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P. N. Ravindran
K. Sivaraman
S. Devasahayam
K. Nirmal Babu
Editors

Handbook of
Spices in India:
75 Years of
Research and
Development
Contents

Volume 1

Spices: Definition, Classification, History, and Role in

Indian Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
P. N. Ravindran

Spices: Area, Production, and Export Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

V. Srinivasan, Lijo Thomas, K. V. Peter, A. B. Remashree, and
Homey Cheriyan

Seventy-Five Years of Research and Development in Seed Spices . . . . . 129

S. N. Saxena, Brijesh K. Mishra, and Lokesh K. Sharma

Genetic Resources of Major Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

V. A. Muhammed Nissar, T. P. Muhammed Azharudheen,
K. V. Saji, and K. Nirmal Babu

Genetic Resources of Seed Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

E. V. Divakara Sastry

Improved Varieties of Spice Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

K. S. Krishnamurthy, A. Sharon, R. S. Meena, T. Janakiram, and
K. Nirmal Babu

Biotechnological Approaches for Improvement of Spices . . . . . . . . . . . 397

A. I. Bhat, Minoo Divakaran, and K. Nirmal Babu

Quality Profiling of Major Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

T. John Zachariah, N. K. Leela, and B. Chempakam

Chemistry of Seed Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

S. N. Saxena, M. K. Mahatma, and Dolly Agrawal

Overview of Chemistry and Medicinal Effects of Major Spices ...... 663

Krishnapura Srinivasan

xiii
xiv Contents

Molecular Mechanism of Spices and Their Active Constituents for

the Prevention and Treatment of Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Sosmitha Girisa, Mangala Hegde, and Ajaikumar B. Kunnumakkara
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and
Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
A. B. Sharangi, G. S. L. H. V. Prasada Rao, Suddhasuchi Das,
K. S. Krishnamurthy, T. K. Upadhyay, C. S. Gopakumar, and S. K. Acharya
Pollination and Pollinators of Spice Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
V. V. Belavadi, A. S. Hareesha, and K. B. Tharini
Consumption and Future Demand of Spices Among Indian
Households . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
S. K. Srivastava, Anu Susan Sam, and Darshnaben Mahida
Role of Spices in Healthcare: An Āyurvedic Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
P. Vivek, Vidya Unnikrishnan, C. M. Harinarayanan, Pratibha P. Nair,
S. P. Geetha, and Indira Balachandran
Spices in Culinary Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
Renuka Aggarwal and Kiran Bains

Volume 2

Pesticide Residues in Indian Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955

Thomas Biju Mathew, Thania Sara Varghese, V. Vijayasree,
K. Pallavi Nair, P. R. Nithya, and S. M. Seena

Food Safety Management in Spice Supply Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015

K. J. Venugopal

Quality Certification of Spices: Seven Decades of Progress . . . . . . . . . . 1037

Beena Tilak, C. R. Jithin, and K. J. Venugopal

Economics, Marketing, and Export of Spices: Status and Prospects . . . 1095

Lijo Thomas, Anil Kuruvilla, Murlidhar Meena, A. B. Remashree, and
M. S. Madan

Spices Informatics Network and Value Chain for Open Innovation

and Value Creation Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
Moni Madaswamy
Master Molecules of Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193
P. N. Ravindran

Black Pepper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393

V. A. Parthasarathy, V. Srinivasan, P. J. Mathew, V. P. Neema,
K. S. Krishnamurthy, M. S. Shivakumar, E. Jayashree, and P. N. Ravindran
Contents xv

Cardamom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1577
V. S. Korikanthimath, S. J. Ankegowda, and H. J. Akshitha

Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1661
D. Prasath, V. Srinivasan, Parshuram Sial, N. K. Leela, H. J. Akshitha, and
Silaru Raghuveer

Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793
D. Prasath, K. Kandiannan, S. Aarthi, R. Sivaranjani,
B. Sentamizh Selvi, and Silaru Raghuveer

Volume 3

Capsicums and Chilies: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913

P. N. Ravindran and K. Sivaraman

Chillies and Capsicums in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2033

K. Madhavi Reddy, Naresh Ponnam, Satyaprakash Barik,
Vijay Rakesh Reddy, Koushik Saha, D. C. Lakshamana Reddy, and
K. Sujatha

Coriander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2085
Dhirendra Singh, K. Sivaraman, Ravindra Singh, A. C. Shivran,
Mandvi Singh, and G. L. Kumawat

Cumin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2165
R. S. Meena, S. N. Saxena, and Sushil Kumar

Fenugreek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2209
K. Giridhar, B. Tanuja Priya, and E. V. Divakara Sastry

Fennel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2349
A. K. Verma and S. N. Saxena

Mustard and Its Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2385

Anubhuti Sharma, Meghna Garg, Hariom Kumar Sharma, and P. K. Rai

Mint and Mint Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2453

Ramesh Kumar Srivastava, Himanshu Yadav, and Prabodh Kumar Trivedi

Indian Saffron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2487

B. A. Alie, M. H. Khan, N. A. Dar, F. A. Nehvi, G. H. Mir,
A. M. I. Qureshi, M. D. Sofi, and M. T. Ali

Garlic: Botany, Chemistry, and Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2543

Major Singh, Vijay Mahajan, Ashwini Prashant Benke, and
Digambar Nabu Mokat
xvi Contents

Vanilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2591
Minoo Divakaran, R. Suseela Bhai, Rebeca Menchaca Garcia, S. Aarthi,
S. Devasahayam, K. Nirmal Babu, and M. R. Sudarshan
Large (Black) Cardamom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2687
A. K. Vijayan, K. A. Saju, and K. Dhanapal
Nutmeg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2739
N. Mini Raj, H. C. Vikram, V. A. Muhammed Nissar, and E. V. Nybe
Tamarind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2787
R. Chitra and S. Parthiban
Asafoetida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2833
P. N. Ravindran
Clove and Allspice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2881
N. Mini Raj, H. C. Vikram, V. A. Muhammed Nissar, and E. V. Nybe

Volume 4

Cinnamon and Indian Cinnamon (Indian Cassia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2921

N. Mini Raj, H. C. Vikram, V. A. Muhammed Nissar, and E. V. Nybe
Garcinia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2993
N. Mini Raj, H. C. Vikram, V. A. Muhammed Nissar, and E. V. Nybe
Curry Leaf, Bilimbi, Carambola, Indian Tree Pepper, and
Wild Mango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3043
R. Chitra, S. Karthikeyan, and S. Parthiban
Nigella (Black Cumin, Black Seed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3101
P. N. Ravindran
The Caraways: Caraway, Black Caraway, and Tuberous Caraway . . . 3141
P. N. Ravindran
Parsley, Oregano, Thyme and Marjoram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3185
P. N. Ravindran
Basil, Chamomile, Lemon Balm, Rosella, Rosemary and Scented
Geranium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3233
P. N. Ravindran
Hyssop, Lovage, Sage, Savory, Sweet Honey Leaf (Stevia) . . . . . . . . . . 3315
P. N. Ravindran
Annatto, Kaffir Lime, Licorice, Star Anise, Sumac, and
Tarragon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3369
P. N. Ravindran
Contents xvii

Galangal, Caper, Indian Borage, Long Pepper, Pomegranate,

and Poppy Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3437
P. N. Ravindran and K. Nirmal Babu
Minor Seed Spices: Ajwain, Dill, Celery, and Aniseed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3505
Gopal Lal, S. K. Malhotra, S. Lal, and S. S. Meena
Neglected and Underutilized Spices of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3539
P. N. Ravindran
Diseases of Black Pepper and Cardamom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3623
R. Suseela Bhai, A. I. Bhat, C. N. Biju, A. K. Vijayan, and K. A. Saju
Diseases of Ginger and Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3675
A. Kumar
Insect Pests of Spices and Their Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3709
S. Devasahayam, T. K. Jacob, C. M. Senthil Kumar, and
M. Balaji Rajkumar
Plant Parasitic Nematodes: An Invisible Threat to Sustainability
in Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3761
Santhosh J. Eapen, K. V. Ramana, C. Mohandas, and P. K. Koshy
Diseases of Seed Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3799
Y. K. Sharma, A. K. Mishra, and A. K. Singh

Volume 5

Insect Pests of Seed Spices and Their Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3825

Krishna Kant, Brijesh K. Mishra, N. K. Meena, S. N. Saxena, and
M. K. Vishal
Crop Diversification: Cropping/System Approach for Enhancing
Farmers’ Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3847
K. Sivaraman, C. K. Thankamani, and V. Srinivasan
Precision Agriculture Technologies in Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3927
V. Srinivasan, M. Alagupalamuthirsolai, Ravindra Singh, and R. Dinesh
Organic Farming of Spices: Concepts, Issues, and Strategies . . . . . . . . 3949
C. K. Thankamani, V. Srinivasan, J. S. Remya, M. Murugan,
M. K. Dhanya, Ravindra Singh, Sharda Choudhary, K. N. Shiva,
D. Prasath, R. Dinesh, Lijo Thomas, and R. Praveena
Microbial Inoculants for Sustainable Plant Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4055
Santhosh J. Eapen, K. N. Anith, R. Praveena, and R. Dinesh
Spices as Cosmeceuticals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4107
B. Chempakam and P. N. Ravindran
xviii Contents

Spices in Siddha Traditional Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4191

Ramaswamy Meenakumari, V. Suba, Ambalavanan Shakthi Paargavi, and
Kulandavelu Karthik
Postharvest Processing of Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4217
M. Balakrishnan, E. Jayashree, V. Thiruapthi, and R. Visvanathan
Packaging and Storage of Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4263
S. Anandakumar and R. Visvanathan
Development of Spices in India: Reminiscences and Prospects . . . . . . . 4293
Homey Cheriyan, Femina Lal, and K. Manojkumar
Spices: Vision for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4307
K. Nirmal Babu, P. N. Ravindran, K. Sivaraman, and S. Devasahayam
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4327
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops:
Scenario, Response, and Resilience

A. B. Sharangi, G. S. L. H. V. Prasada Rao, Suddhasuchi Das,

K. S. Krishnamurthy, T. K. Upadhyay, C. S. Gopakumar, and
S. K. Acharya

Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
2 Key Atmospheric Variables Impacting Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
2.1 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
2.2 Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
2.3 Soil Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
2.4 Drought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
2.5 Relative Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
2.6 Potential Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
2.7 Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
2.8 CO2 Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
3 Climate Change and Abiotic Plant Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
4 Climatic Influence on Growth, Yield, and Quality of Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
4.1 Black Pepper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
4.2 Cardamom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
4.3 Large Cardamom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
4.4 Nutmeg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
4.5 Clove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
4.6 Cinnamon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
4.7 Chillies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
4.8 Sweet Pepper (Capsicum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
4.9 Seed Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781

A. B. Sharangi (*) · S. Das · S. K. Acharya

Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India
e-mail: absharangi@gmail.com
G. S. L. H. V. Prasada Rao · C. S. Gopakumar
College of Climate Change and Environmental Sciences, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur,
Kerala, India
K. S. Krishnamurthy
ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode, Kerala, India
T. K. Upadhyay
Parul Institute of Applied Sciences and Research and Development Cell, Vadodara, Gujarat, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 755

P. N. Ravindran et al. (eds.), Handbook of Spices in India: 75 Years of Research and
Development, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3728-6_12
756 A. B. Sharangi et al.

4.10 Vanilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783

4.11 Saffron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
4.12 Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
4.13 Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
5 Effect of Climate Change on Crop Pests and Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
5.1 Climate Change and Insect Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
6 Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
6.1 Resilient Spice Production for Mitigating Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
6.2 Organic Farming: Building Resilience in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
6.3 Developing Climate Resilient Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
6.4 Establishment of Community Seed Bank for Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
6.5 Addressing Specific Farm Operations in Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
6.6 Water Harvesting: Innovating Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
6.7 Protected Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
6.8 Crop Diversification and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
6.9 Integrated Farming System (IFS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
6.10 Bringing Non-descript Land Under Spice Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
6.11 Institutional Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
7 Future Strategies for Illustrative Vision-Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798

Abstract
The brunt of climate change on plant animals and human beings is going to be
exponential and millions of hectares of land and ecosystem are to counter the
vagaries of global warming and climate change. In spite of direct negative
impacts, a well-designed expansion, socialization, and institutionalization of
spice cultivation and consumption can come up as a great savior in this humon-
gous crisis. Spice crops in India are mostly grown in natural ecosystem along with
in cultivated lands. The chapter explores the possible niches of spices cultivation,
acculturation, and accommodation into the existing cropping sequence by editing
it in a realistic manner. This would help in making the ecosystem refreshing,
resilient, and reinforced. Alongside isolation of new genes, the traditional genes
may need an editing to add better orchestration in the symphony of ecosystem
voices and response. The community gene bank inventorization of traditional
knowledge, socialization of adaptive technologies, and re-engineering of cultiva-
tion tools and techniques will be as effective and productive as we can perceive
and predict. This would ensure an opportunity for family- and community-level
healthcare through consumption of locally available spices and by including them
into the everyday food plates not by imposition, but by self-exploration, the
gamut of new age approach will create a paradigm wherein ecology, economy,
and climate will move with perfect orchestrations by setting aside all clichés and
prejudices of conflicts and non-cooperation between man and nature.

