
 Culture, Health & Sexuality 989

Table 2. Pornography consumption measures stratified by gender (N ¼ 556).

Variable Men % Women % Tests df Cohen’s d

Pornography consumption x 2 ¼ 27.47** 1 0.46

Yes 94.6 (140) 74.4 (302)
No 5.4 (8) 25.6 (104)
Age of first exposure t ¼ 26.64** 437 0.64
M 14.4 16.1
SD 2.4 2.7
N 138 301
Time since last consumption x 2 ¼ 151.70** 6 1.45
In the last 24 hours 7.1 (10) 1.7 (5)
In the last 48 hours 7.1 (10) 1.0 (3)
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In the last week 35.0 (49) 4.0 (12)

In the last month 24.3 (34) 10.6 (32)
In the last 6 months 10.7 (15) 16.6 (50)
In the last year 7.9 (11) 18.3 (55)
More than 1 year ago 7.9 (11) 47.8 (144)
Frequency of pornography consumption x 2 ¼ 160.10** 5 1.52
in the last six months
Never 15.9 (22) 66.6 (199)
More than five times per week 5.8 (8) 0.3 (1)
3 – 5 times per week 8.0 (11) 0.7 (2)
1 – 2 times per week 29.0 (40) 2.3 (7)
1 – 2 times per month 21.7 (30) 6.7 (20)
Less than once per month 19.6 (27) 23.4 (70)
Duration of use (hours per week x 2 ¼ 115.20** 5 1.25
in the last 6 months)
Never 16.9 (22) 71.6 (199)
Less than 1 hour 26.9 (35) 14.0 (39)
1 – 3 hours 50.0 (65) 13.7 (38)
4 – 6 hours 3.8 (5) 0.4 (1)
7 – 10 hours 0.8 (1) 0.4 (1)
More than 10 hours 1.5 (2) 0 (0)
Location of pornography consumption x 2 ¼ 20.00** 3 0.45
Home 77.0 (107) 55.1 (152)
Friend’s home 7.9 (11) 20.3 (56)
Internet café 2.2 (3) 2.5 (7)
Campus 0.7 (1) 7.6 (21)
Other (not specified, anywhere, 12.2 (17) 14.5 (40)
workplace, WiFi area, etc.)
Interpersonal context of pornography
consumptiona
Alone 89.8 (106) 58.8 (60) x 2 ¼ 128.40** 1 1.28
Romantic partner 0.8 (1) 14.7 (15) x 2 ¼ 4.93* 1 0.21
A friend 2.5 (3) 11.8 (12) x 2 ¼ 0.97 1 0.09
A group of friends 15.3 (18) 43.1 (44) x 2 ¼ 0.22 1 0.04
Other 1.7 (2) 2.9 (3) x 2 ¼ 0.17 1 0.04
Most frequent type of pornography x 2 ¼ 31.16** 4 0.56
consumption outlet
Internet 63.6 (89) 39.6 (112)
DVD/VCD 17.9 (25) 24.4 (69)
Cell phone 9.3 (13) 25.8 (73)
Printed magazine 0.7 (1) 4.6 (13)
(Continued)
 990 G.M. Hald and T.W. Mulya

Table 2 – continued

Variable Men % Women % Tests df Cohen’s d

Other 8.6 (12) 5.7 (16)

Does sexual activity accompanies x 2 ¼ 145.90** 3 1.43
pornography consumption?
Always 2.9 (4) 1.0 (3)
Often 16.4 (23) 1.4 (4)
Sometimes 53.6 (75) 12.4 (36)
Never 27.1 (38) 85.2 (247)
Context in which sexual activity
accompany pornography consumptiona
Solitaire 89.2 (91) 67.4 (29) x 2 ¼ 4.91* 1 0.38
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With partner 7.8 (8) 34.9 (15) x 2 ¼ 19.38** 1 0.80

Acceptance of pornography consumption x 2 ¼ 7.09 3 0.23
for adults . 18 years of age
Highly acceptable 15.0 (22) 7.9 (32)
Acceptable 59.9 (88) 69.2 (279)
Unacceptable 17.7 (26) 16.1 (65)
Highly unacceptable 7.5 (11) 6.7 (27)
Perceived realism of pornographyb t ¼ 20.72 427 20.07
M 4.4 4.6
SD 2.1 2.1
N 140 289
Partner knowledge of participant’s x 2 ¼ 19.46** 1 0.47
pornography consumption
Yes 37.1 (43) 61.8 (155)
No 62.9 (73) 38.2 (96)
Partner’s response if knowing x 2 ¼ 23.33** 2 0.67
Supporting 1.5 (1) 4.8 (8)
Neither supporting nor opposing 37.9 (25) 68.3 (114)
Opposing 60.6 (40) 26.9 (45)

Note: Missing values excluded; numbers in parentheses represent n/cell; *p , 0.05; **p , 0.01.
a
For interpersonal context of use and type of activity accompanying pornography consumption participants were
allowed to select more than one option;
b
Responses ranged from 1 ¼ very unrealistic to 9 ¼ very realistic.

reporting acceptance of pornography consumption. Finally, no significant gender

differences were found for the perception of pornography as realistic.

