CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews the literature relevant to ICT use in education, more
especially in the junior secondary school science curriculum and implementation
thereof in the rural areas of northern Namibia. Prior to the discussion, the research
questions are presented, followed by the sources used to find out what is already
known about the topic, the main conclusions and theories related to the topic
being addressed. This chapter starts with the introduction to the chapter in Section
3.1. The key words used in this study are presented in Section 3.2. The rationale
for ICT use in education is presented in Section 3.3, followed by the general use
of ICT in education in Section 3.4. ICT implementation is presented in two
sections: in the developed world (Section 3.5) and in the developing world
(Section 3.6) respectively. This distinction is followed by the factors affecting the
ICT implementation at school and teacher levels respectively (Section 3.7).
Finally, the conceptual framework is introduced (Section 3.8).

3.1 Introduction

The main research question of this study is ‘How and to what extent is the
intended ICT Policy for Education implemented in junior secondary schools in rural
areas in Namibia?’ In order to answer this question the study has been broken
down into two components, as presented in Chapter 1. The study first addressed
research questions 1 and 2 respectively which followed a descriptive approach.
Research question 1 is: ‘What is the national context with regard to ICT Policy for
Education implementation in rural junior secondary schools?, which sought a
context analysis of the implementation of the ICT Policy. Research question 2 is:
‘How has the ICT Policy for Education been implemented in rural schools?’ and
requires a baseline survey with the aim to give an overview of a rural situation with
regard to ICT infrastructure availed to the schools in the educational regions under
investigation.

Chapter 3 44
The second component of the study followed an in-depth analysis and exploration
approach in an attempt to find answers to research questions 3. Research
question 3 reads: ‘What factors influence the ICT Policy implementation in rural
schools?’ and aimed to gain an in-depth understanding of the rural situation and
meaning of the participants.

The two components of this study were informed by literature. Various sources in
electronic format and in printed form were reviewed (see below), in search of what
is already known about the topic under study. Concepts and keywords such as
‘rural schools’; ‘ICT in education’; ‘ICT in developing countries’; ‘ICT and science
education’; ‘ICT implementation’; ‘IT and education’; ‘ICT policy implementation’;
‘ICT use in schools’ and ‘ICT use in classrooms’ were used to find information
relevant to research questions 1 and 2, particularly in terms of contextualisation of
the ICT implementation intentions and also to inform the survey with recent data
internationally and regionally. The term ‘IT’ is included in this literature search
because some authors have used it interchangeably with ICT. For example, the
term is used as information technology (IT) in North America or Information
Communication Technology (ICT) in Europe (Voogt, 2003). Where possible, in this
dissertation, ICT is used.

The research questions addressed through the in-depth analysis and exploration
approach were also addressed by searching the keywords mentioned above, and
in addition by ‘teachers and ICT’; ‘curriculum and ICT’ and ‘ICT and secondary
education’. Following these terms, there is a general understanding that the
transformation towards an information society implies that many countries have to
change their curricula and therefore teachers need to develop competencies that
are not used in the traditional ones (Kozma, 2005).

Scientific sources were searched through academic libraries, such as the

University of Pretoria and University of Namibia, and also through various search
electronic engines via the Internet, including: ERIC; Google scholar; Science
Direct; Scirus ETD; Tucks (an electronic journal of which the University of Pretoria

Chapter 3 45
is a subscriber); and Wiley InterScience. A large number of articles were found
from these sources, of which a selection was based according to the date of
publication and context. Also, the literature review considered a number of books
published in Europe, especially in the Netherlands where many studies on ICT
Policy implementation have been conducted. However, a considerable number of
articles with a focus on ICT in African countries were also considered. The articles
and books considered in this study were published between 1998 to 2009,
because the pace at which ICT changes is faster than the rate at which
publications are produced.

Table 3. 1: Keywords used in various databases

Springer Scirus Google Science Wiley ERIC

ETD scholar Direct InterScie
search nce
Use of ICT




ICT use in schools






ICT in education





ICT in developing
countries




Educational Policy
and ICT





ICT Policy




Rural education




ICT use in




classrooms
ICT use in science




ICT and




entrepreneurship
ICT and




entrepreneurial
leadership

A number of authors appeared to have been quoted by others many times, and
these drew the attention of this author for inclusion in the literature review of this

Chapter 3 46
study. These are: Anderson (2008); Dede (2000); Law, Pelgrum and Plomp
(2008); Kozma (2008); Pelgrum and Anderson (1999); Plomp and Brummelhuis
(2001); Plomp (2006); and Voogt (2003, 2005, 2008). Most of these authors
provide references to international studies conducted around the world in an
attempt to study ICT policy implementation including implementation of policy in
the developing world. The literature review also considered current theses in the
same field as this study, written both internationally (Boateng, 2007), and
regionally (Cossa, 2004; Iipinge, 2010; Matengu, 2006; and Thomas, 2006), but
within the context of advancing ICT in developing parts of the world.

The literature review focused specifically on issues related to ‘ICT Policy

implementation’ in ‘rural schools’ in developing countries, and specifically in the
science classroom. Science teachers’ use of ICT is therefore being investigated
for effective science curriculum implementation. The thrust of most authors is to
improve on science teaching using ICT in rural areas.

Having presented the research questions being addressed by the two components
of this study, as well as the sources for the literature review, the next sections deal
with defining the terms mostly used in the dissertation (Section 3.2).

3.2 Definition of concepts and keywords

The section below presents the definition of concepts and keywords frequently
used in this study, as understood and used by the researcher, in particular rural
school; Information Communication and Technology (ICT); intended curriculum;
implemented curriculum; attained curriculum; and policy.

In a rural school, schooling may be interrupted by the demand from school-aged

children, their poor health, non-existent sanitation, and difficulties associated with
access. The teaching is often of poor quality and poorly supported in terms of
attracting high quality teachers, infrastructure and teaching resources (World
Bank, 2000).

Chapter 3 47
Information Communication and Technology (ICT) refers to computer technology,
multimedia, and networking, including the Internet. In some countries, such as the
United States of America (USA), the term “technology” or “information technology”
is used, but slowly this appears to be changing to include ICT (Anderson, 2008).
ICT has become more accessible to people in both the developed and developing
worlds, and more embedded in society. ICT offers the potential to restructure
organisations, promote collaboration, increase democratic participation of citizens,
improve the transparency and responsiveness of governmental agencies, make
education and healthcare more widely available, foster cultural creativity, and
enhance the social interaction of individuals with different abilities and cultural
background (Kozma, 2005). Czerniewics (2005) distinguish between physical and
epistemological access to ICT where not only do users need the physical
infrastructure but also need control over what and when computers are used.

Intended curriculum refers to the competencies needed to achieve educational

goals. It is noted that there may be gaps between the needs of the society as
expressed by policy makers and the way these needs are understood by schools
and teachers (Van den Akker, 2003)..

Implemented curriculum refers to what teachers and learners actually do in the

classroom (Van den Akker, 2003).

Attained curriculum describes the learning outcomes and experiences of students

as well as, when appropriate, the learning outcomes for teachers. The learning
outcomes are particularly influenced by what has been taught, i.e., the
implemented curriculum. It is a challenge to create a consistency and balance
between these different curricular representations (Van den Akker, 2003).

Policy refers to decision-making about whether and how to integrate ICT into
teaching. Policy decisions are made at national and/or regional and school level
(Anderson & Plomp, 2009).

Chapter 3 48
Given the definitions of concepts and keywords, it is imperative to present the
context within which they are presented in the literature that forms part of this
thesis.

3.3 Rationale for use of ICT in education

This section presents the perceptions on which the adoption of ICT has been built
over the years. The rationale for ICT adoption is summarised, followed by the
pedagogical use of ICT as the focus of this thesis. Perceptions created on ICT use
by teachers are also presented.

It is generally believed that ICT has potential economic benefits to all and has
therefore become part of the daily life. Currently, ICT is widespread across all
nations and the education sector, and other sectors have been attracted to utilise
its perceived benefits. This has led to most countries subscribing to this notion,
and as a result being forced by circumstances to put systems in place to introduce
ICT to education. In turn, the introduction of ICT in education has been identified
with various applications, with choices of application ranging from the combination
of context of use, the possible technologies to select, and the instructional
moment in which it could be used. This is a global phenomenon as the world is
trying to achieve the MDG goals of becoming a knowledge-based economy. The
general use of ICT is expressed through national policies and categorised into the
social rationale, vocational rationale and pedagogical rationale, defined by Voogt
(2008: 118).

• The social rationale, related to the preparation of students for their place in
society
• The vocational rationale, emphasising the importance of giving students
appropriate skills for future jobs
• The pedagogical rationale, focused on the enhancement of teaching and
learning, and using computers.

Chapter 3 49
The social rationale refers to socio-economic conditions associated with ICT use.
The role of ICT in global socio-economic development is well documented in
literature (Evoh, 2007; Kozma, 2006, OECD, 2010), with Fullan (1993, 2001)
emphasising that education has a moral purpose to make a difference in the lives
of learners, regardless of background, and to help produce citizens who can live
and work productively in increasingly dynamic complex societies. Thus, all
children in all societies need to be prepared for ICT and the communication
society (Doornekamp, 2002; Valentine & Holloway, 2001). The paradigm of how
ICT can benefit society has manifested itself over the years. It is argued that the
more people are ICT-literate the broader the spectrum of achieving the Millenium
Development Goal (MDG) of becoming a knowledge-based economy. It can also
be interpreted as strengthening the developed world’s industry, and creating for
the developing countries opportunities for job creation and subsequently poverty
alleviation.

In the same light, the vocational rationale came into being. It is argued in this
framework that acquisition of ICT skills broadens the spectrum of job opportunities
and subsequently alleviates poverty, hence the need to train students’
competence, creativity, and entrepreneurship (OECD, 2010, Tárrago, 2009). This
idea originated in the developed world and progressively moved to the developing
countries, where it is still eminent and where the idea of becoming an
industrialised nation is expressed. However, there is much debate as to how to
measure the impact of ICT on the livelihood of the people exposed to it. Countries
need to be internationally competitive in order to utilise and harness its full
potentials, and failing to do so means failing to meet the needs of the people, the
country and its economy. These perceptions have placed high demands on the
school curriculum, rather than generating answers for the education sector.

