272 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

compliance. India has always moved a resolution which declared the

believed that a world free of nuclear use of nuclear weapons would be a
weapons would enhance global violation of the UN charter and
security and India’s own national demanded that pending nuclear
security. Thus India has always been disarmament, the use and threat of
advocating that the highest priority the use of nuclear weapons should
be given to nuclear disarmament as be prohibited. This resolution was
a first step towards general and subsequently adopted by the General
complete disarmament. As early as Assembly in 1978. India also
1948, India called for limiting the use proposed negotiations for an
of atomic energy for peaceful international convention that would
purposes only and elimination of prohibit the use of nuclear weapons.
atomic weapons from national This was followed by another initiative
armaments. India was the first in 1982 calling for a nuclear free
country to call for stoppage of world, prohibition on the production
nuclear tests and made a formal of fissile material for weapons and on
proposal for total cessation of nuclear production of nuclear weapons, and
testing in the UN General Assembly. their delivery systems.
In 1961, India and other Non- The seventh conference of NAM,
aligned countries tabled a resolution held in Delhi in March 1988,
in the UN General Assembly which forcefully accentuated the danger of
declared that the use of nuclear and a nuclear war and the necessity
thermo-nuclear weapons would be a to fight for peace. The conference
direct violation of the UN Charter and proposed to ban the use of nuclear
any State using such a weapon would weapons immediately, to freeze
be acting contrary to the laws of and after that to reduce and to
humanity and committing a crime eliminate its arsenals, to prevent
against mankind and civilization. the use of outer space for military
In 1964, India suggested that “all purposes, to conclude as soon as
proliferation of nuclear weapons, be possible a comprehensive nuclear test
it horizontal or vertical, should ban treaty.
be stopped simultaneously and Subsequently, India has been
altogether, so that all nuclear facilities making consistent efforts to bring
everywhere become peaceful and nuclear arms race to a halt. At the
the problem of existing stockpiles special session of the United Nations
of nuclear weapons could then General Assembly on disarmament
be contained and tackled more India put forward a number of serious
effectively.” proposals including the 1988
In December 1978, at the first ‘Comprehensive Plan for Total
special session of the UN General Elimination of Weapons of Mass
Assembly on Disarmament, India Destruction’ in a phased manner. It
INDIA’S APPROACH TO MAJOR WORLD ISSUES 273
‘

was a matter of great regret that the peaceful nuclear explosions by non-
proposal put by India, along with nuclear weapons States. Accordingly,
several other countries, did not receive in India’s view, the treaty is
a positive response and instead discriminatory, unrealistic, ineffective
a limited and distorted non- and therefore unacceptable to India.
proliferation agenda, meant above all India’s concerns have been two.
to perpetuate nuclear weapons was One, freedom to use nuclear energy
shaped. This compelled India not only for peaceful purposes, and two its
not to sign the CTBT but also itself go national security. In terms of national
nuclear in consideration of its security India was faced not only with
national security and failure of big the situation of nuclear proliferation
powers to agree on complete world over, but also in its own
elimination of nuclear weapons. neighbourhood — first in China and
then in Pakistan. China conducted
Inp1a’s STAND ON CTBT its first atomic explosion in October
1964. Before that, China had already
India’s stand has been that the goal waged a war on India in 1962.
of disarmament can be none other Having joined the nuclear club,
than the achievement of general and China also started helping Pakistan’s
complete disarmament. This means nuclear programme. At that time,
that disarmament has to be general, both China and Pakistan were hostile
i.e. to cover all countries; to be to India and Western powers were
complete, to apply to all weapons and also inclined towards Pakistan. All
has to be implemented under strict these factors posed a threat to India’s
and effective international control. security. Yet India continued to
India has also made it clear, from the strictly adhere to the policy of using
very beginning, that it wanted to keep nuclear energy only for peaceful
its options open for the peaceful use purposes.
of nuclear energy. On May 18, 1974 India carried
Against this background India did out an underground nuclear
not sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation experiment for peaceful purposes,
Treaty (NPT) of 1968; She emphasised and reiterated that the country was
that it is an unequal and committed to its use for constructive
discriminatory treaty. While it purposes and that it had no intention
imposes stringent restrictions and of producing nuclear weapons.
curbs on non-nuclear weapon States, India, therefore, continued its efforts
it leaves the nuclear weapon powers for a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
free from any legal or time-bound with the aims of curbing nuclear
obligation to stop proliferation and to arms race by stopping both
take steps to reduce their nuclear horizontal and vertical proliferation
arsenals. It also denies the right to of nuclear weapons. After the Nuclear
 274 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 1968, and will not engage in an arms race.
which India did not sign, the India has also declared a no-first-use
United Kingdom, the United States of nuclear weapons. It believes that
and the Soviet Union in 1977 initiated a global no-first use agreement can
negotiations on CTBT. Years of be the first step towards the
negotiations did not yield any delegitimisation of nuclear weapons.
result. India’s position was clear that It stands for Comprehensive Test Ban
it believes in total nuclear Treaty (CTBT) which is non-
disarmament, but it opposes any discriminatory and universal. In
agreement that is discriminatory in other words, it should have three
nature. Despite India’s strong characteristics: (i) it should cover all
objections against discrimination and States including the five nuclear
not taking into account security weapon States; (ii) it should extend
interests of countries like India, the the prohibition on the testing of
CTBT was pushed through. India nuclear weapons to the underground
refused to sign it. According to environment also; and (iii) it should
experts the Treaty (CTBT) will, in do so for all time. The verification
reality, legitimize a new qualitative system to be developed must be non-
arms race. This treaty like the NPT discriminatory.
will be a license to proliferate From the above discussion it
vertically without effectively banning becomes quite clear that the world
horizontal proliferation. Thus India, today, more than ever before, is aware
after having been actively engaged of the menace of arms race with no end
_ in the negotiations for two and a to the stockpiling, deployment
half years, could not become a and development of new and
party to CTBT precisely because the more destructive weapons, both
issues of non-proliferation, global conventional and nuclear.
disarmament and India’s concerns Disarmament has long been an
for its national security and strategic agenda item in various global forums.
autonomy were ignored. In all these efforts India has been
In May 1998 India conducted playing a significant active role.
three nuclear explosion tests some
doubts were raised in inter-
HUMAN RIGHTS
national community about India’s
commitment to disarmament. India, People is general, whether living in the
however had made it clear that these developed, developing or under
tests were conducted in the context developed world, cherish the
of national security and prevailing enjoyment of rights in one form or the
international situation. India has other. The rights are the claims of the
declared that it will maintain a individual recoganised by the society
minimum credible nuclear deterrent and enforced by the State. These
INDIA'S APPROACH TO MAJOR WORLD ISSUES 275