Keywords
Abiotic stress · Biotic stress · Climate change · Global warming · Mitigation ·
Resilience · Spice crops
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 757

1 Introduction

Climate change is one of the biggest challenges to the world in present times. It is
defined as significant changes in the average values of meteorological elements, such
as precipitation and temperature, for which averages have been computed over a
long period (WMO 1992). It represents any change in climate over time, whether
due to natural causes and/or as a result of human activities. A major reason to
implicate human or anthropogenic activities for climate change is the fact that these
are closely linked with increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, and other greenhouse gases known to trap the heat from solar radiation in the
upper layers of the Earth’s atmosphere (Swaminathan and Kesavan 2012; Birthal
2022). Human activities since the nineteenth century have contributed to substantial
increases in the atmospheric concentrations of heat-trapping greenhouse gases
(GHG), such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and
fluorinated gases. Carbon dioxide is the main long-lived GHG in the atmosphere
related to human activities. Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and land use
changes, among other human (anthropogenic) activities, have led to a rapid increase
of atmospheric CO2 levels from 280 parts per million during 1850 to more than
416 parts per million in February 2020 (Krishnan et al. 2020). Climate change
projections, derived from the bias-corrected probabilistic ensemble of 33 global
climate models, indicated that rise in minimum temperature is likely to be more
than the rise in maximum temperature in India. It will be more during rabi (October–
April) than that during kharif (June–September). An increase in minimum temper-
ature by 0.946–4.067
C in 2020–2080 over baseline (1976–2005 period) in kharif,
and by 1.096–4.652
C in rabi, is projected. Similarly, an increase in maximum
temperature by 0.741–3.533
C (2020–2080) during kharif and by 0.882–4.01
C is
projected for rabi. Rise in temperatures is projected to be more in northern parts of
India than that in southern parts. Variability in minimum and maximum temperatures
is projected to be significantly more during rabi than that during kharif. Increase in
rainfall by 2.3–3.3% (2020) and 4.9–10.1% (2050) during kharif and by 12% (2020)
and 12–17% (2050) during rabi with increased variability as compared to baseline
period (1976–2005) is projected (Kumar et al. 2019). The rapid changes in India’s
climate projected by climate models will place increasing stress on the country’s
natural ecosystems, agricultural output, and freshwater resources, while also causing
escalating damage to infrastructure. These portend serious consequences for the
country’s biodiversity, food, water, and energy security, and public health. In the
absence of rapid, informed, and far-reaching mitigation and adaptation measures, the
impacts of climate change are likely to pose profound challenges to sustaining the
country’s rapid economic growth and achieving the sustainable development goals
(SDGs) adopted by UN Member States in 2015 (Dhara and Krishnan 2020).
Spatial and temporal variation projected changes in the temperature and rainfall
are likely to lead to differential impacts in the different regions (Byjesh et al. 2010).
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports and a few other
global studies indicate a probability of a 10–40% loss in crop production in India
with increase in temperature by 2080–2100 (Rosenzweig and Parry 1994; IPCC
758 A. B. Sharangi et al.

2007a; Majumdar 2008). Studies conducted in India (Aggarwal and Sinha 1993;
Lal et al. 1998; Saseendran et al. 2000; Mall and Aggarwal 2002; Aggarwal 2003,
2008; Wani et al. 2009; Roy et al. 2018) have confirmed similar declining trends in
agricultural productivity due to climate change. For every 1
C increase in tem-
perature, the yields of wheat, soybean, mustard, groundnut, and potato are
expected to decline by 3–7% (Aggarwal 2009a, b) and in rice by 6% (Saseendran
et al. 2000; IWMI 2007). Projections indicate the potential loss of 4–5 t of wheat
with every rise of 1
C temperature throughout the growing period with current
land use in India alone (Aggarwal 2008). Losses were also significant in other
crops, such as mustard, peas, tomatoes, onion, garlic, and other vegetables and fruit
crops (Samra and Singh 2004). Various districts in the western Rajasthan, southern
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, northern Andhra
Pradesh, and southern Bihar are also highly vulnerable to climate change. Sorghum
yields are predicted to vary from +18 to 22% depending on a rise of 2–4
C in
temperature and increase by 20–40% of precipitation (Mall et al. 2006). Rainfed
areas are likely to be more vulnerable in terms of extreme events (Mall et al. 2006).
Aberrations in the southwest monsoon could include a delay in the onset of the
monsoon, long dry spells, and early withdrawal, etc., adversely affecting the
productivity (Lal 2001). This increase in variability could make it more difficult
for resource-poor farmers to take decisions on investing on inputs and new
technologies (Pandey et al. 2000).
Despite tremendous improvements in technology and crop yield potential, crop
production remains highly dependent on climate because solar radiation, tempera-
ture, and precipitation are the main drivers of crop growth, plant diseases, pest
infestations as well as supply of and demand for soil nutrients are also influenced
by climate. Hence, plant development, growth, yield, and ultimately the production
of crop species will respond to higher temperatures, altered precipitation and tran-
spiration regimes, increased frequency of extreme temperature and precipitation
events, weed and pest and pathogen pressure (Rosenzweig et al. 2001; IPCC
2007b). Increase in atmospheric CO2 promotes growth and productivity of plants
with C3 photosynthetic pathway but the increase in temperature, on the other hand,
can reduce crop duration, increase crop respiration rates, affect the survival and
distribution of pest populations, and may hasten nutrient mineralization in soils,
decrease fertilizer-use efficiency, and increase evapotranspiration. The water
resources which are already scarce may come under enhanced stress (Jat et al.
2016). Thus, the impact of climate change is likely to have a significant influence
on agriculture and eventually on the food security and livelihoods of large sections of
the urban and rural populations globally (Jat et al. 2016). Since most of the spice
crops have C3 photosynthetic pathway, climate change is likely to have far-reaching
negative influence in spices productivity in the coming decades. For C3 plants the
whole process of photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll cells and the first
products of photosynthesis catalyzed by Rubisco are two molecules with 3 atoms of
carbon (Calvin cycle) (Ferrante and Mariani 2018).
Plant growth and productivity are adversely affected by nature’s wrath in the
form of various abiotic and biotic stress factors. Plants are frequently exposed to a
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 759

plethora of stress conditions such as low/high temperature, salt, drought, flooding,

heat, oxidative stress, and heavy metal toxicity. Various anthropogenic activities
have accentuated the existing stress factors. Heavy metals and salinity have begun
to accumulate in the soil and water and may soon reach toxic levels. Plants also
face challenges from pathogens including bacteria, fungi, and viruses as well as
from herbivores. All these stress factors are a menace for plants and prevent them
from reaching their full genetic potential and limit the crop productivity worldwide
(Aishwath and Lal 2016). Abiotic stress in fact is the principal cause of crop failure
worldwide, dipping average yields for most major crops by more than 50%.
Abiotic stresses cause losses worth hundreds of million dollars each year due to
reduction in crop productivity and crop failure. In fact these stresses threaten the
sustainability of agricultural industry. In response to these stress factors, various
genes are upregulated, which can mitigate the effect of stress and lead to adjust-
ment of the cellular milieu and plant tolerance. In nature, stress does not generally
come in isolation and many stresses act hand in hand with each other. In response
to these stress signals that cross talk with each other, nature has developed diverse
pathways for combating and tolerating them. These pathways act in cooperation to
alleviate stress (Mahajan and Tuteja 2005). Rizzo et al. (2022) found that 48% of
the yield gain was associated with a decadal climate trend, 39% with agronomic
improvements, and, by difference, only 13% with improvement in genetic yield
potential indicating that climate and agronomic management play a major role in
sustaining crop productivity over a period of time. If genetic progress in yield
potential is also slowing in other environments and crops, future crop yield gains
will increasingly rely on improved agronomic practices. The dominant spices in
India like black pepper, small and large cardamom, ginger, turmeric, dry chilli,
cinnamon, clove, nutmeg coriander, fenugreek, other seed spices, and so on are
going to respond with varied intensity and distribution to weather phenomena like
humidity, rainfall, temperature, and of course the frequency of weather aberrations
from moderate to extreme deflections (Husaini 2014; Joy 2020; Paria et al. 2022).
With this background, an attempt is made in this chapter to present the impact of
climate change on the productivity and quality of spices over time and the
mitigation and adaptation strategies to overcome effects of climate change on
spice crops.

2 Key Atmospheric Variables Impacting Climate Change

In atmosphere, key variables that influence spice crops are temperature, precipita-
tion, relative humidity, solar radiation, CO2 concentration, etc. The variability of all
these factors across a defined area is known as weather. Its acute levels at crucial
growth phases of a crop can have remarkable influences on production and yield
efficiencies. Climate, on the other hand, can be described as the long-term mean
temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and rainfall over the crop phenophases. It can
precisely settle on the realized yields for a specified region, in the absence of any
weather extremes. “Normal” climate as clarified by the World Meteorological
760 A. B. Sharangi et al.

Organization is a 30-year period rationalized every decade. The period in progress is

2001 to 2030. By using the 2010 to 2040 period, fresh 30-year climate normals will
be determined in 2031.

2.1 Temperature

In India, temperature has been elevated by 0.3–0.8
C per decade during the last few
decades (Goswami et al. 2006). Climatological extremes including very high tem-
peratures are predicted to have a general negative effect on plant growth and
development, leading to catastrophic loss of crop productivity and resulting in
widespread famine (Bita and Gerats 2013). High temperature stress has a wide
range of effects on plants in terms of physiology, biochemistry, and gene regulation
pathways. In many crop species, the effects of high temperature stress are more
prominent on reproductive development than on vegetative growth and the sudden
decline in yield with temperature is mainly associated with pollen infertility (Young
et al. 2004; Zinn et al. 2010; Calleja-Cabrera et al. 2020). Extreme heat stress can
cause a reduced stomatal conductance, which declines the rate of transpiration,
resulting in poor productivity and yield of plant. Water scarcity makes the top soil
dehydrated and put stress on some plants to develop minute suberized roots. The
plant stops growing since its utilization of food is more rapid compared to its
replacement. The rate of photosynthesis and, in turn, the rate of growth becomes
slower due to the low temperature. Nevertheless, some plants grow faster between
4.5
C and 15.5
C, while others need higher temperatures to initiate growth.
Average global temperatures have risen by 0.13
C per decade since 1950. This
augmented temperature level could cut down crop growth periods, leading to a
reflective impact on crop yields (Luo 2011; Zhang et al. 2013; Kumar and Aggarwal
2013; Kumar et al. 2013, 2014a, b, 2015, 2019; Aggarwal et al. 2022). Crops may be
exposed both from heat and cold stresses. The crop experiences heat stress when
temperature exceeds a certain limit. This type of stress affects plants by speeding up
respiratory reactions through usage of more photosynthetic glucose per unit time.
Also, at temperature above 38
C, plants require additional water to retain the tissues
normal. Otherwise, heat stress is compounded by further water stress.

2.2 Precipitation

Precipitation includes rainfall, snow, hail, fog, and dew contributing all water
available in the atmosphere which plays a decisive role in crop productivity. The
effective rainfall recharges the soil efficiently depending on the intensity of rainfall.
Precipitation timing is also important for crop growth. Rainfall contributes the water
as a universal medium through which nutrients are transported for crop growth and
development. Therefore, deficiency in water supply has unfavorable consequences
on crop growth, resulting in poor productivity. Early rainfall encourages crop root
growth, but delayed one often increases the availability of soil water at later growth
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 761

stage, thereby delaying the senescence. All the stages of crop growth, viz., seed
germination, stand establishment, vegetative growth, flowering, and grain develop-
ment, are sensitive to poor or excessive rainfall.

2.3 Soil Moisture

Soil moisture is the available water contained within the matrix of soil and organic
matter at the surface of the earth, above the water table. Soil moisture is a key
parameter which directly or indirectly influences the water cycle. Agriculture pro-
duction of rabi crops in rainfed areas mainly depend on it as well as irrigation
practices based on it. Climate change and the trend of increasing temperatures have a
significant impact on crop production (Saha et al. 2019).

2.4 Drought

Drought is an anomalous lack of water at the land–atmosphere interface. It begins

with a reduction of precipitation (known as meteorological drought) and can prop-
agate, as it persists, into soil moisture (agricultural drought) and stream flow, lake
levels, and groundwater (hydrological drought). Drought can have huge impacts on
all aspects of human activities, including water resources, agricultural production,
energy generation, and industrial output. In the developing world, where livelihoods
are dependent on agriculture, drought can have devastating impacts, leading to
famine, migration, and potential conflict (Berg and Sheffield 2018). Water can
become limiting for agricultural plant communities as a result of inadequate rainfall,
excessive levels of salts in the soil solution, or the increasing diversion of limited
freshwater resources to competing urban and industrial uses. Future water availabil-
ity may also be affected by ongoing changes in global climate. The first plant-stress
symptom induced by drought is often a rapid inhibition of shoot and, to a lesser
extent, root growth. This is closely followed by partial or complete stomatal closure
with associated reductions in transpiration and CO2 uptake for photosynthesis. If not
relieved, drought then leads to interrupted reproductive development, pre-mature
leaf senescence, wilting, desiccation, and death (Hsaio 1973; Schulze 1986).
Drought arises if potential evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation significantly
for quite a reasonable period consecutively and plants are exposed to it when either
the water supply to the roots is inadequate or the loss of water through transpiration
is very high (Anjum et al. 2011). Among the various causes of drought the important
ones are altered weather patterns, higher water demands, rampant deforestation,
degradative soil, unwarranted global warming and climate change, etc. Without
sufficient water, photosynthesis is seriously reduced resulting in reduced plant
growth, including root growth. The changes experienced in respiration owing to
drought are less significant as compared with the huge decreases in photosynthesis.
Besides these direct effects of drought, the ensuing stress makes plants more
susceptible to insect and disease nuisance too.
762 A. B. Sharangi et al.

2.5 Relative Humidity

Crop plants are quite sensitive to relative humidity (RH) which at a given temper-
ature is the water content of the atmosphere expressed as a percentage of the
saturated water content, which is a constant at a given temperature. RH is an
important environmental variable for crop productivity, because it regulates the
transpiration rate at the leaf level and can influence the water balance in crops. A
high RH limits transpiration and reduces growth and nutrient assimilation. A low
RH increases water flux through plants and increases transpiration with severe
problems in species with a reduced ability to regulate stomatal aperture (Ferrante
and Mariani 2018). A relative humidity of 40–60% is appropriate for the majority
of crop plants. Outbreak of pest and diseases occurs when the value approaches
very high.

2.6 Potential Evapotranspiration

Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is the rate of evapotranspiration from an exten-

sive surface of 8–15 cm tall, green grass cover of uniform height, actively growing,
completely shading the ground, and not short of water (Doorenbos and Pruitt 1977;
Rao et al. 2012). Potential evapotranspiration is useful to measure the atmospheric
water demand of the region and hence could be used for various applications
including irrigation scheduling, drought monitoring, and understanding climate
change impacts (Lang et al. 2017) Potential evapotranspiration is a calculated
quantity and is the maximum quantity of water capable of being lost as water
vapor, under a given climate, by a continuous, extensive stretch of vegetation
covering the ground when there is no shortage of water (Gangopadhyay et al.
1966). The exclusion of water from soil both by evaporation from the soil surface
and transpiration from plant leaves is evapotranspiration. Surface evaporation is
confined to the top 5–10 cm of soil, whereas transpiration eliminates soil water to a
depth equal to the deepest roots. In drier periods, the potential evapotranspiration is
the maximum with clear sky having low humidity and minimum in wetter periods
with cloudier skies having high humidity.

2.7 Solar Radiation

Solar radiation is radiant (electromagnetic) energy from the sun. It provides light
and heat for the Earth and energy for photosynthesis. This radiant energy is
necessary for the metabolism of the environment and its inhabitants. The three
relevant bands, or ranges, along the solar radiation spectrum are ultraviolet, visible
(PAR), and infrared. Of the light that reaches Earth’s surface, infrared radiation
makes up 49.4%, while visible light provides 42.3%. Ultraviolet radiation makes
up just over 8% of the total solar radiation. Each of these bands has a different
impact on the environment. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is light of
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 763

wavelengths 400–700 nm and is the portion of the light spectrum utilized by plants
for photosynthesis. Photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) is defined as the
photon flux density of PAR.