The demands for ICT in the school curriculum have become compelling over the
years. Hinostroza, Labbe, Lopez and Iost (2008) summarise the arguments for
introducing ICT to education. The use of ICT in teaching and learning can improve
students’ outcomes, as explicitly stated in policy documents and implicitly while

Chapter 3 50
reporting on progress of national ICT in education. In addition, the use of ICT may
improve curriculum, pedagogy, assessment, teacher development and the quality
of the school. However, these statements are not left unchallenged. It is argued
that the intentions of using ICT in education has not always been realised (Voogt,
2008) due to a number of factors to be discussed below.

Anderson and Plomp (2009) noted that making decisions about whether and how
to integrate ICT into teaching and learning is sometimes complex, technically
demanding, and the effects thereof are not always known due to lack of research
on which to base the decision. It is imperative therefore for countries to develop
national ICT policy to serve as a guide to what needs to be done, when, and by
whom, for the smooth implementation of ICT. A number of countries developed
their national ICT policy for education, ranging from Global and cross-national
policies, national policies and school-level policies. However, It was noted over
time that having national policies in place did not guarantee feedback to decision-
makers. These policies need to state a developmental strategy that articulates a
vision on how this goal is to be achieved (Cecchini & Scott, 2003; Kozma, 2008;
Law, 2009). This demanded a lower level of introducing school-level policy to
engage the school leadership more in an effort to strive for quality in schools.

A pattern of introducing new ideas to the way people benefit from ICT can be
traced, most ideas forming a convergent pattern towards introducing ICT to
education for pedagogical use. Progressively, ICT developed its roots into the
school curriculum, however adopting it requires measures putting in place for
checks and balances, expressed through national systems or policies. It is
important that the policies also state how ICT should be used.

3.4 General use of ICT in Education

This section summarises the general use of ICT in education, with a model of
innovative uses of ICT presented and adapted to suit this study. This information
is useful in classifying science teachers in an effort to investigate how ICT is being
implemented.
Chapter 3 51
It is argued in Section 3.3 that ICT offers much potential to enhance teaching and
learning. Ainley, Enger, Searle (2008) note that there is currently little
understanding of the way in which ICT is used in schools and classrooms around
the world. Statistics that were collected for the SITES 2006 regarding the use of
ICT in education internationally have shown that albeit this is increasing, for the
majority of teachers it is still a tool used only in the margins of the educational
process (Plomp, Pelgrum & Law, 2008). It is important for the national policy to
state what ICT should be used for in schools and at classroom level. Further,
Ainley et al. (2008) state that in the national policy document, the use of ICT
should be made clear to the stakeholders so that money and effort can be spent
appropriately. In addition, Kozma (2008) argues that the decisions involving ICT
use should be informed by a strategic educational ICT policy framework, and that
without a strategic rationale to guide the national use of ICT the effort of
educational stakeholders may diverge.

Kozma and McGhee (2003, 2006) offer a model of classification of uses of ICT:

Table 3. 2: An adapted model of patterns of uses of ICT

Patterns Characteristics
Tool use Teachers use email, produce documents, information
search, word processing and multi-media
Information Teachers use ICT to organise, manage and use
management information for teaching and learning, and to present
information
Teacher collaboration Teachers design instructional material or activities
Product creation Teachers design and create digital products using
software packages
Tutorial projects Teachers use tutorials or drill-and-practice software to
allow students to work independently
Source: Adapted from Kozma and McGhee (2003, 2006)

The teachers’ use is outlined in Table 3.2 (above) to present the different uses for
ICT in general. These patterns emerged from findings of the SITES Module 2
Chapter 3 52
(SITES M2) study comprising 174 case studies in 28 countries (Kozma, 2003),
modified to answer research question 2 of this study. In the Namibian ICT policy,
intended ICT uses were described in Chapter 2 of this study, but since is not
guaranteed that these are being implemented as intended, it is necessary to
evaluate and measure the use of ICT by science teachers in rural Namibia against
the adapted Model of patterns of innovative use.

Particularly, in the science classrooms teachers use ICT for exploring simulations
of scientific phenomena, modelling scientific process, capturing and analysing
data automatically and being able to access and communicate scientific
information (Webb, 2008). Hennessy, Wishart, Whitelock et al. (2006) realised that
teachers require opportunities to discuss, reason, interpret and reflect on scientific
concepts they might have introduced in their lessons. In order to achieve these,
teachers need a wide range of skills, in such fields as ICT, communication,
problem-solving, information-handling, teamwork and collaboration, meta-
cognition and positive attitude generation (Kozma, 2008).

The information about the general use of ICT is key to this thesis, as what
teachers do with it at classroom level is not known in Namibia. The researcher
agrees with Anderson and Plomp (2009) that decisions to implement ICT should
be based on research outcomes, geared towards achieving the Namibian
educational goals. In this light, the research question 2 evaluates how far away
Namibia is in terms of achieving ICT educational goals as stated in the national
ICT policy. The ICT uses identified by Kozma and McGhee (2003) are applicable
globally, including in Namibia, though that does not necessary imply that they are
applicable to Namibia. Rather, they serve as a form of reference for Namibia to
reflect on possible adoption.

In conclusion to this section, the introduction of ICT in education is based on

perceptions and the need to advocate an agenda like that of social development,
to serve vocational and/or pedagogical needs. All ideas co-exist and in the end
drive an educational agenda, leading to ICT spreading its roots into education. In

Chapter 3 53
Namibia, the curriculum changes were made to accommodate this need, and
required teachers’ skills to be upgraded in order for them to keep up with the
technological demands. Various ICT uses have been identified for tool use and for
pedagogy. It is important to present evidence from different countries on effective
ways of using ICT in schools. The experiences from schools in other countries
describe innovative pedagogical practices using ICT and identify contextual
factors that impact on educational practices and consequently on national policies
and implementation strategies. The experiences of countries in the developed
world are discussed in the next section.

3.5 ICT implementation in the developed world

Several authors have advocated greater implementation and spread of ICT in

education within the developed world (Cecchini & Scott, 2003; Fullan, 1993, 2001;
Kozma, 2005, 2008; Pelgrum, 2001; Polikanov & Abramova, 2003, Valentine &
Holloway, 2001). The majority of research and evaluation studies conducted to
date indicate that IT tools can be used successfully to extend educational
opportunities widely available (Kozma, 2008). However, the dream of enhancing
the quality or effectiveness for all with these same IT tools remains elusive in
many cases (Reeves, 2008). This concern has developed in continuous research
arenas over the past few years.

In response to the concern above, the International Association for the Evaluation
of Educational Achievement (IEA) Science Study conducted a number of studies
on ICT implementation in the developed world. An independent, international
cooperative of national research institutions and governmental research agencies,
it aims through its comparative research and assessment projects (1999) to:

• Provide international benchmarks that may assist policymakers in

identifying the comparative strength and weaknesses of their educational
systems

Chapter 3 54
• Provide high-quality data that will increase policymakers’ understanding of
key school- and non-school-based factors that influence teaching and
learning
• Provide high-quality data which will serve as a resource for identifying
areas of concern and action, and for preparing and evaluating educational
reforms
• Develop and improve educational systems’ capacity to engage in national
strategies for educational monitoring and improvement
• Contribute to development of the world-wide community of researchers in
educational evaluation

Amongst the studies conducted widely across nations are the Second Information
Technology in Education (SITES) studies. These were conducted in phases over a
number of years, addressing different needs at a time. The SITES are useful for
this study for a number of reasons. This study shares the same objectives as
SITES, that is, to find the extent to which ICT is being used in education and which
objectives education systems had implemented and considered important in the
knowledge-based economy. This study has an interest in qualitative research,
particularly on innovative pedagogical practices that use ICT, and the study
sought to determine how these practices were sustained and the outcomes they
produced. This study has its major focus on investigating the extent of ICT
implementation and integration in science teaching, and also to identify factors
that contribute most to the effective implementation or integration of ICT. In
addition, other studies are cited as relevant to this study at national level as well
as at school level. Literature about the national systems level is presented in the
next section.

Chapter 3 55
3.5.1 National systems level

This section presents literature on ICT implementation in education at the national

systems level in the developed world. Firstly, the ICT implementation at national
systems is presented with examples drawn from the SITES studies, Finland and
Lithuania. These two countries have been chosen as examples based on the fact
that Finland is said to be a success story that has evoked considerable interest in
the Finnish school system in general and its pedagogical practices. Lithuania, on
the other hand, started its second strategy in 2004, about the same time Namibia
also started to roll out its TechNa Programme (see Chapter two). It was therefore
significant to compare the success story of Finland and what was happening in
Lithuania, also a developed country. Secondly, ICT implementation at school level
is presented drawing findings from SITESM2, The European e-learning forum for
education (ELFE) project, involving Finland and Lithuania, for purposes of
obtaining a broad overview internationally.

SITES Module 1: Indicators Module (1999)

The SITES Module 1 (SITES M1) was an international comparative study

designed to help countries estimate their current positions with regard to using ICT
in education in comparison to other countries. The study established baselines
against which developments could be judged in subsequent years. Moreover, the
comparative data were intended to assist national policymakers reflect upon
improvements that may be considered for the near future. The study was
composed of a survey for principals and technology coordinators from a
representative sample of schools in a total of 26 countries in Europe, North
America and Asia. The data collection for the study took place between November
1998 and February 1999 (Pelgrum & Anderson, 1999).

Despite the general increase in the availability of computers and their connection
to the Internet, the problem most often mentioned by respondents was the
insufficient number of computers, peripherals, copies of software, and computers
that could simultaneously access the Worldwide Web. However, the second most-
Chapter 3 56
often mentioned problem was teachers’ insufficient knowledge and skills regarding
ICT. While the majority of schools reported having a policy goal of training all
teachers in the use of ICT, in most countries having participated in SITES-M1 this
goal was achieved only in a minority of schools. For the technology coordinators,
that is, those persons who answered the technical questionnaire, the majority
across countries responded that they were adequately prepared with regard to
general applications (such as word processing, data base and spreadsheet
software), while a much lower percentage indicated that they were adequately
prepared in the pedagogical aspects of ICT (for instance, didactical integration
and application of subject specific software). A follow UP study, M2 and
subsequently SITES 2006 was conducted.

