Week 2 - ETHICS

Ethics & Morals Comparison

What is Ethics ● Ethics

- Rules of conduct or societal
ETHICS -> Ethos = custom or character norms with respect to a group
Studies the rightness or wrongness of a or culture.
human action
➢ HOW DO HUMAN PERSONS OUGHT ● Morals
TO ACT? - Habits or behaviors with
➢ WHAT IS A RIGHT CONDUCT AND A respect to what an individual
GOOD LIFE believes is right or wrong.
➢ (Albert, Denise 8 Peterfreund 1984, p.
1-2) ★ Ethics

Ethics Greek Tradition

➢ “good life” happiness
➢ Ethics or moral philosophy, it is a ➢ “Being happy”
disciplined concerned with what is ➢ Masaya ka lang
morally good and bad, right and
wrong. Judeo-Christian
➢ As a branch of philosophy, ethics ➢ righteousness before God;
stands to queries about what there is ➢ love of God and neighbor
reason to do. Dealing with human ➢ “Doing what is right”
actions and reasons for actions, also ➢ Dapat mong gawin kung ano ang
concerned with character tama
➢ The word ethics derived from the
Greek word “ethos” which means Ethics & Morality Comparison
“character” or “manners”.
Ethics
Morality "Theory" of right action and the greater
➢ speaks of a code or system of good
behavior in regards to standards of
right or wrong behavior
➢ is like a set of rules or guidelines that
tell us what is right and wrong “systematic study”
behavior. of the underlying principles of morality
➢ It helps people know how to act in
ways that are good and avoid actions - Tinutulungan ka magpasya kung pano
that are bad. gagawin bilang tao
Morality 3. Applied Ethics
“'practice", rightness or wrongness of ➢ actual application of ethical or moral
human action theories for the purpose of deciding
which ethical or moral actions are
appropriate in a given situation
➢ Teachers code of ethics
“Prescriptive” ➢ Inapply sa different fields
= tells us what we ought to do
= exhorts us to follow the right way Casuists - adherents of applied ethics

DIFFERENT FIELDS:
Terrance McConnell (1994) - Business Ethics
- "Morality is characterized as an - Biomedical And Environmental Ethics
'end-governed rational enterprise' - Social Ethics
whose object is to equip people with a
body of norms that make for peaceful “A police officer shoots a terrorist who is
and collectively satisfying coexistence about to blow up a crowded shopping mall.”
by facilitating their living together and
interacting in a way that is productive
for the realization of the general
benefit".

Ethics - Science of Morals

Morality - Practice of Ethics

Types of Ethics METAETHICS

- The act of the police officer is morally
1. Normative Ethics (PRESCRIPTIVE) wrong.
➢ seeks to set norms or standards that NORMATIVE ETHICS
regulate right and wrong or good and - It is the right thing to do in this
bad conduct particular situation.
➢ Do good at all times! CASUISTS
➢ Kahit anong sitwasyon gawin mo ang - The police officer is just doing his best
mabuti to fulfill his duty.