2.8 CO2 Concentration

The intensity of atmospheric CO2 has been increased from 280 to 400 μmol1 which
is further predicted to be elevated up to 800 μmol1 at the last part of this century.
Discharge of these kind of hazardous gases inevitably contributed to the greenhouse
effect and warmer temperatures (Vaughan et al. 2018). Carbon dioxide is a key
molecule for photosynthesis. In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly in the leaves.
The chemical reaction driven by solar energy involves the reduction of CO2 through
water to create carbohydrates and release oxygen. The resulting carbohydrates are
used for plant growth and provide the energy source for living things. India is a
global agricultural powerhouse and significantly contributing to the global CO2
levels. Singh et al. (2022) presented changes in CO2 concentrations between 2009
and 2020 in India with respect to agricultural activities. The CO2 concentrations in
India show a steady increase of about 2.42 ppm/year from 2009 to 2020. The Central
India (CEI), Hilly (HIL), and Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) showed a relatively higher
increase of about 2.43 ppm/year during the period. The highest CO2 concentration is
observed during zaid (March to May) season, whereas the lowest CO2 concentration
is observed during kharif (June to September) season. Anthropogenic activities such
as the high use of fossil fuels and biomass burning are the two factors that signif-
icantly affect concentrations and temporal trends of CO2 in India.

3 Climate Change and Abiotic Plant Stress

Frequent and protracted drought and torrential rainfall, leading to flash flood condi-
tions, are what climate change modelers are predicting for different parts of the globe
(Nagarajan and Nagarajan 2010; Aishwath and Lal 2016). Owing to their sessile
lifestyle, plants are continuously exposed to a broad range of environmental stresses.
The main abiotic stresses that affect plants and crops in the field are being exten-
sively studied (Cavanagh et al. 2008; Munns and Tester 2008; Chinnusamy and Zhu
2009; Mittler and Blumwald 2010). They include drought, salinity, heat, cold,
chilling, freezing, nutrient, high light intensity, ozone (O3), and anaerobic stresses
(Wang et al. 2003; Chaves and Oliveira 2004; Agarwal and Grover 2006; Nakashima
and Yamaguchi-Shinozaki 2006; Hirel et al. 2007; Bailey-Serres and Voesenek
2008). Under natural conditions, combinations of two or more stresses, such as
drought and salinity, salinity and heat, and combinations of drought with extreme
temperature or high light intensity are common to many agricultural areas around the
world and could impact crop productivity (Suzuki et al. 2014). Plants suffer stresses
as a consequence of climatic changes in the environment, and it is one of the most
influencing factors affecting yield and quality especially in the developing countries
764 A. B. Sharangi et al.

(Andy 2016). Climate change generally elevates the amount of carbon dioxide in the
air with concomitant increase in environmental temperature (Hirayama and
Shinozaki 2010). Recent studies have revealed that the response of plants to a
combination of two different abiotic stresses is unique and cannot be directly
extrapolated from the response of plants to each of the different stresses applied
individually. Tolerance to a combination of different stress conditions, particularly
those that mimic the field environment, should be the focus of future research
programs aimed at developing transgenic crops and plants with enhanced tolerance
to naturally occurring environmental conditions (Mittler 2006; Compant et al. 2010).
Crop plants often experience unfavorable environmental conditions such as high
salinity, drought, cold, heat, depletion of soil nutrients, and excess of toxic ions that
hamper the plant growth and development. Dhankher and Foyer (2018) estimated
that, by the next 50 years, global productivity and quality of yield in more than 50%
of the arable lands might be stalled by drought as abiotic stressor. According to
Pitman and Perkins (2008), climate change swap the rainfall timings from one
season or period to the other affecting plant growth and imposing stress by means
of disturbing photosynthesis and metabolism and eventually causing plant death.
Waterlogged situation has different physiological and morphological variations in
crops (Ashraf and Mehmood 1990). Stomatal closure for waterlogging stress lowers
the gas exchange and facilitates passive absorption of H2O, creating anaerobic
conditions in the rhizosphere (Aldana et al. 2014). Transpiration is also abridged
followed by leaf wilting, early senescence, foliar abscission, etc. (Ashraf 2012).
Nutrient intake of plants may also be deterred by waterlogging (Steffens et al. 2005).
Figure 1 depicts the biotic and abiotic stress-induced hormonal roles in spice crops.

Fig. 1 Biotic and abiotic stress-induced hormonal role

Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 765

Fig. 2 Pathways for secondary metabolite production

Recent researches on abiotic stress tolerance in plants attend to the genes from a
number of pathways, viz., osmolyte synthesis, ion homeostasis, antioxidative path-
ways, etc. (Agarwal et al. 2013). Application of phytohormones, signaling, and trace
elements along with osmoprotectants are some other notable methods to manage
these kind of stresses (Wahid et al. 2007; Hassanuzzaman et al. 2010). Gradual
progress in biotechnology and genetic engineering innovated tools and methods for
controlling the abiotic stress resistance mechanism and for developing specific stress
tolerant crops through gene introgression (Bhatnaga-Mathur et al. 2007). Figures 2
and 3 will explain the pathways for secondary metabolite production and the effect
of biotic stress on spice crops by increasing secondary metabolites and enzyme
production, respectively.

4 Climatic Influence on Growth, Yield, and Quality of Spices

Various studies revealed significant changes in weather elements and have had
significant impact on the production of spices crops such as small cardamom, seed
spices, and black pepper (Murugan et al. 2012a; Das and Sharangi 2018). Indian
pepper production has been declining rapidly in the past 10 years due to effect of
climate change. From nearly one lakh ton of annual production, it has come down by
more than 50%. A recent study by the Agricultural Market Intelligence Centre of
Kerala Agricultural University reports that area under black pepper farming has
come down by 24% in 9 years, while production has declined almost half during the
period due to declining productivity and increasing production costs. Black pepper
in Karnataka is grown mainly in the irrigated coffee plantations and is seen to be less
monsoon sensitive (Ravi 2012; Malhotra 2017).
766 A. B. Sharangi et al.

Fig. 3 Effect of biotic stress on spice crops by increasing secondary metabolites and enzyme
production

4.1 Black Pepper

Black pepper is a plant of humid tropics which requires adequate rainfall and
humidity for its growth and development. The crop tolerates a temperature range
of 10–40
C. The ideal temperature is 23–32
C with an average of 28
C. Optimum
soil temperature for root growth is 26–28
C. It successfully grows between 20

North and South latitude and from 1500 m MSL (Radhakrishnan et al. 2002). A
relative humidity of 60–95% is optimum for the crop at various stages of growth.
The rainfall requirement of the crop varies from 2000 to 3000 mm. Tropical
temperature and high relative humidity with little variation in day length throughout
the year are relished by the crop. It does not tolerate excessive heat and dryness
(Sivaraman et al. 1999). Total rainfall and its distribution play an important role in
black pepper cultivation and productivity. Annual rainfall of about 2000 mm with
uniform distribution is ideal. Rainfall of 70 mm received in 20 days during May–
June is sufficient for triggering flowering process in the plant, but once the process is
set off there should be continuous showers until fruit ripening. Any dry spell even for
a few days within this critical period of 16 weeks (flowering to fruit ripening) will
result in low yield. In India, black pepper growing areas receive 1500 mm to more
than 4000 mm rainfall. Rainfall after stress induces profuse flowering. Growth of
fruit bearing lateral shoots and photosynthetic rate are maximum during peak
monsoon in India (Ravindran et al. 2000). Significant correlation was obtained
between rainfall received during first half of May and also with rainfall received
during the second half of June and yield (r ¼ 0.90). High dry matter accumulation
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 767

was observed in branches just before shoot elongation and flowering during April–
May (Ravindran et al. 2000). The late commencement of southwest monsoon causes
a delay in flower initiation of black pepper. Prolonged spell of drought or heavy rains
or the sharp and sudden alteration of the two during advanced stage of berry
development could lead to spike shedding. Intensive shedding occurs during years
in which heavy northeast monsoon showers are received after a spell of dry period
after southwest monsoon.

4.1.1 Rainfall
Study on 140 years of climatological data of Kerala indicated the cyclic pattern in
rainfall with a declining trend in annual and southwest monsoon rainfall during the
past six decades. However, there was an increasing trend in post monsoon rainfall,
indicating likely shifts in rainfall patterns (Rao et al. 2009). Climatic data of two
decades (1984–2004) revealed a declining trend in rainfall and rainy days in major
black pepper growing areas of the country and also a declining black pepper
productivity trend (Krishnamurthy et al. 2011). Rainfall intensity showed positive
relationship with black pepper productivity in Indonesia (Yudiyanto et al. 2014).
Meteorological parameters such as relative humidity (RHmax), rainfall, minimum
and maximum temperatures, bright sunshine hours, wind speed, and evaporation
were correlated with black pepper fresh yield and the magnitude of their association
was in the same order (Kandiannan et al. 2011a). Hao et al. (2012) reported that the
minimum temperature of the coldest month, the mean monthly temperature range,
and the precipitation of the wettest month were identified as highly effective factors
in the distribution of black pepper and could possibly account for the crop’s
distribution pattern. Rainfall in May–June initiates the flushing and flowering
process in pepper. Once the process starts, there should be good precipitation until
fruit development is over. A break in rainfall for even a few days at a stretch
occurring during the critical period (reproductive phase of the crop) will affect the
pepper yields considerably (Pillay et al. 1987). Nalini (1983) also noted a positive
correlation of rainfall with flower bud differentiation process which started during
April–May with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. Long spells of dry weather are
unfavorable for the crop growth. According to Menon (1981) and Nalini (1983), a
dry spell before flowering is advantageous for better crop production. Black pepper
yield is significantly related with the rainfall received during the first half of May and
the cumulative total rainfall in the second half of the year. The distribution of rainfall,
moisture holding capacity of the soil, and drainage status of the soil are more
important than the total rainfall (Sadanandan 2000).
Increasing trend in rainfall during summer months was observed in black pepper
growing regions of India (Kandiannan et al. 2011b) that could affect the flowering
pattern and affect productivity. But irrigation at critical stages during summer
enhanced productivity compared to unirrigated control. Basin irrigation of black
pepper vines (50–60 l/vine) from March 15 to May 15 at an interval of 15 days and
shade regulation during April enhanced black pepper yield threefold in a coffee-
based mixed cropping system in Madikeri, Karnataka (Ankegowda et al. 2011),
indicating the necessity of summer irrigation during critical stages for enhanced
768 A. B. Sharangi et al.

productivity. Pre-monsoon rainfall (March–April) was positively correlated, and

December rainfall was negatively correlated with black pepper productivity
(Krishnamurthy et al. 2011). Rainfall after stress induced profuse flowering (Pillay
et al. 1987). Heavy rains during flowering reduces the rate of pollination, and
continuous heavy rainfall promotes vegetative development and limits flowering
(Pillay et al. 1987). In Idukki (a predominant black pepper growing region), the
change in rainfall pattern during 1999–2000 crop season affected the flowering and
yield (John et al. 1999). Kannan et al. (1988) noted that no rainfall in January–
February and 40 mm in March and good rainfall from third week of April–August
resulted in good yield. Heavy northeast monsoon showers after a spell of dry period
after southwest monsoon results in high spike drop. Dry weather with no/meager
rainfall till March and fairly good summer showers after March till the onset of
monsoon resulted in better black pepper yield in those years. In majority of the years
(54%), an increase in production was noticed in accordance with increase in rainfall
in the case of black pepper. Likewise, a decrease in production was also noticed
when the annual rainfall was low as noticed in 46% of the years during the study
period. It is the distribution of rainfall during the reproductive phase which is more
important rather than the total amount in terms of annual rainfall. Therefore, the
relationship between the total annual rainfall and pepper yield is a complex one.
Continuous rainfall during the southwest monsoon season is good for better
flowering and spike elongation and finally berry development. The lowest yield of
105.8 kg/ha was recorded in 1984 which was attributed to the receipt of continuous
rains throughout the summer period. Even January and February months were not
devoid of rains. Similar situation prevailed in 1958, 1963, 1968, 1975, 1976, and
1977. During these years, continuous rains during the dry months adversely affected
the physiological process of black pepper prior to flowering and finally berry yields
were poor. Comparatively good yields were obtained during years when summer
rains failed or were poor. There exists a strong positive relationship between pepper
yield and poor summer showers. A dry spell before the flowering period (June–July)
may be a pre-requisite condition for pepper plant before the commencement of
flowering. It may be noted that 1983, 1990, 1992, and 2004 were disastrous summer
drought years in Kerala. Except in 1990, all the years recorded an increase in
production, revealing that black pepper production is not affected even during
disastrous drought years to a certain extent though mortality was noticed in young
pepper vines. At the same time, severe summer conditions with acute water stress
coupled with high maximum surface air temperatures may devastate the young and
senile pepper vines as reported in 2004 in Wayanad district. However, during 2004,
no yield reduction was recorded in pepper yield as per data of the State. The years
1961, 1967, 1979, and 1986 also recorded comparatively better yields. It reveals that
ups and downs in the productivity curve are mostly attributed to the occurrence of
summer showers during the critical periods of the crop. In submountainous regions
of Wayanad district, coffee and black pepper are planted as a mixed farming system.
Black pepper and coffee behave antagonistically to summer showers. That is to say,
when one crop (coffee) is benefited with good yield on receipt of summer showers,
the other crop (black pepper) yield will be adversely affected.
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 769

Studies conducted by ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research (ICAR-IISR),

Kozhikode, Kerala, during 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons in Madikeri, Karnataka,
indicated that low rainfall, few rainy days, and low temperature during pre-monsoon
season and very heavy rainfall, more number of rainy days, low light intensity, and
low maximum and minimum temperatures during June to August (spike initiation
period) in 2013 negatively influenced black pepper productivity. Continuous heavy
rainfall and the associated low light, low temperature, and high relative humidity
during spike initiation and flowering stage lead to delayed spike emergence, low
spike production, and altered sex expression. The proportion of bisexual flower
production was drastically reduced leading to very poor pollination and berry set
which ultimately resulted in very low yield (Anandaraj et al. 2016). In 2014, there
was good pre-monsoon showers (250–300 mm spread over 15–20 rainy days during
April and May) followed by normal monsoon season (well-distributed rainfall of
1000–1200 mm during June and July), less cloud cover, and slightly higher RH
(>90%) which resulted in early spike initiation (in July), and about 85–90% of the
flowers in the spikes were bisexual leading to good pollination and berry set
(Krishnamurthy et al. 2017). Venugopal et al. (2013) also observed that in high
altitudes and heavily shaded conditions, proportion of female flowers were higher
compared to hermaphrodite flowers especially in Panniyur-1 and opined that light
availability, temperature, and rainfall influence black pepper production through
their effect on flower composition.

