Fundamentals

M15
GAS TURBINE ENGINE
Rev.-ID: 1APR2013
Author: DaC
For Training Purposes Only
ELTT Release: Jul. 15, 2013

M15.9
Lubricants and Fuels

EASA Part-66
CAT B1

M15.09_B1 E
Training Manual

For training purposes and internal use only.

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Lufthansa Technical Training
GAS TURBINE ENGINES EASA PART-66 M15
LUBRICANTS AND FUELS
M15.9

M15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

M15.9 LUBRICANTS AND FUELS
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

FRA US/O-5 DaC May 22, 2013 ATA DOC Page 1

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M15.9

OIL GENERAL

Tasks of Engine Oil

In this lesson you are going to find out about the tasks and characteristics of
engine oil. We will also introduce you to the different oil types and their main
characteristics.
First let us look at the main tasks of oil on modern jet engines.
These tasks include
S lubricating,
S cooling,
S cleaning
S and corrosion protection.
Generally, lubrication is needed to reduce friction between metal surfaces that
move against each other.
You can see here, in this example, that the contact surfaces look very smooth
but when you look more closely at them through a microscope, you can see
that they are very rough.
When the surfaces move against each other they can cause very high friction
and wear. So the oil is needed to form a protective film. This prevents the
contact between the metal surfaces.
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Figure 1 Lubricating
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Task of Engine Oil cont.

Cooling is another task of the engine oil. All the heat in the lubricating areas
caused by the operating engine must be removed.
The heat of the materials is transferred to the oil when it is in contact with the
metal surfaces.
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Figure 2 Cooling
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Task of Engine Oil cont.

Oil is used to clean the system from contamination. These contaminations can
be caused by abrasions from the gears or bearings or by foreign objects like
sand or dust particles.
The oil carries these particles until they are caught in an oil filter. Sometimes,
the particles are very small so that they are not caught by the filter. These very
small particles, which also indicate some internal wear can only be found by a
special analysis in a laboratory.
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Figure 3 Cleaning
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Task of Engine Oil cont.

Another important task of the oil is to protect the metal surfaces from corrosion.
You will find that many materials in the engine are not resistant to corrosion. As
you can see in this photo, if oil is not used corrosion can occur.
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Figure 4 Corrosion Protection

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Types of Oil
In this segment we are going to look at different types of engine oil.
There are two groups of engine oils:
S mineral oils
S synthetic oils
Mineral oils are generally not as capable as synthetic oils. They are only used
on piston type engines.
Synthetic oils are used on jet engines. They are designed specially to meet the
needs of the engine.
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Figure 5 Synthetic and Mineral Oil

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Types of Oil cont.

You can find three different types of synthetic oils. These are Type 1, 2 and 3.
Type 1 oil is a first generation synthetic oil. It is now only used on some older
gas turbine engines.
Type 2 oil is mostly used on modern gas turbine engines.
Type 3 oil has a higher thermal stability and viscosity at high temperatures than
the Type 2 oils. You will find that this type of oil is only used on special aircraft,
for example, the Eurofighter.
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Figure 6 Different Types of Synthetic Oil

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Types of Oil cont.

The advantages of synthetic oils are that they have better viscosity, better
thermal stability and a high pressure resistance.
One disadvantage of synthetic oils is that they have a high price. They are also
harmful to the skin but the most critical disadvantage of synthetic oils is that
they cannot be mixed with synthetic oils from other manufacturers even if they
are of the same type.
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Figure 7 Advantage/Disadvantage of Synthetic Oil

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Oil Specification
The main characteristics of engine oil are:
S viscosity,
S pour point,
S flash point,
S pressure resistance,
S oxidation resistance
S and thermal stability.
The viscosity is the most important characteristic of engine oil. It is the internal
resistance of a fluid against deformation.
Let us now look at an example of what viscosity is.
If you let a metal ball fall into a glass of oil, you can see that the ball takes time
to reach the bottom.
If the ball falls slowly, this shows that the viscosity of the oil is high.
If the ball falls quickly, this shows that the viscosity of the oil is low.
The viscosity of the oil depends on the temperature of the oil. It is high at low
temperatures and it is low at high temperatures.
This means, that warm oil with a low viscosity has a low internal resistance. A
low internal resistance is an advantage, but if the viscosity gets too low, the
load carrying capability of the oil decreases and the oil film can no longer
separate the moving surfaces.
You will find that the viscosity is usually measured in centistokes (cS). The
viscosity of Type 2 oils must be higher than 5 centistokes at 99° C and lower
than 13,000 centistokes at a temperature of −40° C.
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Figure 8 Viscosity
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Oil Specification cont.