2. Metaethics (DESCRIPTIVE) Some questions that are ethical in nature:

➢ aims to understand the nature and ● What is the good?
dynamics of ethical principles, and the ● Who is a moral person?
way we learn and acquire moral ● What are the virtues of a human
beliefs (Sumner, 1967) being?
➢ What is Good? ● What makes an act right?
➢ “ itatanong mo muna sa sariili mo ● What duties do we have to each
other?
 THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES TO SOCIAL WHY DO WE HAVE RULE?
BEING
- Rules help people in many aspects of
What is Rules? life. They enable people to organize all
the processes correctly. Rules are
THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES TO SOCIAL specific modes of behavior that secure
BEING a regulated flow of all processes. A
well-developed system of rules help
- Rules refer to explicit or understood humanity to avoid chaos and many
regulations or principles governing problems that may be caused by the
conduct within a specific activity or lack of regulations.
sphere. Rules tell us what is or is not - Laws dictate what is proper and what
allowed in a particular context or is wrong. In many spheres of life, we
situation. have guidelines to follow.
- Rules serve as a foundation for any - Norms enable people to interact, to
healthy society, without rules, society work together and contribute to the
would likely fall into anarchy or global development. Moral rules assist
chaotic society. people in the establishment of shared
values and norms in accordance to
RULES AND REGULATIONS which an honorable member of society
can be identified.
Rules
1. Prescribed guidelines for RULES BENEFIT SOCIAL BEINGS IN
conduct/action or regug principles. VARIOUS MANNERS:
2. The term can be used in a general A. Rules protect social beings by regulating
3. It can be adjusted accordingly behavior. Rules build boundaries that place
4. Can be enforced by authorities of the limits on behavior. Rules are usually coupled
specific organizations, social structure, with means to impose consequences on those
etc. who violate them. One of the reasons people
follow accepted rules is to avoid negative
Regulations consequences.
1. Rules or orders issued by an executive
authority or regulatory agency of a B. Rules help to guarantee each person
govt. have the force of law. certain rights and freedom. Rules form
2. term can be used in a legal sense frameworks for society:
3. Right and cannot be altered or Nations are generally nations of laws and the
adjusted unless by the legislature. governing principles are outlined in what is
4. Issued by the executive authorities or called constitution. Because the majority has
the government of the country. agreed to follow and consent to be governed
by such a constitution, the freedoms outlined
exist. One of the advantages of such a
system is that each person is guaranteed
certain rights as the government is limited in
its power to ensure that it does not become ● His critical faculties will be trained. He
powerful enough to suppress liberty. will know the reasons for his moral
convictions, and also the reasons for
C. Rules produce a sense of justice among the moral convictions of others. His
social beings. Rules are needed in order to reverence for duty will be deepened.
keep the strong from dominating the weak,
that is, to prevent exploitation and ● "to comprehend all is to forgive all" is
domination. Without rules, schemes in which a universal principle, he will learn that
those with the power control the system, while sometimes to comprehend is to
would take over. In effect, rules generate a forgive, at other times it is to condemn
stable system that provides justice, in which with severity, though never with
even the richest and most powerful have ignorance or injustice.
limitations on what they can do. If they
transgress rules such as laws and ordinances ● He will gain a clearer insight into his
and take advantage of people, there are claims upon society, and the duties
consequences both socially and criminally. that he owes to society. He will learn to
discriminate between the respects in
D. Rules are essential for a healthy which all individuals are mutually
economic system. Without rules regulating interdependent
business, power would centralize around and those in which each is responsible
monopolies and threaten the strength and for his own life, and ought to insist
competitiveness of the system. Rules are upon freedom of
needed to ensure product safety, employee initiative.
safety, and product quality. Copyright and
patents help protect people's intellectual ● Finally, while a book on Ethics can by
property. Rules and regulations also keep the no means prescribe for anyone what
banking system stable so as to avoid should be his vocation in life, or his
depression and the like. avocations, it can at least proffer
some considerations, from the
WHY STUDY ETHICS? standpoints of
self-realization, self-sacrifice, and
● The serious student of Ethics will find service, that ought to help anyone in
this work both profitable and making such decisions.
interesting to the highest degree.
MORAL VS. NON MORAL STANDARDS
● His understanding of moral problems
will be widened, as he becomes ● Not all rules are moral rules. That is,
acquainted with the thoughts of other not all standards are moral standards.
men upon problems of good and evil,
justice and injustice, virtue and vice, ● Morality may refer to the standards
the rights and duties of the individual that a person or a group has about
and of society. what is right and wrong, or good and
evil.
 Accordingly, moral standards are
those concerned with or relating to DILLEMA AND MORAL DILEMMA
human behavior, especially the
distinction between good and bad (or What is a Dillema?
right and wrong) behavior. - A dilemma is a situation where a
person is forced to choose between
moral standards - honesty , respect two or more conflicting options,
neither of which is acceptable.
● Non-moral standards refer to rules
that are unrelated to moral or ethical Example:
considerations. Either these standards
are not necessarily linked to morality Protect and preserve a virgin forest
or by nature lack ethical sense. Basic or
examples of non-moral standards Allow miners and loggers for economic
include rules of etiquette, fashion development
standards, rules in games, and various
house rules. Technically, religious rules, When dilemmas involve human actions which
some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. have moral implications, they are called
laws and ordinances) are nonmoral ethical or moral dilemmas.
principles, though they can be
ethically relevant depending on some Moral Dilemmas
factors and contexts. - are situations where persons, who are
Ex: called “moral agents” in ethics, are
Rules of etiquette forced to choose between two or more
conflicting options, neither of which
A. Moral standards involve serious resolves the situation in a morally
wrongs or significant benefits. acceptable manner.
B. Moral standards ought to be preferred
to other values. Lindsay is a deeply religious person;
C. Moral standards are not established hence, she considers killing humans
by authority figures. absolutely wrong. Unfortunately,
D. Moral standards have the trait of it is found out that Lindsay is having
universalizability an ectopic pregnancy.
E. Moral standards are based on
impartial considerations LINDSAY IS FACED WITH TWO
F. Moral standards are associated with CONFLICTING OPTIONS:
special emotions and vocabulary
Resort to Abortion
or
Does not Resort to Abortion

Three conditions that must be present in

moral dilemmas:
 1. The person or the agent of a moral of the sick old man?
action is obliged to make a decision
about which course of action is best. One option must be better than the other;
2. There must be different courses of only, it needs fuller knowledge
action to choose from. of the situation; thus, "EPISTEMIC"
3. No matter what course of action is
taken, some moral principles are Ontological moral dilemmas:
always compromised. - There are two or more moral
requirements that conflict
❖ Moral Dilemma with each other, yet neither of these
conflicting moral requirements
Moral Dillema overrides each other;
- In moral dilemmas, the “moral - Neither of the moral requirements is
agents” seems fated to commit stronger than the other; hence, the
something wrong, which implies that moral agent can hardly choose
she is bound to morally fail because in between the conflicting moral
one way or another she will fail to do requirements.
something which she ought to do. In
other words, by choosing one of the A military doctor is attending to the needs of
possible moral requirements, the the wounded soldiers in the middle of the
person also fails on others." war. Unfortunately, two soldiers urgently
-"Benjiemen Labastin”
need a blood transfusion. However, only one
bag of blood is available at the moment.
Types of Moral Dilemmas
To whom shall the doctor administer the
● Epistemic and ontological dilemmas;
blood transfusion?
● Self-imposed and world-imposed
dilemmas;
❖ SELF IMPOSED AND WORLD
● Obligation dilemmas and prohibition
IMPOSED DILEMMA
dilemmas;
● Single agent and multi-person
Self-imposed moral dilemma:
dilemmas.
- caused by the moral agent's
wrongdoings
Epistemic moral dilemmas
➢ There are two or more moral
World-imposed moral dilemma:
requirements that conflict with each
- Certain events in the world place the
other.
moral agent in a situation of moral
➢ The moral agent hardly knows which
conflict
one takes precedence over the other.
- William Styron