SITES 2006

According to Law, Pelgrum and Plomp (2008), the major aims of SITES 2006 are
to provide international benchmarks of (i) how in the information society
pedagogical practices are changing, (ii) the extent to which ICT is used in
education, and (iii) how the use of ICT is associated with (changing) pedagogical
practices. In addition, the study aimed at building upon the large number of case
studies of innovative pedagogical practices supported by ICT, to investigate the
factors associated with the use of ICT and the nature of pedagogical practices
found in schools and among teachers. SITES 2006 surveyed school principals
and technology coordinators, as well as mathematics and science teachers at the
lower secondary education level, and it had its focus on pedagogical practices and
how these are supported by ICT. Findings from SITES 2006 were as follows:

• Almost all participating countries had computers and Internet access for
pedagogical use. However, ICT adoption by teachers differed, varying from
20% to just over 80%.
• Teachers’ understanding of the 21st century skills requirements varied and
was making a major difference in how teachers were utilising ICT in their
classrooms.

Chapter 3 57
• ICT use in teaching and learning had brought about changes in pedagogy
in mathematics and science classrooms. Teachers’ practices involved use
of ICT, showing signs of strengthening 21st century orientation.
• The most serious obstacle to ICT use in the classrooms were school-
related factors. Specifically, pedagogical support was lacking.
• The extent of ICT use did not depend only on school factors but also on
national curriculum policies, as evidenced by the huge differences in the
extent of ICT adoption by mathematics and science teachers within the
same country (Anderson & Plomp, 2009).

These findings inform this study in comparative ways and also in terms of
identifying new and interesting results, if any, from this study. In doing so, the
outcomes will assist national policymakers to make informed judgments about
developments in their national education system as compared to other countries
(Law, Pelgrum & Plomp, 2008).

Anderson & Plomp (2009) revealed gaps in countries that took part in the SITES
2006 study, most of the education systems that took part indicating that they did
not have specific policies on ICT requirements for teacher specifications. About
50% of the education systems had no formal requirements for key types of teacher
development, nor a system-wide programme geared towards stimulating new
pedagogies. For purposes of comparison results from other developed countries
are presented.

Finland

Kankaanranta (2009) summarises the success story of Finland. A rapid rise in

educational attainment was observed as a result of the principle underlying
Finland’s education system, notably equal education opportunities on a lifelong
basis. Access to education has been strengthened in terms of breadth and
applicability for all population groups and regions, irrespective of their age, place
of residence, economic status and language. According to the findings of SITES
2006, Finland has 100% access to computers and networks for all lower
Chapter 3 58
secondary schools. Students at this level of schooling had at least five years of
computer experience and a computer at home. About 96% of science and 95% of
mathematics teachers were reported to have a computer at home, with the
majority using them for pedagogical related activities. The teachers used
computers to teach at least once a week due to lack of time, too few digital
learning devices at school, lack of ICT resources for students outside school and
teachers not having the pedagogical skills necessary for using ICT when teaching.
These experiences have posed challenges to the Finnish government to revise its
ICT strategy to one that emphasises national values, has a deeper understanding
of the foundations of innovations of education, and strongly emphasises
enhancement of social skills, especially communication, necessary for a
contemporary network economy. The strategies intend all teachers to have
outstanding information society skills, and for ICT to be part of the multiform
teaching at all levels of education.

Lithuania

Another case of interest to this study is that of Lithuania, summarised by

Markauskaite (2009). ICT implementation into the general education system has
undergone many reforms and dates as far back as 1980. In 2003, the Lithuanian
government announced a new strategy to implement ICT in education that
focused on developing an accessible system that would guarantee lifelong
learning and social justice, and ensure high quality education that would allow
technological skills acquisition directed to socio-economic advances. The
challenge, however, lay in developing the ICT-related competencies of subject
teachers. Currently, teachers’ ICT skills are shallow and perhaps insufficient to
teach students integrated lessons.

At school level, most schools have their own ICT strategies, and purchase their
own tools based on the school’s needs. Student: Computer ratio had dropped
from 33:1 in 2002 to 13:1 by 2006, with dedicated computer rooms and only 18%
to be found in regular classrooms and 12% in libraries. About 50% of these

Chapter 3 59
computers were connected to the Internet and access at home for students and
teachers was about 33%, less in the rural areas.

Conclusion

The objectives of SITES 2006 studies match those of this study by way of
evaluating provision of ICT, its use and how it influences pedagogical changes.
Given this information, SITES benchmarks are useful for comparative reasons.
Two countries, Finland and Lithuania, have been singled out to illustrate that
countries in the developed world can be successful and yet also experience
challenges, despite the high level of accessibility in Finland. On the one hand,
Lithuania started with its ICT programme at the same time as Namibia and has
almost similar challenges of accessing ICT in urban as well as rural areas, Internet
connectivity and needs for professional development in order to realise the stated
educational goals. Both countries could learn from the Danish professional
development programme, which started with a pedagogical IT driver’s licence in
1994 and gradually integrated ICT in the mainstream programme of an in-service
teacher training programme. Subject-specific courses were developed as follow-
ups for ICT licensed teachers (Larson, 2009).

In conclusion of this section, ICT implementation varies from country to country.

The SITES study developed the benchmark against which countries could
measure the level of ICT implementation. Two examples were cited as examples
to illustrate the disparity that exists within the developed world.

3.5.2 ICT implementation at school level

This section presents the school-level policy developments as identified in the

developed world. Findings from a large scale study, SITES Module 2 (SITES M2)
cases and the The European e-Learning Forum for Education (ELFE) Project are
presented, followed by the examples for Finland and Lithuania for purposes of

Chapter 3 60
consistency in tracing how the national systems are operationalised at school
level.

SITES Module 2 (SITES M2)

Like the other two SITES study in section, SITES M2 is an international study of
innovative pedagogical practices that use information and communication
technology (ICT). A total of 28 countries participated in the SITES M2 study.
National panels used common selection criteria, modified by national context, to
identify 174 innovative classrooms. A common set of case study methods was
used to collect data on the pedagogical practices of teachers and learners, the
role that ICT played in these practices, and the contextual factors that supported
and influenced them (Kozma, 2003).

The results of this study provide schools and teachers around the world with
outstanding examples of how technology can change pedagogical practices and
provide policymakers with guidelines they can use to increase the technological
impact on educational systems (Kozma, 2003). Amongst others, conclusions
drawn from the M2 case studies were:

• The technology-supported innovations had a limited impact on the

curriculum. Only 18% of the 174 cases reported a change in curriculum
goals or content being supported by technology.
• While 75% of the innovations had been used for at least a year, only 41%
provided evidence that the innovation had been disseminated to other
classrooms or schools. In the schools where ICT had been both continued
and disseminated, continuation depended on the energy and commitment
of teachers, student support, the perceived value for the innovation, the
availability of teacher professional development opportunities, and
administrator support.
• Innovations were more likely to continue if there was support from others in
the school and from external sources, innovation champions, funding, and
supportive policies and plans. Of particular importance was the connection
Chapter 3 61
 with national technology plans that provided resources that often enabled
the innovation to succeed.
• ICT Policies, both local and national, were important to the success of
many of the 174 innovations (Kozma, 2003).

These findings provide insight into what other countries have experienced in terms
of innovative ICT use. Also, a number of relevant factors that affect ICT
implementation could be identified from the SITES M2 findings, such as
commitment of teachers, the perceived value of innovation, the availability of
teachers’ professional development, and administrative support. These contribute
to the development of the conceptual framework of this study.

The European e-Learning Forum for Education (ELFE) Project

The ELFE project was initiated by the European Trade Union Committee on
Education (ETUCE), with the main aim being to understand strengths and
weaknesses of using ICT in primary and secondary schools, studying good
practices of pedagogical use of ICT and identifying lessons that could be learnt in
a number of European countries (Fredriksson, et al., 2008). This project was
conducted between January 2004 and December 2005, it investigated the
difference ICT made in schools, especially when used intensively for instructional
or pedagogical purposes; how students are influenced by the different ways of
teaching compared to the traditional classroom education, both individually and
collectively; and factors that influence the intensive use of ICT. The study
identified two areas where the use of ICT seemed to have made a difference,
namely increased efficiency of school administrations and effectiveness of school
management. In addition, a positive atmosphere and more collaboration between
teachers, particularly of different subjects, were reported.

Finland

The Finnish teachers and principals have developed a negative attitude towards
ICT use at school, despite the rapid increase of ICT access in all schools.

Chapter 3 62
(Kankaanranta, 2009). It is evidenced that ICT use as a tool for pedagogical
development is not a focus, and the impact of ICT on knowledge sharing,
communication, and home-school cooperation is only moderate. Thus, Finnish
schools do not utilise the full potential of ICT and more so, its use for pedagogical
purpose is not a focus (Kankaanranta, 2009). These findings raise questions on
how to support and encourage schools to become competent members of the
Finnish knowledge society.

Lithuania

In Lithuania, school boards and principals can decide how to spend school funds,
and they are able to make decisions about most everyday aspects of ICT
management and use at the schools. Teacher training covers technical,
information-related, social, pedagogical, and management competencies. The
standard for teacher training is based on the modules of the European Computer
Driving License (ECDL), plus additional modules specifically related to the use of
ICT in schools. ECDL (called outside ICDL, i.e. Europe International Computer
Driving License,), is an international standard in end-user computer skills. The
ECDL/ICDL Syllabus consists of 7 modules which define the skills and
competencies necessary to be a proficient user of a computer and common
computer applications (EDCL Foundation, 2007). By 2007, only 24% of educators
were ICT literate (Markauskaite, 2009).

Conclusion

This section presented the review of literature on ICT implementation in the

developed world. A number of cases of ICT implementation in the developed world
have been presented. Findings on these cases serve as evidence of what other
researchers found in their countries. This information is relevant for this study in
that the findings provide insight into what already exists about how ICT has been
implemented in classrooms elsewhere, as well as identifying factors that affect ICT
implementation, necessary for developing a conceptual framework for this study.
In Namibia, this information is not available as no study has been made to

Chapter 3 63
evaluate ICT implementation in schools, especially in rural schools. More cases
about the developing world are presented in the next section.

