CONTENTS

SL.NO. EXPT/STUDY DESCRIPTION

PAGE

MODULE-I

1. Introduction & Scope

2. Units & Measurements
3. Properties of Fluids
4. Experiment on Pipe Friction apparatus
5. Study of Rotameter
6. Study of Water Meter
7. Study of Venturimeter
8. Experiment on Venturimeter

MODULE-II

9. Study of Orifice
10. Experiment on Orifice
11. Study of Metacentric height apparatus
12. Experiment on Metacentric height apparatus
MODULE-III
13. Study of Notches
14. Experiment on Rectangular Notch
15. Experiment on Triangular Notch
16. Experiment on Trepezoidal Notch
17. Study of Bernoulli”s Theorem apparatus
18. Verification of Bernoullli”s Theorem
MODULE-IV
19. Study of Pipe Fittings
20. Study of Valves & cocks
21. Minor Losses in Pipe Flow
 INTRODUCTION & SCOPE
Matter exists in either the solid state or the fluid state. The fluid state is
further divided into the liquid and the gaseous states.
A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing. A liquid is a fluid,
which possesses definite volume which varies slightly with temperature
and pressure. Under ordinary conditions, liquids are considered as
incompressible fluid.
Fluid mechanics is that the branch of Engg. science which deals with the
behavior of the fluids at rest as well as in motion. In general the scope of
fluid mechanics is very wide which includes the study of all gases and
liquids.

Fluid mechanics deals with the analysis and methods to solve many
engineering problems involving liquid flow, such as flow through pipes or
channels, storage dams, pumps and water turbines, hydraulically operated
machines such as lift, crane, press etc. Hence it is essential for the
engineering students of Civil, Mechanical, and allied branches of
engineering to understand the theoretical and practical aspects of fluid
mechanics.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1. Density
The density or mass density of a fluid may be defined as the mass per unit
volume at a standard temperature and pressure. It is usually denoted by ρ
Mass
Mathematically ρ =
Volume

It is expressed in kg/m3. Density of water at 40c=1000kg/m3

2. Specific weight of water

The specific weight or weight density of a fluid may be defined as the weight per
unit volume at standard temperature and pressure and is usually denoted by

Weight

volume

It is expressed in N/m3
Specific weight of water = 9.81 KN/m3
3. Specific gravity
Specific gravity of a fluid may be defined as the ratio of its specific weight to that of a
standard substance at a standard temperature. It is generally denoted by „S‟ and it is a
unitless quantity.

Specific weight of the fluid

S=
Specific weight of standard fluid

In the case of liquids the standard fluid chosen is water and for gases it is air.

4. Compressibility

Compressibility of a fluid may defined as the variation in its volume with the
variation of pressure. Normally liquid is considered to be an incompressible fluid.

5. Surface tension

Surface tension of a fluid is its property, which enables it to resist tensile stress.
It is due to cohesion between the molecules at the surface of a liquid. It‟s unit is N/m.
6. Capillarity

Capillarity may be defined as rise or fall of a liquid in a tube. The phenomenon of

rising water in a tube of smaller diameter is called capillary rise.

7. Viscosity

Viscosity is defined as the resistance offered by one layer of fluid against the
adjacent layer of that fluid or it is a property of a fluid which opposes the flow. It‟s unit
is NS/m2.

There are two types of Viscosity-dynamic Viscosity or(simply viscosity) and

kinematic viscosity. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio between dynamic viscosity to the
density of the fluid. It‟s unit is square meter per second.
Ex. No. 1
Date:

EXPERIMENT ON PIPE FRICTION APPARATUS

Aim: To determine the co-efficient of friction (Darcy‟s constant) „f‟
for Pipes of different diameters and plot the H.G.L and T.E.L

Objectives :Under Stand the pipe friction apparatus and use it to determine
the Darcy‟s constant.

Apparatus: (1) A differential manometer

(2) Different diameter pipes with tappings of manometer at a known
distance.
(3) Inlet and outlet valves
(4) Pressure tappings cocks
(5) Stop watch
(6) Collecting tank fitted with piezometer tube.

Principle: When a fluid flows through a pipe, certain resistance is offered to the
flowing fluid, which results causing loss of energy. W.Froude
conducted a series of experiments to investigate frictional resistance
offered to the flowing water by different surfaces. From the results of
his experiments Froude derived the following conclusions.

1. The frictional resistance varies approximately with the square of the

velocity
2. The frictional resistance varies with the nature of the surface

In the study of flow of fluid in pipes, The concept of HGL & TEL are
quite useful. HGL is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure
head and datum head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some
reference line. TEL is the line which gives the total head ( Z+ ) of a
flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to the reference line. TEL will be
parallel to HGL with a vertical distance of .