rights are moral, legal, political, of human rights. The British colonial
economic in nature and a combination rule in India affected the common
of all these rights is termed as human man, children, women, labourers,
rights which all men and woman workers, peasants, either directly or
should enjoy. Today these basic indirectly. The police and the security
rights are even recoganised by the forces were used as basic tools to
international community. suppress the rights of the individuals.
The Indian Constitution which was In this context the national movement
enforced in 1950 showed its full in India incorporated in its values
respect to the Universal Declaration issues of democracy, universal
of Human Rights. In the third part of franchise, freedom of the press,
the Constitution, they have given the education, etc. It took these issues to
most elaborate description of the basic the people and educated them about
rights of the Indian citizens. In the their political and economic rights.
remaining of this chapter, we will Infact national movement took up
study about the India’s role relating the battle for human rights in a variety
to human rights. of ways.

Human RIGHTS AND INDIA Human RiGHts ConcerRNS AFTER

INDEPENDENCE
We have read above that the concept
of human rights in the existing form The leaders of the Nationalist
is of recent, post Second World War movement, who now entered the
origin. In India concern for human Constituent Assembly to draft a new
dignity, opposition to exploitation and Constitution for India, were committed
injustice and inequality has been a to the cause of the Human Rights. In
part of her civilisational traditions. We the Constituent Assembly the moving
have a long tradition of acceptance of spirit behind the rights was the
contrary view-points, tolerance adherence to the principle of human
towards others, non-violence, love and equality and dignity which was
compassion, religious universalism denied to Indians during the colonial
and an emphasis on the brotherhood rule. Also as a founder member of
of all men. Colonial oppression and the United Nations India was in
opposition to it and contact with the the forefront in accepting the
West in the modern period brought in principles of Universal Declaration of
India a new understanding of human Human Rights.
rights. During this period while the At the same time Framers of
social reformers led the intellectual the Indian Constitution made a
movement and contributed to the remarkable contribution by laying
human rights situation, the freedom down an elaborate set of rights for
movement produced great champions the people. They sought to achieve a
276 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