3.6 ICT implementation in the developing world

This section presents an overview of ICT developments made in the developing

world. The developments are focused on national systems as they strive towards
achieving educational goals in Chile, South Africa, Mozambique and Namibia.
These countries have been chosen as examples of the developing world, based
on the fact that Chile is described as a successful case and that Enlaces, the
Chilean government’s ICT initiative, was fully taken over by the Ministry of
Education by 2005, in the same year that the Namibian ICT Policy for Education
was adopted. South Africa started its second phase of ICT in education policy in
2007. South Africa and Mozambique are from the same economic block of
countries aiming to achieve the African Union goals set for ICT. In addition,
Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean region has been cited as a good example
for ICT implementation in rural schools. The developments are measured against
the time ICT implementation began and what and how the goals have been
achieved.

3.6.1 ICT implementation at national level

The core of this study is stated in research question 2, on how ICT is being
implemented in rural areas. Very little has been written about ICT use in the
developing world. Many of the articles that exist focus on ICT provision in line with
issues of equity and access (Ali, 2009; Cossa & Cronje, 2006; Ibrahim, 2009;
Matengu, 2006; Kozma, 2006; Unwin, 2004); and professional development in the
Colleges of Education (Iipinge, 2010). These issues are important, but considering
that many developing countries have introduced ICT (African Union, 2008, Gaible,
2008), it is worth investigating what it is used for. It is noted that a few publications
concentrate on ICT use (Hinostroza, Hepp & Cox, 2009; Hinostraza, Labbe &
Claro, 2005; Howie, in press; Lopez, & Iost, 2008). It is important to note that Chile
Chapter 3 64
and South Africa participated in the SITES (discussed in Section 3.4), amongst
other countries representing the developing world. Much can be learnt from the
South African findings, being the only African country participating in the SITES.
The reason for non-participation of other African countries in these large scale
studies is not known, but given that many developing countries are poor and
struggle to meet the basic needs of their people, it could be challenging to extend
the limited resources to ICT. Nevertheless, literature in this area continues to
grow, albeit on a very small scale.

The little literature that exists at national level is presented below. The information
presented has been collected through participation in the SITES 2006 study. At
national systems level, the case of Chile was discussed, as well as that of South
Africa.

Chile

Access to ICT in Chilean schools is relatively good. ICT implementation started in

1993 and by 2005 more than 90% of the student population had potential access
to ICT in their schools, with more than 80% of the teachers having received
training in its administrative and pedagogical uses. These were achieved through
the Enlaces programme, a government initiative (Hinostroza, Hepp & Cox, 2009).
The majority of computers in primary and secondary schools are located in the
computer laboratories, as prescribed by the ICT in Education policy in Chile. Some
Chilean secondary schools have a few computers in classrooms due to their own
effort. A relatively high number of secondary schools are connected to the
Internet, enabling ICT-related activities and use of Internet resources. The
computer laboratories are used partly because about 60% of the total schools
have ICT policies promoting ICT use at schools. The government has also
provided all schools with software and is now in a process of trying to develop a
strategy to involve schools in maintaining and renovating software.

Teachers used the computer laboratories for only half as much time as students
did. In order to enhance effective ICT use, Enlaces developed a variety of
Chapter 3 65
initiatives to evaluate and monitor the ongoing activities of the project, such as e-
learning products and possible impacts. With regard to its monitoring initiatives,
Enlaces developed web-based systems that enabled schools and service
providers to directly register the provision, reception, installation, and configuration
of computer networks, and to annotate technical-support visits and training
activities developed in the schools. To evaluate the quality of the services
provided to schools, Enlaces conducted periodic surveys, which were answered
by teachers and principals of the schools, giving their perceptions of the quality of
the technical support, training, and equipment provided to the schools. However,
the challenges still lay in developing local teaching materials. The government has
produced a platform on an intranet, where school with locally produced materials
could deposit them (Hinostroza et al., 2009). In addition, much investment goes
into professional development to train teachers in ICT use (Sánchez & Salinas,
2008). The Ministry of Education has partnered 24 universities to provide technical
and pedagogical support to each school in Chile (Hinostroza, Hepp, Laval, 2000).

The study by Hinostroza et al. (2009) has its focus on achieving the national goals
by addressing issues of equity in remote areas where the majority of the schools
are located. As a result, particular attention was given to ICT access to rural
schools, improved teacher quality and provision of better resources. Chile has
managed a very successful ICT implementation programme in schools and
universities. Universities and other institutions are working to develop models for
ICT integration into specific curriculum subject matters, such as science and
mathematics. The models include technology, teaching methodology, learning
objectives, teaching resources and tools for student learning assessment
(Sánchez & Salinas, 2008). Howie (2010) reports that the design of the
implementation plan in Chile has been fast and apparently effective (p.26), by
adopting a combined top-down and bottom-up approach that are results-oriented.
In other words, schools that wanted ICT had to submit a detailed proposal as to
what and why they needed the ICT.

Chapter 3 66
South Africa

The national goals of South Africa are summarised by Blignaut and Howie (2009).
The government of South Africa implemented Phase 1 of its roll-out plan in 2004-
2007. The programme aimed at establishing an education and training system that
would support ICT integration in teaching and learning and training teachers to
gain confidence in using ICT, establish a framework that would enable educators
to integrate ICT in the curriculum, to ascertain the availability of ICT, use quality
education content, and connect schools to the Internet. Phase 2 of the programme
(2007-2010) encourages educators and managers to integrate ICT into the
curriculum and management. In Phase 3 (2010-2013) it is expected that all
provincial departments of education will use ICT in their planning, management,
communication, monitoring, and evaluation, and all institutions use the educational
portal for teaching and learning, given that educators and students are capable of
using ICT. The schools were supplied with ICT irrespective of whether they
needed it or not.

In 2007, a baseline survey was conducted to determine the availability of

resources for the Department of Education (DoE) to make informed decisions in
terms of resource allocation. Like other developing countries, South Africa relies
on donor funding for provision of computer laboratories, a less demanding target
than getting more educators qualified to integrate ICT into teaching and learning.
Curriculum and content development is the responsibility of the government. In
order to ensure accessibility, equitable and quality education, the Thutong Portal
(Setswana word meaning ‘a place for learning’) was developed to support needs
of students, teachers, parents, administrators, managers and researchers in
search of educational information. Specifically, this portal was supplied with quality
educational information reviewed by a panel of educational specialists. As of
2007, about 23,635 had subscribed to it, of whom 11,565 were educators.

In South Africa, the universities have not been given any role in professional
development in ICT training for teachers. Farrel and Isaacs (2008) report that
universities in South Africa are developing their own internal ICT policies on the
Chapter 3 67
manner in which ICT is expected to be integrated into the teaching and learning
process. Some universities have their policies on the management of ICT
functions. The University of Stellenbosch has an “e-campus” strategy
encompassing all related activities, and the University of Pretoria has a Telematics
Learning and Education Innovation plan. This observation is further supported by
Howie (2006) who stated that the South African strategy of ICT development in
schools has not involved universities at all in the professional development. Every
university in South Africa provide ICT training in the way they see it fit. The role of
the university is not coordinated through the government. Rather, the researcher
agrees with Howie (2010) that a lot can be learnt from the Chilean strategy where
universities are given a specific role by the government to train teachers in ICT.
Contrary to the South African system, the Trinidad and Tobago University offers
Professional ICT programme for in-service training which is link to an incentive of
salary increment with a combination of free tuition offered to all Government
personnel via the Government Assistance for Tuition expenses (GATE )
programme (Gaible, 2008). Currently in Namibia, provision of ICT training is
similar to what is happening in South Africa. The role of the University of Namibia
with regard to ICT professional development is not clearly defined. The national
policy stipulates the guide line for ICT professional development in Namibia but
this objective is not emphasised. Namibia can also learn from Chile.

Conclusion

Two cases have been presented on ICT implementation at systems level in

developing countries. Chile has developed Enlaces, a national programme with a
variety of initiatives to evaluate and monitor the ongoing activities of the project
such as e-learning products and (possible) impacts. Enlaces developed web-
based systems that enabled schools and service providers to directly register the
provision, reception, installation, and configuration of computer networks, and to
annotate technical-support visits and training activities developed in the schools.
South Africa has developed a Thutong Portal to support needs of students,
teachers, parents, administrators, managers and researchers in search of
educational information. The portal was supplied with quality educational
Chapter 3 68
information reviewed by a panel of educational specialists and a number of
educators have subscribed to it. It is noted that unlike South Africa, Chile invested
many resources in its implementation programme and schools have to submit to
government a detailed proposal explaining why they needed ICT. The South
African schools are supplied with ICT, irrespective of whether the school needed it
or not. As a result, ICT use in school is either limited or not at all. In the Trinidad
and Tobago, the government has made computers accessible to all teachers
through a government subsidy to enhance computer practice at home and with the
hope that the teachers will use them for pedagogical purposes (Gaible, 2008).
These factors become important to consider for Namibia as the Tech-na project
has not been evaluated, nor is the ICT implementation process monitored to
feedback the relevant offices for improvement of service provision to rural schools.

3.6.2 ICT implementation at school level

This section summarises cases of ICT implementation at school level in

developing countries. Examples of ICT use in a number of African countries were
drawn in order to present the African rural context, namely Ghana, Mozambique,
South Africa, and Namibia. The reason for including these countries in the
literature review has been presented in the introduction of this section, with the
exception of Ghana, which was included on the basis that it is an African country
and shares economic problems similar to those of Namibia, especially for rural
areas. The cases of Ghana, Mozambique, South Africa are discussed and
Namibia are presented respectively.

Ghana

A PhD study by Boateng (2007) focused on the use of computers in Ghanaian

schools, and how computers and related technology were used in a rural-based
school. It addressed issues of use and non-use of computers and related
technology within the critical social theory framework in order to determine the
underlying social, economic, and political factors that affected the use of the

Chapter 3 69
technology at school. Particularly, Boateng’s study examined how a rural school,
Twifo Praso Secondary School, used computers and related technologies in its
curriculum in compliance with national policy on ICT in Ghana, and in view of
increasing the use of ICT in the pre-tertiary school curriculum.