4.1.2 Temperature
Black pepper is sensitive to air temperature. Black pepper yield was low when the
annual maximum temperature was high during 1985 (0.16 t/ha), 1987 (0.24 t/ha),
1991 (0.28 t/ha), 1998 (0.26 t/ha), and 2002 (0.29 t/ha). In contrast, when the mean
annual maximum temperature was low, the yields were high. It was evident in 1990
(0.32 t/ha), 1993 (0.32 t/ha), 1994 (0.32 t/ha), 1995 (0.38 t/ha), 1996 (0.36 t/ha),
1999 (0.38 t/ha), and 2006 (0.31 t/ha). It revealed that mean annual maximum
temperature above 27.4
C may adversely impact the black pepper yield. As in the
case of maximum temperature, when the minimum temperature was high, the black
pepper yield was low. The year 2004 was identified as one of the four disastrous
summer drought years in Kerala. The State has witnessed severe water shortages,
extreme temperatures, and drying up of surface wells and ponds during that year. On
an average, the increase in maximum temperature over normal was 0.6
C during
January to March. Maximum temperature showed an increasing trend while mini-
mum temperature a declining trend at Idukki. The temperature range is thus increas-
ing which is detrimental to a thermo-sensitive crop like pepper. Climate change
adversely affect the pepper production across the State due to its effect on thermal
and moisture regimes. As the crop is intimately related to the monsoon rainfall for its
fertilization and further growth, vagaries in monsoon are a concern across the black
pepper growing areas of the State. Apart from rainfall, temperature also plays an
important role in deciding the berry development and maturity. In the absence of soil
moisture, increase in maximum temperature affect black pepper gardens and young
black pepper vines dry up to a considerable extent. Though the young pepper vines
770 A. B. Sharangi et al.

dried up, the yield decline in black pepper was insignificant due to drought in
summer during 1983 and 1984 crop season. It revealed that rise in maximum
temperature in the absence of soil moisture during summer may not adversely affect
black pepper performance as the berry yield was not affected much though mortality
was noticed in the case of young black pepper vines and the ones under open
conditions. A study on 140 years of climatic data of Kerala by Rao et al. (2009)
indicated increase in day maximum temperature by 0.64
C and night minimum
temperature by 0.23
C. Climate change in terms of increase in temperature may
negatively influence black pepper productivity especially in plains, whereas increase
in T min may have positive influence in high elevations (Krishnamurthy et al. 2015).
Maximum and minimum temperatures negatively influenced black pepper produc-
tion. Unit rise in maximum and minimum temperatures reduced the production by
2.52% and 1.88%, respectively. Rainfall and relative humidity had negative effect on
black pepper production (Nair et al. 2021).

4.1.3 Quality
Black pepper assumed a predominant status among spices due to its inherent quality
which is mainly contributed by the pungent principle, piperine. In general, quality in
black pepper refers to physical quality constituents, viz., grade of berries, bulk
density, test weight, fiber, starch, and protein content of the berries, and intrinsic
quality constituents, viz., oil, oleoresin, piperine, and oil constituents. Dry black
pepper berries collected from low (10–200 m MSL) and high elevations did not
show differences in physical quality (Krishnamurthy et al. 2015). But Sruthi et al.
(2013) reported location-wise variation for both primary and secondary metabolites
such as essential oil, oleoresin, piperine, total phenol, crude fiber, starch, total fat,
and bulk density. Intrinsic quality parameters, viz., piperine, oleoresin, and oil, also
did not show variation between elevation groups. But oil components limonene and
sabinene + myrcene showed positive correlation, while β-caryophyllene showed
negative correlation with elevation. Higher β-caryophyllene and lower limonene and
sabinene + myrcene were observed under low elevation (warmer climate) in black
pepper (Krishnamurthy et al. 2015). Sruthi et al. (2013) also reported altitudinal
variation in β-caryophyllene and total phenol contents. These two constituents were
low at high elevations (>500 mean sea level (MSL)) and high at plains. Similarly,
monoterpenes like thujene, α-pinene, sabinene, limonene, α-phellandrene, and lin-
alool were relatively high at higher altitudes compared to plains. In general, con-
centrations increased when soil moisture increased and decreased when air
temperature increased. These studies show that climate change alters volatile oil
constituents and hence the influence of climate in determining the quality of the
produce.

4.1.4 Pathogens and Pests

Black pepper is affected by many diseases among which foot rot caused by
Phytophthora capsici, followed by slow decline caused by nematodes, anthracnose
caused by Colletotrichum and viral diseases are more common. Among insect pests,
pollu beetle followed by scales, top shoot borer, leaf gall thrips, and mealybugs
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 771

damage the crop. Weather parameters play a major role in the development of foot
rot and anthracnose diseases. Foot rot was positively correlated with relative humid-
ity, rainfall, and number of rainy days and was negatively correlated with minimum
and maximum temperatures (Jayasekhar and Muthusamy 1999). Such relationship
between weather parameters and foot rot disease incidence is also reported by
several other researchers (Ramachandran et al. 1988; Shamarao and Siddaramiah
2002; Arasumallaiah et al. 2008). Phytophthora palmivora infection of black pepper
in an arecanut-black pepper mixed cropping system also showed similar correlation
with rainfall and temperature. Similar relationship between weather parameters and
anthracnose disease was also noticed in black pepper (Biju and Praveena 2015).
Increased incidence of anthracnose disease of black pepper was noticed in carda-
mom hills of Kerala due to climate change in terms of increased temperature and
more number of rainy days (Murugan et al. 2012b). Rainfall which induces the
formation of new shoots in black pepper favors the population of pollu beetle, top
shoot borer, and leaf gall thrips, whereas a dry summer weather favors the population
buildup of scale insects on the crop (Devasahayam 2000a, b). Nematode infestation
of black pepper roots was highest during the dry season (Thuy et al. 2012) which
indicates that drought favors nematodes. Systematic studies in green house showed
that temperature of 36
C and above triggers viral disease in black pepper
(Ahamedemujtaba et al. 2021). These studies highlight the effect of climate change
on pests and pathogens in black pepper.

4.2 Cardamom

There has been recent developments in our understanding of the physiology of

cardamom and their sensitivity to weather and climate (Murugan et al. 2009) in
Indian Cardamom Hills. Climate and weather variation can substantially influence
the development and distribution of pest insects and disease-causing organisms
across cardamom agroecosystem. Climatic variability or more accurately the vari-
ability of the weather, since crop growth and development respond to local weather
and not the general climate, variability at a range of spatial and temporal scales is
now a key concern in studies of impact of ecosystems in general and agroecosystem
in particular (Rosenzweig et al. 2001). Seasonal rainfall variability is a major cause
of variation in crop yields and quality in case of perennial spice crops like cardamom
and black pepper. The land use pattern of cardamom tracts has changed to a great
extent in recent decades. Crops like coffee, black pepper, and arecanut are being
cultivated at many locations in place of cardamom. With denudation of forests in
many areas of Western Ghats, the normal congenial habitat for cardamom has been
affected, destabilizing the ideal cool humid microclimate and productivity of the
crop. Cardamom, being a sensitive plant, any disturbance in the environment,
especially the climatic factors, will adversely affect the growth, development, and
production. The projected global warming and rainfall changes may adversely affect
forest ecosystems where thermo-sensitive crops like cardamom, coffee, tea, and
black pepper are grown.
772 A. B. Sharangi et al.

4.2.1 Rainfall
In India, nearly 75% of cardamom area is still under rainfed condition. It is estimated
that about 80 to 90% of rainfall is received during the period from May to November.
In 1983, the cardamom tract throughout the Western Ghats witnessed very low
production due to failure of rainfall from November 1982 to May 1983. Both the
amount and distribution of rainfall throughout the year are also important to reap a
better cardamom production. Cardamom plantation faces dry spell from December
to May, if pre-monsoon showers fail. The distribution of rainfall during December to
April will decide the success or failure of yield in the case of cardamom since major
portion of panicle emergence and flowering is noticed from December to April.
Trend analysis revealed that rainfall across the high ranges of Kerala is declining.
Rainfall during the main monsoon months (June–September) showed a downward
trend (Murugan et al. 2012a). Since southwest monsoon is the main rainy season in
Kerala, the decline in rainfall during monsoon is a concern across the high ranges
where the cardamom is grown. Post monsoon rainfall (October to November) is
increasing across the high ranges in tune with the increase in post monsoon rainfall
across the State as a whole. While Pampadumpara (Idukki) showed an increase in
rainfall except during southwest monsoon, rainfall across Ambalavayal (Wayanad)
is declining. The total number of rainy days has increased. The rainfall parameters
had positive correlation with production of cardamom with significant relationship
for number of rainy days (Murugan et al. 2000). Both winter and summer monsoon
rainfall as well as high relative humidity had a positive influence on the yield of
cardamom. The variability of monthly mean precipitation was high for May,
December, and January under AR4 climate scenario (Murugan et al. 2012b). But
the sustainable yield of cardamom may be possible only when the winter and
summer rainfall variabilities are minimal.

4.2.2 Temperature
The maximum temperature across the high ranges was increasing irrespective of the
seasons while the minimum temperature declined (Table 1). The mean temperature
also showed an increasing trend except during summer. It is obvious that the range of
temperature (the difference between the day maximum and the night minimum
temperature) is increasing. Similar was the trend in case of Pampadumpara. It is
worth mentioning that increase in temperature range across the high ranges is a
concern as it may adversely affect the thermo-sensitive crops like cardamom and
black pepper (Rao et al. 2008).
Spatial and temporal variations in air temperatures (maximum and minimum),
rainfall, and relative humidity were evident across stations in Indian cardamom hills.
The mean air temperature increased significantly during the past three decades.
December and January showed greater warming across the stations. Cardamom
productivity increased in the cardamom hills irrespective of the variety during
1987 to 2007 indicating that warming may have positive influence on cardamom
productivity (Murugan et al. 2012a). But apart from warming, crop management
practices may also have influence on productivity. Significant increasing trend was
observed for minimum temperature than maximum temperature, and this had caused
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 773

Table 1 Trend in temperature (
C) across the high ranges of Kerala

Maximum temperature (
C) Pampadumpara Ambalavayal High ranges
(1978–2009) (1984–2009) (1984–2009)
Annual +** ** +**
SWM +** +** +**
PM +** ** +**
Winter +** ** +**
Summer +** ** +**
Minimum temperature (
C) Annual ** +** **
SWM ** +** **
PM ** ** **
Winter ** +** **
Summer ** +** **
Mean temperature (
C) Annual +** +** +**
SWM +** +** +**
PM +** ** +**
Winter +** ** +**
Summer ** ** **
Temperature range (
C) Annual +* ** +**
SWM +** +** +**
PM +** ** +**
Winter +** ** +**
Summer +** ** +**
*
Significant at 5% level; **Significant at 1% level

decline in diurnal temperature. Increasing trend of soil temperature from 0 to 10 cm

depth was recorded, which can cause considerable negative implications for sus-
tainable cardamom production both in terms of reduced soil moisture availability
and altered pest population dynamics (Murugan et al. 2012b).
Many studies have shown that phenology of crop is influenced by temperature
and rainfall. Cardamom which was seasonal (June to December) in flowering up to
early1990s is now flowering throughout the year which led to increased harvests
from five to nine per year and hence the productivity. This change from seasonal to
year-round flowering habit indicates the influence of climate change on cardamom
phenology (Murugan et al. 2012a). Rao et al. (2008) reported that southwest
monsoon and annual rainfall showed declining trends from 1951 onward at rates
of 5.2 and 5.6 mm/year, respectively, in the humid tropics. However, the occurrence
of floods and droughts, as evident in 2007 (floods due to a 41% excess in monsoon
rainfall) and the summer of 2004 (drought due to no significant rainfall from
November 2003 to April 2004), is likely to increase and high crop losses are
expected. Climate change in addition to deforestation will affect these thermo
sensitive crops (cardamom, tea, black pepper, etc.) as these are grown under the
influence of typical forest and agricultural ecosystems. Deforestation, shift in
cropping systems, decline in wetlands, and depletion of surface and groundwater
resources may aggravate the adverse effects of floods and drought on crops.
774 A. B. Sharangi et al.

The spatial and temporal distribution and proliferation of pests is determined, to a

large extent, by climate, because temperature, light, and water are the major factors
controlling the growth and development of pests (Rosenzweig et al. 2001). In
cardamom hills, since 2000, the number of pesticide sprays has been significantly
increased, and at present, 15–18 rounds of pesticide sprays are given (as against 7–8
rounds until 1990). But there was no great increase in the frequency of cardamom
damage by major insect pests like thrips and borers indicating the involvement of
more number of insect pests and diseases in damaging the crops. The incidence of
many minor pests, viz., insects and disease pathogens, has increased in the recent
years along with warming. Increased frequency of break period during monsoon
seasons (wet and dry spells) as observed in Pampadumpara might favor the devel-
opment of dry rot during dry spell and wet rot during wet spell (Murugan et al.
2012b). The warming trend coupled with frequent wet and dry spells during the
summer is likely to have a favorable effect on insect pests and disease-causing
organisms, thereby pesticide consumption can go up both during excess rainfall
and drought years. The incidence of many minor insect pest and disease pathogens
has increased in the recent years along with warming (Murugan et al. 2012a).
Differential climatic variability was observed between the two cardamom hot spots
(Coban (Guatemala) and Pampadumpara (India)). Indian cardamom hot spot showed
higher variability than that of Guatemalan hot spot. The Indian spot had higher
diurnal temperature range and had greater variability in rainfall amounts and pattern
than the Guatemalan spot. Significant increases in major climatic elements were
observed for both the spots. Insect pest and disease incidence levels were higher for
the Indian hot spot compared to the Guatemalan region. Increased and higher
productivity levels of cardamom were reported for Guatemala. Indian cardamom
hot spot also showed increasing productivity (Murugan et al. 2015).