The association between pornography consumption and sexual behaviours

To test our study hypothesis that pornography consumption would be significantly
associated with common sexual behaviours in non-marital relationships over and above
relevant control variables, we employed a two-step analytic approach in our hierarchical
multiple regression analyses. In the first step, socio-demographic, personality, sexual
background, media use and parental involvement control variables (i.e., age, relationship
status, and religiosity, sensation seeking, sexual attitudes, Internet consumption per week
and parental involvement) were force entered into the regression analyses. In the second
step, the pornography consumption composite was force entered into the regression
analyses.
Across gender, the final model for sexual behaviours was significant (Men: F [8, 99] ¼
4.64, p , 0.000, R 2adj ¼ 0.21; Women: F [8, 246] ¼ 28.49, p , 0.000, R 2adj ¼ 0.46).
However, as evident from Table 3, for men only, pornography consumption significantly
 Culture, Health & Sexuality 991

Table 3. Hierarchical regression analyses predicting sexual behaviour.

DR 2 B T
Men (n ¼ 140)
Step 1 0.17**
Age 2 0.11 21.21
Relationship status 0.20 2.17*
Religious attendance 2 0.10 20.89
Sensation seeking 0.12 1.37
Sexual attitude 0.30 3.07**
Internet use 0.10 0.91
Parental involvement 0.01 0.13
Step 2 0.05*
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Pornography consumption 0.23 2.48*

Total DR 2 adjusted 0.21**
Women (n ¼ 302)
Step 1 0.46**
Age 0.03 0.62
Relationship status 0.19 3.98**
Religious attendance 0.05 0.90
Sensation seeking 0.22 4.45**
Sexual attitude 0.51 9.97**
Internet use 2 0.02 20.30
Parental involvement 0.01 0.11
Step 2 0.01
Pornography consumption 0.09 1.87
Total DR 2 adjusted 0.46**
Note: Missing values deleted ‘listwise’; *p , 0.05; **p , 0.01.

added to the total explained variance of sexual behaviours over and above included control
variables accounting for an additional 5% of this variance (R 2change ¼ 0.05).

Discussion
Using a sample of university students from a religious, sexually conservative, Muslim-
majority country with strict anti-pornography laws, the study found that among this
Indonesian sample, pornography is as widely and readily consumed and accepted as in
comparable international studies predominantly using Western-background samples from
more sexually liberal and less religious countries with no or very few laws on pornography
(Hald 2006; Morgan 2011; Peter and Valkenburg 2011). Furthermore, gender differences
in pornography consumption patterns and rates in this Indonesian sample were
pronounced and comparable with that of their international counterparts, with men
consuming pornography significantly more often, with higher duration, at an earlier age
and more often during solitary sexual activity than women.
These findings help to validate findings from recent Indonesian studies on young
people’s sexuality demonstrating a constant liberalisation of Indonesian youth sexuality
during the past decade (Harding 2008; Utomo 1997; Utomo and McDonald 2008). Also, it
gives an indication that the effectiveness of the Indonesian anti-pornography law may be
less than intended, although the unavailability of baseline data and choice of study design
preclude such definitive conclusions. However, if correct, this ineffectiveness may be due
to the pluralism inherent to Indonesian culture (Blackwood 2007; Boellstorff 2007;
Wright-Webster 2008), in which political laws and policies concerning sexuality are
 992 G.M. Hald and T.W. Mulya