Epistemic and Ontological Dilemma

- Is an important purpose being served
by my getting home early?
- How serious is the condition
 "Sophie Zawistowska has obligation to care for his mother and the
been asked to choose
obligation to avenge his brother's death—he
which of her two children,
Eva or Jan, will be sent to
came to Sartre for advice. The philosopher
the gas chamber in told his student that there was no correct or
Auschwitz. An SS doctor, incorrect
Fritz Jemand von decision. Neither moral codes nor the
Niemand, will grant a
strength of his affections for one or the other
dispensation to only one of
her children. If she does party could determine what to do; rather, the
not choose which one student had to "invent" his own solution to
should live, Dr. von the problem.
Niemand will send both to
their death. Sophie
chooses her daughter Eva to go to the gas chamber.
SINGLE AGENT AND MULTI PERSON
Her son, Jan, is sent to the Children's Camp." DILEMMAS

Single agent dilemma

OBLIGATION AND PROHIBITION - The agent "ought, all things
DILEMMA considered to do A, ought, all things
considered, to do B,
Obligation dilemmas and she cannot do both A and B".
- More than one feasible action is
obligatory Multi-person dilemma:
- One agent, P1, ought to do A, a second
Prohibition dilemmas agent, P2, ought to do B, and though
- ALL feasible actions are forbidden each agent can do what he ought to
Example: Sophie's Choice do, it is not possible both for P1 to do
A and P2 to do B."
Sartre's Student (Classic example of Obligation
dilemma) The multi-person dilemma requires more than
choosing what is right; it also entails that the
Sartre uses the anecdote of a former persons involved reached a general
student's moral dilemma during World War II consensus.
to illustrate both the limits of making
decisions based on a defined moral code and THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA
the erroneousness Of ● Personal
blaming "passions" for people's actions. The ● Organizational
French students brother was killed in 1940 by ● Structural
the Germans, but his father nonetheless later
abandoned the family to collaborate with the PERSONAL Moral Dilemma
Germans. The student had to staying in - Are those experienced and
France with his mother, who "found her only resolved on the personal
comfort in him," and leaving to fight with the level.
Free French against the German occupation. - Example: Jean Paul Sarte (1957)
After realizing he was caught between moral
principles—family and nation, or the ORGANIZATIONAL Moral Dilemma
 - refer to ethical cases encountered and multi-sectoral institutions and
resolved by organizations, they may be larger in
social organizations. This scope and extent than organizational
category includes moral dilemmas in dilemmas.
business, medical field, and public - Structural in nature is that of Universal
sector. Health Care (UHC). Locally applied, it
is called "Kalusugan Pangkalahatan"
A medical institution which believes that (KP). It is the provision to every
human life should not be deliberately Filipino of the highest possible quality
shortened and that unpreventable pain of health care that is accessible,
should not be tolerated encounters a conflict efficient, equitably distributed,
in resolving whether to withdraw life support adequately funded, fairly financed,
from a dying patient. This is a common moral and appropriately used by an
dilemma faced by informed and empowered public. As a
healthcare organizations. government mandate, it intends to
ensure that every Filipino shall receive
● In a public sector, government leaders affordable and quality health benefits
and employees have a moral duty to by (ideally) providing adequate
act in a manner that is fair and resources - health human resources,
unbiased, that health facilities, and health financing.
is loyal to the public by putting public Concerning this program, health
interest before personal gain, and that financing is first and foremost a big
fulfills duties of competency, integrity, issue. Government could set aside
accountability, and transparency. bigger budget for health for the
implementation of this provision. But
● In fulfilling these responsibilities, then, this would mean cutting down
public officials may encounter allocations on other sectors (such as
foreseeable moral dilemmas. These education or public works.).
dilemmas include whether or not to
favor family, friends, or campaign SUMMARY
contributors over other constituents; ➢ Meaning of Ethics
favoring the agenda of one's political ➢ Types of Ethics(normative, metaethics
party over a policy one believes to be and applied ethics)
good for the community; dealing with ➢ Ethics And Morals
conflicting public duties inherent in ➢ Meaning And Importance Of Rules
serving both as a council member and ➢ Why Study Ethics
as a member of an agency or ➢ Moral Vs Non Moral Standards
commission.

STRUCTURAL Moral Dilemma ➢ Dilemma And Non Moral Dilemma

- Structural moral dilemmas refer to ➢ Types Of Moral Dilemma
cases involving network of institutions (epistemic and ontological, self and
and operative theoretical paradigms. world imposed,
As they. usually encompass
 obligation and prohibition, single
agent and multi person)
➢ Three Levels Of Dilemma (personal,
organizational and structural

EXPLANATION

Ethics

- Rules set by a profession or society.