According to Darcy‟s equation,

hf =
Where hf = head lost due to friction in m of H2O

= ( )
Where x = monometer deflection = x2 –x1 in m of Hg
Sm = Sp .gravity of Hg.
Sw = Sp .gravity of water.
f = co-efficient of friction (Darcy‟s constant)
l = length of pipe between the pressure tappings in m
v = velocity of flow = m/s
 Where Q = Actual Discharge
a = area of the pipe. In m2
Q= m3/s

Where A = Area of measuring tank in m2

R = rise in water level in the collecting tank in m.

t = time taken for the rise in sec

a =

Where d = dia of the pipe in m

 f =

Procedure (Instructional mode)

(1) Note the pipe diameter (d), length of the pipe (l)
(2) Make sure only required water regulator valves and required
valves at tappings connected to manometer are opened
(3) Start the pump and adjust the control valve just enough to make
fully developed flow but laminar flow. wait for sometime so that flow
is stabilized
(4) Measure the manometer deflection „x‟ across the pressure tappings
(5) Close the outlet valve of the collecting tank and record the time „t‟
taken for rise in water level „R‟ in the collecting tank by using a stop
watch.
(6) Change the pressure tappings to pipes of different diameters an
repeat the steps 1 to 5.
(7) Tabulate readings and calculate of:
Result : 1) Darcy‟s constant (f) for
Pipe No.1 =
Pipe No.2 =
Pipe No.3 =
Inference:
 Observation and Tabulation
A. For pipe No.1:
Dia of the pipe (d) =
Length of the pipe (l) =
Dimensions of collecting tank:
L= B=
Rise in water level in the measuring tank (R) =

Time Manometer
hf
t readings Co-efficient
Sl. velocity
for Rm x1 x2 x Qa of friction
No. (v)
rise in f
C/T
Units Sec m m m m m3/8 m/s
1
2
3
4
5
6

B. For pipe No.2:

Dia of the pipe (d) =

Length of the pipe (l) =
Dimensions of collecting tank:
L= B=
Rise in water level in the measuring tank (R) =

Time Manometer
hf
t readings Co-efficient
Sl. velocity
for Rm x1 x2 x Qa of friction
No. (v)
rise in f
C/T
Units Sec m m m m m3/8 m/s
1
2
3
4
5
6
 C. For pipe No.3:
Dia of the pipe (d) =
Length of the pipe (l) =
Coll. tank dim.
L= B=
Rise in water level in the measuring tank (R) =

Time Manometer
hf
t readings Co-efficient
Sl. velocity
for Rm x1 x2 x Qa of friction
No. (v)
rise in f
C/T
Units Sec m m m m m3/8 m/s
1
2
3
4
5
6

Sample calculation (Pipe.No......................)

Dia of the pipe (d) =
Length of the pipe (l)
Dimensions of collecting tank,
L= B=
Area of the measuring tank (A) = LxB
=
Rise in water level in the collecting tank (R)=
Time taken for the rise in water (t) =

Actual Discharge (Q) =

Area of the pipe (a) =

Velocity of flow in the pie (v) =

Manometer deflection (x) = X2 - X1

head lost due to friction (hf) = x( - l)

Co-efficient of friction (f) =

 STUDY OF ROTAMETER
The rotameter also known as variable-area meter is shown in Fig. It
consists of a vertical transparent conical tube in which there is a rotor or
float having a sharp circular upper edge. The rotor has grooves on its
head which ensure that as liquid flows past; it causes the rotor to rotate
about its axis. The rotor is heavier than the liquid and hence it will sink
to the bottom of the tube when the liquid is at rest. But as the liquid
begins to flow through the meter, it lifts the rotor until it reaches a steady
level corresponding to the discharge. This rate of flow of liquid can then
be read from graduations engraved on the tube by prior calibration, the
sharp edge of the float serving as a pointer. The rotating motion of the
float helps to keep it steady. In this condition of equilibrium, the
hydrostatic and dynamic thrusts of the liquid on the underside of the
rotor will be equal to the hydrostatic thrust on the upper side, plus the
apparent weight of the rotor.
 STUDY OF WATER METER
Water meters are used to measure the volume of water used by
residential and commercial building that are supplied with water by a
public water supply system. Water meters can also be used at the water
source, well, or throughout a water system to determine flow through a
particular portion of the system. In most of the world water meters
measure flow in cubic metres(m3) or litres but in the USA and some
other countries water meters are calibrated in cubic feet (ft.) or US
gallons on a mechanical or electronic register. Some electronic meter
registers can display rate-of-flow in addition to total usage.

TYPES OF METERING DEVICES

There are two common approches to flow measurement, displacement

and velocity, each making use of a variety of technologies. Common
displacement designs include oscillating piston and nutating disc
meters. Velocity-based designs include single-and multi-jet meters and
turbine meters.

There are also non-mechanical designs, for example electromagnetic

and ultrasonic meters, and meters designed for special uses. Most
meters in a typical water distribution system are designed to measure
cold potable water only. Special hot water meters are designed with
materials that can withstand higher temperatures. Meters for reclaimed
water have special lavender register covers to signify that the water
should not be used for drinking.