Let us now look at the next characteristic of engine oil, the pour point. You
reach the pour point of the oil, if you cool it down more and more. At this
temperature the oil becomes so thick that it stops flowing.
Note that Type 2 oils for jet engines have a pour point of −57° C. So if the
temperature is lower than this, the oil stops flowing.
Now let’s have a look at the flash point of engine oils. It should be as high as
possible to avoid fire in the oil system.
Type 2 oils have a flashpoint which is higher than 250° C.
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Figure 9 Pour Point and Flashpoint

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Oil Specification cont.

The pressure resistance capability of the oil is an important factor for the oil film
between the moving components.
We will explain this process with this example. Here you can see oil film on an
engine bearing. This film resists the loads on the bearing and prevents contact
between the moving surfaces.
If the loads are higher than the pressure resistance capability of the oil, the
metal bearing surfaces come into contact and heavy material wear occurs.
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Figure 10 Pressure Resistance

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Oil Specification cont.

Oxidation is the reaction between oil and oxygen. When the oil reacts with
oxygen it gets thicker and increases its viscosity.
The oil starts to react with oxygen when the oil temperature increases above a
certain level.
Therefore the oxidation resistance is an important characteristic of oil because
it increases the durability of the oil.
Type 2 oils are resistant to oxidation at oil temperatures up to 220° C.
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Figure 11 Oxidation Resistance

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Oil Specification cont.

The term thermal stability describes the oil resistance to decomposition of the
oil compounds at high temperatures. The oil molecules are made of several
individual compounds.
At high temperatures these molecules can break apart and the chemical
composition and the lubrication capability of the oil changes.
This decomposition usually occurs at very high temperatures, far above the
normal operating temperatures of the engine oil. Type 2 oils can resist
chemical decomposition at temperatures of up to 340° C.
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Figure 12 Thermal Stability

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FUEL CHARACTERISTICS

Types of Turbine Engine Fuel

Turbine engine fuels used for jet engines are kerosene type fuels which are
closely related to diesel gasoline.
There are four main types of turbine engine fuel.
These are called:
S Jet A1,
S Jet A,
S Jet B
S JP 5.
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Figure 13 Types of Engines Fuel

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Types of Turbine Engine Fuel cont.

The fuel types differ in their main characteristics.
Jet A1 is the most commonly used fuel type for jet engines in Europe.
This fuel type is reasonably safe for you to handle because it has a high flash
point of +38° C and a low freezing point of -47° C. The American name for this
type of fuel is JP 1A.
Jet A is the most commonly used fuel type for jet engines in America.
It is very similar to Jet A1 with the same high flash point of +38° C but with a
lower freezing point of -40° C. In the USA this fuel is also called JP 1.
Jet B fuel is mainly used for military jet engines.
Theoretically, it can also be used for civil aircraft engines but Jet B has an
extremely low flash point of -20° C to provide good ignition capabilities. This
means it requires extreme care in handling. Jet B has a very low freezing point
of -60° C. The American name for this type of fuel is JP 4.
JP 5 is another type of military jet fuel.
It is preferred by the military on aircraft carriers because its very high flash
point of +65° C makes it very safe for handling. JP 5 has a relatively low
freezing point of -48° C.
You must record the type of fuel used when refueling. This is important,
because each type of fuel has different handling and operating characteristics.
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Figure 14 Fuel Main Characteristics

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Characteristics of Turbine Engine Fuels