Boateng (2007) found that although computers were available at the school,
teachers were not using them. Instead, computer lessons were taught as stand-
alone subjects without any relevance to the curriculum. This is attributed to
inadequate training of teachers in the effective use and integration of computer
technology in the school curriculum and lack of support from the local
communities. With these findings, Boateng calls for future research on how
national educational policies aimed at integrating computers and related
technologies can be effectively implemented in schools, especially in rural areas,
and models on how to integrate technology in school curricula.

Mozambique

Cossa and Cronje (2004) conducted a study on “Computers for Africa: lessons
learnt from introducing computers into schools in Mozambique” between the
period 1997-2001, from the perspective of the project leader. The aims of the
research were to extend the understanding of the global phenomenon of using
ICT and Internet-based learning in secondary schools; to provide knowledge
about the use of ICT-based learning activities in Mozambique; and to contribute to
the formal use of ICT and Internet-based learning in secondary schools through
descriptions of aspects that challenge educators in ICT implementation in
developing countries. Particularly, the study followed a case study approach on
the Acacia project, designed to work with rural and disadvantaged communities
that were isolated from the ICT networks to which their urban counterparts
increasingly had access. By the year 2000, only 2% of the 80,000 telephone lines
served the rural areas. The project managed to network 13 schools with access to
e-mail and Internet, and subsequently the programme was transformed into a
national programme now run by the Ministry of Education. Teachers and learners
were trained in how to use computers for teaching and learning, WorLD (World
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Links for Development) and web page design. Principals of schools were also
trained to allow them to understand and support the project activities. The project
succeeded because of government’s political and financial support, the
refurbishment of classrooms where the computers were installed, and the
acquisition of new computer equipment for all teacher training colleges.

South Africa

Several authors allude to the introduction of ICT into South African schools
(Brandt, Terzoli & Hodgkinson-Williams, 2008; Howie & Blignaut, 2009; Langmia,
2006; Mentz & Mentz, 2003), all acknowledging deployment of computers into
schools to a certain extent, but reporting on various challenges experienced in
different parts of rural South Africa.

According to Brandt et al. (2008), there are many previously disadvantaged

schools from the apartheid dispensation still lacking basic infrastructure, such as
electricity, telephone lines and libraries, where information could be sought. In
response to these challenges, a number of projects were initiated across the
country: the Ulwazi project was introduced to five schools of which four are
situated in the township of Mamelodi and one in Lynwood Glen suburb, Pretoria.
The project was established as a result of need for schools to share in each
others’ learning experiences and knowledge, interactively and in real situations. In
Grahamstown, a similar project was introduced to one third of the secondary
schools beyond the range of DSL, and the poorest schools in the area. The aim of
the project was to develop continuous programmes that educate and train
teachers to make effective use of technology for teaching and administrative
purposes. Schools in Grahamstown have at least one telephone line but cannot
afford to have a second installed for either dial-up network and/or other
telecommunication devices. These projects were necessitated by the result of a
need for the schools to share in each others’ learning and cultural experiences.

Accessibility to ICT is very low in South Africa. For example, Mentz and Mentz
(2003) found that, in the Potchefstroom district, only 46% of schools had
Chapter 3 71
computers for administrative purposes, while 19% had computers for teaching. In
the majority of schools where computers were used for teaching, principals were
of the opinion that they were used effectively and that the educators responsible
for computer training were well-trained. The study also observed that the majority
of the schools had no access to computers, but 88% of the principals viewed
access to computers by learners as very important (5 on a scale of 1-5 being the
highest). The importance of computers to students remain elusive, as is does not
guarantee that the schools will be provided with more computers.

In addition to the challenges, Brandt et al. (2008) report on a recent survey

undertaken by the Education Policy Unit of the University of the Western Cape
and the International Development Research Centre, which found that South
Africa has an alarmingly low teledensity in some rural areas, sometimes less than
5% in certain rural areas. This makes it difficult to connect those schools that do
have computers to the Internet, even in the simple form of a dial-up link. It would
be beneficial for the affected rural schools to have Internet connection in terms of
interactivity, immediacy, accessibility, targeting, reach and versatility. Effective use
of the Internet for pedagogical purposes requires teachers not only to be
connected but also to have the skills necessary to find the relevant information.

Langmia (2006) states that training of teachers took place between 1999 and
2002, after which technology was introduced in public schools as compulsory
school subjects taught in grades 4-6 and 5-9. Mentz and Mentz (2003) emphasise
that, in addition to teacher training, there is a need to identify existing strategies
followed by school principals in under-resourced schools, in order to cope with
increasing demands on the integration of technology into curricula. Mentz and
Mentz (2003) concluded that when comparing efforts of developed countries to
deal with the increasing demand for integrating technology into curricula and
schools, it is clear that there was still conceptual as well as managerial confusion
around the role of technology in schools.

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Howie and Blignaut (2009), reporting on the SITES 2006 South African results,
found that the ICT policy in education was in place and on the list of priorities.
However, there were a number of ICT-related obstacles to realise pedagogical
goals, such as the location of ICT, staffing, the channels for teachers to acquire
skills and knowledge, and integration of ICT in mathematics and science classes.
The analysis of the data revealed that some essential conditions were not yet in
place in most of the schools. Where the hardware and software was in place,
significant attention was needed regarding the location of ICT, provision of staffing
and the acquisition of skills and knowledge. The data also reveal that only a small
number of science teachers had integrated ICT into their classes and that
achieving digital equity had not yet been met on such issues as access to
technology, educator development strategies, pedagogical and technical support,
digital content, and escalating telecommunication charges.

Namibia

In Namibia, the use of ICT in schools has not been researched. In a PhD study on
‘Adoption of ICT at schools in core and peripheral settings of Namibia: Exploring
innovation, technology policy and development issues’, Matengu (2006)
evaluated, critiqued and developed an understanding of factors involved in the
adoption of ICT in schools in Namibia, particularly in Windhoek and Katima Mulilo.
Matengu (2006) noted that schools were provided with computers on the basis
that they did not have them, and therefore cautioned against the assumption that
schools with ICT would necessarily use them. Matengu (2006) therefore called for
a critical review of ICT Policy goals and the implementation process. The study
also found that the availability of technology infrastructure at schools did not
guarantee their usage by learners and teachers.

In addition, Katulo (2010) researched on the role of school principals in promoting

and managing computer usage in selected schools in the Caprivi region. The
study found that principals were often the initiators of the acquisition of computers.
some schools were resourced than others and the maintenance of equipment
depended on the kind of school and the way the computers were acquired rather
Chapter 3 73
than on the role of the principal. School principals that demonstrated the qualities
of transformational leadership promoted the usage of computers by taking part in
training offered to teachers. The principals also encouraged teachers on different
platforms to make use of computers. The study also found that schools with
principals actively supporting and promoting the use of computers were successful
in computer usage than schools whose principals left the operations of the
computer laboratory to an individual teacher. The factors that hampered usage
were internet connectivity, qualified personnel to cascade training and minimum
infrastructure.

Another study in Namibia was on the integration of ICT in the preparation of

teachers at the Colleges of Education (Iipinge 2010), which revealed that while
teacher educators expressed interest and willingness to integrate ICT in the
teaching situations, there was a lack of infrastructure and digital learning material.
ICT was used more in the Integrated Methods of Technology Education (IMTE) as
a subject and to a lesser extent in Mathematics and Natural Sciences. Most of the
integration activities encouraged drill and practise and used the common Microsoft
Office (MS Office) programme.

Very few studies have been carried out on ICT policy implementation in the
developing world, especially in Africa. More work needs to be done on evaluation
of policy documents, especially on the impact they make at school level Like
Mozambique, Ghana and South Africa, schools in Namibia are equipped with ICT
but whether it is being used is a matter of concern to all countries. Also, none of
the schools in Africa seem to have put strategies in place to motivate teachers to
use ICT. School leadership is also not reported on extensively although it has a
big influence on how ICT is being used in schools. The researcher concurs with
Tiene (2002), who claimed that trying to bring technology into the schools systems
in developing countries was unsuccessful due to the lack of planning and support
to secure the support of key participants.

Chapter 3 74
Conclusion

It is important to monitor new developments made in schools, and how the ICTs
are used. Cases to demonstrate ICT use in schools were drawn from Ghana,
Mozambique, South Africa and Namibia. These schools share common
characteristics in that ICT provision is still very low, with low connectivity to the
Internet. Teachers seem to be unready to fully utilise ICT. Despite the challenges,
the developing countries still see ICT as a ‘powerful catalyst for change’ to help
them leapfrog in the industrialised world (Tiene, 2002, p.216). Challenges remain
and the factors causing these need to be identified.

3.7 Factors affecting ICT implementation at school and teacher

level

The aim of this chapter is to review the literature on the issues and topic of ICT
implementation and integration. Based on the findings and the analysis of the
Namibian context, this will be combined to formulate a conceptual framework for
this study. This section presents the factors that affect ICT implementation at
school and teacher level, with a focus on rural areas, infrastructural development
at national level, professional development, vision, leadership, support, digital
learning materials, ICT infrastructure at school level, expertise, and pedagogical
use of ICT.

Characteristics of rural areas

Kozma (2006) argues that ICT is important to rural villages in Africa for the
improvement of education and other basic living conditions. To put this study into
context, Zhao, Yan and Lei (2008) state that evaluation begins with context in
which the technology programme is to be implemented. Contextual factors include
the basic characteristics of the school, such as size and location, current
technology conditions (infrastructure, hardware, software, uses), learner
characteristics (technology proficiency, access to technology, academic
performance), teachers characteristics (years of teaching, technology proficiency

Chapter 3 75
and uses, academic background), and institutional support or expectation for
technology uses (policy related to technology, professional development efforts,
and resources for teachers). These factors will likely influence the effect of the
programme and can be used to interpret future changes (Zhao et al., 2008).