Example: A lawyer follows a code of
ethics that requires client
confidentiality.

Morality:

- is the broader concept that

encompasses a person's entire system
of beliefs about right and wrong. It’s
the overall sense of ethics that guides
decisions and actions.
Example: Someone may feel it's
immoral to lie, even in small matters.

Morals:

- are the specific principles or standards

of behavior that an individual believes
in, such as honesty, kindness, or
loyalty. They are the "rules" a person
follows in their daily life based on what
they believe is right or wrong.
Example: A person may believe
honesty is a moral they should live by,
so they always tell the truth.
 Week 3 - Metaethics: Nature of Right and
Wrong

Is it wrong to steal to feed your family?

Is there such a thing as a good lie?

Metaethics asks questions as basic as:

➔ What is morality?
➔ What’s its nature?

Is it more like a preference, an opinion, or DID THE BURGLAR DO A GOOD

just a bunch of cultural conventions? THING?

● Like a scenario where you have to DOES HE DESERVE PRAISE, EVEN

steal food or lie for a good cause. THOUGH HE DIDN’T INTEND TO HELP
● What if you set out to harm someone, THE WOMAN?
but you ended up saving their life, by
accident? DOES HE STILL DESERVE BLAME, EVEN
THOUGH HE DIDN’T ACTUALLY GET
TYPES OF ETHICS AROUND TO STEALING ANYTHING AND
1. Normative Ethics (Perspective) ENDED UP SAVING THE WOMAN’S LIFE?
- Seek to set norms or standards
that regulate right and wrong Moral Realism
or good and bad conduct. - the belief that there are moral facts,
2. Metaethics (Descriptive) in the same way that there are
- Aims to understand the nature scientific facts.
and dynamics of ethical
principles and the way we learn GROUNDING PROBLEM
and acquire moral beliefs - The grounding problem of ethics is the
(summer 1967) search for a foundation for our moral
3. Applied Ethics beliefs, something solid that would
- Actual application of ethical or make them true in a way that is clear,
moral theories for the purpose objective, and unmoving.
for the purpose of deciding
which ethical or moral actions Moral Antirealism
are appropriate in a given - the belief that moral propositions
situation don't refer to objective features of the
Casuists - adherents of applied ethics world at all - that there are no moral
facts.
DIFFERENT FIELDS:
- Business Ethics
- Biomedical And Environmental Ethics
- Social Ethics
 Moral Frameworks
METAETHICS - These frameworks are known as
ethical theories. They’re moral
Moral Realism foundations that help you come up
- There are moral facts with consistent answers about right
1) Moral Absolutism and wrong conduct. All ethical theories
- There are absolute standards have some kind of starting
against which moral questions assumptions, which shouldn’t be
can be judged surprising, because really all of our
2) Moral Relativism beliefs rest on some basic, assumed
- More than one moral position beliefs.
on a given topic can be correct
Natural Law Theory
Cultural Relativism - relies on the starting assumption that
I. Descriptive cultural relativism - people's god created the universe according to
moral beliefs differ from culture to culture a well-ordered plan.

II. Normative cultural relativism - it's not

your beliefs, but moral facts themselves that
differ from culture to culture

Moral Antirealism
- There are no moral facts
1) Moral Subjectivism
- Moral statements can be true
and false - right or wrong - but
they refer only to people's
attitudes, rather than their
actions
On Aquinas’s view, a law is “a rule or
measure of human acts, whereby a person is
NORMATIVE CULTURAL induced to act or is restrained from acting”
- If every culture is the sole arbiter of (ST IaIIae 90.1).
What's right for it, that means no
Culture can actually be wrong. He describes a law as a “dictate of practical
- if what everyone is doing right now is reason emanating from a ruler” (ST IaIIae
right, relative to their own culture, then 91.1).
there's never any reason to change
anything. At a very general level, a law is a precept
- some people favor capital punishment, that serves as a guide to and measure of
and think it's just. others oppose it and human action.
think it's unjust. but it doesn't go any
deeper than that. there are no moral for Aquinas, a human action is good or bad
facts, only moral attitudes. depending on whether it conforms to
reason. In other words, reason is the
measure by which we evaluate human acts. UTILITARIANISM
Thus Aquinas thinks that the laws that
govern human action are expressive of Utilitarianism
reason itself (ST IaIIae 90.1). - relies on the starting assumption that
all beings share common desire to
Every law is ultimately derived from what he seek pleasure and avoid pain.
calls the eternal law (ST IaIIae
93.3). Utility
- An act is good or morally right if it
The “eternal law” refers to God’s promotes happiness, and bad or
providential ordering of all created things to immoral if it tends to produce pain.
their proper end. We participate in that Ex: Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill
divine order in virtue of the fact that God
creates in us both a desire for and an ability Key Principle => HAPPINESS
to discern what is good (he calls this A utilitarian would not care whether an
ability the “light of natural reason”). action is done out of deception, lie or
manipulation as long as it produces
According to Aquinas, “it is this participation maximum benefits to many people.
in the eternal law by the rational
creature that is called the natural law” (ST Example: Condemning a Terrorist
IaIIae 91.2; Cf. 93.6). - For the utilitarian, condemning a
terrorist is morally right because this
On this view, natural law is but an extension action produces equal benefits or
of the eternal law. For by it God greatest happiness to the greatest
ordains us to final happiness by implanting in number of people concerned.
us both a general knowledge of and
inclination for goodness. Christian Ethics
- Robinhood's act is immoral because it
Note here that the natural law is not an deprived the wealthy people of the
external source of authority. Nor is it a right that is due them.
general deontic norm from which more
specific precepts are inferred As Aquinas Utilitarianism
understands it, the natural law is a - Robinhood's act is morally good
fundamental principle that is weaved into the because it produces maximum
fabric of our nature. As such, it illuminates benefits, that is, greatest happiness, to
and gives us a desire for those goods the majority of the people.
that facilitate the kind of flourishing proper
to human beings (ST IaIIae 94.3).
Week 4: ETHICS AND THE HUMAN PERSON with others play a significant role in
our ethical development. Our
interactions with family, friends, and
WHY HUMANS ARE MORAL BEING? community members shape our
values, beliefs, and sense of
ONLY HUMAN BEINGS CAN BE ETHICAL obligation.
● Only human being can be rational,
autonomous, and logical ● Emotional Nature: Emotions play a
crucial role in ethical decision-making.
1) Rational - reasonable or logical Empathy, compassion, and other
2) Autonomous - acting in accordance emotions can motivate us to act
with one’s moral duty rather than ethically, while negative emotions
one’s desires such as anger or fear can lead to
3) Logical - formally true or valid unethical Behavior.