The main requirements of turbine engine fuels are a low freezing point and a
flash point low enough to provide good ignition capabilities but as high as
possible for safe fuel handling.
Turbine engine fuels must also have a low tendency to vaporize in high flight
altitudes.
Engine fuels need to be widely available all over the world and must have a low
tendency to carry water.
Different fuels have different freezing points depending on their composition.
The freezing point is the temperature at which some elements of the fuel start
to crystallize and the fuel flow slows down. The required freezing point of fuel
for turbine engines should be below -40° C.
The flash point of fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel creates just
enough vapors to build up a fuel/air mixture that can be inflamed. To reduce
any fire hazards, the flash point of the fuel used for civil aircraft should be as
high as possible. If the flash point is reached, the fuel/air mixture burns, but if
the external flame is removed, the fuel/air mixture extinguishes.
The volatility is another very important characteristic of jet fuels. Volatility of
fuel is its ability to vaporize. A highly volatile fuel is very desirable for engine
starts in cold weather and in flight, and fuel with low volatility is desired to
eliminate vapor lock and to reduce fuel losses by evaporation.
Jet fuel, like all other fluids vaporizes if the ambient pressures decreases. The
higher you fly the more the ambient pressure decreases. Ambient pressure
decrease causes fuel to vaporize.
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Figure 15 Fuel Characteristic

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Characteristics of Turbine Engine Fuels cont.

Another very important characteristic of fuel is its density. This is the ratio
between mass and volume. This ratio changes with the fuel type and fuel
temperature.
Jet A1 and Jet A have the same density of 0.81kg/ltr. at a temperature of
15_ C.
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Figure 16 Fuel Density

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Characteristics of Turbine Engine Fuels cont.

Other requirements on jet engine fuels are that it must be readily available so
that the airlines can get the same fuel type all over the world. It must have
adequate lubrication capabilities for the moving parts in the fuel system, and
the fuel must have a low tendency to hold water to minimize water
contamination problems.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 17 Fuel Requirements

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Water in Fuel
Because jet engine fuels are heavy they tend to carry contamination such as
water, dirt or microorganisms.
Dirt can be avoided and removed sufficiently by filters, but you will always find
some water in fuel.
Fuel can carry water in two different conditions. Water may be either dissolved
in fuel and, therefore, be totally invisible or it can be suspended in fuel. It is
then generally visible as small droplets or water bubbles.
Water in fuel must be removed periodically from the tanks, because it can
create severe problems in the aircraft fuel system.
Water encourages ice build−up if fuel cools down below 0° C. It supports
corrosion in the fuel system components and large amounts of water in fuel
can cause engine power fluctuations or flame outs.
Water accumulations in the fuel tanks will always cause erratic fuel quantity
indications.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 18 Water in Fuel

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Water in Fuel cont.

Another serious problem of water in fuel is that it can support microbial growth
in the tanks.
These microorganisms are fungus type organisms which live in the layer
between fuel and water. They will grow and spread over tank floors and walls
and damage the tank sealers and tank structures.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 19 Microbial Growth

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Water in Fuel cont.

To avoid all the problems of water in fuel, the airline maintenance and fuel
suppliers closely monitor the water concentration in fuel and remove the water
periodically.
Visible water can be easily checked, but what do we do with dissolved water?
Suspended water in fuel may be in such small droplets, that it is hardly visible
at all. This can give fuel a milky appearance.
To clearly determine this kind of water in the fuel, the fuel suppliers have
developed several different methods.
The most common method to check for this water is by using a syringe test
cartridge. You draw fuel off into the cartridge through a chemically treated filter.
If the filter changes color the fuel contains water. You then have to wait long
enough for the water to settle down and drain it afterwards.
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Figure 20 Water Concentration Monitoring

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LUBRICANTS AND FUELS Fuel Additives
M15.9