This information is needed for this study in order to give descriptive information
about the rural context in which ICT is being implemented. Since, it has been
argued that the information obtained from the Namibian government documents
was inconsistent (see Chapter two), it became necessary to repeat this exercise
for purposes of accurate reporting for the three educational regions of interest.

Infrastructural development

ICT infrastructure is limited and not provided to all educational institutions with the
depth needed to allow optimal usage of education systems (Cecchini & Scott,
2003; Cossa & Cronje, Hinostroza, Hepp & Cox, 2009; Hinostroza, Labbe & Claro,
2005; Tearle, 2003; Ward, 2003; Wagner, 2004; Reeves, 2008). In particular, rural
areas are more affected by the lack of electricity and there are cases of low
density of Internet connectivity which pose many challenges to rural areas (Howie,
2010; Brandt et al., 2008). Other challenges include the cost of ICT provision,
which can be high in comparison to the costs of other equipment. In under-
resourced schools the cost can even be higher due to the need for installation of
electricity and landline connectivity. Provision of infrastructure competes with the
provision of other basic needs, such as textbooks, furniture, teacher training, and
nutritional supplements (Cawthera, 2002). Balanskat, Blamire & Kefala (2006)
argue that schools with good ICT resources achieve better results than those that
are poorly equipped. However, other factors may also contribute towards ICT
implementation such as professional development.

Professional development

It is argued that professional development is necessary for ICT integration in

schools. Both teachers and the school management need to be trained in skills

Chapter 3 76
that will enable them to perform their duties effectively in the advancement of
teaching and learning. Teachers must understand the place of ICT in schools and
its educational role. However, a number of researchers (Howie, 2010; Kozma,
2008; Matengu, 2006) have argued that policies are well articulated but often
teachers are not aware of the specifics of these policies or their goals. ICT policy
implementation is best assured when teachers’ professional development includes
specific skills and tasks that include ICT in their everyday classroom practices and
explicitly connects these practices to ICT and broader education policies (Kozma,
2008).

Garet (2001, in Strudler & Hearington, 2008) identified six factors associated with
succesful ICT implementation. The first three are structural features that set the
context, whilst the next three are core features that charaterise the processes that
occur:

a) The form of the professional development activities refers to the reform type
of activities. For example, developing teacher network or study group which
include:
b) The duration of the activity including time per session and number of
sessions. The longer the activity the better.
c) Collective participation of groups of teachers from the same school,
department, or grade was found to be more effective than individual
participation.
d) Active learning opportunities were associated with effective professional
development.
e) Content focuses teaching strategies were found to be better than generic
teaching strategies not tied to particular content areas.
f) Coherence, which refers to the degree to which the activity is tied to school
goals, policies, and standards: the greater the coherence for teachers, the
more effective the professional development.

Chapter 3 77
Comprehensive plans for professional development should include wider
opportunities for teachers to learn through a number of platforms (Strudler &
Hearington, 2008). It is assumed in the Garet professional development
framework that groups of teachers, depending on various possible combination of
groups (e.g. teaching related subjects), should be offered prolonged multiple
learning opportunities that promote active learning. More importantly, the learning
goals should be linked to the school goals and policies both at national and school
level. However, Ward (2003) warns that time for teachers to learn how to use
computers is limited, but for the sake of continuity of learning up-to-date skills that
will enable the teachers to keep up with the technological and pedagogical
demand, it becomes necessary that the teachers create time for professional
development activities.

This information is relevant to this study, in order to inform the professional

development activities aimed at teacher training in ICT in Namibia. This is one of
the main activities to be implemented in accord with the National ICT Policy
Implementation Plan. A study recently conducted in Namibia found that the
professional development is ineffective as lecturers at the Teacher Training
Colleges have not been trained themselves in ICT and therefore are not in a
position to train the teacher trainees. These findings were obtained from a study
conducted in the Teachers Colleges (Iipinge, 2010). It is necessary that the view
of schools on professional development with regard ICT be sought, especially in
the rural areas.

Chapter 3 78
Vision

Policy vision for ICT in education is a critical component of the policy (Law, 2009).
The World Bank (2003) reports that ICT should aim to deliver resources to the
poor, take markets within reach of rural communities, improve government
services and transfer knowledge needed to meet the challenges of the MDGs. In
this light, ICT can increase access to education through distance learning, enable
a knowledge network for students, develop teacher training, and broaden
opportunities for accessing quality educational materials.

UNESCO (2008a) presented a policy framework on ICT competency standards for

teachers in which three different policy foci were explained: technological literacy,
which puts emphasis on computer or information literacy as a subject; knowledge
deepening, which emphasises improving effectiveness of learning in different
subjects by using ICT, and knowledge creation, which emphasises ICT as an
agent of curriculum and pedagogical change to foster students’ development of
21st century skills. These policy foci call for different curriculum goals for the use of
ICT in teaching and learning, a framework useful for this study in determining the
focus of the Namibian ICT Policy for education. It is important that the vision of the
policy is clear and that the science curriculum is aligned to the vision of the
National ICT Policy for Education (2006), which is currently aligned to a vision that
sees Namibia becoming an ICT literate nation by the year 2030. An ICT
implementation plan has been drafted to guide the operations of the
implementation process.

Leadership

Several authors express the challenges of leadership with regard to ICT policy
implementation at national level (Cecchini & Scott, 2003; Kozma, 2008). In
particular, these authors raised concerns about strategic policies to provide
specific goals on how technology can advance economic, social, and educational
development. It is argued that operational policies should describe how these

Chapter 3 79
visions and resources will impact the education system with measurable
outcomes.

Yee (2000: 291) has characterised ICT leadership in eight categories, namely
leadership as:

Equiptable provision of ICT: principals provide ICT hardware, software, and

complementary resources.
Learning focused envisioning: principals as leaders transmit a vision or
sense of mission and create enthusiasm in teachers.
Adventurous learning: principals express the desire to be an ICT learner
along with staff members.
Patient teaching principals possess ICT skills and are willing to teach
students and staff. They also attempt to create many flexible learning
opportunities.
Protective enabling principals often create shared leadership activities for
teachers and students.
Constant monitoring principals ensure that teachers and learners use ICT
according to the vision of the school.
Entrepreneurial networking principals who are very skilful as ‘partnership
builders’ in an effort to source the necessary ICT resources for the school.
Careful challenging in an ICT enriched school, innovative teachers are on the
edge of knowledge with regard to ICT.

The eight characteristics were deduced from a study conducted in Canada by Yee
(2000), based on the assumptions that government views ICT as instrumental to
creating a high skilled workforce capable of coping with the technological
demands of the 21st century. Emphasis is placed on ICT to ensure that students
develop the abilities to make informed choices about ICT, to use it skilfully, and to
become technological innovators. Thus, the use of ICT in schools had become
both a pedagogical and a political issue. The second assumption is that ICT can
be used in a number of ways in education, bearing in mind that not all ICT used in

Chapter 3 80
school is meaningful, pedagogically sound, fiscally responsible, or ethical. The
leadership approaches are useful to determine the kinds of ICT leadership styles
that are present in Namibian rural schools and how it can be improved.

Support

ICT support is essential for the sustainability of ICT projects, many of which in
African countries were discontinued because neither the government nor the
schools made plans to sustain them (Cossa & Cronje, 2004; Clecherty & Tjivikua,
2005; Kozma, 2006; Thomas, 2006). Support in the model adopted from the
Kennisnet (2008) is divided into two: pedagogical support; and technical support.

Technical support refers to support towards basic trouble shooting in and out of
the classroom.

Pedagogical support refers to support related to teaching and learning of science.

Both will be briefly discussed.

Pedagogical support

In order to develop capabilities of teachers, principals should foster intellectual

stimulation amongst them, provide well-designed professional development, and
facilitate focused activities such as integrating ICT to meet the learning needs of a
learner (Dexter, 2008b). Thus, support needs to come from the principals, HoDs
and the experienced teachers.

Sutherland and Sutch (2009) offer a model demonstrating how pedagogical

support can be offered to novice or less experienced teachers. Within the
InterActive project, Sutherland and Sutch (2009:30) developed a way of working
that enabled teachers to work together with teacher educators and researchers in
order to start the process of using ICT in the classroom. Each teacher developed a
subject design initiative (SDI) and the process involved:

Chapter 3 81
 Deciding on a focused areas of the curriculum that students normally find
difficult to learn and choosing ICTs that could potentially enhance learning in
this area.
Out-of-the-class design as a thought experiment. This involves thinking
about the area to be taught, considering relevant research, developing
activities and experimenting with the chosen ICT, while at the same time
imagining how learners would engage with these activities from the
perspective of the intended learning. Also, the background knowledge and
experience of the learners is considered.
Into-the-classroom contingent teaching draws on all the prepared activities
while at the same time opportunistically using what learners bring to the
lesson to extend their learning.
Out-of-class reflection on and analysis of the design initiative using video
data collected from the classroom experimentation.

Although this model is used by teacher educators and researchers, it may still be
useful in providing guidance towards increased use of ICT through this
pedagogical support model.

Technical support

McGhee and Kozma (2000) offer a benchmark for infrastructure in the World
Evaluation Conceptual Model (p.6), particularly, the technical support
requirements, namely hardware installation; software provision; network installed;
and technical assistance available. This information is useful to determine the
availability of technical support.

Collaboration

The Delphi project (2004) offers an insight on the indicators for uses of ICT in
learning. Amongst the identified indicator is teachers’ collaboration. In the Delphi
project, teachers’ collaboration skills have been identified as crucial for teachers to

Chapter 3 82
participate in formal and informal networks of teachers. Increased collaboration
and rich interpersonal relations among the teachers minimise power-related
tensions that may arise among them. Collaboration has a positive impact on the
effectiveness of the introduction of ICT in curriculum-based activities. Teacher
online forums offer online facilities, new modules and ideas for enhancing
teaching. In addition, teachers online forum are necessary for creating quality
materials and that staff could work with colleagues located in other geographic
areas.