delicate balance between, Civil and or a former judge of the Supreme

Political Rights on the one hand, and Court, a present or a former chief
Social and Economic Rights on the justice of a high court, two members
other. The makers of the Constitution from among those persons who are
believed in giving equal importance knowledgeable in the area of human
to the two sets of rights as a rights, and the chairpersons of the
cardinal tenet of philosophy National Commission for women,
underlying it. The Political and Civil National Commission for SCs and STs,
Rights are made fundamental by and the National Commission for
the provisions of part III of the Minorities. NHRC has been assigned
Constitution. This part assures the broad powers and functions. It can
people equality and freedom. Rights inquire on its own or on a petition
in this part are judicially enforceable, presented to it by a victim or
even though subject to reasonable any person on his behalf into
restrictions. The economic and social complaints of:
rights are also made basic to the (i) Violation of or abetment to
governance of the country through violation of human rights;
provisions in part IV that is the (ii) Negligence by a public servant in
Directive Principles of State Policy. the prevention of such violation.
This part seek to make these rights To perform its functions, the
substantive by enjoining on future NHRC has been given the following
governments to bring in conditions of authorities.
social and economic justice.
e It may intervene in any
Apart from Constitutional
proceeding involving any alle-
Provisions and Statutes the Indian
gation of violation of human rights
Government has also set up several
pending before a court with the
institutions under different acts of
approval of such court.
Parliament to give effect to these
provisions of human rights of e It may visit, under intimation to
all persons. Most important of these a state government, any jail or
is the National Human Rights any other institution under the
Commission (NHRC). control of the state government
concerned, where persons are
detained or lodged for purposes
NATIONAL HuMAN RIGHTS of treatment, reformation or
Commission (NHRC) protection, to study the living
conditions of the inmates and
The Indian Government established make recommendations thereon.
the NHRC on 12 October, 1993. It e It may review the safeguards
has eight members -a chairperson (a provided by or under the
former chief justice of India), a present Constitution or any law for the
INDIA’S APPROACH TO MAJOR WORLD ISSUES 277

time being in force for the INTERNATIONAL COVENANTS AND

protection of human rights and ACTIVITIES
recommend measures for their
effective implementation. As already mentioned India is a
It may review the factors, signatory to the Universal Declaration
including acts of terrorism that of Human Rights and has acceded to
inhibit the enjoyment of human the two International Covenants i.e.
rights and recommend appro- International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights (ICCPR) and
priate remedial measures.
It may study treaties and other International Covenant on Economic,
international instruments on
Social and Cultural Rights. It has also
human rights and make accepted and ratified most other
recommendations for their major conventions and covenants
of the UN and its specialised
effective implementation.
agencies — like International Labour
It may undertake and promote
Organisation (ILO) India has also been
research in the field of human
participating in the UN Commission
rights; spread human rights
for Human Rights, both as a member
literacy among various sections of
and as an observer. It played a leading
society and promote awareness of
role in opposing violation of human
the safeguards available for the
rights on grounds of colour and race.
protection of these rights through already read in an earlier
You have
publications, the media, seminars
chapter India’s contribution in
and other available means. against colonialism,
struggle
It may encourage the efforts of apartheid, racial discrimination, etc.,
non-governmental organisations which were gross violations of the
and institutions working in the basic values of human rights.
field of human rights. It may At the international level, there also
also undertake .such other has been debate.with regard to
functions as it may consider importance of specific human rights.
necessary for the promotion of The Western thinking in general has
human rights. been that civil and political rights are
In addition to NHRC, there are also more important. India’s position,
National Commissions for Women, however, is that Civil and Political
Scheduled Castes and Tribes, rights and Social, Economic and
Minorities and other Backward Castes. Cultural Rights both are equally
Their functions include protection and important. Equally important are
promotion of rights of these specific rights of the people as a group
categories and suggest measures for and countries for example Right
their welfare so that they can better to Development. India, while
exercise their rights. wholeheartedly supporting the cause
 278 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

of Human Rights, has always opposed GLOBALISATION

the politicisation of Human Rights in
international relations, where some The end of Cold War politics following
' powers have been trying to use the the disintegration of Soviet Union,
pretext of Human rights violation for restructuring of Eastern European
interfering in the internal affairs of countries and weakening of
other countries. communism as an ideological force in
From the above it becomes clear international politics, have paved a way
that India’s response to the issue of for the emergence of a new world order
Human rights has been one of characterised by globalisation. The
commitment. Fundamental rights process of globalisation began from the
1970s due to various developments in
and Directive Principles of State Policy
provided in the Constitution of India the field of science and technology.
contain a number of rights provided Since 1990s the term globalisation has
in the Universal Declaration of Human gained wide currency. However there
rights. India is also a signatory to this are significant differences among
Declaration as well as most of the observers on the definition, purpose
International conventions and and consequences of globalisation.
covenants. It has also joined hands
‘ GLOBALISATION: MEANING
with the international community in
the task of promotion and protection According to Anthony Giddens,
of Human Rights throughout the Globalisation means “The intensi-
World; it has played a leading role in fication of world-wide social relations
the fight against colonialism, which link distant localities in such a
apartheid, racial discrimination and way that local happenings are shaped
exploitation. by events occurring many miles
As far as implementation of away and vice-versa”. Similarly another
commitment to Human Rights is expert Robertson has_ defined
concerned, India’s record is better than globalisation as “a concept that
compared to many other developing. refers to the compression of the world
countries. Most significant aspect of and the intensification of the
this is continuation and consolidation consciousness of the world as a whole”.
of democracy. However, there are some In general we can say that globali-
violations of Human Rights by State sation refers to a process by which the
machinery, police, security forces and Planet Earth is considered to be
non-state actors like terrorists and’ one single unit or a global village
fundamentalists. As such, India, must where social and economic interactions
evolve herself as a leading example for among the people are based
the developing countries in terms of on interdependence. The world is
respect for human rights. supposed to be a global society with
INDIA’S APPROACH TO MAJOR WORLD ISSUES 279