FUEL ADDITIVES 2. The certification of fuel additives can be divided into to levels:
− Approval by engine and airplane manufacturers and inclusion into the
General licence dokuments of the aircraft.
1. Kerosine for jet engines is extracted from mineral oil by way of distillation − Inclusion into the main specifications of the aircraft (for example
(as it is the case for diesel oil or fuel). specifications of the aviation authorities).
− In Germany alone about 8.8 million tons of Kerosine were consumed in Additives always have to be approved by the commanding engine and
the year 2007. Source: Mineralölwirtschaftsverbands e.V. (Mineral Oil airplane manufacturers, before they can be integrated into superordinated
Trade Association). specifications.
− The worldwide consumption of this aircraft turbine fuel amounted to 3. In the specifications, the additives normally receive one of the following
about 170 million tons in 2007. grades:
This corresponds to between 5% and 6% of the worlds mineral oil − Required
production.
The additive must be added at a defined stage to fulfill specific demands.
2. The consumption of Kerosine increases permanently in the aviation It is not mandatory to have this stage in the production sequence of the
industry. This confronts the refineries with the challenge to enhance the refinery.
production of the high grade product Kerosine by variations of the process
technology. − Optional
New methods allow a flexible choice of resources. Example: the use of coal The fuel producer is entitled to add the additive (within the content
tar containing sands as molecule source and the production of synthetic related limits of the specifications) without consultation of the customer.
blends. The supplier may be asked to declare the presence of the additive.
3. As a result of the number and complexity of the methods used, it is often − Agreement
necessary - and sometimes compulsory - to use additives. The purchase agents can request to use an additive up to the maximum
These fuel additives can prevent the formation of harmful chemical content allowed in the specifications.
substances or they can improve the properties of the fuel as far as engine If the fuel supplier wants to perform the mentioned addition, the approval
component wear is concerned. of the customer must be ensured.
There are cases in which the airplane manufacturers allow additives which
Certification of Additives have not been certified in the specifications of the responsible authorities.
1. The additives must always be subjected to a very complex and often costly
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

One example for these additives are biocides. They prevent the
process. This process checks their effect on all the fuel properties and it development of bacteria, fungi and a microflora in the fuel.
checks the additives’ general suitability for use.
This process can last for decades before the respective additive is granted
approval.

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ADDITIVES FOR GAS TURBINE ENGINES

Types of Additives Function of Additives
ANTI-STATIC ADDITIVES, STATIC DISSIPATOR ADDITIVES (SDA) Accelerated dispersion of static electrical charges caused by an increase in the
electrical conductivity of the fuel. This is done to prevent generation of sparks
and resulting danger of explosion.

METAL DEACTIVATORS, METAL DEACTIVATOR ADDITIVES (MDA) Suppression of the catalytic effect of certain metal ions by chemical bonding of
these ions, because the catalytic effect can decrease the thermic stability of the
fuel.

ANTI-OXIDANTS Interruption of the chain reaction of highly reactive fuel compounds with oxygen
to prevent the formation of:
1) aggressive peroxides (that will attack synthetic materials
2) dissolvable rubber-like material (that will lead to scaling and deposits)
3) and indissoluble particles (that will clog filters)

CORROSION INHIBITORS Corrosion prevention – corrosion is supported by corrosive acting compounds,

free water, and oxygen in the fuel. – and improved lubricating properties of the
fuel.

ANTI-ICING ADDITIVES, FUEL SYSTEM ICING INHIBITORS (FSII) Prevention of the formation of ice crystals and resulting danger of filter cloggin.
The additives form a solution with the free water from the fuel. The freezing
point of this solution corresponds to the freezing point of the fuel.

THERMAL STABILITY ADDITIVES Decreasing the tendency of some fuel components to form rubber-like or solid
deposits when heated, by keeping these components suspended in the fuel so-
lution. The mentioned deposits can clog filters, injection nozzles, heat exchan-
gers and other parts of the fuel system.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

BIOCIDES Prevention of the growth or elimination of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) in

fuel which can form dangerous deposits (danger of clogging) or which can at-
tack certain materials of the fuel system.

LEAK DETECTION ADDITIVES Detection and localization of leaks in (stationary) fuel distribution systems with
the help of tracer gas in the fuel.

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LUBRICANTS AND FUELS Fuel Additives
M15.9