Water meters are generally owned, read and maintained by a public

water provider such as a city, rural water association or private water
company. In some cases an owner of a mobile home park, apartment
complex or commercial building may be billed by a utility based on the
reading of one meter, with the costs shared among the tenants based
on some sort of key (size of flat, number of inhabitants or by separately
tracking the water consumption of each unit in what is called
submetering).
 STUDY OF VENTURI METER
A venturi meter is a device which is used for measuring the rate of flow
of fluid through a pipe. The principle of the venturi meter was first
demonstrated in 1797 by an Italian physicist G.B. Venturi (1746-1822),
but the principle was first applied, by C. Herschel (1842-1930) in 1887,
to develop the device in its present form for measuring the discharge or
the rate of flow of fluid through pipes. The basic principle on which a
venturi meter works is that by reducing the cross-sectional area of the
flow passage, a pressure difference is created and the measurement of
the pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge
through the pipe.

As shown in Fig. venturi meter consists of (1) an inlet section

followed by a convergent cone, (2) a cylindrical throat, and (3) a
gradually divergent cone. The inlet section of the venturi meter is of the
same diameter as that of the pipe which is followed by a convergent
cone. The convergent cone is a short pipe which tapers from the original
size of the pipe to that of the throat of the venturi meter. The throat of
the venturi meter is a short parallel-sided tube having its cross-sectional
area smaller than that of the pipe. The divergent cone of the venturi
meter is a gradually diverging pipe with its cross-sectional area
increasing area increasing from that of the throat to the original size of
the pipe. At the inlet section and the throat i.e., sections 1 and 2 of the
venturi meter, pressure taps are provided to connect a differential
manometer or pressure gauges.

The convergent cone of a venturi meter has a total included angle of 21

±10 and its length parallel to the axis is approximately equal to 2.7 (D-d),
where D is the diameter of the inlet section and d is the diameter of the
throat.

The length of the throat is equal to d. The divergent cone has a total
included angle lying between 50 to 150, (preferably about 60). This
results in the convergent cone of the venturi meter to be of smaller
length than its divergent cone. This is so because from the
consideration of the continuity equation it is obvious that in the
convergent cone the fluid is being accelerated from the inlet section 1
to the throat section 2, but in the divergent cone the fluid is retarded
from the throat section 2 to the end section 3 of the venturi meter. The
acceleration of the flowing fluid may be allowed to take place rapidly in a
relatively small length, without resulting in appreciable loss of energy.
 However, if the retardation of flow is allowed to take place rapidly in
small length, then the flowing fluid will not remain in contact with the
boundary of the diverging flow passage or in other words the flow
separates from the walls, and eddies are formed which in turn result in
excessive energy loss. Therefore, in order to avoid the possibility of flow
separation and the cosequent energy loss, the divergent cone of the
venturi meter is made longer with a gradual divergence. Since the
separation of flow may occurs in the divergent cone of the venturi meter,
this portion is not used for discharge measurement.

Since the cross- sectional area of the throat is smaller than the cross-
sectional area of the inlet section, the velocity of flow at the throat will
become greater than that at the inlet section, according to the continuity
equation. The increase in the velocity of flow at the throat results in the
decrease in the pressure at this section as explained earlier. As such a
pressure difference is developed between the inlet section and the
throat of the venturi meter. The pressure difference between these
sections can be determined either by connecting a differential
manometer between the pressure taps provided at these sections or by
connecting a separate pressure gauges at each of the pressure taps.
The measurement of the pressure difference between these sections
enables the rate of flow of fluid to be calculated. For a greater accuracy
in the measurement of the pressure difference the cross-sectional area
of the throat should be reduced considerably, so that the pressure at the
throat is very much reduced. But if the cross-sectional area of the throat
of a venturi meter is reduced so much that the pressure at this section
drops below the vapour pressure of the flowing liquid, then the following
liquid may vapourise and vapour pockets or bubbles may be formed in
the liquid at this section.

Further liquids ordinarily contain some dissolved air which is released as

the pressure is reduced and it too may form air pockets in the liquid. The
formation of the vapour and air pockets in the liquid ultimately results in
a phenomenon called cavitation , which is not desirable. Therefore, in
order to avoid the phenomenon of caviation to occur, the diameter of the
throat can be reduced only upto a certain limited value which is
restricted on account of the above noted factors. In general, the
diameter of the throat may vary from 1/3 to 3/4 of the pipe diameter
and more commonly the diameter of the throat is kept equal to ½ of the
pipe diameter.
Ex. No
Date :

EXPERIMENT ON VENTURIMETER
Aim:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge of the given venturimeter and
plot the graph, Qa Vs h
Objectives : To appreciate the venturimeter and its co-efficient of discharge.