Digital learning materials

A number of authors pointed to a need to develop local digital content (Kozma,

2008; Kohn, Maier & Thalman, 2009), however the costs of development of digital
learning materials are high and effective demand is not likely to be large, while
those with purchasing power are already served by good conventional schools
(Dede, 2000; MacFarlane & Sakellariou, 2002; Wagner, 2004). In order to ensure
access to all schools, many governments have taken it upon themselves to take
on the task of e-content distribution, either through a portal or any Learning
Management Systems. The development of this material and the quality of these
is also a concern (Cawthera, 2002; Cecchini & Scott, 2003). Kennisnet (2008)
offers three broad approaches on schools’ expenditure on digital learning
materials:

1. Pragmatic approach - where digital learning materials is being used

occasionally and with a weak link to between the school’s overall
educational approach and its use of such material. This is a low level of risk
for the school as the school opts for low cost materials, but so are the low
benefits.
2. Project-based approach - where a limited number of teachers use digital
learning material for small-scale projects, combined in a number of ways
with their current teaching. The idea of teaching using ICT is being

Chapter 3 83
 appreciated. Capital investment in digital learning material is increasing but
it can be compensated for by efficient management.
3. Conceptual approach promotes the design and organisation of teaching
and learning being the basis and use digital learning materials to support
those educational principles. It is assumed in this approach that as the
digital learning materials become more important, the price of books will
fall. Without effective leadership on the part of school managers,
expenditure on digital learning material may increase.

Information about the different approaches towards acquiring digital learning

materials is useful to determine the approach currently being pursued by the
Namibian government and in an effort to improve the current situation, make the
necessary changes that suit the country’s education system.

Infrastructure

Hinostroza, Labbe, Lopez and Iost (2008) claim that there is not enough evidence
available to produce responsible recommendations for technology choices for a
given pedagogical approach and instructional instance that has to be implemented
in a particular context. However, much outdated ICT infrastructure has been
noticed in rural schools, and the high cost of telephonic connections is a concern
to many rural schools and those from a disadvantaged background which have
their telephone lines cut for not paying bills (Cecchini & Scott, 2003; Cossa &
Cronje, 2004; Polikanov & Abramova, 2003).

Chapter 3 84
Table 3. 3: Classification of different ICT applications & their educational ICT
Type of Examples Educational use
application
General tools Word processing, Becoming more important requires
presentation, innovative use and creative thinking. The
spreadsheet, tools are not dependent on particular
multimedia etc content
Teacher tools On-line lesson Lesson preparation; whole class teaching
outlines; computer with shared view of screen; interaction
projector systems, managed by teacher
interactive whiteboard
Communications E-mail, e-learning, Review a view of education as reaching
video conference, beyond school, for which they offer huge
Internet browser potential; familiar in the out-of-school
context.
Resources Web-based Used according to availability, in
whatever way wished; for resource-
based, skills-oriented learning.
Computer- Drill-and-practice, Offers individual learning opportunities
assisted related to a certain without expensive development, appears
instruction (CAI) kind of content and to fit well with transmission models of
relatively teaching and learning.
unsophisticated
Integrated Individual task These appear to sit outside teacher-led
learning systems assignment, instruction and learning, but are only truly
(ILS) assessment and effective as an integral part of the
progression, including learning process, which may have to be
CAI, with recording re-thought.
and reporting of
achievement

Chapter 3 85
Type of Examples Educational use
application
Computer-based Examination boards Components give advantage to the
assessment tools are developing computer literate; teachers will need to
computer-based incorporate some elements of similar
examinations, which tasks in their teaching, to prepare
attempt to mimic students adequately.
paper-based tests.
Management tools Classroom Students progress, deficiency analysis
procedures etc.
School administration Financial, personnel and educational
Publication of results resources
communication Parents, governors, inspectorate, general
public e.g school to home and vice versa
Source: OECD (2001, pp. 38-39)

The matrix of the different ICT application shows the complex nature of ICT
application in schools. This information is necessary in identifying different
pedagogical approaches that require different tools, and teachers should have a
fair knowledge of the ICT in order to choose the appropriate tool for the intended
purpose.

Expertise

Anderson (2008) offers a taxonomy of knowledge related skills and knowledge-

related task processes with or without ICT. These knowledge-based skills are
implicit in the level of teacher technology competency (Baylor & Ritchie, 2002),
which is in line with the development of the knowledge society and guides the
design of the curriculum, learning and assessment activities more in cases where
learners can access ICT. The required teacher expertise for the knowledge-based
society is summarised in the figure below:

Chapter 3 86
Knowledge related skills: Knowledge related task
a) Access, assemble, re-organise phases:
knowledge Are needed for 1. Plan strategies and
b) Interpret, analyse & evaluate procedures
c) Collaborate on projects and 2. Choose appropriate ICT
teamwork tools
d) Complex problem solving 3. Collect and organise
e) Generate knowledge products; knowledge
f) Communicate, present, and 4. Analyse and synthesise
disseminate 5. Disseminate, communicate
g) Select appropriate tools and Help develop
evaluate impact

Figure 3. 1: An adopted conceptual framework illustrating the relationship

between knowledge-related skills and knowledge-related task progresses,
with or without ICT
(Anderson, 2008: 12)

Each skill category pertains to a set of tasks and should be analysed with respect
to the type of knowledge predominating in these tasks. Each skill category may
pertain to multiple types or levels of knowledge: facts, principles, procedures,
metacognition, and subjective states, however, some require predominantly one
type.

Access, assemble, and reorganise knowledge refers to the ability to

effectively and quickly find and assemble information of all types using
Internet and database search.
Critically interpret, analyse, and evaluate evidence refers to make critical
evaluation of the quality and relevance of knowledge to make appropriate
conclusions.
Collaborate on projects and teamwork refers to sharing knowledge in a team
and the ability to consult with experts and others at all levels of the hierarchy
using emails, conferencing, and instant messages.
Solve complex problems refers to the ability to demonstrate planning
strategies and higher-level thinking skills central to the school and the
workplace and relevant to everyday living.
Chapter 3 87
 Generate knowledge products refers to the use of relevant software tools
such as word processor, spreadsheets, databases, and concepts mapping.
Communicate, present, and disseminate refers to the ability to present
knowledge to the audience using multimedia tools or by reports.
Select appropriate tools and evaluate their impact refers to the ability to
prepare learners to deal with ICT both technically and responsibly.

The information obtained from Figure 3.1 (above) is useful in detecting the skills
that Namibian science teachers possess against what they need to have if they
are to integrate ICT effectively.

Pedagogical use of ICT

Mioduser, Nachmias, Tubin and Forkosh-Baruch (2003) developed an analysis

schema for the systematic study of transformational processes in schools using
ICT, based on Itzkan (1994). From their schema, the levels of pedagogical use of
ICT in rural schools are taken. They distinguish a progressive continuum of three
levels of innovation: assimilation, transition, and transformational.

Assimilation is the first level of innovation that refers to the situation in which
ICT is first introduced into the school. ICT is integrated as a useful tool in
common learning activities and in specific projects. At this level, specific
pedagogical situations change qualitatively but the school curriculum
(content and goals), the instructional means (textbooks), the learning
environment (class, laboratories), and the learning organisation (timetable)
remain the same.

Transition is the second level where support for ICT integration in school’s
everyday function of new contents, didactic solutions, and organisational
solutions side-by-side with the traditional ones. At this stage, the school
keeps its identity and basic course of operation while changing the character
of particular activities.

Chapter 3 88
 Transformation is the third level, where substantive changes take place in
the schools. Traditional processes still exist, but the school’s identity is
mainly defined by the rationale and goals of the new lines of operation.
Teachers’ roles are enriched with new dimensions, new contents are
introduced to the curriculum, new teaching methods are developed and
implemented, and for particular activities, the traditional time and space
configuration is completely transformed.

This schema is useful in determining the level of pedagogical use of ICT in the
rural school. This information is added to the conceptual framework to describe
the pedagogical use of ICT as an outcome of the ICT implementation process.

Science teachers’ attitudes

Cavas, Cavas, Karaoglan and Kisla (2009) claim that as in many developing
countries, ICT tools are provided to teachers without considering their attitudes
towards ICT. Cavas et.al. (2009) conducted a study in Turkish primary schools to
test the science teachers’ attitudes towards ICT in education and then explore the
relationship between teachers’ attitudes and factors which are related to teachers’
personal characteristics. The Turkish teachers indicated attended in-service
training related to ICT use in classroom. The findings of this study revealed that
the science teachers, irrespective of their gender had the same perception about
ICT use in education. Another study conducted in Syria, exploring attitudes of
English as Foreign Language high school teachers revealed the same findings
that teachers had the positive attitude towards ICT in education Alibrini (2006).
The attitudes were explored through a number of independent variables such as
computer attributes, cultural perceptions, and computer competence. This
information is necessary for this study in collecting information on this construct.

Chapter 3 89
Conclusion

In summary of this section, a number of factors that affect ICT implementation

have been presented, useful to this study for a number of reasons. They provide
information on variables that need to be considered in the description of how ICT
in being implemented in a rural context. In addition, the information on the efforts
spent of infrastructural development for rural areas is vital as this study is focusing
on the rural setting. Information on professional development provides guidance
on ICT skills requirements and expertise for science teachers, and has provided
insight into the formulation of the conceptual framework of this study.

3.8 Conceptual framework

This section presents the conceptual framework of this study. The Four-in-
Balance-Model (2009) is presented in Section 3.8.1. This model is focusing on ICT
implementation at school and at classroom/teacher level. The Howie Model
(2002), providing the frame for the structure of the conceptual framework of this
study is presented in Section 3.8.2. Finally, the conceptual framework for this
study, known as the ‘Factors that affect ICT implementation in rural schools’ is
presented in Section 3.8.3.

3.8.1 The Four-in-Balance-Model

The Four-in-Balance-Model (2009) was developed to structure key factors that

influence ICT use at school level. This model has been chosen to structure the
presentation of the findings from the literature. The model itself will be discussed
in the next section. The Four-in-Balance-Model is a research based approach
used to introduce ICT in education (Kennisnet, 2008, 2009), first presented in
2001 by the ICT at School Foundation and updated in 2004 as Four-in-Balance
Plus (ICT op School, 2004). From this point on, the model has been referred to as
Four in Balance, and suggests successful implementation of ICT at school and
teacher/classroom level requires a balanced approach towards deploying the four

Chapter 3 90
basic elements: vision, expertise, digital learning materials and ICT infrastructure
(Kennisnet, 2009).