Additives for Aircraft Turbine Fuels Corrosion Inhibitors

The following fuel additives are either required or they are added by 1. Airplane turbine fuels get into contact with numerous materials during
agreement. transport, distribution and use.
It is important to ensure that the fuel does not have any corrosive impact on
Antistatic Additives
any of these materials. This of course especially applies to material used in
4. Pure hydrocarbons are basically non-conductive. airplane fuel systems.
Although aircraft turbine fuels are composed of hydrocarbons, they are a Normally fuel tanks are made of aluminum alloys, but fuel systems also
somewhat better electrical conductor. This is due to traces of ionizable consist of steel and other metals. Tanks are also equipped with coatings
compounds like water, phenol and naphta-like acids. and sealants. Elastomers are used in other system areas.
NOTE: Ions are electrically charged particles.Water (H2O) which is Engine and airplane manufacturers carry out complex fuel compatibility
electrically neutral can dissociate to build ions: H2O F H+ + testings before materials are certified for use in fuel systems.
OH–. 2. Aircraft turbine fuels contain compounds with corrosive effects (usually
The refinement procedures can remove naturally present polar components organic acids and mercaptan. Die in Flugturbinenkraftstoffen enthaltenen
and thus create a poor conductivity of the fuel. korrosiv wirkenden Verbindun- gen sind vor allem organische Säuren und
Mercaptane. The specifications give limits for this class of compounds.
These fuels have a high risk of creating an electrical charge and resulting
static discharge, especially during fueling operations (when fueling is carried The by-products of the undesired microbial growth have a corrosive impact,
out too fast) or when fuel flows through pipes, hoses, valves or fine filters. too.
In these cases the build-up of a static charge is effected faster than its Fuel contamination caused by traces of natrium, potassium and other
dissipation. When this charge exceeds the ionization potential of the air alkaline metals can lead to corrosion in the turbine section of the engines.
above the fluid it may discharge as a spark. If the fluid is flammable and if 3. The reservoirs and pipes of fuel distribution systems are predominantly
the the mixture of fluid vapors and air reaches combustion level, an made of polished steel.
explosion may occur. Corrosion Inhibitors prevent rust and corrosion in these structures
5. In order to eliminate this risk, antistatic additives [static dissipator (caused by free water and oxygen in the aircradft turbine fuel).
additives (SDA)] are used in Kerosin today. 4. Lubricity improvers contain a polar group which will adhere to the metal
These additives do not prevent charge generation, but they accelerate surface. Here the polar group forms a thin film composed from the additive.
charge dissipation by increasing the conductivity of the fuel. This film acts as a lubricant beween two metal surfaces that get into contact
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

with each other.

Fuel System Anti-Icing Agent

1. Ice formation can occur in the fuel tanks, caused by the extremely low
temperatures during flight in high altitudes.
Usually this ice is formed from water which already had been dissolved in
the fuel during the fueling operation. When the fuel temperature decreases,
this water is isolated again and forms minute droplets.
Although the quantity of water droplets is small, they can cause filter
plugging or clogging when they freeze.

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LUBRICANTS AND FUELS Fuel Additives
M15.9
2. Most commercial airplanes have aggregates for fuel heating. Microorganisms benefit from higher temperatures.
− Older planes had fuel-air fuel heaters. In case of icing danger they were 3. Prevention is the best protection against contamination by microorganisms.
supplied with hot air from the rear compressor stage.
The most important preventive action is to decrease the amount of free
− Today fuel heating is almost entirely effected by fuel-oil heat exchangers water in fuel reservoirs and tanks of airplanes to the lowest possible level.
(FOHX, FOHE, Servo FOHE].
If microorganisms have reached a critical level in airplanes tanks, carefully
3. Fuel System Icing Inhibitors (FSII) protect the system from icing controlled use of biocides allowed.
problems. But there are limits to the application of biocides:
These additives dissolve in the free water that has been dispersed by the − Biocides are not effective when a thick film of microorganisms has
fuel. This solution decreases the freezing point of the water to about –43_C. already developed on the surface or on other components of the tank.
This corresponds to the temperature at which airplane turbine fuels freeze In this case, the biocides cannot reach those organisms which exist deep
as well. inside the film.
Although many civil specifications allow the use of FSIIs, they are rarely The tank will have to be drained and cleaned mechanically.
used.
− Even if the biocide has effectively stopped the growth of
4. The only FSII-additive which is currently certified for Jet A, Jet A−1 and microorganisms, it may be necessary to remove biomass that has
fuels used for military planes is Di−Ethylene Glycol Monomethyl Ether collected, in order to prevent filter clogging.
(di−EGME, DiEGME, DEGME or DEGMME). It is also called − As biocides are toxic, every tank that contains a residual biocide/fuel
2−(2−Methoxyethoxy)ethanol. mixture must be drained in accordance with the respective instructions.
The contents has to be discarded according to certain specifications.
Biocides
4. Biocides are permitted by the engine and aircraft manufacturers for
1. Immdeiately after their production airplane turbine fuels are sterile, due to temporary use during maintenance.
the high precessing temperatures, but they are contaminated very fast by
The aircraft is fueled and the biocide is added according to instructions.
microorganisms which are in air and water at all times.
Generally, then the aircraft operates with the mentioned fuel and biocide,
Microorganisms you find in fuel are bakteria and fungi. until the mixture has been completely consumed.
the solid matter that is formed by microbial growth leads to clogging of filters The currently certified biocides are Biobort and Kathont
and pipes.
Some microorganisms also create acidic by.products which can accelerate
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

