Theories of Deviance

warrant
social norms, and is usually of sufficient severity to
Deviance is any behavior that violates
Deviance can be criminal or non-criminal. The sociological
disapproval from the majority of society.
known as criminal
violates laws) is criminology (also
discipline that deals with crime (behavior that nude in
activities as alcoholism, excessive gambling, being
justice). Today, Americans consider such of prostitutes.
to bathe, purchasing the services
public places, playing with fire, stealing. lying, refusing
in deviant behavior are
and cross-dressing-to name only a few-as deviant. People who engage
referred to as deviants.
and places
considerably across groups, times,
The concept of deviance is complex because norms vary
consider deviant. For example
In other words, what one group may consider acceptable, another may
circumcised. Termed clitoridectomy
and Muslim Africa, women are
in someparts of Indonesia, Malaysia,
shut the labia -- usually
off the clitoris and/or sewing
and infibulation, this process involves cutting
female genital mutilation as
of female circumcision, or
without any anesthesia. In America, the thought
unthinkable; female genital mutilation,
usually done in unsanitary
it is known in the United States, is
tactic to prevent women from
is done as a blatantly oppressive
conditions that often lead to infections,
having sexual pleasure.
within the past 50 years or so.
to deviance and criminology have emerged
A number of theories related
follow.
Four ef the most well-known

Differential-associationtheory
address the issue of how people learn
differential association to
Edwin Sutherland coined
the phrase people
which norms
the environment plays a major role in deciding
deviance. According to this theory, norms of confority
and
within a particular reference group provide
learr. o violate. Specifically, people how they react
influence way the other people look at the world, including
deviance, and thus heavily teachers, ministers, family,
from various socializing agents-parents,
their norms
like other behaviors, from
People also learn learn criminal behavior,
and the media. in short, people
friends, co-workers,
interactions with others,
especiaily in intimate groups.
their
behavior. For example, juvenile
types of deviant
differential association theory applies to many criminals. These gangs
define
The learn to become
in which young people
provide an environment
and crime as means to achieving social
gangs violence, retaliation,
countercultural and glorify norms.
themselves as conform to their gang's
deviant as they embrace and
members learn to be
status. Gang
in its focus on the
contributed to the field of criminology
theory has whom they
associate.
Differential-association

learn deviance from

the people with
nature of criminality. People of the theory's
developmental on the other hand, claim the vagueness
d i f f e r e n t i a l - a s s o c i a t i o n theory,
vaidation.
Critics of the science research methods or empirical
itself to social
terminology
does not lend
Anomietheory
Anomie refers to the confusion that arises when social norms conflict or don't even exist. In the 1960s,
Robert Merton used the term to describe the differences between socially accepted goals and the
availability of means to achieve those goals. Merton stressed, for instance, that attaining wealth is a
major goal of Americans, but not all Americans possess the means to do this, especially members of
minority and disadvantaged groups. Those who find the "road to riches" closed to them experience
anomie, because an obstacle has thwarted their pursuit of a socially approved goal. When this happens,
these individuals may employ deviant behaviors to attain their goals, retaliate against society, or merely
"make a point."

The primary contribution of anomie theory is its ability to explain many forms of deviance. The theory is
also sociological in its emphasis on the role of social forces in creating deviance. On the negative side,
anomie theory has been criticized for its generality. Critics note the theory's lack of statements
concerning the process of learning deviance, including the internal motivators for deviance. Like
differential association theory, anomie theory does not lend itself to precise scientific study.

Control theory
According to Walter Reckless's control theory, both inner and outer controls work against deviant
tendencies. People may want-at least some of the time-to act in deviant ways, but most do not. They
have various restraints: internal controls, such as conscience, values, integrity, morality, and the desire
to be a "good person'"; and outer controls, such as police, family, friends, and religious authorities.
Travis Hirschi noted that these inner and outer restraints form a person's self-control, which prevents
acting against social norms. The key to developing self-control is proper socialization, especially early in
childhood. Children who lack this self-control, then, may grow up to commit crimes and other deviant
behaviors.

Whereas theory also suggests that people society labels as "criminals" are probably members of
subordinate groups, critics argue that this oversimplifies the situation. As examples, they cite wealthy
and powerful businesspeople, politicians, and others who commit crimes. Critics also argue that conflict
theory does little to explain the causes of deviance. Proponents counter, however, by asserting that the
theory does not attempt to delve into etiologies. Instead, the theory does what it claims to do: It
discusses the relationships between socialization, social controls, and behavior.

Labelingtheory
A type of symbolic interaction, labeling theory concerns the meanings people derive from one another's
labels, symbols, actions, and reactions. This theory holds that behaviors are deviant only when society
labels them as deviant. As such, conforming members of society, who interpret certain behaviors as
deviant and then attach this label to individuals, determine the distinction between deviance and non
deviance. Labeling theory questions who applies what label to whom, why they do this, and what

happens as a result of this labeling.

 Powerful individuals within
society-politicians, judges,
typically impose the most significant labels. Labeled police officers, medical doctors, and so forth-
criminals, delinquents, prostitutes, sex persons may include drug
offenders, addicts, alcoholics,
retarded people, and
a few. The
consequences of being labeled as deviant can psychiatric patients, to mention
those who have negative labels be
far-reaching. Social research indicates that
usually have lower
self-images, are more likely to reject themselves, and
may even act more
deviantly as a result of the label
others-be it correct or incorrect have Unfortunately, people who accept the labeling of
difficult time changing their
a
even in light of evidence to opinions of the labeled person,
the contrary

William Chambliss in 1973

conducted a classic study into the effects of
male, high-school students were both labeling. His two groups of white,
frequently involved in delinquent acts of theft, vandalism,
drinking, and truancy. The police never arrested the members of one
group, which Chambliss labeled
the "Saints," but the police did have
frequent run-ins with members of the other which he group,
labeled the "Roughnecks." The boys in the Saints from
came
respectable families,
had good reputations
and grades in school, and were careful not to get caught when breaking the law. By being polite, cordial,
and apologetic whenever confronted by the police, the Saints
escaped labeling themselves as
"deviants." In contrast, the Roughnecks from families of lower socioeconomic status, had poor
came

reputations and grades in school, and were not careful about being caught when breaking the law. By
being hostile and insolent whenever confronted by the police, the Roughnecks were easily labeled by
others and themselves as "deviants." In other words, while both groups committed crimes, the Saints
were perceived to be "good" because of their polite behavior (which was attributed to their upper-class
backgrounds) and the Roughnecks were seen as "bad" because of their insolent behavior (which was
attributed to their lower-class backgrounds). As a result, the police always took action against the

Roughnecks, but never against the Saints.

the theory's emphasis on the role that the attitudes and reactions
Proponents of labeling theory support
se, have on the development of deviance. Critics
of labeling theory
of others, not deviant acts per
because such people are actually
indicate that the theory only
applies to a small number of deviants,
that the concepts in the theory are unclear
and thus
labeled as deviants. Critics also argue
caught and
scientifically.
difficult to test