Apparatus:
1. Venturimeter with differential manometer.
2. Measuring tank
3. Stop watch

Principle :
Venturimeter is a device based on Bernoulli‟s theorem, used to measure
discharge of water flowing through a pipe.
Co- efficient of discharge of a Venturimeter is the ratio between actual and
theoretical discharge.
√
theoretical discharge Qth =
√

where a1 = area at inlet

a2 = area at throat
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = venturi head (ie, difference of pressure heads between inlet and
throat)
=x( ) where x = deflection of mercury in the limbs of the

manometer,
s2 and s1 = specific gravities of mercury and water
Actual discharge „Qa‟ = ⁄ A = Area of c/T in m2
R = Level rise in c/T m
t = time for Rm level rise in C/T
Cd =
Procedure
1.Note the dimensions of the venturimeter.(inlet dia & throat dia) .
2. Open the bypass valve and outlet valve fully and start the pump.
3. Close the bypass valve such that some water is flowing through the venturimeter.
4. Note the manometer deflection (x) and time (t) taken to Rm level rise in C/T.
5.Repeat the steps 3 to 4 for different rates of flow of water through the venturimeter.
6.Tabulate the readings (x and t) and calculate the co-efficient of discharge.
Result
Co – efficient of discharge of the given venturimeter =
Inference
 OBSERVATION AND TABULATION
Dia at the inlet (d1) =
Dia at the throat (d2) =
Dimensions of collecting tank: L = B=

Venturi Time
Sl. Manometer
head taken for Actual Theor. Coeff.
No. Readings
x m rise discharge Discharge Discharge
L R Deflection x( ) In coll. Qa Qt cd
h1 – h2 tank
h1 h2 x h t

m m m m Sec ⁄ ⁄ --

Sample calculation (Reading No….)

Dia at inlet (d1) =
Area at inlet (a1) =

Dia at throat (d2) =

Area at throat (a2) =
Manometer readings, h1 = h2
Manometer delflection (x) = h1 – h2

Venturi head (h) = x( )

Taking g = 9.81 m/s2

√
Theoretical discharge Qt =
√

Area of Coll. Tank A = L x B =

Rise of water level
in the coll. tank x =
Time Taken for x m level rise in C/T, t =

Actual discharge „Qa‟ =

=
Cd = =
 STUDY OF ORIFICE
Orifice: An orifice is an opening having a closed perimeter, made in the
walls or the bottom of a tank or a vessal containing fluid through which the
fluid may be discharged.

Types of Orifices
Orifices may be classified on the basis of their size, shape, shape of the
upstream edge and the discharged conditions.

1. According to the size

(a) Large orifice
(b) Small orifice
2. According to the Shape
(a) Circular orifice
(b) Rectangular orifice
(c) Triangular orifice
(d) Square orifice
3. According to the shape of the upstream edges
(a) Sharp edged orifice
(b) Bell-mouthed orifice
4. According to the discharge condition
(a) orifice discharged free
(b) Submerged orifices

The Cd of a sharp edged standard orifice normally varies from 0.61 to

0.65

Velocity of the jet √

Discharge Q = a . √

where a = area of c.s of orifice

h = head over the orifice

ExNo :
Date :
EXPERIMENT ON ORIFICE
Aim : To determine the co- efficient of discharge of the given orifice by
constant head method and plot the graph, Cd Vs h

Objective : Understand the orifice apparatus and appreciate the co- efficient of
discharge of the orifice .

Apparatus : 1. Orifice and an orifice tank with piezometer.

2. Collecting tank with piezometer tube.

3. Stop watch

Principle : Water enters the supply tank through a perforated diffuser placed
below the water surface. The flow passes into the tank and leaves
through a sharp edged orifice Set at the side of the tank. Water
comes of the supply tank in the form of a jet which is directed to the
collecting tank. The flow rate is measured by recording the time
taken to collect a known volume of water in the tank. Co- efficient
of discharge is the ratio between actual and theoretical discharge
of water flowing through the orifice. Cd of a standared orifices
varies from 0.61 to 0.67

Actual Discharge „Qa‟ =

Where A = area of the measuring tank in m2
R =rise in water level in the measuring tank in m

t = time taken for the rise in water level

Theoretical Discharge Qth = a2gh

Where a = area of the orifice in m2

g = acceleration due to gravity m/s2

h = head over the orifice in m

 Cd =
Procedure : 1. Note the diameter of the orifice and dimensions of the coll. tank.
2. Open the supply valve and maintain a steady head over the orifice.
3. Note the head over the orifice (h) from the piezometer.
4. Close the outlet valve of the measuring tank firmly and note the
time required for the rise in water level(R) by using a stop watch.
5. After observing the time, open the outlet valve..
6. Open the supply valve little more and repeat the steps 2 to 5 for
different values of „h‟.
7. Tabulate the readings (h and t) and calculate co-efficient of
discharge.
Result :

Inferance
 OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

Dia. of the orifice (d) =

Dimensions of the Collecting tank,

L= B=

SI Head Time
Qa Qth Cd
No (h) (t)

1
2
3
4
5

Sample calculation (Reading No......)