metal corrosion.
2. As most microorganisms need free water for their growth, the
microorganisms usually concentrate at the contact areas of fuel and water
(if such contact areas exist).
In addition to their food (the fuel) and water, the microorganisms require
certain elementary nutrient matter.
Aircraft fuel provides most of these nutrients. Phosphor is the only element
that is not present in the fuel to a high extent. So phosphor limits the growth
of microorganisms.

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LUBRICANTS AND FUELS Safety Precautions
M15.9

FUEL SAFETY

Overview
You can divide fuel handling safety procedures into three areas such as:
S fire prevention,
S fire extinguishing and
S personnel safety.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 21 Overview
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Overview cont.
Fire prevention is the elimination of all the sources which create or support a
fire.
Fire is assisted by inflammable vapor, heat sources and oxygen. So elimination
of any one of these sources can prevent fire.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 22 Fire Prevention

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Overview cont.
Because oxygen and fuel vapor can not be eliminated, no naked flame and no
smoking is allowed during aircraft maintenance and it makes perfect sense that
no refueling and defueling takes place during filling or changing of oxygen
bottles.
To fight any possible fire you must ensure that the correct fire extinguishers are
available.
You will learn more about fire fighting and the different types of fire
extinguishers in the lessons about fire protection in M11.8.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 23 Fire Fighting

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Overview cont.
Apart from fire, there are two other main hazards of working with fuel.
Fuel vapor inhalation can make you ill or even unconscious and any fuel
contact to your skin should also be avoided.
Fuel contact destroys the protective film on your skin and eyes. Fuel is also
poisonous and should not be swallowed.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 24 Fuel Vapor and Contact

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LUBRICANTS AND FUELS Safety Precautions
M15.9

Safety Areas
As you probably realize, fuel vapor comes mainly from the fuel vent tanks or
from fuel leaks.
You designate a safety area around an aircraft when a high fire hazard exists.
This would be during refueling or defueling or at any time when the fuel tanks
were open.
The limits of the safety area are marked in different ways, colored floor
markings are found at the gate.
S The gate area is always a no−smoking area.
S The refueling side of the aircraft is kept clear to ensure safe monitoring and
a free escape route.
S The fuel truck has to be positioned to enable a quick escape.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 25 Safety Area - Outside

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Safety Areas cont.

You mark the safety areas inside the hangar with posts and barriers.
A no−smoking rule is normal inside hangars. Additional warning signs and
signal lights alert the hangar crew if the aircraft fuel tanks are open.
Refueling in the hangar must be avoided, but if you HAVE TO the entire hangar
area will become the safety area.
You have seen that the fire hazard with fuel vapours can be reduced by
recognizing the safety areas.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 26 Safety Area - Hangar

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M15.9

Inflammable Fuel Vapor & Leaks

Fuel leaks are either caused by refueling malfunctions or by damage to the
aircraft.
If refueling leaks occur, they would usually be at the vent tank openings.
You should be aware that leaks can occur in faulty refueling couplings,
refueling hoses and fuel truck components.
You must deal with any spilled fuel or fuel leakage immediately.
S You first stop the leakage flow
S then add a binding agent to the fuel spillage.
You minimize fuel leakage of any kind by ensuring that refueling is not done
unattended especially during overwing refueling.
You should also be aware that fuel may spray around, if you drain tanks in
windy conditions.
Fuel leakage may also be caused by damage.
Aircraft damage can be caused by the aircraft moving during refueling. So you
must ensure that the wheel chocks are in place during refueling.
Even with the wheel chocks in place damage to the tanks may occur. This can
be caused by any equipment which is located too close to the aircraft as it gets
heavier because of the increasing fuel load compressing the shock struts of the
landing gears.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 27 Fuel Leaks

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Heat Sources
As mentioned before, no naked flames and no smoking is allowed at the
aircraft to reduce the fire hazard, but be aware, that there are many other heat
sources near an aircraft which are capable of igniting a fuel air mixture.
It should be obvious to you, that refueling is not allowed when the aircraft
engines are running.
For the same reason no car engine should be operated near or below a vent
tank opening.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 28 Heat Sources

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Heat Sources cont.