continuously challenged and contested (see also Introduction) and often weakly enforced
by authorities (Assegaf 2002).
Interestingly, and in contrast to previous findings (e.g. Træen, Spitznogle, and
Beverfjord 2004), no gender differences in acceptance of pornography were found, with
the vast majority of both genders finding pornography acceptable. This may be because,
across gender, both attitudinally and behaviourally sexual permissiveness is on the rise in
Indonesia, as demonstrated in recent research utilising Indonesian samples (see also
Bennett 2007; Simon and Paxton 2004). Also, it may be due to peer interactions and/or
youth sexual lifestyles in which the normative discourse, across gender, is that of positive
attitudes towards pornography and pornography consumption (see also Ford, Shaluhiyah,
and Suryoputro 2007).
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Partly supporting our study hypothesis, for men, pornography consumption was found
to be significantly associated with common sexual behaviours in non-marital relations
over and above control variables accounting for an additional 5% of the total explained
variance in these behaviours. This finding corresponds to previous findings in the area
predominantly using STI-related sexual-risk behavioural outcomes (Luder et al. 2011;
Peter and Valkenburg 2011; Sinkovic, Stulhofer, and Bozic 2012). Among women, the
lack of significant association was contrary to our study hypothesis and highlights the
possibility that pornography consumption may in fact not be significantly associated with
sexual behaviours. Alternatively, that, among women, these associations are accounted for
by other factors included in this study as controls (Luder et al. 2011).
Theoretically, among men, the finding that pornography consumption only modestly
contributes to non-marital sexual behaviours fits with the basic contention of sexual script
theory and the 3AM model (see Introduction). That is, the continuous reshaping of sexual
scripts and influence of pornography on sexual behaviours depends on a multitude of
culturally mediated messages about sex and sexual relations, such as sexual experiences,
motivations, emotional investments and so on, and not only on pornography per se (see
also Wright, Malamuth, and Donnerstein 2012).
The current study has several limitations. First, due to the recruitment and sampling
procedures, the study probably includes a non-probability type sample and therefore the
study findings cannot be generalised to the Indonesian population at large. Second,
the cross-sectional design of the study precludes the assessment of causality. Third, this is
the first survey study of pornography consumption and associated variables ever published
using a sample of this type. Therefore, we lack an adequate body of literature in which to
situate our findings. Thus, more research is needed to inform such questions as the
generalisability of the study results. Fourth, the study does not differentiate between
different kinds of non-marital relationships. This is a limitation because pattern of
pornography consumption and pornography consumption-sexual behavioural associations
may vary across different types of non-marital relationships. Fifth, the study relies on self-
report, which may be subject to a variety of systematic biases (van de Mortel 2008).
Nevertheless this study advances research on pornography by providing the first
insights into pornography consumption and associated factors in a religious, sexually
conservative, Muslim-majority country with strict anti-pornography laws. We encourage
future research to utilise different comparable samples to validate the current study
findings and provide further insight into pornography consumption and associated factors
in Muslim majority nations.
 Culture, Health & Sexuality 993

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Résumé
L’Indonésie est un pays religieux, conservateur vis-à-vis de la sexualité, avec une population
majoritairement musulmane et des lois strictes contre la pornographie. Cette étude a examiné la
prévalence et les modèles de la consommation de la pornographie en Indonésie parmi un échantillon
d’étudiants universitaires indonésiens et en se basant sur une approche transversale. En outre, elle a
exploré l’association entre la consommation de la pornographie et les comportements sexuels
courants en dehors du mariage. L’étude a révélé que dans cet échantillon la pornographie était aussi
largement et facilement consommée que dans des études internationales comparables qui avaient
utilisé des échantillons de participants dont la majorité étaient des Occidentaux et vivaient dans des
pays plus libéraux vis-à-vis de la sexualité et moins religieux, avec très peu de lois sur la
pornographie. Dans les modèles de consommation de la pornographie, les différences de genre ont
été significatives et comparables à celles qui avaient été révélées par les résultats d’autres études
internationales semblables. Concernant uniquement les participants de sexe masculin, la
consommation de pornographie s’est révélée en tant que facteur fortement prédictif des
comportements sexuels courants en dehors du mariage. L’étude est la première à apporter un
éclairage sur la prévalence et les modèles de la consommation de la pornographie, ainsi que sur
l’association de cette dernière aux comportements sexuels courants en dehors du mariage, dans un
pays conservateur vis-à-vis de la sexualité, avec une population à majorité musulmane et des lois
strictes contre la pornographie.

Resumen
El presente estudio investigó las tasas de prevalencia y los patrones de consumo de pornografı́a en
Indonesia, paı́s religioso, sexualmente conservador, de mayorı́a musulmana y con severas leyes
contra la pornografı́a, apoyándose en una muestra de estudiantes universitarios indonesios y en un
diseño transversal. Asimismo, examinó la asociación entre el consumo de pornografı́a y los
comportamientos sexuales extramaritales más comunes. El estudio constató que, en la muestra
seleccionada, el consumo de pornografı́a era tan amplio y fácil como en paı́ses occidentales, más
liberales desde el punto de vista sexual, menos religiosos y con pocas leyes que regulan la
pornografı́a, según lo demuestran otros estudios internacionales realizados en este sentido.
El consumo de pornografı́a dirigida sólo a hombres resultó predecir de manera significativa los
comportamientos sexuales más comunes en las relaciones extramaritales. Este es el primer estudio
que ofrece hallazgos en torno a las tasas de prevalencia y a los patrones de consumo de pornografı́a,
ası́ como en relación a su asociación con los comportamientos sexuales extramaritales comunes en
un paı́s sexualmente conservador, de mayorı́a musulmana, con estrictas leyes en contra de la
pornografı́a.