● Only human being can act morally or ● Spiritual Nature: For many people,
immorally their spiritual beliefs and values
Ex: People sacrifice their good for the sake of provide a framework for ethical living.
others are owed greater concern from those Religious traditions often offer
that benefit from such sacrifices. guidance on how to live a moral life,
including principles such as love,
● Only human beings are part of the compassion, and justice.
moral community.
Ex: Member Relationship ● Physical Nature: Our physical bodies
and our relationship with the natural
́Ethics, the study of moral principles that world also influence our ethical beliefs
guide human behavior, is deeply intertwined and actions. Some ethical theories
with our understanding of the human emphasize the importance of caring
person. Our unique qualities as individuals, for the environment and preserving
our relationships with others, and our place in the planet for future generations.
the world all shape our ethical beliefs and
Actions. Ethical Theories and the Human Person:

● Rationality and Free Will: Humans ● Virtue Ethics: This theory focuses on
are often seen as rational beings developing virtuous character, which
capable of making involves cultivating positive qualities
conscious choices and decisions. This such as honesty, courage, and
capacity for reason and free will is compassion. It emphasizes the
central to ethical thinking, as it allows importance of living a good life and
us to weigh different options, consider being a good person.
consequences, and justify our actions.
Example of Virtue Ethics: The Case of the
● Social Nature: Humans are inherently Honest Shopkeeper
social creatures, and our relationships
A shopkeeper is faced with a dilemma. A often focuses on universal principles such as
customer purchases a valuable item and respect for human dignity and the
accidentally leaves behind a large sum of categorical imperative.
money. The shopkeeper notices the forgotten
money and has the opportunity to keep it for Examples of deontological principles:
himself. However, the shopkeeper knows that Telling the truth: Deontologists often argue
it is the right thing to return the money to the that it is always wrong to lie, even if doing so
customer. could prevent harm.

Analysis through Virtue Ethics: Keeping promises: Individuals have a moral

According to virtue ethics, the shopkeeper's duty to keep their promises, even if it is
decision should be based on his or her inconvenient or costly.
character traits. A virtuous person would be
honest, trustworthy, and fair. In this case, Respecting the rights of others:
honesty is the relevant virtue. Deontologists emphasize the importance of
respecting the rights of others, such as the
Honesty: A virtuous shopkeeper would be right to life, liberty, and property.
honest and return the money to the customer,
even though it would be tempting to keep it. Utilitarianism: This theory focuses on
maximizing happiness and minimizing
Character development: By choosing to suffering. It argues that the morally right
return the money, the shopkeeper is action is the one that produces the greatest
reinforcing the virtue of honesty and good for the greatest number of
developing a good character. people. Utilitarianism often emphasizes the
importance of considering the consequences
Wisdom and discernment: The shopkeeper of our actions and promoting the
must use wisdom and discernment to well-being of others.
recognize the importance of honesty in this
situation, even if it means sacrificing a Examples of utilitarian reasoning:
personal gain. Public health policies: Utilitarians often
support public health policies that promote
Conclusion: In this example, virtue ethics the well-being of the population, even if they
would guide the shopkeeper to return the involve restrictions on individual freedoms.
forgotten money, demonstrating honesty and
integrity. The decision is not based on rules or Economic decisions: Utilitarians may argue
consequences, but on the shopkeeper's that economic decisions should be made
character and commitment to virtuous living. based on their potential benefits to society
as a whole, rather than on the interests of
Deontology: This theory emphasizes duty individuals.
and obligation. It argues that certain actions
are inherently right or wrong, regardless of Animal welfare: Utilitarians often support
their consequences. Deontological ethics animal welfare measures, as
they believe that animals can experience
pleasure and suffering.
 FREEDOM AS A FOUNDATION OF OUR How do you see the society if there is an
MORALITY unlimited freedom?