4.2.3 Agroclimatic Zones of Cardamom in Western Ghats

The whole cardamom tract across the Western Ghats was delineated into three
agroclimatic zones based on climate indices, viz., length of growing season, avail-
able soil moisture (IMA), soil type, and productivity of cardamom (Table 2).
It is clear that the production potential of Zone I was relatively better
(>200 kg/ha) when compared to that Zone II and Zone III across the Western
Ghats, where the length of growing season was more than 300 days with annual
IMA of more than 90%. The annual temperature range was very low (14.1
C) and
optimum across the Zone I. The production potential of small cardamom was low
(100–150 kg/ha) over Zone III (Karnataka) where the length of crop growing season
was less than 250 days with annual IMA of 70–75%. The annual temperature range
was also high (19.0
C), which maybe detrimental, in the case of cardamom. Zone II
falls under intermediary category (150–200 kg/ha), where the length of crop growing
season was more than 250 days with annual IMA varied between 80 and 85%. It is
evident that the Zone II and Zone III can be made better in terms of production of
cardamom by improving in situ soil moisture conservation practices as these zones
experience uni-modal rainfall. It is understood that Tamil Nadu (Thandikudi) and
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 775

Table 2 Agroclimatic zones of cardamom in Western Ghats

IMA (%) Length of
growing Temperature Productivity
Zone Location Soil type Annual Summer period range (
C) (kg/ha)
I Vandanmettu, Clay and <90 80–90 301 days 14.1 More than
Ayyappankoil, fine 200
Pampadumpara, loam
Udumbanchola,
Santhanpara
villages in Idukki
District, Kerala
(an ideal CHR)
and Sethur hills,
Meghamalai,
Agathiamalai,
Palani hills of
Tamil Nadu
II Wayanad Fine 80–85 >70 265 days 15.6 150–200
District, Kerala, loam
and Gudalur
District, Tamil
Nadu (Nilgiri
Biosphere)
III Virajpet, Red 70–75 50 230 days 19.0 100–150
Madikeri, loam
Somwarpet,
Saklespur, and
Mudigere taluks
(Kodagu,
Chikmagalur,
and Hassan
districts,
Karnataka)

southern parts of Kerala (Pampadumpara) are relatively better suited for cardamom
in obtaining high yields as the areas are conducive in terms on soil and weather
conditions, followed by northeast hill regions of Kerala, whereas weather risk is
involved in the case of Karnataka under rainfed conditions.

4.2.4 Impacts of Climate Variability and Climate Change

The spices productivity is vulnerable to climate variability such as summer droughts
and erratic rainfall during both the southwest and northeast monsoons rather than
climate change over a long period of time. The rate of increase in temperature was
more evident since 1980s. Decline in rainfall and increase in temperature led to
decline in moisture index and increase in aridity index, which is an indicator of dry
spells in recent years. It led to more number of droughts (nine) in the tri-decade of
1981–2009 when compared to that of 1951–1980. Recent decade also witnessed
776 A. B. Sharangi et al.

severe and disastrous droughts. The years 2012, 2014, and 2016 were drought years
in Kerala and 2016 is considered as the disastrous drought year of the century, the
State had ever experienced. It severely affected the livelihood security of the State.
Short fall of monsoon and total failure of post monsoon coupled with poor perfor-
mance of summer showers aggravated the situation which led to poor production of
agricultural crops. It is presumed that such events will occur and reoccur across the
State in a warming and climate change scenario. All these factors reveal that the
global warming and climate change are real across the high ranges of Kerala, where
spices are grown. Therefore, warming and dryness within the humid climate across
the State of Kerala are a concern in the cardamom sector. Vagaries in monsoon,
distribution of rainfall pattern, frequent occurrence of summer droughts, and
increase in maximum and minimum temperatures, deforestation, and shifting land
use pattern have altered the natural habitat of cardamom to a greater extent. Though
the crop simulation models indicate that the black pepper area is likely to decline if
the temperature increase is by 2
C and some of the current areas may disappear in
the above situation of increase in temperature, such trend was not noticed since last
30 years though the rate of increase in maximum temperature was 1.46
C during the
period. From farmers’ point of view, a crop mix with combination of coffee and
black pepper may be beneficial under the climate variability scenario. However, it
needs further probe in depth from all the angles in view of the climate change
scenario.

4.2.5 Impact of Water Deficit During Summer

The prolonged dry spells during the summer adversely affect some of the spices like
cardamom. The cardamom production was very low during 1983 when the water
deficit from December to May was high (270 mm). Such trend was seen in 1987,
1989, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2004, and 2007 during which the water deficit was 211 mm,
140 mm, 185 mm, 111 mm, 200 mm, 134 mm, and 125 mm, respectively. It revealed
that there exists a strong negative relationship between water deficit during summer
(December–May) and cardamom yield. The yield variability was explained to an
extent of 77% based on soil moisture deficit during summer. The study on the effect
of water deficit during summer on black pepper and cardamom across the high
ranges revealed that the water deficit during summer months adversely affect
cardamom to a large extent (R2 ¼ 0.77), while black pepper yield is not affected
much under rainfed conditions.

4.2.6 Climate Analogues

Based on area and production, relative yield index and relative spread index were
calculated and efficient cropping zones were identified. Accordingly, 84 out of
97 districts in black pepper and 16 out of 24 districts in cardamom were identified
as efficient production zones. For identifying the climate analogues, the efficient
districts which contributed 90% of country’s production were selected. Web-based
climate analogues tool developed by the Research Programme on Climate Change,
Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) was used to identify the climate analogues
sites. Rainfall and temperature were the main climate variables for the study.
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 777

Similarity index with 0.75 to 1.0 delineated as highly likely areas and 0.5 to 0.75 as
moderately likely areas for cultivation in future (2020 to 2049) with climate change.
The tool could identify climate analogues sites in 133 districts in 17 states of India
for black pepper and 104 districts in 19 states of India for small cardamom where
cultivation is not reported at current situation, as potential area for future under
changing climate scenario (2020 to 2049). The climate analogues were further
checked for soil suitability and analogues sites with unsuitable soil were eliminated
as these sites are not suitable for cultivation. Thus, a refined map of climate
analogues including soil suitability was prepared. Past rainfall data (for 110 years)
was collected from IMD to analyze the rainfall trend in climate analogues as well as
existing trend for these crops. Trend analysis showed that most of the climate
analogues are showing increasing trend, while most of the current sites are showing
decreasing trend, indicating that the climate analogues are showing the required
rainfall trend for these crops while the existing sites are slowly becoming unsuitable.
Analogues sites will be helpful for policy makers to plan for newer areas for
cultivation of these crops to enhance production under changing climate.

4.3 Large Cardamom

The first inhabitants of Sikkim-the Lepchas collected capsules of large cardamom

from natural forests. New plantations and large patches of large cardamom-based
agroforestry systems have been converted in to monoculture of N2 fixing
actinorhizal Alnus nepalensis as shade tree (Sharma et al. 1998). Large cardamom
is an economically valuable, ecologically adaptive, and agro-climatically suitable
perennial cash crop grown under tree shade in the eastern Himalayas. Climate
change is becoming a well-known phenomenon in the Himalayas and is causing
unpredictable and erratic rainfall, warmer weather, early flowering, less snow in the
mountains and rapid melting of snow, early onset of summer and monsoon, and the
drying up of water sources (Chaudhary and Bawa 2011; Chaudhary et al. 2011;
Bawa and Ingty 2012; Sharma and Rai 2012; Khawas 2015), which is also impacting
severely on cardamom-based farming systems. However, the large cardamom-based
agroforestry system is observed to accelerate the nutrient cycling, increases the soil
fertility and productivity, reduces soil erosion, conserves biodiversity, conserves
water and soil, serves as carbon sink, improves the living standards of the commu-
nities by increasing the farm incomes, and also provides aesthetic values for the
mountain societies (Newaj et al. 2016). Rahman et al. (2012) summarize trends in
temperature and rainfall from 1981 to 2010 at Tadong (elevation 1350 m). They find
that mean minimum temperature has increased by 1.95
C, while mean maximum
temperature did not exhibit any significant departure from long-term average;
rainfall over this 30-year period has increased by 124 mm. During the last two
decades, however, rainfall has decreased both in terms of number of rainy days (loss
of 14.40 days) and total rainfall (355 mm). The rate of increase in mean minimum
temperature too has been highest over the last two decades. In a related paper, in
Gangtok (elevation 1765 m), Seetharam (2012) found decreases in both mean
778 A. B. Sharangi et al.

minimum and maximum temperatures from 1961 to 1990 as compared to the period
between 1951 and 1980. He also found that rainfall has decreased between 1961 and
1990. The results of Rahman et al. (2012) and Seetharam (2012) are not comparable
because of the different periods involved. The limited data presented by these papers
underscores the need for long-term data from multiple sites to adequately analyze
trends. Furthermore these data sets are from mid altitudes. There are indications that
climate may be changing more rapidly at higher altitudes in the Himalayas
(Chaudhary and Bawa 2011). Moreover, presentation of means without variances
does not permit inferences about statistical significance of the trends found. Shrestha
et al. (2012) show that between 1982 and 2006, temperatures in the Himalayas
increased by 1.5
C (about three times the global average), and annual precipitation
increased by 163 mm. Others too have noted similar increases in temperature and
precipitation (Liu and Chen 2000). The primary data for snow cover is even sparser
than temperature and rainfall data. Luitel et al. (2012) and Basnett and Kulkarni
(2012) found no discernible pattern in the amount of snow cover in the Teesta and
Rangit basins from 2004 to 2008. Similarly there is virtually no information about
changes in glaciers. Luitel et al. (2012) show that East Rathong Glacier in West
Sikkim has receded by 460 m between 1976 and 2009. The issue of glacial melting
in the Himalayas, however, is complex: of the thousands of glaciers in the region,
only a few have been monitored, and large-scale observations in fact indicate that
glaciers in many parts of the Himalayas are growing and in other parts receding
(Scherler et al. 2011). It is clear that the appropriate data to demonstrate changes in
temperature, precipitation, snow cover, and glaciers are currently lacking (Bawa and
Ingty 2012).

4.4 Nutmeg

Nutmeg cultivation is believed to have started in India at Kalady in Central Travan-

core, Kerala, around eighteenth century. It thrives well in places receiving a well-
distributed annual rainfall with a temperature ranging 15–35
C and 600–1200 m
MSL. Higher precipitation and stronger wind force are practical problems to
shallow-rooted nutmeg of being uprooted. Furthermore, intense rainfall causes
rotting of roots. Conversely, unavailability of water in cardamom also decisively
limits the growth potential. The diversity of pollinating insect species, viz., ants,
bees, butterflies, and flies, is affected by temperature, humidity, and solar radiation
thereby impacting fruit set. The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia, originating from
the Banda Islands, Maluku. The plant of nutmeg requires rainfall of
2000–4500 mm/year with 100–160 rainy days, temperatures of 25–26
C, and
relative humidity of 60–80% so that climate variables play important role in the
productivity of nutmeg (Hadad et al. 2006). There has been an increase in total
rainfall of 374 mm (13.0%) in the study area in the period of the last 30 years
(1987–2016) compared with the previous period (1957–1986) which indicates there
has been climate change in Saparua island, Indonesia. The contribution of climate
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 779

variables (air temperature, air relative humidity, and rainfall) to nutmeg production
were 45.52%, 37.13%, and 55.12%, respectively (Rehatta et al. 2021). Nutmeg
cultivation is greatly influenced by various weather parameters. Weather parameters
like maximum temperature, temperature range, mean temperature, wind speed, and
solar radiation found to have influence on yield, growth, and phenology of nutmeg.
Solar radiation during flowering stage negatively affected. Wind speed during fruit
development stage negatively influenced the yield (Das and Sharangi 2018; Adharsh
et al. 2021). Nutmeg is generally cultivated using agroforestry system with many
varieties of populations and species which is supposed to influence the characteris-
tics of nutmeg plants and micro climate. Thus, understanding the plant characteris-
tics and microclimate of nutmeg plantation using agroforestry system is very
important. Nutmeg plantation using agroforestry system is a mix between nutmeg
as the main crop with other crops such as cloves, coconut, and others
(Tjokrodiningrat et al. 2016).

4.5 Clove

In recent years, the production of cloves seems to have been influenced by climatic
conditions on a global scale. In 2018, the harvest recorded in Madagascar was a
previously unseen calamity, no doubt due to unusually moist conditions. Malagasy
production represented around 10–20% of an average year. This observation is the
same in Comoros, Brazil, and Zanzibar, whose production fell from 7000 t in 2017
to 1300 t in 2018, while Indonesian production, benefiting from favorable climatic
conditions, at the same time very high. The question this raises and which is
causing concern to the stakeholders in the sector is whether these are the first
significant indications of a climate change effects (Danthu et al. 2020). Ecologi-
cally, forest cloves can be utilized to control global climate change through the
absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Forest clove plants as part of
the agroforestry component in Maluku have a shared role with other forest vege-
tation to anticipate the effects of climate change through the uptake of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere (Mardiatmoko 2012). The agroforestry system in
Maluku is a tree-based mixed cropping system that can maintain carbon stocks
(C-stock) because of the high biomass accumulation in tree components compared
to monoculture systems. Measurement of carbon stocks on agroforestry types
needs to be done to support the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (Ohorella
and Kaliky 2014).

4.6 Cinnamon

Rainfall, insolation, temperature, and wind are the major climatic factors affecting
the growth and yield of cinnamon. Cinnamon is a hardy plant and tolerates a wide
range of soil and climatic conditions. In the West Coast of India, the tree is grown on
laterite and sandy patches with poor nutrient status. It comes up well from sea level
780 A. B. Sharangi et al.

to an elevation of about 1000 m MSL. Since it is mostly raised as a rainfed crop, an

annual rainfall of 200–250 cm is ideal.

