02/11/2024, 15:14 Educational Content Structure
Chapter 4: Working of Institutions
4.1 How is a Major Policy Decision Taken?
Description:
Short Summary: This section explains how important government policies are created and
implemented, using the example of the 1990 Office Memorandum on job reservations for
Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC).
Medium Summary: The section explores how policy decisions are made in a democracy,
focusing on the 1990 decision to reserve 27% of government jobs for SEBCs. It explains the
role of key institutions, such as the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, in decision-making and
highlights the Judiciary's role in reviewing these decisions when challenged. The Office
Memorandum serves as an example of the official process involved in announcing and
enforcing government policies.
Long Summary: The section provides a detailed look into the government’s decision-making
process using the 1990 reservation policy as a case study. In response to the
recommendations of the Mandal Commission, the government issued an Office
Memorandum to reserve 27% of government jobs for SEBCs. This decision involved multiple
institutions: the Prime Minister’s Office and the Cabinet approved the policy, Parliament
debated it, and the Judiciary reviewed its legality in response to public disputes. The
Supreme Court upheld the policy in the Indira Sawhney case but introduced the concept of
“creamy layer” exclusion, refining the policy by excluding wealthier individuals among SEBCs
from benefiting. This example underscores how democratic institutions collaboratively
ensure that policies address public needs while maintaining accountability.
Key Concepts:
1. Office Memorandum: An official document issued by the government to communicate
major policy decisions.
2. Mandal Commission: A commission set up in 1979 to identify SEBCs and recommend
measures for their advancement.
3. Decision-Makers: Key figures in policy-making include the President, Prime Minister, and
Cabinet, each with specific roles.
4. Judicial Review: The Judiciary’s power to examine government decisions and ensure their
alignment with constitutional principles.
Examples:
Mandal Commission Recommendations: The 1979 commission identified SEBCs and
recommended job reservations for their upliftment, which later influenced the 1990 policy.
https://chatgpt.com/c/671e4f5a-05a0-8001-b8c9-1a369c7c7787 1/5
Supreme Court’s Role: In the Indira Sawhney case, the Supreme Court upheld the 1990
02/11/2024, 15:14 Educational Content Structure
reservation policy but excluded economically well-off SEBCs, introducing the “creamy layer”
principle to make the policy more equitable.
Exercises:
Easy:
1. Define the term “Office Memorandum.”
2. Fill in the blank: The Mandal Commission was established in ___ to identify and improve
conditions for SEBCs.
Medium:
1. Describe the role of the Prime Minister and Cabinet in formulating the 1990 Office
Memorandum.
2. What is the importance of Judicial Review in the policy-making process?
Hard:
1. Analyze the role of the Supreme Court in modifying the 1990 reservation policy. What
impact did the “creamy layer” clause have on the policy’s implementation?
2. Critically assess how the 1990 reservation decision affected social equity and
representation in government employment.
Interactive Quizzes:
1. What is an Office Memorandum?
A) A government policy announcement
B) A legal verdict
C) A parliamentary bill
D) A citizen’s petition
Answer: A) A government policy announcement
2. Who reviewed and refined the 1990 reservation policy?
A) The Prime Minister
B) The Supreme Court
C) The President
D) Parliament
Answer: B) The Supreme Court
Challenge Problems:
https://chatgpt.com/c/671e4f5a-05a0-8001-b8c9-1a369c7c7787 2/5
1. Advanced Analysis: Discuss how public opinion and social movements influenced the 1990
02/11/2024, 15:14 Educational Content Structure
reservation policy. How did institutions respond to these pressures?
2. Critical Thinking: How might similar policies today require different forms of institutional
collaboration or public engagement?
Flashcards:
1. Question: What is the Mandal Commission?
Answer: A commission set up in 1979 to identify and recommend measures for the
advancement of SEBCs.
2. Question: What role does the Supreme Court play in policy decisions?
Answer: The Supreme Court reviews policies to ensure they align with constitutional
principles, modifying them if necessary.
3. Question: What is the “creamy layer” in the context of reservation policy?
Answer: It refers to economically well-off individuals within SEBCs who are excluded
from reservation benefits.
4.2 The Need for Political Institutions
Description:
Short Summary: Political institutions, like the Parliament and Judiciary, manage
governmental functions and maintain accountability in a democracy.
Medium Summary: Political institutions are essential in a democracy to manage
responsibilities such as lawmaking, implementation, and dispute resolution. They ensure that
power is distributed across branches, preventing abuse and promoting accountability. The
separation of powers among institutions like Parliament, the Executive, and the Judiciary
maintains a balance, ensuring that each branch has specific roles that support democratic
governance and protect citizens’ rights.
Long Summary: This section explains why political institutions are fundamental to
democracy, handling duties such as national security, welfare, law-making, and public
administration. Parliament, the Executive, and the Judiciary work in tandem, each playing
distinct roles. Parliament creates laws, the Executive implements them, and the Judiciary
resolves disputes and checks the constitutionality of laws. This “separation of powers”
prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful, creating a system of checks and
balances. Such institutions offer stability, continuity, and accountability, as demonstrated in
the example of the 1990 reservation policy where each institution played a critical role in
policy creation, review, and implementation.
https://chatgpt.com/c/671e4f5a-05a0-8001-b8c9-1a369c7c7787 3/5
02/11/2024, 15:14 Educational Content Structure
Key Concepts:
1. Political Institutions: Structures like Parliament, the Executive, and Judiciary that manage
various government functions.
2. Separation of Powers: Dividing government functions across branches to ensure checks
and balances.
3. Role of Institutions: Parliament debates and makes laws, the Executive enforces them, and
the Judiciary ensures they comply with constitutional values.
Examples:
Role of Parliament: Debates and discusses policies, such as the reservation policy, ensuring
they reflect public interest.
Judiciary’s Role in Dispute Resolution: Ensures laws and policies align with constitutional
principles, as in the Supreme Court’s decision on the reservation policy.
Exercises:
Easy:
1. What are political institutions?
2. True or False: The Judiciary is responsible for implementing laws.
Medium:
1. Define “separation of powers” and give an example of how it operates in the Indian
government.
2. Explain why political institutions are necessary in a democracy.
Hard:
1. Compare and contrast the roles of Parliament and the Judiciary in managing
government policies.
2. Describe how political institutions prevent the abuse of power in a democracy.
Interactive Quizzes:
1. What is the primary role of the Executive in government?
A) To interpret laws
B) To enforce laws
C) To debate policies
D) To create laws
Answer: B) To enforce laws
https://chatgpt.com/c/671e4f5a-05a0-8001-b8c9-1a369c7c7787 4/5
2. What does the “separation of powers” ensure?
02/11/2024, 15:14 Educational Content Structure
A) Concentration of power
B) Checks and balances
C) Speedy policy-making
D) Reduced government functions
Answer: B) Checks and balances
Challenge Problems:
1. Analysis: How might decision-making differ in the absence of institutions like the Judiciary
or Parliament? Analyze the possible outcomes.
2. Critical Thinking: Examine the impact of “separation of powers” on policy-making efficiency.
Does it make the process slower, and is this beneficial for democracy?
Flashcards:
1. Question: What is the primary function of Parliament?
Answer: Parliament debates and creates laws.
2. Question: What does the separation of powers help prevent?
Answer: It helps prevent the concentration of power and abuse within a single branch.
3. Question: Which branch of government ensures laws comply with the Constitution?
Answer: The Judiciary.
https://chatgpt.com/c/671e4f5a-05a0-8001-b8c9-1a369c7c7787 5/5