FREEDOM Chaos and Anarchy: Without any limits or

➢ The power or right to act, speak , or constraints, individuals could pursue their
think as one wants without hindrance own desires without considering the needs or
or restraint. rights of others. This could lead to a
➢ Right to choose even in different from breakdown of social order and a state of
others; chaos.

́Freedom, as a fundamental human value, Tyranny and Oppression: While unlimited

plays a crucial role in ethical freedom might seem desirable, it could also
decision-making. It allows individuals to lead to the emergence of powerful
choose their own paths, pursue their goals, individuals or groups who exploit their
and live according to their own beliefs. freedom to oppress others. This could create
However, freedom is not without its a situation where the few dominate the
challenges. It can also lead to conflicts, many.
inequalities, and harmful behaviors.
Loss of Community and Cooperation:
Morality is a question of choice. Morality, Unlimited freedom could erode the social
practically, is choosing ethical codes, values, bonds and cooperation that are essential for
or standards to guide us in our daily lives. a functioning society. Individuals might
become so focused on their own interests
Philosophically, choosing is impossible that they neglect the needs of others.
without freedom.
Environmental Destruction: Without any
Morality requires and allows choice, which limits on individual actions, people could
means the right to choose even differently exploit natural resources and pollute the
from our fellows. environment without consequence. This could
lead to severe environmental degradation
In their daily lives, people make the choice to and a decline in quality of life.
give to charities, donate time and money to
schools, mentor children, open businesses, or Erosion of Human Rights: Unlimited
protest against animal cruelty. Everyone who freedom could lead to a disregard for the
wishes to function morally and rationally in a basic rights and freedoms of individuals. For
society has to make choices virtually every example, people might be able to infringe on
minute of the day. the rights of others without facing any
consequences.

It's important to note that limited freedom is

often considered a balance between
individual liberty and social order. By setting
boundaries and rules, societies can protect
the rights of individuals while also
maintaining a functioning and peaceful Impartiality involves the idea that each
community. individuals interest and point of view are
equally important also called
evenhandedness or fair-mindedness.
Impartiality is a principle of justice holding
Reason and Impartiality that decisions ought to be based on objective
The late Philosophy professor James Rachels criteria rather that bias or prejudice.
(1941-2003) holds that moral judgments must
be backed by sound reasoning and that Impartiality requires us to set aside our
morality requires the impartial consideration own biases, prejudices, and self-interest
of all parties involved (Rachels, 1999). It is when making moral judgments. It helps us
thus submitted that reason and impartiality to view situations from different perspectives
compose the "minimum conception" of and consider the interests of others.
morality or, as some put it, the minimum
requirement for morality. Reason and Impartiality helps us to treat all individuals
impartiality are two fundamental with equal respect and consideration.
principles that guide ethical decision-
making and shape our understanding of Impartiality requires us to recognize the
human beings as ethical beings. inherent dignity and worth of all human
beings, regardless of their differences. It
Reason as a requirement for morality entails helps us to promote equality and prevent
that human feelings may be important in discrimination.
ethical decisions, but they ought to be guided
by reason. Sound reasoning helps us to Scenario: The Lost Wallet
evaluate whether our feelings and intuitions You are walking down a busy street when you
about moral cases are correct and notice a wallet lying on the sidewalk. Upon
defensible. examining it, you find that it contains a large
sum of money, identification cards, and
Reason enables us to think critically, analyze credit cards. What should you do with the
information, and make informed judgments. wallet?
It allows us to weigh different options, Option 1: Keep the wallet. You could keep
consider consequences, and justify our the money and other valuables for yourself.
choices. This option might seem tempting, especially
Reason helps us to ensure that our moral if you are in financial need.
beliefs and actions are consistent and Option 2: Return the wallet to the owner.
coherent. It prevents us from making You could try to locate the owner using the
arbitrary or contradictory judgments. identification information in the wallet. This
option is morally upright, but it
Reason allows us to formulate moral might be time-consuming and require effort.
principles that can be applied universally to
all individuals in similar situations. This helps
to ensure that our ethical judgments are fair
and impartial. Option 3: Turn the wallet in to the police.
You could take the wallet to the nearest
police station and report the lost item. The
police can then try to locate the owner.

Ethical Considerations:
Honesty: Keeping the wallet would be
dishonest and violates moral principles.

Responsibility: You have a moral

responsibility to return the wallet to its
rightful owner.

Self-interest: Keeping the wallet might

benefit you financially, but it could also lead
to guilt and negative consequences.

Impartiality: You should consider the

situation from the perspective of the wallet's
owner and act in a way that is fair and just.

Which option would you choose and why?