Dia of the orifice (d) =

Area of the orifice (a) =

Head over the orifice (h) =
Taking g = 9.81m/s2

TheoriticalDischarge „Qth‟ = a×2gh

=
Dimensions of the measuring tank,
L= B=
Area of the measuring tank (A) = L×B
=
Rise in water level
in the measuring tank (R) =
Time taken for the water rise (t) =

Actual Discharge Qa =

Co-efficient of discharge „Cd‟ =

=
 METACENTRIC HEIGHT APPARATUS
INTRODUCTION:

Whenever a body, floating in a liquid is given a small angular displacement,

it starts oscillating about the same point, this point about whichthe body
starts oscillating is called metacentre.

The distance between the center of gravity of a floating body and the
metacentre is called metacentre height. As a matter of fact the metacentre
height of a floating body is a direct measure of its stability or in otherwards
more the metacentric height of a floating body more it will be stable.

A body is said to be in equilibrium when it remains in a steady state, while

floating in a liquid. Following are the three conditions of equilibrium of a
floating body,

1. Stable equilibrium
2. Unstable equilibrium and
3. Neutral equilibrium

STABLE EQUILIBRIUM :

A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium if it returns back to its original

position when given a small angular displacement. This happens when the
metacentre is higher than the center of gravity of the floating body.

UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM :

A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium if it does not return back to

its original position and heels further away when given a small angular
displacement. This happens when the metacentre is lower than the center
of gravity of the floating body.

NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM

A body is said to be in a Neutral Equilibrium if it occupies a new position

and remains rest in this new position when given a small angular
displacement. This happens when the metacentre coincides with the centre
of gravity of the floating body.

In the experimental set up the variation of metacentric height for different

types of loading of a floating vessels can be determined.
DESCRIPTION :

The experimental set up consists of semicylindrical vessel with semi-

circular ends, which float in a rectangular tank. The vessel at its top carries
a bar along its diameter at the mid section of its length, a circular scale is
provided and weight hangers for movable weights. On either side of the bar
weights are provided on screws with help of which zero setting on the
circular scale can be achieved.

The set up is provided with two small weights, which can be suspended
from the weights hangers. In addition dead weights are provided for
loading the vessel either at the top or at bottom. Pins are provided to fix the
dead weights.
 METACENTRIC HEIGHT OF A FLOATING BODY
AIM

To determine metacentric height of floating body

OBJECTIVES :

To comprehend the metacentric height and to use the apparatus to

determine the metacentric height.

THEORY

When a floating body is tilted through a small angle its centre of

buoyancy will be shifted to a new position the point of intersection of the
vertical line drawn through the new centre of buoyancy and centre of
buoyancy is called metacentric height.

The metacentric height GM can be determined as

( )

Where,

W = Weight of the floating body

w = weight of the added body

= tilt given to the floating body

d = distance of hanger from the body

The metacentric value for ships range as follows

Merchant ship - 0.3 to 1 m

Sailing ship - 0.45 to 1.25 m

Battle ship - 1 to 1.5 m

River crafte - up to 3.5 m

PROCEDURE

1. Note the level of water in the vessel without the floating body
2. Put the floating body in the vessel and note the level of water
3. Calculate the weight of the floating body from the principle, weight of
the body equal to weight of the displaced liquid
4. Adjust the pointer on zero in the protractor
5. Put a small weights in the grams on the hanger provided on any one
side [left or right]
6. Note the distance of hanger from the centre
7. Note that always both the hanger should be in equal distance from
the centre to avoid the movement produced by hanger
8. Note also the tilt shown by the pointer in the protractor
9. Repeat the experiment about ten time‟s on same side by changing
the distance from the centre .

RESULT

The metacentric height of a body is determined.

The metacentric height without dead weight is =

Inference
 OBSERVATION &TABULATION

Length of the vessel =

Breadth of the vessel =

Initial level of water without floating body =

Weight of floating body =

Additional weight added =

Left Right
SL Distance Angl tan GM Distanc Angle tan GM
No of hanger e of degre cm e of of tilt degree cm
from tilt e hanger degree
centere(d degr from
) cm ee centere
d(d) cm

SAMPLE CALCULATION

Area of vessel =

Initial level of water without floating body =

Final level of water with floating body =

Weight of floating body = Volume of water

displaced× density of water

Distance of hanger from center =

Angle of tilt =

Tan =

Weight of added weight =

Metacentric height
( )
 STUDY OF NOTCHES
A notch may be defined as an opening provided in a small channel or a
tank to measure the rate of flow of liquid flowing through the channel. A
notch is provided in the channel in such a way that the liquid surface in the
tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening.

Classification of Notches

1. According to the shape of the opening

(a) Rectangular notches
(b) Triangular notches
(c) Trapezoidal notches
(d) Stepped notches
2. According to the effect of the sides on the nappe
(a) Notch with end contraction
(b) Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch.