4.7 Chillies

Many studies have been carried out to look for the possible damage to chilli crop
growth and development due to change in climate and global warming and also to
find out the solution to these problems (Bhutia et al. 2018). Abnormal weather
conditions are known to be the central causes of a decline in chilli production
(Smittle et al. 1994). Night temperature should not exceed 30
C (Dorland and
Went 1947). Temperature (maximum and minimum) and sun shine hours showed
significant negative correlation with productivity. Crop growth is indirectly con-
trolled by temperature caused by the stability in photosynthesis and respiration rates
(Yáñez-López et al. 2012). The heat threshold level is different among developmen-
tal stages of chilli pepper, and the expected global warming may cause destructive
impacts to the production of chilli pepper, seriously disrupting the pollination
processes (Hedhly et al. 2009; Mateos et al. 2013). According to the recent
researches of Pérez-Jiménez et al. (2019), a heat shock (43
C) and a high CO2
concentration (1000 μmol/mol) exposed on pepper in a controlled environment
enhanced photosynthesis and nitrate produce, mostly at the elevated CO2 concen-
tration. Furthermore, heat stress deteriorates protein stability level in a plant cell,
exposing hydrophobic patches that may lead to the congestion of denatured proteins
(Kim and Hwang 2015). Extreme hot summers lead to reducing growth, declined
production, and more abnormal fruits (Lee et al. 2001; Heo et al. 2013). The crop
productivity usually is affected by the deficiency or excessive availability of almost
all macro- and microelements in the root zone. The N content substantially declined
when chilli pepper is exposed to high salt stress; however, the adverse effect was
partly mitigated by balanced N supply (Munns and Tester 2008). Again, toxic
mineral elements like arsenic, mercury, cadmium, and lead trigger an adverse effect
for plant survival (Abayomi et al. 2012). Salinity has a considerable impact on fruit
nutrient content of pepper, reducing concentrations of macro- and microelements as
well as amino acid profiles (Piñero et al. 2019). The importance of optimum time of
sowing (Hosmani 1982; Nagaraja et al. 2007; Gayatridevi and Giraddi 2009; Islam
et al. 2010; Hamma et al. 2012) facilitates better crop growth by utilizing the
southwest monsoon and thereby resulting in high yield. High rainfall makes hot
pepper susceptible to anthracnose or phytophthora diseases which can extensively
impact the yield (Hwang and Tae 2001). Sin and Yun (2010) also found that elevated
CO2 level and temperature invites quite a few diseases.

4.8 Sweet Pepper (Capsicum)

High day and night temperatures negatively influence vegetative growth, flowering,
fruit set, and yield of capsicum (sweet pepper) (Erickson and Markhart 2002). Plants
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 781

exposed to high temperature (33
C) showed a decline in fruit set with flower
malformation (Yáñez-López et al. 2012). When grown in temperatures below
18
C, parthenocarpic fruit and low fruit set were evident (Aloni et al. 2001). Climate
change alone is predicted to increase global hunger (IFAD 2009) and physiological
disorders like blossom end rot and sun scald thereby dropping in yield and value of
capsicum (Savvas et al. 2008).

4.9 Seed Spices

Seed spices are basically crops of winter season requiring definite low-temperature
situation for favorable vegetative growth. Profound yield losses as well as quality
deterioration have been experienced owing to collective effect of chilling and frost
injury. Some of the frost sensitive seed spices are cumin, coriander, nigella, ajowan,
etc. Fennel and fenugreek are affected by frost, based on growth stages. Seed spices
are highly valued crops in arid and semi-arid areas of India. They are mostly grown
in Rajasthan and Gujarat, and, on limited scale, in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Punjab, Haryana, and some parts of south India (Aishwath and Lal 2016; Lal and
Verma 2018). Kalidasu et al. (2016) reported on wide-ranging response of seed
spices due to profound rainfall.
All the seed spices are very sensitive to temperature in terms of their production and
quality. Cumin germination is very sensitive to temperature changes. The crop is
generally sown around 15th of November (early winter) when the temperatures start
going down, but due to climate change if temperature rises during this period, cumin
germination will be delayed. Increase in temperature may reduce the duration of
maturity and increase evapotranspiration of the crop. Increase in day temperature,
with increase in difference in the day and night temperatures, adversely affects the
growth and brings forced flowering in most of the seed spice crops. Heavy losses have
also been observed due to combined effect of chilling and frost injury. Cumin,
coriander, nigella, and ajwain are very sensitive to frost. Incidence of frost can cause
serious loss in yield; even complete failure. Fennel and fenugreek are also affected by
frost but growth stage plays an important role. So far, no efforts have been made to
identify the sources of resistance against low temperature injury in available germ-
plasm of seed spices crops (Sastry 2017; Verma et al. 2018a, b; Lal et al. 2019). Plant
genetic resources (PGR) represent the diverse gene pools including landraces, prim-
itive cultivars, varieties of traditional agriculture, wild and weedy relatives of crop
plants, etc. (Painting et al. 1993). They are being utilized for developing improved
crop varieties for high yield, superior quality, and better adaptation to various stress
environments (Bansode et al. 2015; Verma et al. 2018a). These resources are being
adversely affected by increasingly harsh environment because of climate change. The
adoptability and suitability of present cultivars of seed spices may be changed due to
increase in the temperature because a particular variety requires specific agro-
environment for its growth and development (Aishwath et al. 2011, 2015). The
traditional areas of seed spices cultivation may change due to extreme weather
conditions and occurrence of diseases, which will reduce the crop production. During
782 A. B. Sharangi et al.

the last few years, huge crop loss has seen in cumin due to Alterneria blight disease,
which is mainly spread by air under cloudy weather conditions. If the cloudy condition
lasted for 3–4 days more than 90% crop loss was observed in Ajmer district of
Rajasthan. Due to climate change, varieties adapted to a location may no more be
suitable for that particular location. For example, “GC-4” is the main variety of cumin
adopted by farmers in all growing areas, but it has failed in Ajmer conditions due to
occurrence of blight. Similarly, many coriander varieties in Kota region of Rajasthan
now get heavily infested by stem gall, which was not much of a problem in the past.
Increase in the average temperature would lead to faster growth and development, and
the crop would mature before time reducing the yield, particularly in crops that are
photoperiod sensitive. Increased salt stress in some areas, because of climate change,
would also reduce the productivity of the spice crops (Verma et al. 2018b). Most of
seed spices crops are mainly cross pollinated and pollination is carried out by honey
bees. In seed spices major bee pollinator includes Apisdorsata, A. florea, A. mellifera,
and A. cerana (Meena et al. 2015). Change in the climate may be a major threat to
pollination due to reduced activity of pollinating agents. Increase in temperature has
highest adverse effect on pollinator-plant interactions (Hegland et al. 2009; Memmott
et al. 2007). Under high temperature conditions of 40–50
C only A. dorsata can work
and it completes its foraging activity early in the day. The working efficiency of all
other bee species is drastically reduced. In the same way, climatic change associated
events of cloudiness, fog, cold winds also hamper the pollinators in their regular
pollination activities (Schweiger et al. 2010) adversely. Most seed spice in arid and
semi-arid areas are grown under rainfed conditions and shortage of water to these
crops is likely to increase in the future because of increased temperature, as the
evapotranspiration would increase. Changes in pattern of rainfall due to climate
change would increase occurrence of drought and reduce the crop productivity.
Raising temperatures are likely to increase incidence of insect pest infestation in the
crops of seed spices. For example, aphid infestation in coriander and cumin is very
high if temperatures during the month of January are above normal. Larger difference
in day and night temperatures and cloudy conditions during January and February
encourage aphids to develop faster. Seed midge (Systole albipenis) is another major
pest of coriander and fennel; its population is observed to increase when temperatures
are lower than usual. As mentioned before, Alternaria blight diseases in cumin is
likely to be accentuated because of changing climatic conditions. Cumin wilt (caused
by Fusarium oxysporum sp. cumini) incidence is also going to increase because of rise
in moisture stress and soil temperatures. Powdery mildew in fenugreek and coriander
is favored by high temperature and high humidity. Normally during the end of January
and starting of February month, any large fluctuations in day and night temperatures
increase the severity of powdery mildew (Khare et al. 2014a, b). Some of the minor
diseases and pests may become major ones in the future. For example, reddening and
yellowing in cumin is a recent problem in cumin growing areas and in same way root
cracking in coriander has been recently reported physiological problem due to varia-
tion in day and night temperature and moisture stress (Meena et al. 2014). Solar
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 783

radiation too governs the final yield of coriander. Provision of shade net can create
optimum situation for coriander by reducing the strong summer temperature by 5
C
(Guha et al. 2014, 2016a, b).

4.10 Vanilla

Vanilla thrives in hot-humid tropical climates. It grows best in temperatures ranging

from 20
C to 30
C (Childers and Cibes 1948; Ranadive 2005; Hernández and
Lubinsky 2011) and may tolerate high temperature of 32
C (Purseglove et al. 1981).
Temperatures reaching below 20
C inhibit plant growth and flowering intensity
(Ranadive 2005); temperatures exceeding 32
C cause yellowing of vegetative parts
and premature fruit drop (Anandaraj et al. 2005a; Hernández 2007).
Vanilla requires an annual average precipitation from 2000 to 3000 mm
(Sasikumar et al. 1992; Arenas 2003), it is well distributed throughout the year
except during flowering/pollination. Since heavy rains may diminish successful
pollination and fruit set, it is best to irrigate the plants at their bases during flowering.
Vanilla needs 2–3 relatively dry months to stimulate flowering. In areas where
average annual precipitation exceeds 3000 mm, plants are more prone to fungal
attack (e.g. Fusarium sp.). At the other extreme, that is, where precipitation is less
than 2000 mm, and where a system of irrigation is not in place, the lack of water
greatly compromises the ability of the plant to perform basic physiological functions.
The best altitudes for cultivating V. planifolia are between the sea level and 600 m
(Childers et al. 1959), although cultivation systems do occur as high as 1100 m MSL
in Mexico (Arenas 2003). In India, Vanilla is reported to be cultivated up to 1500 m
MSL (Anandaraj et al. 2005b; John 2005), and in Uganda, cultivation is successfully
practiced between 800 and 1200 m MSL.
Vanilla grows well under 50% shade. In dry periods with intense sunlight, it is
preferable to use 50–70% shade (Medina 1943; Ranadive 2005) for better conser-
vation of soil and air humidity. In rainy periods, the amount of shade should be
reduced to 30–50% to avoid creating favorable conditions for growth of pathogens.
Excess shade causes weak growth and poor flower production, while excess sunlight
leads to burning of the leaves and stems, as well as early fruit drop. Plants that suffer
from either too much sunlight or shade are the ones most likely to develop diseases.
The humus-rich soils of Western Ghats and the northeastern states of India are highly
suited for its cultivation. Vanilla is grown successfully as an intercrop in coconut and
arecanut gardens (Sasikumar et al. 1992). It was introduced to India during 1835. As
per the documentary evidence (Anonymous 1992), it was first cultivated at Kallar
and Burliar Fruit Research Station, Nilgiris, during 1945 and later at Regional
Agriculture Research Station, Ambalavayal, Wayanad, Kerala. Few enterprising
farmers and coffee planters of Wayanad took up its cultivation as an intercrop in
shade tree plantations under the technical guidance of the Ambalavayal research
farm in Wayanad and the then Government of Kerala encouraged cultivation of
784 A. B. Sharangi et al.

vanilla in the tribal settlement at Cheengeri at Ambalavayal as an alternative income-

generating crop during 1960s (Sarma et al. 2011). According to Potty and
Krishnakumar (2003), vanilla can be successfully cultivated in areas nearer to the
equator, where warm and humid climate prevails throughout the year and up to an
altitude of 1100 m above MSL.

4.11 Saffron

Kashmir valley is a major saffron-growing area of the world, second only to Iran in
terms of production. In Kashmir, saffron is grown on uplands (termed in the local
language as “Karewas”), which are lacustrine deposits located at an altitude of 1585 to
1677 m MSL under temperate climatic conditions. Kashmir, despite being one of the
oldest historical saffron-producing areas, faces a rapid decline of saffron industry.
Among many other factors responsible for decline of saffron industry, the preponder-
ance of erratic rainfalls and drought-like situation have become major challenges
imposed by climate change (Husaini 2014). Growing season of saffron is in cold
season, where its aerial parts come out of the soil and grow. Flowering of saffron is
among unique processes of the plant occurring before beginning of vegetative growth.
Halevy (1989) believes that temperature can be the most important regulator of saffron
flowering. Numerous studies (Behdani et al. 2003; Molina et al. 2004) have shown that
minimum temperature is main determinant of flower formation in saffron. In areas
with earlier than normal onset of cold temperature (in cold season), saffron flowering
begins earlier. Due to strong correlation between saffron flowering behavior and
ambient temperature, it seems that future climate change will influence flowering
patterns of this plant (Koocheki 2003). Considering multiple regression yield model of
saffron based on climate extreme indices, Kouzegaran et al. (2020) concluded that
saffron yield will decrease in future periods over studied area in Iran with the highest
reduction of 31% in period of 2076–2100 under RCP 8.5 scenario. They also
confirmed that yield reduction in all three periods under RCP (Representative Con-
centration Pathway is a greenhouse gas concentration (not emissions) trajectory
adopted by the IPCC) 8.5 scenario was greater than the same periods under RCP 4.5
scenario. Considering the present distribution of Crocus species in the world, most of
the crocus species are under threat of genetic erosion because of loss of land to fast
urbanization, greenhouse effect, and global warming-based climate changes (Frello
et al. 2004; Walia et al. 2016; Khorramdel et al. 2017).

4.12 Ginger

Yield performance of selected somaclones of ginger were analyzed against weather

parameters under varied weather situations (Shylaja et al. 2011a, b). Future forecast
of Eco-crop model confirmed that the status of existing growing states (Orissa and
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 785

West Bengal) will be reduced considerably from highly suitable to marginally

suitable, when temperature will rise by 1.5–2
C (Parthasarathy et al. 2008). Hydro-
logical imbalances, as reported by Rawat (2012), brought about a yield decrease of
ginger in the Lesser Himalaya from 15,200 to 13,800 kg/ha at an annual rate of
0.45%. Mohandas (2015) and Shylaja et al. (2011a, b) found strong correlations
between weather parameters and yield.

4.13 Turmeric

Growth and development of turmeric rhizome and leaves are dependent on several
factors, such as nutrition, cultivation practices, genotype, and environmental
factors. The crop endures an annual average rainfall of 640–4200 mm and
optimum annual mean temperatures of 18.2–27.4
C. The seed rhizomes planted
in the field take about a month to produce new shoots. The weather during this
period had no significant effect on yield, and it is probably significant only after
emergence of the crop (Kandiannan et al. 2002). However a temperature range of
25–35
C is optimum for the sprouting of turmeric rhizome buds, and sprouting
does not occur below 10 or above 40
C. Seedlings elongate well in the temper-
ature range between 25
C and 30
C, but do not survive above 40
C.
A field study by Rawat (2012) established an annual yield drop of 0.55% (from
14,600 to 13,000 kg/ha). Turmeric is an excellent intercrop as it thrives well in
partial shade. The response of different stages of phenophases to climatic conditions
plays a major role in identifying whether the crop is really able to tolerate or
susceptible to harsh environmental conditions. Turmeric grows luxuriantly in
shades, but it produces larger and better rhizomes in the open ground exposed to
sun (Ridley 1912). Turmeric comes up well under partial shaded conditions, but
thick shade affects yield adversely (Sundararaj and Thulasidas 1976; Singh and
Edison 2003). Growth parameters showed a positive beneficial effect up to 25% and
50% shade, respectively. The yields at 25%, 50%, and 70% shade levels expressed as
percentage of that in the open were 74%, 55%, and 30% on fresh weight basis,
respectively. The general trend indicated the superiority of full light in most of the
varieties tested (Satheesan and Ramadasan 1988; KAU 1991) since most of the
photosynthates of shade grown plants were utilized for shoot growth affecting
rhizome development significantly and limiting the productivity of turmeric grown
under shade (Sivaraman 1992; Sharangi et al. 2022).