 Week 5 AND 6 : THE DETERMINANTS vagueness of personal relationships
OF MORALITY HUMAN PERSON AS and moral choices, as well as for the
SITUATED BEING contemporaries charge that
traditional ethics is frustrating in its
formalism and concentration on acts
MORALITY instead of person.
- Is the quality of human acts which ➔ God as Perfectly Good
leads us to call some of them good
and some of them bad. The Determinants of Morality
- From the latin word “MORALITAS” Human acts relate to the norm under the
meaning manner, character or proper following aspects:
behavior.
(a) in itself, that is, as a deed
THE FOUNDATIONS OF MORAL LIFE (b) in its motive, and
● Man (c) in its circumstances
● The Human other
● God

MAN Paul Glenn refers to these aspects as the

object, the end, and the circumstances. These
Who is man? What is man? three aspects are called the determinants of
morality because they determine how an act
a. For Aristotle and the scholastics, man is is rendered good or bad on the basis of its
rational animal. relation with the norm.

b. Msgr. Fulton Sheen compares him to a

three level structure the 1st level is ■ Ancient thinkers have given us the axiom:
his body, 2nd level is his soul and the 3rd level “Bonum ex integra causa, malum ex
is his sprit quocumque defectu”. This means that a thing
is good if it has fullness of its parts and it is
c. Traditional philosophy presents the soul as bad when it is deficient in any of its integral
composed of the intellect and will parts.

d. For Teilhard de Chardin, Man is a ■ A human act is good when it is good in

Phenomenon “a very special phenomenon.” itself, in its motive or purpose, and in its
circumstances. A defect coming from any of
these aspects renders an act morally
The Human Other and GOD objectionable. In other words like the human
anatomy, an act must have the perfection of
➔ Today when so much conflict is going its parts.
on in the world due to violations of
human rights, a review of the ■ Helping the needy is a good action taken in
traditionalists’ charge that itself. It may become bad if the motive of
contemporary ethics is weak In its person doing the act is not honourable, such
as that of merely impressing friends that one earlier that natural law is the tendency of
is kind hearted. This illustrates how a morally man to actualize his potentials as a rational
good action may become morally creature: to be a person. Any act which
objectionable on account of the motive of the prevents man from realizing his true worth as
doer. a person is intrinsically evil. Murder, robbery,
rape, adultery, lies, and slavery are examples
of actions that contradict the demands of
I. The Act in Itself reason for justice, truth, and decency. These
actions are evil, not only because they cause
To consider an act in itself is to regard its unjust harm and sufferings to others, but
nature. An act, of course, is not Simply a above all they dehumanize their
mental or bodily activity requiring an perpetrators, reducing them to the level of
expenditure of energy. beasts

An act is a physical tendency towards a “Extrinsic” implies a quality which is

definite result. This result we had earlier superficially added to a thing in a manner
identified as the end of the act (finis operis) that a coat of paint covers the surface of a
as distinguished from the end of the agent wall without modifying the essentiality of the
(finis operantis) which is synonymous with wood constituting the wall. An act which in
the motive of the doer. itself is not evil but is made evil nonetheless
on account of something else is called an
In the physical sense, some actions are bad extrinsic evil.
because they produce such evils as pain,
hunger, illness or death. According to Fr. Panizo, an extrinsic evil act is
that which, although good or indifferent in
In the moral sense, actions are bad because itself, is however prohibited by a human law
they disturb the harmony within the acting (Ethics: 5) : Example of extrinsic evil act is
person. They are “unfit” to the natural and that of eating meat by Catholics on the
spiritual tendencies of the human soul. Fridays of lent, or, the giving of alms to
beggars as prohibited by law in Manila.
Moral evils also produce physical harm and
damage of oneself and others. But they are II. The Motive of the Act
moral evils because what they destroy is the
innate goodness, the image of God, in our The Motive of an act is the purpose which the
human nature. Thus, we say that all moral doer wishes to achieve by such action. It is
evils are those that o against the natural law. what gives direction and motivation to an
act. It comes first in the mind as intention
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Evil and occurs last in the action as its
culmination or fulfilment. Without a motive,
"Intrinsic" implies a quality inherent in a an act is meaningless, an accident.
thing. Thus, an intrinsic evil act is an act
which is evil by its nature. An intrinsic evil act The assumption is for the motive to be good.
is one which by its nature, that is, by its A good motive is one which is in accordance
functional purpose, is wrongful. We have said with truth, justice, prudence, and
temperance. It is bad motive that which 1) An evil act which is done on account of
grows from selfishness because such motive an evil motive is grievously wrong. A
provokes actions detrimental to others. Thus youngster who steals from his parents
in the Old Testament, a good man is called a in order to buy “shabu” for himself is
just man. He acts rightly out to respect for committing a grievous wrong to
himself and out his concern for others. himself and his parents.

“The End Does not Justify the Means” 2) A good action done on account of an
evil motive becomes evil itself. The
To the doer, an act is a means for achieving Executive who give a job to a lady
an aim or purpose. We, for instance study in applicant in order to seduce her later
order to acquire knowledge to pass the makes his kindness immoral because
course to receive a degree, and to qualify for of his evil intentions.
a job. It is, however, wrong to attempt at a
good purpose by dubious or evil mean. A 3) A good action done on account of a
student may not cheat in an exam in order to good purpose acquires an additional
graduate; an employee may not fake his merit. The father who foregoes his
documents in order to be promoted to a job; expensive hobby in order to send his
the public official may not accept bribe in children to school shows a deeper
order to finance health center, and an concern for the welfare of his loved
impoverished father may not steal in order to ones.
feed his family. The axiom – “the end (motive)
does not justify the means ( action)”, means 4) An indifferent act may either become
that the worthiness of purpose does not good or bad depending on the motive.
make an evil act good. Opening the door of a house is an
indifferent act. But the servant who in
connivance with the thieves, opens the
door of the house of his master, does a
wrongful act

● On the other hand, opening the door in

order to give alms to a beggar is a
good act.