Rectangular Notch

3/2
Discharge Qth xCd x √
Where Cd = Co –efficient of discharge of the rectangular notch

b = breadth of the notch

h = Head over the notch

Triangular Notch

Discharge Qth xCd x √

Where Cd = Co –efficient of discharge of the Triangular notch
= angle of the notch

h = Head over the notch

Trapezoidal notch
+ 3/2
Discharge Qth xCd x √ xCd x √
ExNO :
Date :

EXPERIMENT ON RECTANGULAR NOTCH

Aim: To determine the co-efficient of discharge of the given rectangular
notch and plot the graph, Cd Vs Qa
Objectives : Appreciate the rectangular notch and its co-efficient of discharge
Apparatus : 1. Rectangular notch and the notch tank with hook
guage/pointer
guage.
2. Stop watch
3. Measuring tank with glass tube and scale.
Principle: The co-efficent of discharge is the ratio between actual and
theoretical discharge of water flowing through the notch.
Actual Discharge Qa=
Where A = area of the measuring tank
R = rise of water level in the measuring tank
t = time taken for the water rise (x) in the tank.
3/2
Theoritical Discharge Qth = √

Where g = acceleration due to gravity

b = breadth of the notch
h = head over the notch
= (H2-H1)
h1 = Sill level (initial head)
h2 = final head
 Cd =

Procedure:
1. Note the breadth of the notch and dimensions of the measuring
tank.
2. Open the supply valve and allow water to enter the notch tank upto
the sill of the notch tank. Then close the supply valve.
3. Note the sill level(h1) using the hook gauge.
4. Open the supply valve and allow water to flow through the notch
and a steady head is maintained.. Note this constant head over
the notch by using the hook gauge(h2).
 5. Close the outlet valve of the measuring tank firmly and note the
time taken for a particular water rise (R) in the measuring tank by
using a stop watch.
6. After taking the time, open the outlet valve of the measuring tank.
7. Repeat the steps 4 to 6 are for the different values of h2
8. Tabulate the readings (h2 and t) are and calculate theco-efficient
of discharge .
Result:

Co-efficient of discharge of the given rectangular notch =

Inference:
 Observation and Tabulation

Breadth of the notch (b) =

Diamensions of the measuring tank

L= B=

Still level (h1) =

Final Head Time
Sl Head Qth Qa
h2 t Cd
No h
1

Sample calculation (Reading No...........)

Breadth of the notch (b) =

Still level (h1) =
Final head (h2) =
Head over the notch (h) = h2-h1
=

Taking g = 9.81 m/s2

3/2
Qth = √
=
Dimensions of measuring tank,
L = B=
Area of measuring tank (A) = L.B
Level of water rise in the
measuring tank (R) =
Time taken for the
water rise (t) =
Qa =

=
Cd = =
ExNO :
Date :

EXPERIMENT ON TRIANGULAR NOTCH

Aim: To determine the co-efficient of discharge of the given triangular
notch and plot the graph, Cd Vs Qa
Objectives : Appreciate the trianular notch and its co-efficient of discharge
Apparatus : 1. triangular notch and the notch tank with hook guage/pointer
guage.
2. Stop watch
3. Measuring tank with glass tube and scale.
Principle: The co-efficent of discharge is the ratio between actual and
theoretical discharge of water flowing through the notch.

Actual Discharge Qa=

Where A = area of the measuring tank
R = rise of water level in the measuring tank
t = time taken for the water rise (x) in the tank.
Theoritical Discharge Qth xCd x √

Where g = acceleration due to gravity

= angle of the notch
h = head over the notch
= (h2-h1)
h1 = Sill level (initial head)
h2 = final head
 Cd =

Procedure:
1. Note the breadth of the notch and dimensions of the measuring
tank.
2. Open the supply valve and allow water to enter the notch tank up to
the sill of the notch tank. Then close the supply valve.
3. Note the sill level(h1) using the hook gauge.
 4. Open the supply valve and allow water to flow through the notch
and a steady head is maintained.. Note this constant head over
the notch by using the hook gauge(h2).

5. Close the outlet valve of the measuring tank firmly and note the
time taken for a particular water rise (R) in the measuring tank by
using a stop watch.

6. After taking the time, open the outlet valve of the measuring tank.

7. Repeat the steps 4 to 6 are for the different values of h2

8. Tabulate the readings (h2 and t) are and calculate theco-efficient

of discharge .
Result:

Co-efficient of discharge of the given triangular notch =

Inference:
 Observation and Tabulation

Diamensions of the measuring tank

L= B=

Still level (h1) =

Angle of the notch

Final Head Time

Sl Head Qth Qa
h2 t Cd
No h
1

Sample calculation (Reading No...........)

Angle of the notch

Still level (h1) =
Final head (h2) =
Head over the notch (h) = h2-h1
=

Taking g = 9.81 m/s2

Qth = xCd x √
=
Dimensions of measuring tank,
L = B=
Area of measuring tank (A) = L.B
Level of water rise in the
measuring tank (R) =
Time taken for the
water rise (t) =
Qa =

=
Cd = =
ExNO :

EXPERIMENT ON TREPEZOIDAL NOTCH

Aim: To determine the co-efficient of discharge of the given trepezoidal
notch and plot the graph, Cd Vs Qa
Objectives : Appreciate the trepezoidal notch and its co-efficient of discharge
Apparatus : 1. Trepezoidal notch and the notch tank with hook
guage/pointer
guage.
2. Stop watch
3. Measuring tank with glass tube and scale.
Principle: The co-efficent of discharge is the ratio between actual and
theoretical discharge of water flowing through the notch.