5 Effect of Climate Change on Crop Pests and Diseases

Managing natural hazard risk is inherent in agriculture, given the sector’s reliance on
climate and weather conditions and the natural resource base. However, more frequent
and intense natural hazards, and the compounding and systemic nature of that risk,
pose a challenge for the sector-for farmers in developing countries, who often bear the
786 A. B. Sharangi et al.

brunt of natural hazard impacts (Scheffers et al. 2016; FAO 2021). It is strongly
indicated that in many cases climate change will result in increasing problems related
to plant health in managed (e.g. agriculture, horticulture, forestry), semi-managed
(e.g. national parks), and presumably also unmanaged ecosystems (IPCC 2021).
Recently, Seidl et al. (2017) published a comprehensive, global analysis of available
results (more than 1600 single observations) and concluded that around two-thirds of
all observations show that the risk of abiotic (e.g. fire, drought) and biotic (e.g. insect
pests, pathogens) stress factors will increase in forestry worldwide. Warmer and drier
conditions favor disturbances by insects, whereas warmer and wetter conditions favor
disturbances from pathogens. The same trend is expected for many crop diseases
(Juroszek and von Tiedemann 2011, 2015; Juroszek et al. 2020), insect pests
(e.g. Choudhary et al. 2019), and weeds (e.g. Clements et al. 2014), with increasing
pest risk in most cases. Thus, preventive, mitigation, and adaptation measures are
needed in the future to reduce the projected increases in pest risk in agriculture,
horticulture, forestry, as well as in urban areas and national parks (Edmonds 2013).
Major diseases like wilt, blight, powdery mildew, downy mildew, root rot, soft rot,
stem gall, blight, and mycoplasma-like organism (MLO) frequently attack and cause
heavy loss to yield and quality deterioration of spices. Efficient use of both bio-agents
and pesticides can successfully control wilt, blight, powdery mildew, downy mildew,
and aphids which are the most disturbing biotic stresses in common seed spices (Khare
et al. 2014a, b) (Table 3).

5.1 Climate Change and Insect Pests

In general, all important life-cycle stages of insect pests, pathogens, and weeds
(survival, reproduction, and dispersal) are more or less directly influenced by
temperature, relative humidity, light quality or quantity, wind, or any combination
of these factors. The physiological processes of most pest species are particularly
sensitive to temperature (Juroszek et al. 2020). For example, plant viruses and their
insect vectors may be particularly favored by high temperatures until their upper
temperature threshold is reached (Trebicki 2020). The scale and intensity of agri-
culture continue to increase at the expense of grasslands and forests worldwide, with
the tropics increasingly impacted. Developing productive monocultures allows us to
feed our rapidly growing population but leaves little habitat for pollinators, natural
enemies, and other wildlife within the cultivated areas. In any case, it theoretically
spares more natural and partly developed habitats. In either case, tropical forests,
which likely support more than 70% of the global insect species diversity, are rapidly
being lost to agriculture, fuel consumption, logging, and, increasingly, fires (Raven
and Wagner 2021). Climate change brings with it a number of further difficulties for
agriculture and biodiversity. The Earth’s mean temperature has been increasing by
1
C, and any inaction or incorrect action from our end will cause an elevated
temperature by 1.5
C within a decade (2030) (IPCC 2018; Saeed et al. 2021). If this
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 787

Table 3 Disease incidence in spice crops due to climate change

Pathogen group Crop Causal organism Climatic factor Reference
Fungi Black Foot rot (Fusarium Soil moisture and Kollakkodan
pepper solani) cultural practices et al. (2017);
LSPA (2017)
Black Wilt (Fusarium Moist soil and post Syakir et al.
pepper oxysporum) monsoon season (2019);
Anandaraj
(2000)
Nematode Black Meloidogyne incognita Plants are wilted after Syakir et al.
pepper and Meloidogyne heavy infection by (2019); Krishna
javanica sunny, warm, and dry and Eapen
weather (2019)
Fungi Cardamom Blight (Colletotrichum Pre-monsoon showers Saju et al.
gloeosporioides) in April–May rains (2013)
Fungi and Ginger Soft rot (Pythium spp.; Cool and moist Prajapati et al.
Bacteria Ralstonia conditions due to rain (2018); Bhai
solanacearum) causes spread of the et al. (2013);
disease Deadman et al.
(2006)
Bacteria Ginger Bacterial soft rot High temperature Dohroo (2005);
(Erwinia (>30
C) and high soil Dohroo and
chrysanthemi) moisture Gupta (2014)
Bacteria Ginger Bacterial wilt High soil moisture and Dohroo (2005);
(Ralstonia soil temperature Kumar and
solanacearum) Anandaraj
(2006)
Fungi Ginger Leaf spot (Phyllosticta High humidity and Brahma and
zingiberi) temperature Nambiar (1982,
1984); Cerezine
et al. (1995)
Fungi Ginger Fusarium yellows/ High rainfall and Amreen and
Yellow disease poorly drained soil Kumar (2013)
– Ginger Sheath blight/Leaf Warm wet weather in Gupta et al.
blight (Causal early summer months (2019)
organism not
identified)
Fungi and Ginger Dry rot (Fusarium spp. Warm wet weather, Dohroo (2005)
nematode and Pratylenchus spp.) coupled with high soil
moisture
Fungi and Turmeric Soft rot (Pythium spp., Cool and moist Prajapati et al.
bacteria Ralstonia conditions due to rain (2018)
solanacearum)
Fungi Turmeric Leaf blotch (Taphrina Cool temperatures and Kumar et al.
maculans) temperature between (2020)
30
C and 35
C
Fungi Coriander Powdery mildew High temperature Prajapati et al.
(Erysiphe polygoni) coupled with low (2018)
humidity and low or no
rainfall
(continued)
788 A. B. Sharangi et al.

Table 3 (continued)
Pathogen group Crop Causal organism Climatic factor Reference
Fungi Coriander Vascular wilt 24–27
C temperature Khare et al.
(Fusarium oxysporum and 60–70% soil (2017)
f sp. coriandrii) moisture
Fungi Coriander Charcoal rot In light soil and dry Khare et al.
(Rhizoctonia areas (2017)
bataticola (Taub)
Butler)
Fungi Coriander Coriander Wilt Optimum temperature Jat and Ahir
(Fusarium oxysporum) for the disease is 28
C (2017)
Fungi Coriander Stem Gall (Protomyces Minimum/maximum Leharwan and
macrospores) temperature and Gupta (2019);
relative humidity Kumar et al.
influence the disease (2020)
Fungi Fennel Damping off Soil temperature is Khare et al.
(Phytophthora between 12.5
C and (2014b)
syringae) 14
C and high
moisture
Fungi Fennel Leaf blight (Ramularia Cool (20–25
C), high Khare et al.
foeniculi) humid, or cloudy (2014b)
weather
Fungi Fennel Root rot (Pythium spp) High soil temperature Khare et al.
(35–39
C), dry (2014b)
weather following
heavy rains
Fungi Onion Purple blotch Temperature 28–30
C Prajapati et al.
(Alternaria porri) and 80–90% relative (2018)
humidity
Fungi Onion Damping off More prevalent during Mishra et al.
(Fusarium oxysporum) rainy season 2014
Fungi Onion Stemphylium leaf Warm humid Mishra et al.
blight (Stemphylium conditions and long (2014)
vesicarium) periods of leaf wetness
Fungi Onion Basal rot (Fusarium Moderate temperature Mishra et al.
oxysporum f. sp. of 22–28
C (2014)
cepae)
Fungi Onion Black mold Onions stored in hot Mishra et al.
(Aspergillus niger) climates where the (2014)
temperature is between
30
C and 45
C
– Onion Colletotrichum blight/ Warm (25–30
C), Mishra et al.
Anthracnose (Causal moist soils (2014)
organism not
identified)
Fungi Onion Fusarium basal Moist soil and 27
C Mishra et al.
rot/Basal rot (Causal temperature (2014)
organism not
identified)
(continued)
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 789

Table 3 (continued)
Pathogen group Crop Causal organism Climatic factor Reference
Fungi Garlic Purple blotch Temperature 28–30
C Prajapati et al.
(Alternaria porri) and 80–90% relative (2018)
humidity
Fungi Garlic Downey mildew Heavy dew, cloudy Mishra et al.
(Peronospora days, humid (2014)
destructor) atmosphere with
4–25
C temperature
Virus Chilli Chilli leaf curl virus High temperature and Prajapati et al.
drought (2018)
Fungi Cinnamon Leaf spot and die-back Heavy and continuous Khan et al.
(Colletotrichum rainfall (2020)
gloeosporioides)
Water molds Cinnamon Canker (Phytophthora The optimum Khan et al.
cinnamomi) temperature for growth (2020)
of the fungus is
24–28
C
Fungi Nutmeg Leaf spot and shot hole Optimum temperature Jayakumar et al.
(Colletotrichum is 25–28
C and high (2011)
gloeosporioides) humidity
Fungi Nutmeg Fruit rot – Radhakrishnan
(Colletotrichum (1986)
gloeosporioides)
Fungi Nutmeg Thread blight – Haldankar and
(Marasmius Rangwala
pulcherima) (2009)
Fungi Clove Seedling wilt High day temperature –
(Cylindrocladium sp) (30–35
C), low
humidity (50–60%)
Fungi Clove Leaf rot Moderate temperatures Khare et al.
(Cylindrocladium and moist weather (2014a, b)
quinqueseptatum) during bloom

is allowed, it would be difficult to conserve most of the existing biodiversity (Urban

2015; Warren et al. 2018; Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2019) (Table 4).

6 Mitigation

Mitigation is a “technological change and substitution that reduce resource inputs

and emissions per unit of output.” It further specifies that “although several social,
economic, and technological policies would produce an emission reduction, with
respect to climate change, mitigation means implementing policies to reduce green-
house gas emissions and enhance sinks” (IPCC 2007b).
790 A. B. Sharangi et al.

Table 4 Pest incidence in spice crops due to climate change

Insect Crop Scientific name Climatic factor Reference
White grub Large Holotrichea sp. Depends on the season of Deka et al.
cardamom attack (2016)
Early capsule Large Lampides elpis; Mostly in the rainy season Deka et al.
borer cardamom Jamides sp (2016)
Cardamom Large Merochlorops Warm weather Deka et al.
shoofly cardamom dimorphus (2016)
Shoot borer Turmeric Conogethes 30–33
C temperature and Singh et al.
punctiferalis 60–90% relative humidity (2018)
Thrips Turmeric Panchaetothrips Warm and humid weather –
indicus
Leaf roller/ Turmeric Udaspes folus 26–35
C temperature, –
skipper Cramer 41–100% relative humidity
Shoot borer Ginger Pythium spp 30–33
C temperature and Nair et al.
60–90% relative humidity (2019)
Leaf roller/ Ginger Udaspes folus 26–35
C temperature, Nair et al.
skipper Cramer 41–100% relative humidity (2019)
Thrips Ginger Anaphothrips Warm and humid weather Nair et al.
sudanensis (2019)
White grubs Ginger Holotrichea spp. Warm and humid weather Nair et al.
(2019)
Rhizome fly Ginger Calobata spp. Warm and humid weather Nair et al.
(2019)
Onion thrips Onion Thrips tabaci Population increase with Haile et al.
relative humidity and decrease (2016); Gill
with rise in temperature et al. (2015)
Onion Onion Delia antique Active at lower temperatures Mishra et al.
maggot Meigen (2014)
Thrips Garlic Thrips tabaci Population increases with –
relative humidity and decrease
with rise in temperature
Pollu beetle Black Lanka Rainfall, which induces Devasahayam
pepper ramakrishnae formation of new shoots, (2000a)
leaves, and spikes
Scale insects Black Lepidosaphes Dry summer months Devasahayam
pepper piperis/ (2000a)
Aspidiotus
destructor
Top shoot Black Cydia hemidoxa Rainfall, which induces Devasahayam
borer pepper formation of new shoots (2000a)
Leaf gall Black Liothrips karnyi Rainfall, which induces Devasahayam
thrips pepper formation of new shoots and (2000b)
leaves
Stem borer Black Lophobaris Warm and humid weather Indriati and
pepper piperis Trisawa (2011);
Soetopo (2012)
Whitefly Black Aleurodicus Warm and humid weather Yap (2018);
pepper disperses Ann (2019)
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 791

6.1 Resilient Spice Production for Mitigating Climate Change

Agriculture in India is estimated to contribute to 28% of greenhouse gases. Of this,

enteric fermentation in ruminants accounts for about 50% in the form of methane.
Methane emission from rice fields and nitrous oxide from the application of manures
and fertilizers is also significant. Nitrification inhibitors and slow release fertilizers
like neem-coaled urea will help to mitigate (Swaminathan and Kesavan 2012).
Swaminathan (2009) observed that the largest opportunity for mitigation lies in
increasing soil carbon sequestration and thereby building soil carbon banks. Increase
in the soil carbon pool in the root zone by 1 t C/ha/year will help to increase
food production substantially, since one of the major deficiencies in soil health is
low soil organic matter content. He has recommended the planting of a billion
“fertilizer trees,” which can simultaneously sequester carbon and enhance soil
nutrient status.

6.2 Organic Farming: Building Resilience in Soil

Organic agriculture, sometimes called biological or ecological agriculture, combines

traditional conservation-minded farming methods with modern farming technolo-
gies. It emphasizes rotating crops, managing pests naturally, diversifying crops and
livestock, and improving the soil (Koide et al. 2014) with compost additions and
animal and green manures. According to a US National Academy of Sciences report,
any farm, be it organic or conventional, can only be deemed sustainable if it
produces adequate amounts of high-quality food, enhances the natural resource
base and environment, is financially viable, and contributes to the wellbeing of
farmers and their communities (Reganold and Wachter 2016; Clark 2020). In
Indian context, organic farming has to be practiced without synthetic pesticides,
but complete exclusion of fertilizers may not be advisable under all situations. A
holistic approach involving integrated nutrient management (INM), integrated pest
and disease management (IPDM), enhanced input-use efficiency, and adoption of
region-specific promising cropping systems would be the best organic farming
strategy for India (NAAS 2005). Studies have had more mixed findings, however,
when examining the impact of organic farming on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
and climate change. Life-cycle assessments (LCAs) in particular have indicated that
organic farming can often result in higher GHG emissions per unit product as a result
of lower yields. The organic movement has the opportunity to embrace the science of
LCA and use this information in developing tools for site-specific assessments that
can point toward strategies for improvements. Responding effectively to the climate
change crisis should be at the core of the organic movement’s values. Additionally,
while societal-level behavioral and policy changes will be required to reduce waste
and shift diets to achieve essential reductions in GHG emissions throughout food
systems, organic farming should be open to seriously considering emerging tech-
nologies and methods to improve its performance and reduce GHG emissions at the
production stage (Clark 2020).
792 A. B. Sharangi et al.