III. Circumstances of the Act

An act is an event. It happens in a definite

time and place. It is accompanied by certain
elements which contribute to the nature and
accountability of such act.
Paul Glenn gives us the following insights on
the effects of the motive on the action. In law, we speak of mitigating or
aggravating factors affecting a criminal act.
Morality also takes into
account the circumstances surrounding an Where refers to be the circumstances of
act. These circumstances are who, what, place where the act is committed. Rape done
where, with whom, why, how, and where, inside a church is more scandalous than that
which is done in the privacy of a house.
1. Who refers primarily to the dower of the Murder done before a crowd is more heinous
act. At times, it also refers to the receiver of than that which is done in an isolated place.
the act. This circumstances includes the age,
status, relation family background, With whom refers to the companion or
educational attainment, health and accomplices in an act performed. This
socio-economic situation of the person includes the number and status if the persons
involved in an act. involved the more people are involved in the
commission of an act, the greater and more
Observations: serious is the crime.
A) The moron, the insane, the senile and the
children below the age of reason are Why refers to the motive of the doer. We
considered incapable of voluntary acts and, have discussed this earlier.
therefore, are exempted from moral
accountability. But actions against these How refers to the manner how the act is
persons are normally regarded most cruel made possible. Was the killing accomplished
dues to their helplessness defending with deceit? Was it done by the use of
themselves. torture? How an act is performed contributes
to the malice of an act
B) Persons with higher educational
attainment are presumed to know “better” When refers to the time of the act. A murder
than those with little education. Accordingly, committed when the victim is sleeping is
their liability is higher indeed, “to whom more offensive than the one done when the
much is given, much expected”. victim is wide awake.

C) Persons vested with authority have higher Observations

accountability than those who merely follow
their order or command. This is the meaning 1. Circumstances may either increase or
of “command responsibility” which makes a decrease the wrongfulness of an evil act. The
superior or official accountable for the killing of innocent people in the case of
actuation of those under his authority. terrorist exploding a bomb inside a
commercial plane constitutes a serious crime.
What refers to the act itself and to the On the other hand, by contrast, killing
quality and quantity of the result of such act. someone who has long oppressed the
The graveness of robbery, for instance, is assailant is less wrongful. Nonetheless, the
measured by what is stolen and by how much act remains evil, because no one may take
is stolen. Likewise, the relative importance of the law in his own hands even for purposes of
a murdered victim determines the avenging oneself.
seriousness of such crime.
2. Circumstances also may either increase or
decrease the merits of a good act. Helping
another at the risk of one’s own life is greatly ● Human acts then are acts that man
meritorious. Helping another for purposes of does as a man that which he is
publicity lessens the merits of charity. properly master

3. Some Circumstances may alter the nature Full Knowledge + Own Will = Human Act
of an act. Such is the case with many crimes.
Thus, the act of committing a holdup is Act of Man
different from the simple act of stealing. The
holdup presupposes the use of threat or Acta Hominis in Latin, act done without
violence. Whereas stealing implies stealth or knowledge, consent and freedom. those are
deception. acts man performs without being master of
them through his intellect and will
Human Acts and Acts of Man ● Acts of man are not concerns in moral
since they are involuntary
"MADALING
MAGING TAO, ● The natural acts of vegetative and
MAHIRAP sense faculties: digestion, beating of
MAGPAKATAO." the heart, corporal growth, reactions,
and visual or auditive perceptions.
What makes an action human in nature?
This acts become Human acts when
What is it to be human? performed under the direction of the will.
Intend to look or to arouse yourself.
Human Act
● Acts of persons who lack the use of
● Humana Acta in Latin , an act done such as reason, children or insane
with knowledge, consent and freedom. persons.
Knowingly, willingly and freely. ● Acts of people who are asleep or
under the influence of hypnosis,
● Knowledge_ the agents understand alcohol, or other drugs.
what he or she is doing and can
explain why is it done. I ate because I In this case however there may still be some
am hungry. degree of control by the will moreover there
is indirect responsibility of the cause of the
● Consent- the agent acknowledges that loss of control is voluntary. So if you think you
the act is done because he wanted to, can use drunkenness as an escape, there is a
so he voluntarily decided to. I ate culpability in you.
because I really wanted to and so I
do. ● Quick, nearly automatic reactions,
called primo- primi acts.
● Freedom- the agent is not under the ● reflex and nearly instantaneous
influence of external forces, the act reactions, in which the will does not
was done under compulsive. I ate not have time to intervene.
because my mother force me to.
 ● Acts performed under violence or
threat of violence.
● includes physical or moral violence.

Intellect + Will = Human

● Intellect: capacity to know what is true

● Will: capacity to decide and pursue
what is good

"MADALING
MAGPAKATAO,
KUNG ALAM MO KUNG
ANO ANG MAGING TAO."