Actual Discharge Qa=

Where A = area of the measuring tank
R = rise of water level in the measuring tank
t = time taken for the water rise (x) in the tank.
+ 3/2
Theoritical Discharge xCd x √ xCd x √

Where g = acceleration due to gravity

= angle between the side edges
b = bottom width of the notch
h = head over the notch
= (h2-h1) = water head measured above the crest
h1 = Sill level (initial head)
h2 = final head
 Cd =

Procedure:
1. Note the breadth of the notch and dimensions of the measuring
tank.
2. Open the supply valve and allow water to enter the notch tank upto
the
sill of the notch tank. Then close the supply valve.
3. Note the sill level(h1) using the hook gauge.
4. Open the supply valve and allow water to flow through the notch
and a
steady head is maintained.. Note this constant head over the notch
by using the hook gauge(h2).
5. Close the outlet valve of the measuring tank firmly and note the
time
 taken for a particular water rise (R) in the measuring tank by using
a stop watch.
6. After taking the time, open the outlet valve of the measuring tank.
7. Repeat the steps 4 to 6 are for the different values of h2

8. Tabulate the readings (h2 and t) are and calculate the co-efficient
of
discharge .
Result:

Co-efficient of discharge of the given trapezoidal notch =

Inference:
 Observation and Tabulation

Diamensions of the measuring tank

L= B=

Still level (h1) =

Angle of the notch

Bottom width of the notch b =

Final Head Time
Sl Head Qth Qa
h2 t Cd
No h
1

Sample calculation (Reading No...........)

Bottom width of the notch b = Angle of the notch

Still level (h1) =
Final head (h2) =
Head over the notch (h) = h2-h1
=

Taking g = 9.81 m/s2

+ 3/2
Qth = xCd x √ xCd x √

Dimensions of measuring tank,

L = B=
Area of measuring tank (A) = L.B
Level of water rise in the
measuring tank (R) =
Time taken for the
water rise (t) =
Qa =

Cd = =
 STUDY OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM APPARATUS
The experimental set up consist of a horizontal Perspex duct made
up of smooth variable cross section of convergent and divergent in
40x40mm at the entrance and exist and 40x20 mm at middle. The total
length of duct in 90 cm. The piezometric pressure P at the locations of
pressure tappings is measured by means of piezometers installed along
with the length of conduit. The duct is connected with the small tanks. By
maintaining suitable amount of steady head difference between these two
tanks, there establishs a steady nonuniform flow in the conduit whose
dimension at different cross section are known. Knowing the discharge
flowing in the conduit, velocity v at different sections are computed.
Arrangement to supply the coloured liquid dye in the middle of duct through
a dye injector needle is provided to visualize the flow pattern.

Since the conduit is horizontal, the total energy at any section with
reference to the centre line of the conduit is the sum of pressure head and
velocity head. One can compare the values of the total energy at different
sections and comment about the constancy of energy in converging and
divergin conduit. The observation and computations can be suitably
computed and the result presented in a graphical form by plotting hydraulic
gradient line and total energy line.
Ex.No :
Date:

Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorm

Aim : To verify the Bernoulli‟s theorem and plot the graphs.

Length of pipe Vs velocity head (v2 /2g)
Apparatus :
1. Meter Scale
2. Stop watch.
Principle : Bernoulli‟s theorem states that “ when water is continuosly flowing through
a conduit, and no extra energy is taken out or added the total energy (or total head)
will remains a constant at all sections”
ie H1 = H2 = H3 =H (Total Head)
Total head H = Potential head (Z)+
Pressure head ( )+

Velocity head (v2/2g)

ie H = Z+
Where Z = Potential head, ie the height by which the water particle is situated from
a datum.
p = intensity of pressure
S = density of water
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = velocity of flowing water
The apparatus consists of a duct of varying cross-sectional area and piezgometers are
installed at various sections. A supply tank and a collecting tank are provided with the
apparatus. A centrifugal pump with an electric motor is also provided to circulate the
water.
Procedure
1. Observe the area of cross section and the distance of each section from a
reference axis
2. Close the outlet valve of the centrifugal pump and start the pump. .
3. Open the outlet valve of the pump gradually and water is allowed to enter the
supply tank, and water flows through the duct to the reservoir.
4. Maintain a steady flow through the duct by operating the outlet valves
5. Consider a datum and measure the vertical height to the level of water in the
pizgometer from the datum, by using a meter scale ie (z+p/pg)..
6. Observe the dimensions of the measuring tank and close the outlet valve of the
tank firmly .
7. The water flowing through the duct is collected in the measuring tank and note
the time (t) taken for a particular rise in water level ( x)in the measuring tank.
by using a stop watch.
8. After taking the time, open the outlet valve of the measuring tank .
9. Close the outlet valve of the centrifugal pump and switched off. The pump.
Result:
Bernoulli‟s theorem is verified and it is found that total head decreases when the
flow progresses.
Infernce:
 Observation and Tabulation

Dimensions of measuring tank,

L= B=

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Distance

Area of
Cross
section

(z+ )

( /2g)

Total Head
(H)

Sample calculation (Section No..............................)