Organic agriculture systems and products are required to be certified by

accredited agencies to indicate that they have been produced, stored, processed,
handled, and marketed in accordance with technical specifications. The organic label
is a production process claim, as opposed to a product quality claim. India now has
26 accredited certification agencies to facilitate the certification of growers. In India,
the Tea Board, Coffee Board, Spices Board, and Coconut Development Board have
developed guidelines for production and certification and have encouraged the
production and export of organic produce and products (Mitra and Devi 2016).
India currently accounts for over 12% (in terms of quantity) of the world spice
market. The main consumers of organic spices are Germany, UK, France, Japan, and
the U.S. However, organic spices in India represent a very negligible part of total
spice production. Organic spices produced by India and having export potential
include black pepper, ginger, turmeric, cloves, mace, nutmeg, vanilla, cardamom,
chili, mustard, tamarind, camboge, thyme, rosemary, oregano, marjoram, parsley,
and sage (fresh, dehydrated, and oil) (Mitra and Devi 2016). The number of
operational holdings in ‘000s by size groups in India for all social groups can be
found in percentages from the following Fig. 4.

6.3 Developing Climate Resilient Varieties

Resilience is the ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb,
accommodate, or recover from the effects of a hazardous event in a timely and
efficient manner, including through ensuring the preservation, restoration, or

Fig. 4 Number of operational holdings in ‘000s by size groups in India for all social groups
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 793

improvement of its essential basic structures and functions. The development and
identification of climate resilient varieties of spices with enhanced tolerance to heat,
drought, flooding, chilling and salinity stresses are essential to sustain and improve
crop yields and to cope with the challenges of climate change. It is essential to
enhance the productivity and profitability of farming community by minimizing risk
in agriculture in order to improve the livelihoods of millions of people dependent on
agriculture. While, abiotic stresses such as drought, heat, or cold may trigger a series
of responses in plants that include changes in gene expression, signal transduction
pathways, metabolic and molecular mechanisms, as well as cumulative manifesta-
tions of these in terms of source and sink relations for adaptation (Maheswari et al.
2019). To adapt stress effectively for spice crops, improved tools and methods like
molecular and genomics-assisted breeding (GAB) are followed through next-
generation sequencing and high-throughput sequencing (Kole et al. 2015). Climate
resilient varieties indirectly favor to enhance the income of farmers (Sastry 2017). A
few spice varieties tolerant/resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses are given in
Table 5.

6.4 Establishment of Community Seed Bank for Spices

A community seed bank is defined as a locally governed and managed, mostly

informal, institution whose core function is to maintain seeds for local use (Devel-
opment Fund 2011). Beyond this core conservation function, community seed banks
have a broad range of additional purposes and vary significantly in scope, size,
governance and management models, infrastructure and technical aspects. There is
considerable variability in the performance of community seed banks in terms of
technical and operational capacities (e.g. technical rigor in monitoring germination
and ensuring viability of stored seed), governance, and operational management.
Technical and operational challenges are often compounded by lack of legal recog-
nition and scarce financial resources. Past experience has shown that community
seed bank initiatives are usually quite effective during their initial years, but with
withdrawal of external support, many cut back on activities or stop altogether. As in
other organizational efforts, when community seed banks are established without
proper foundations, long-term survival is difficult. Nonetheless, in many countries
one can find well-functioning community seed banks (Vernooy et al. 2015). In recent
years, the number of newly established community seed banks has been on the rise
partly due to the growing support of national and state or provincial governments.
Examples include Bhutan, Brazil, Mexico, Nepal, South Africa, India, and Timor-
Leste (Vernooy et al. 2017).

6.5 Addressing Specific Farm Operations in Time

Timely operations are always a “non-monetary input.” Exploration of flexibility,

beyond stipulation by classical recommendations, can be a resilient approach in
794 A. B. Sharangi et al.

Table 5 Spices varieties tolerant/resistant to biotic and abiotic stress

Crop Variety Tolerance/Resistance
Black pepper IISR Thevam & IISR Tolerant to Phytophthora foot rot
Shakthi
Pournami Tolerant to root knot nematode
ACCS 1380 (IC 316801) Tolerant to drought
ACCS 1387 (IC 316803) Tolerant to drought
ACCS 1410 (IC 316817) Tolerant to drought
ACCS 1423 (IC 316825) Tolerant to drought
ACCS 1430 (IC 316832) Tolerant to drought
Small cardamom ICRI 5 Tolerant to drought
IISR Avinash Tolerant to rhizome rot
IISR Vijetha & Resistant to katte/mosaic disease
Appangala 2
PV 2 Tolerant to stem borer and thrips
ICRI 2 Tolerant to azhukal/capsule rot
ICRI 3 Tolerant to rhizome rot
RR1(IC 349591 Tolerant to drought
CL-893 (IC 349537) Tolerant to drought
Green Gold (IC 349550) Tolerant to drought
Turmeric IISR Pragati Resistant to nematode
Suguna & Sudarshana Resistant to rhizome rot
NDH 98 Tolerant to salinity
BSR 2 Resistant to scale insects
Pant Peetabh Resistant to rhizome rot
Coriander ACr 1 Resistant to stem gall
CO 2 Suitable for saline and alkaline and drought prone
areas
Sindhu Suitable for rainfed areas, tolerant to wilt, powdery
mildew and drought
RCr 20 Suitable for rainfed crop or limited moisture
condition
Cumin GC 1 Resistant to cumin wilt

responding to favorable weather and averting unfriendly weather conditions. Farm

operations such as planting, sowing, irrigation, plant protection, harvest, etc. should
be undertaken at optimum time.

6.6 Water Harvesting: Innovating Irrigation

Water harvesting is the collection of runoff for productive purposes. Spices as

low-volume high-value commercial crops are cultivated both in rainfed and irrigated
situations. Water harvesting and recycling should be a crucial element of spice
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 795

production mostly in rainfed crops where mulching may conserve the moisture. It
also includes Rooftop rainwater harvesting, Surface runoff harvesting, proper utili-
zation of first flush, provision of catchment, etc.

6.7 Protected Cultivation

In spices, ginger, coriander, etc., the poly house/net house is used primarily for
raising quality planting materials in commercial scale. Standardization of potting
mixtures and use of appropriate containers largely depend upon the nature of crop.
Irrigation and fertigation schedules are not effectively addressed for raising spice
crops in protected cultivation. Protected cultivation of seed spices to create more
favorable environment for on-season and off-season crops specifically coriander
(NRCSS 2014). Singh and Singh (2015) delved into the scope of protected cultiva-
tion techniques in seed spice crops grown especially coriander in the harsh climatic
conditions of semi-arid and arid regions of the country and presented a brief and
concised information with respect to the techniques that have immense potential for
application for seed spice crops cultivation in various parts of the country. There was
an increase of about 59% in the productivity of coriander in poly house as compared
to open cultivation (Singh 2019). Mir et al. (2022) carried out the SWOT analysis. In
terms of environmental, social, and economic sustainability, vertical farming has a
myriad of benefits over rural farming. The need for soil-based farming is being
largely challenged by new high-tech cultivation techniques such as hydroponics,
aeroponics, and aquaponics (Mir et al. 2022).

6.8 Crop Diversification and Climate Change

Extreme temperature, frequent and intensive flood, cyclone, and other natural
disasters due to climate change became acute and expecting to be severe in future.
In the same time, crop diversification could be an effective adaptation option under
this situation as it protects natural biodiversity, strengthening the ability of the
agroecosystem to respond to these stresses, minimizing environmental pollution,
reducing the risk of total crop failure, reducing incidence of insect pests, diseases,
and weed problems and secure food supply opportunities, and also providing pro-
ducers with alternative means of generating income (Lakhran et al. 2017; Feliciano
2019). Cropping system is a healthier alternative compared to monoculture. When
two or more crops are developed along with main crop, some income could be
realized from other crops under unforeseen situations or partial crop failure. In every
cropping system, incorporation of leguminous crops, with both mulching and
nutritional impact on soil, can go a long way in making spice-based system more
agile, healthy, and enduring to micro weather changes. Black pepper is well adapted
to grow as mixed/intercrop with plantation crops. Pepper itself is also intercropped
796 A. B. Sharangi et al.

with coffee, tea, arecanut, and coconut. The tree spices such as clove, nutmeg,
cinnamon, and allspice can be interplanted with cardamom and also suitable for
cropping system with other plantation crops. Seed spices are excellent intercrops in
fruit orchards (Meena et al. 2017).

6.9 Integrated Farming System (IFS)

Making agriculture climate smart through integrated approach is also an ideal

solution to ensure the food security of the ever-increasing global population at a
time when there are twin problems of land degradation and carbon emissions. In
the context of climate change, the crop-based husbandry alone is not sufficient for
the small and marginal farmers. Introduction of animal husbandry, bee keeping,
mushroom production, sericulture, etc. together is a good proposition. Indian
holdings, more than 80% are small and marginal, are becoming vulnerable to
another problem of fragmentation and further marginalization to make discrete
farms both resource and energy prodigal. So an integration and combination of
crop-fish-animal-orchard can make marginal holding ensuring both happy return
and dedicated livelihood. The increasing digitalization of agricultural practices
makes it possible to produce plant and animal products with ever higher efficiency
and ever lower environmental impact. Therefore, the agri-food sector is expected
to become more and more data-driven by the use of ICT (Information and Com-
munication Technology), while the need for AgTech-enabled innovation will
become greater than ever. A number of technologies not traditionally used in the
agri-food sector are now starting to play a key role in what is perceived as an
AgTech revolution (Kakamoukas et al. 2021).

6.10 Bringing Non-descript Land Under Spice Crops

Non-descript lands, the lands not yet been brought under disruptive modern
agriculture, are potentially important to invite the entry of spices. These lands
are ecologically resilient, already fertile with time-drawn nutrients, and keep
dancing with ecological orchestration and symphony while remaining
un-attempted and unattended coercive “modern technology.” The spice crops can
enjoy a natural vigor in this genre of lands simply because the crops would be
grown in an ecologically pristine ambience. In India, the size of land holdings
(ha) of spices under various classes can be found in percentages from the following
figure (Fig. 5).

6.11 Institutional Support

Crop insurance, storage infrastructures, bank loans, minimum support price, crop
advisories, assured marketing, etc. are a few examples of the institutional support
Brunt of Climate Change and Spice Crops: Scenario, Response, and Resilience 797

Fig. 5 Size of land holdings (ha) of spices under various classes in percentages

that can help farmers from the brunt of climate change. Cheaper mechanization tools
may facilitate growing as well as the postharvest loss reduction.

7 Future Strategies for Illustrative Vision-Mission

In 2019, approximately 34% of total net anthropogenic GHG emissions came from
the energy supply sector, 24% from industry, 22% from agriculture, forestry, and
other land use, 15% from transport, and 6% from buildings. Approved by 195 gov-
ernments after a marathon negotiating session that ran over schedule by 2 days, the
roughly 2900-page report focuses on options for curbing emissions and mitigating
the impacts of global warming. The document, compiled by hundreds of scientists
across 65 countries, is the last of a trilogy comprising the IPCC’s sixth climate
assessment (IPCC 2022). The first two reports cover the underlying science and
impacts of climate on humans and ecosystems. Coming more than three decades
after the panel’s first climate assessment, the sixth installment delivers the most
forceful warning yet about the consequences of inaction. The question now, scien-
tists say, is whether governments will at last step up to the challenge with actions
rather than unfulfilled pledges. “Despite more mitigation efforts by more govern-
ments at all scales, emissions continue to increase,” says Karen Seto, a geographer at
Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, and a coordinating lead author on the
report. “We need to do a lot more, and we need to do it quickly” (Tollefson 2022).
Spice crops have traditionally being grown in a relatively undisturbed ecosystem
and quite logically it has been genetically encoded with higher resilience to go by the
undulation of climate change. Spices constitute an important component of cropping
798 A. B. Sharangi et al.

systems/farming systems including agroforestry, crop rotation, intercropping, multi-

storeyed cropping, and high-density multispecies cropping system. For our future
agriculture and planning, when degradation of ecological resilience offers a real
challenge in Indian agriculture, spices can generate, a splendid opportunity to tide
over the brunt of climate change. The impact of climate change on rice, wheat, and
some vegetables is increasingly discernible; some of the spices are coming up with
an exception in combating brunt of climate change and global warming. Some
non-descript leaves, nuts, fruits, even roots can add to this tally.
A clear-cut policy statement with a vision and setting up of missions can be a
befitting approach with the present scenario. Socialization of spice cultivation
technology by editing the conventional cropping sequences can go effective, pro-
ductive, and flexible in terms of both ecological and economic resilience. Commu-
nity seed bank can act as a repository of traditional knowledge and technology, seed
and plant materials, know-hows and do-hows, and the same can be integrated into
the style and functioning of micro-level agriculture and micro-level operations
therewith. Setting a mission for extracting, encoding, and marking land races and
folk genes can be effective to utilize the therapeutic properties of spices. Creation of
mass awareness and group activities are extremely essential.
Modern appropriate and effective participatory ICT approach can make this entire
process easy, enjoyable, and effective. The use of smart phones even can be
redirected for documenting traditional spices, weeds, herbs to contributing for a
meta data repository. The photographs captured can help minute and meticulous
image processing and the analyzed images of hitherto overlooked non-descript
spices having inherent potential to combat the inevitability of global warming can
enjoy a grand extrapolation for both inventorization of data and invention of
alternatives to conventional approaches of health care.
Application of data analytics and artificial intelligence is the need of the hour to
support process of visualization, prediction, and strategy delineation. Visualization
would help to estimate and understand the present status; through simulation, we can
go for predicting not only future climate but also a scenario can be made available in
regard to how much of land resource and economic dividends we can expect from a
long drawn prediction model. It is especially important when there is no denial that
the impact of global warming will keep on tormenting us with high and higher
aggression in future and posterity.

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