Vision refers to the schools’ view of what constitutes a good teaching approach
and how the school aims to achieve its objectives, considering the role of the
teachers and learners, the teaching, and the materials being used to teach. The
vision of the principals and teachers determine the policy of the school and the
design and organisation of its teaching.

Expertise implies that teachers and learners need to have sufficient knowledge
and skills in order to utilise ICT to achieve educational objectives. This requires
skills beyond basic ICT skills to operate a computer. Pedagogical ICT skills are
also necessary to help structure and organise learning processes.

Digital learning materials refer to all digital learning educational content whether
formal or informal. This includes educational computer programmes.

ICT infrastructure refers to the availability and quality of computers, networks, and
Internet connections. ICT constitutes infrastructure facilities. In addition, electronic
learning environments and the management and maintenance of the school’s ICT
facilities are also considered as ICT infrastructure.

Collaboration and support refers to collaboration between teachers in the same

school sharing knowledge in a team and the ability to consult teachers from other
schools.

Support refers to supporting teachers with the use of ICT, i.e, pedagogical support
and/or supporting teachers technically.

Chapter 3 91
 Collaboration & support

Digital ICT
Leadership

Vision Expertise
learning infrastructure
materials

ICT use/Pedagogical use of ICT for learning

Figure 3. 2: An adopted basic elements of the Four-in-Balance model (2009)

This model has been adopted in this study to provide the theoretical and
conceptual basis for the description of how ICT is being implemented in rural
schools. The concepts in the model have been found suitable to serve as a guide
for generating items of variables to be considered in the generation of instruments
for data collection for the main study. In addition, this model summarised the
factors that affect ICT implementation in line with the research question three of
the study. Based on these reasons, the Four-in-Balance Model (2009) was
adopted for use in this study. However, it has also been argued in Chapters 1 and
2 of this study that some factors may have more influence on ICT implementation
process and therefore not all factors have the same level of impact. In order to
distinguish between factors that were considered at national level as well as
school level, the Howie Model (2002) was adapted.

3.8.2 The Howie Model

The Howie model was used to conceptualise, categorise and to organise the
variables to be used in an exploratory manner to identify relationships between
factors related to mathematics achievement of secondary school pupils in South
Africa. It should be noted that the Howie model (2002) was not developed for the
area of ICT in education. The model is widely accepted to show the various

Chapter 3 92
system levels in education: ‘national/regional system-school-individual’. The Howie
model (adapted from the Shavelson, McDonnell & Oakes, 1987) presented the
education system in terms of inputs, processes and outputs. Figure 3.3 (below)
illustrates the Howie model (2002):

Figure 3. 3: The Howie model (2002)

In the Howie Model (2002) the inputs are policy-related contexts at a national,
provincial and/or local level. At this level, the intended curriculum is designed and
developed. The inputs reflect the antecedents at national level such as: the
economic, physical and human resources supplied to different levels of the
system; the characteristics of the teachers and the background of the students.

The inputs affect the processes within the schools, the education system units at
regional and local level. At the level of processes, the implementation of the
curriculum depends on the context in which teachers work. The outputs reflect the
outcome in terms of students’ achievement (in terms of teachers’ success in
teaching in science subjects) and participation in class and school activities and
also teachers’ attitudes towards subjects and schooling and the future aspirations.
It is assumed in this model that indirect benefits such as improved teaching may
result from improved curriculum quality at national level and subsequently at
school level.
Chapter 3 93
The Howie Model (2002) has been adapted for this study to provide the structure
within which the Four-in-Balance Model will be placed for purposes of
distinguishing the systems level from the school level. Some parts of the Howie
Model (2002) have been changed to suit the conceptual framework of this study.

All the three levels have been adopted from how they appear in the Howie Model
(2002) (see Figure 3.3, above). These are input, process and output. The levels
are described as have been adopted or adapted for this study. The new meaning
of concepts is also explained and what has been retained is highlighted.

Input level

Input is policy-related context at a national level, where two issues are important:
the National Policy and the description of the context. The National ICT Policy for
Education spells out the intended ICT goals and objectives with regard to ICT
implementation. The inputs reflect the investments into national vision, ICT
infrastructual development, and the professional development, with regard to ICT
implementation.

The description of the context refers to the rural areas. A number of variables are
considered such as the socio economic conditions, learners ICT skills, efforts put
into developing rural schools, the population of the villages, school attendance.
The national policy and the rural area’s variables are said to have an impact on
the school quality. This factor has been adopted from the Howie Model (2002).

Chapter 3 94
Process level

The inputs affect the processes within the schools, the education system units at
regional and local level (Howie, 2002). At the level of processes, ICT is
implemented at school level. This is the area where the Four-in-Balance is
inserted in the frame to illustrate that ICT is being implemented in the school that
may have been affected by the quality depending on the input. Also, the argument
to placing the Four-in-Balance Model is to evaluate whether what is stated in the
National ICT Policy is what is being implemented in rural schools.

In the Four-in-Balance Model appear a number of constructs of which leadership

and collaboration and support are considered to take place at school level whilst
the vision, Expertise, Digital Learning Materials and ICT infrastructure were
considered at classroom level. The definitions of these concepts have been
adapted in Section 3.8.1.

Output

The outputs reflect the outcome in terms of ICT use and pedagogical use of ICT
by science teachers. These outcomes may influence science teachers’ attitudes
towards ICT use and their schooling and future aspirations. It is assumed in this
conceptual framework that increase support and motivation may result in increase
ICT use and pedagogical use of ICT by science teachers. The definition of output
has changed from that in the Howie Model (2002) as this study focus on different
output, but the attitudes of teachers has been retained.

Chapter 3 95
The Howie model (2002) has been adapted as follows:

Input Process Input

ICT infrastructure
National ICT Policy

implementation
Intended

Professional
development
School
quality

Vision

ICT

Teacher professional
Rural community

development

Teachers’ attitudes
Social conditions
e.g language, SES, Types of
employment

Figure 3. 4: The adapted Howie model (2002)

Chapter 3 96
The Howie model has been adapted to include critical components of the National
ICT policy, such as ICT infrastructure as provided by the Government of Namibia,
professional development and the vision of the education system in Namibia as
intended. These factors are said to influence the quality of the rural schools at
regional level. Depending on how ICT is being implemented at school level, it may
impact on ICT use and pedagogical use of ICT, and consequently influence the
attitude of the science teachers. These changes are reflected in the conceptual
model of this study, known as the ‘Factors affecting ICT implementation in rural
schools’.

3.8.3 Conceptual framework for this study

The conceptual framework for this study employs the Four-in-Balance model
(2009) and the Howie model (2002). The two adapted models were merged in
Figure 3.6 (below). For purposes of operations, constructs that appear in the
conceptual framework of this study are adapted as described in the Four-in-
Balance Model. In addition, the concepts that appear in the input level of the
conceptual framework of this study are explained below.

ICT provision refers to providing ICT to rural schools. The infrastructure is

measured in terms of type of ICT available, e.g. PCs, laptops, Internet connection
at national level.

Professional development refers to a teacher training programme with regard to

ICT skills and ICT integration in the science subjects.

Vision refers to the focus of ICT implementation in the education system,

particularly with ICT use in enhancing science education.

School quality refers to how well the ICT provision, professional development and
the vision has been successful in terms of provision, training of teachers and the
translation of vision into curriculum goals.

Chapter 3 97
 Input Implemented Attained
Intended
ICT provision
Cooperation and support

ICT
National ICT Policy

infrastructure
implementation
Intended

Professional School
development quality

Leadership
Digital Learning
Material Pedagogical use
of ICT

Expertise
Vision

Learners ICT use Teachers’ attitudes and

Rural community context

Vision aspirations towards

IICTbackgroundchara
Teacher professional education and ICT
development

Accessibility

Social conditions School/classroom level

e.g language, SES, Types of
employment

Figure 3. 5: Factors affecting ICT implementation in rural schools

Chapter 3 98
Conclusion

In conclusion of this section, the constructs found in the Four-in-Balance Model

are explained in line with what was found in the literature. The Four-in-Balance
Model is described and the rationale for its adoption in this study is discussed. The
constructs of the Four-in-Balance Model are explained in their original meaning
and how they have been adapted for use in this study. In addition, the Howie
Model (2002) has been adopted for use in this study. This model was useful in
providing the frame within which the Four-in-Balance Model could be placed to
illustrate the level of operation of all constructs. Changes that have been made to
the Howie model have been highlighted accordingly. Finally, the conceptual
framework of this study is presented as a combination of the adapted Four-in-
Balance Model (2009) and the adapted Howie Model (2002).

Summary of conclusions

Chapter three begins with the introduction followed by the definition of key
concepts of the study. The literature reviewed presents the rationale for ICT
adoption and general uses of ICT in education in developed and developing
countries respectively. Special reference has been drawn to the SITES study
which covered a number of developed countries over three phases (1998 to 2006)
with a focus on school (Module 1 and SITES 2006) as well as classroom level
(Module 2). The studies reported in this thesis have similar objectives as SITES,
which therefore served as a source of inspiration for this study. A number of other
studies have also been referenced for a broad overview. A number of cases of ICT
implementation in the developed world have been presented. The case of Finland
has been identified as successful but not without challenges. Lithuania has the
same experiences as some developed countries. The developing countries
examples draw reference to Chile and South Africa. These countries have both
policies on ICT in education and developed portals through which support for
teachers is offered. However, in the case of Chile, the schools had to develop
proposals as to why they needed ICT. A number of developing countries share
common problems of insufficient ICT provision by the state and low connectivity of
the Internet hampering teachers to use ICT in their everyday teaching. Factors

Chapter 3 99
affecting ICT use in education were also identified from the literature. These are
costs of ICT, training of teachers, lack of strategies to align the curriculum goals to
ICT. These factors are all summarised in the Four-in-Balance model adopted as
the conceptual framework for ICT use at school level and this way to pave the way
for research methods and analysis. The Four-in-Balance model was placed with
the Howie model in order to relate with other systems levels.

Chapter 3 100