(z+ ) =

Dimensions of measuring tank,

L = B=

Area of measuring tank, (A) = L×B)

Rise in water level in the measuring tank, (x)=

Time taken for the water rise in the tank (t) =

Actual Discharge (Q) =

Area of cross section of the duct (a) =

velocity (v) = Q/a

velocity head = V2/ 2g (g = 9.81m/s2)

Total head (H) = z+ =

Ex.No:

Date:

STUDY OF PIPE FITTINGS

1. Coupling:It is a hollow piece of pipe having internal threads. Coupling are used
to connect two pipes of same diameter upto 10 cm

2. Reducer Coupling : It is a hollow piece of pipe having internal threads and is

used to connect two pipes of different diameter

3. Tee: This isused at a place where branch line of equal diameter is to be taken of
right angles to the main line which is continuous. It has equal diameter on three
portions and are provided with internal threads.

4. Reducer Tee :This is also provided at a place where branch line is to be taken at
right angles from a continuous main line. This is provided when the diameter of a
branch pipes is less than the diameter of the main pipe.

5. Elbow: Thisis used to change the direction of flow in a pipe line. The change the
direction will be at 90o .This provides a sharp change in the direction and has
equal diameter on both sides. This will have internal threads and used upto
10cm diameter only.

6. Reducer Elbow:If it is intended to change the direction of flow by 90 oand the two
pipes to be connected are different diameters, the joint used to connect the pipes
is called reducer elbow.
7. Bend :This is used to change the direction of flow at 90o .
The bend is a short
gradually bent pipe with outside threads at the ends. This provides a gradual
change of direction. The connections to the pipe are made by means of coupling
on either side.

8. Cross:This isused at a place where main lines and branch lines of the same
diameter are connected at right angles. The cross has got inside on all four
sides.

9. Nipple : This is short piece of pipe with threads outside from end. This is used
for connecting two pipes when there is a short gap in (eg : Due to damage of the
ends of a pipe)

10. Union: Where it becomes necessary to remove and dismantle the connected
pipes, a special joint called Union is used. It is used to connect two straight pipes
of equal diameters. The union consists of three parts. The two extreme parts
(1&2) are provided with threads both inside and outside and can be screwed on
to the pipes. The central part consists of nut with inside threads to connect the
other two parts together.

11. Flange : This is used to connect two pipes of same diameter when the size is
more than 10cm.The flange consists of a pair of components and each can be
screwed separately to the two pipes. The two flanges are bolted together by
means of bolts and nuts with rubber packing in between them.

12. Plug: This is used for plugging or blocking the end of the pipe line or to stop the
flow of water from a tank. This has outside threads (male plug). If it has internal
threads, it is called female plug.
Ex. No:

Date :

STUDY OF VALVES AND COCKES

1. Gate valve :This type of value is used for opening and closing a fluid
passage and consists of a gate or disc which can be moved up and down
across the line of flow by, a hand wheel.

2. Globe valve: This valve consists of a threaded spindle connected with

disc which seats on an opening provided in the middle of the valve. This
opening is such that it causes change in the direction of flow.

3. Check valve: The check mechanism incorporates a disc, piston or ball

which lifts along an axis in- line with the axis of the body seat. There are
two types –vertical& horizontal.

4. Spring loaded safely valve: It is used as safely valve in reciprocating

pump etc.When the pressure in the hydraulic circuit reaches beyond the
normal, the valve will be opened and fluid will be discharged.

5. Foot valve: It is used at the bottom of the suction line of that centrifugal
pump, which requires priming before starting

6. Screw down cock: It is used to deliver water from a pipe line or tank.
While rotating the handle the valve will move away from the valve seat.

7. Push cock: It is used to deliver water from a tank.

8. Plug bib cock with lock :It is used to handle costly fluid like lubricating
oil etc.

9. Air cock: It is provided in the casing of a centrifugal pump to test the

presence of air and to remove the air while priming.

10. Lift up cock: It is used to taken water from a tank or a pipe line.

11. Pressure gauge cock: It is used to deliver water to the manometers or

pressure gauges,while measuring the pressure.
 MINOR LOSSES IN PIPES
The loss of energy due to change of velocity is called minor losses. The minor loss
of energy includes the following .

1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement

2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction

3. Loss of head at the entrance to a pipe

4. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe

where V=velocity of flow

5. Loss of head due to an obstruction in the path of flow

where V= velocity of flow

A= a/c of the Pipe
a = a/c of the obstruction , CC= Co-efficient of contraction
6. Loss of head due to Bend in Pipe

where K= Co-efficient of bend

V= Velocity of flow

7. Loss of head in the pipe fittings

where K= Co-efficient of pipe fittings

V= Velocity of flow