Other heat sources that may inflame a fuel air mixture, are sparks.
Conditions that can create sparks on an aircraft can be either
S electrical switching,
S HF transmission
S weather radar operation
S by metal parts such as tools being struck together
S by electric static discharge.
Electric static charges are not visible and you cannot feel if your body is loaded
with a high static charge, you just feel the discharge if it happens in a high
energy spark.
During refueling electric static charge is created.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 29 Sparks
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Heat Sources cont.

To prevent any sparks by electric static discharge the fuel truck must be
connected to the aircraft by a grounding lead.
When working in a fuel tank, you must use special tools which do not create
any sparks. These tools are called explosion proof tools. Even walkie−talkies
which are used during tank maintenance must be explosion proof.
When entering a tank, you have to wear special clothing made of cotton which
will not create electric static charges.
Avoiding sparks is one of the most important things to prevent a fire.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Aircraft Grounding for Refueling

FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

Fuel Tank Access Tools

Fuel Tank Access Equipment

Figure 30 Avoiding Sparks

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Fuel Tank Entering

You must be very careful when entering a fuel tank to protect yourself and your
equipment.
Cotton tank access clothing protects against sparks, tank access socks
minimize the danger of damaging internal tank equipment and tank sealers and
respirators or full face masks prevent you from inhaling fuel vapor.
You can enter the tank without a full face mask only if the tank is considered
health safe.
Special gas measuring equipment checks the gas concentration inside the tank
and alerts the maintenance crew if the gas concentration gets too high.
When you use this gas measuring equipment, it must be set up outside the
safety area because the equipment is not explosion proof and you must take
great care installing the gas measuring probe correctly inside the tank.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Gas Measuring Equipment

Installation of Gas Measuring Probe
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

Figure 31 Tank Entering Equipment

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Fuel Tank Entering cont.

A health safe tank can only be achieved by sufficient ventilation.
Tank ventilation fans and exhaust hoses are used to transport the fuel vapors
out of the aircraft tank.
For safety reasons, maintenance inside a fuel tank always requires two or
more people.
To specify the required safety equipment and actions for access to the different
tank areas, the tanks are divided into different categories.
If the tank is a category 1 , it has a direct access door, but you can’t get in
completely. This means that access is by head and shoulders only.
A category 2 tank has a direct access door and is wide enough for you to gain
access for your complete body.
A category 3 tank has no direct external access door, but there are internal
openings which allow you to get in and they are even wide enough for rescue if
necessary.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 32 Tank Entering

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Fuel Tank Entering cont.

A category 4 tank area is not found on all aircraft.
This area can only be entered via internal openings which are not wide enough
for rescue personnel in an emergency.
To get you out of one of these tanks mechanical cutters would have to be
used.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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Figure 33 Category ”Four” Tank Area

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M15.09 B1 E

TABLE OF CONTENTS
M15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
M15.9 LUBRICANTS AND FUELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
OIL GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
TASKS OF ENGINE OIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
TYPES OF OIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
OIL SPECIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
FUEL CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
TYPES OF TURBINE ENGINE FUEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBINE ENGINE FUELS . . 30
WATER IN FUEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
FUEL ADDITIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
FUEL SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
SAFETY AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
INFLAMMABLE FUEL VAPOR & LEAKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
HEAT SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
FUEL TANK ENTERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Page i
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ii
M15.09 B1 E

TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Lubricating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 2 Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 4 Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 5 Synthetic and Mineral Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 6 Different Types of Synthetic Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 7 Advantage/Disadvantage of Synthetic Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 8 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 9 Pour Point and Flashpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 10 Pressure Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 11 Oxidation Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 12 Thermal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 13 Types of Engines Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 14 Fuel Main Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 15 Fuel Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 16 Fuel Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 17 Fuel Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 18 Water in Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure 19 Microbial Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 20 Water Concentration Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 21 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 22 Fire Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 23 Fire Fighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 24 Fuel Vapor and Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 25 Safety Area - Outside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 26 Safety Area - Hangar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 27 Fuel Leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 28 Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 29 Sparks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 30 Avoiding Sparks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Figure 31 Tank Entering Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 32 Tank Entering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 33 Category ”Four” Tank Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

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