global issues and problems which Their efforts got a big boost by the
are to be tackled with global efforts collapse of Socialism, revolution in
and cooperation. Of course various communication technology and
developments in the field of science and worsening economic situation of
technology have helped in this closeness developing countries. New develop-
of the world. The phenomena includes ments in the field of communications
an enormous range of features of and rising debts and declining
contemporary life involving diverse productions in developing countries
activities and interactions in the helped developed countries to put
economic, political, technological, pressure on these countries through
cultural and environmental field. international bodies like World Bank
Globalisation is manifest in the and International Monetary Fund
(IMF) to integrate their economies with
rapid flow of information, capital
and goods. Under globalisation cultures the market oriented world economy,
and societies that were hitherto distinct make structural adjustments to
have come face to face with each accommodate the interests of the
Multi-National Company and liberlise
other. The world has become an
inter-connected one. } their own economies. Accordingly, a
While the “coming closer” of the large number of developing countries,
either per-force, or due to their needs
world can be attributed to the
of development have sought to
phenomenal increase in the reach of
electronic media and other means of
integrate increasingly with the world
economy. India also has not remained
communications, as a policy frame It has
immune from the processes.
work for economic, political and social
the emergence of accordingly, taken some measures to
interactions,
be a part of global community and
globalisation is a consequence of
liberal also reacted to certain issues arising
deliberate efforts of western
out of the process.
capitalist countries to bring the
whole world under one market AND INDIA
GLOBALISATION
oriented economic order. Observers
point out that the big Multi National India began responding to globali-
(MNCs) had always sation from early 1980s_ by
Companies
wanted to have free access to all warmly welcoming the technological
developments. In the beginning, its
markets in the world. They were,
however, restricted by the protect- acceptance of the ideas of world
ionist policies of the various countries. market, world economy, unfettered
They had been pressurising their market economy etc. was lukewarm.
powerful governments to get these Of course, it started some pro-
towards liberalisation and
artificial restrictions removed and cesses
facilitate free flow of capital and goods. globalisation in the middle of 1980s.
280 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

It was in the wake of the external (v) Financial Reforms: Private sector
repayment liability crisis of 1991 that banks including foreign joint
government took a qualitative turn venture banks came to be
towards liberalisation. It involved the permitted to undertake and
following major changes in policy. expand their operations. A
(i) Trade policy reform: This reform policy regime for private non-
sought to dismantle the earlier banking finance companies
import licensing system. It came to be established.
proposed reforms and heavy In addition to the above, the
scaling down or removal of tariff government has attempted to build up
on imports . Except on consumer competition in sectors where hitherto
goods non-tariff barriers were the public sector enjoyed a monopoly;
phased out. thrown open the insurance sector for
(ii) Industrial Policy Reform: It market competition; attempted to
sought abolition of industrial lay down a set of directives for
licensing except for a few disinvestments and removed tariffs on
specified industries. Items a large number of items in accordance
reserved for public sector came with its agreement with the World Trade
to be highly restricted and it Organisation (WTO).
extended favourable treatment In the context of globalisation,
to FDI. Restrictions on the above-mentioned liberalisation
investment by large industrial
primarily means removal of controls
houses were abolished and
and regulations at various levels of the
a phased programme of
economy facilitating market forces to
disinvestments of public
determine its course and direction. It
ownership in public sector
favours a competitive market solution
undertakings was initiated.
The Non-resident Indians (NRIs)
to economic issues and a reduced
were extended additional role for the State in economic
encouragement to invest and management. In a wider sense, the
outward investment by Indian term is also used to mean creating
enterprises was liberalised. conditions for the prevalence of civic
(iii) Exchange Rate Reform: The rupee and political rights, rule of law,
was devalued in 1991. Partial accountability of power, periodic
convertibility of the rupee was elections, multi-party system and an
done in 1992-93 and full impartial judiciary. These conditions
convertibility on current account are seen as keeping public authority
in 1994. transparent and under scrutiny.
(iv) Capital Market Reform: This was Summing up, liberalisation means
undertaken by setting up the freedom of trade and investment;
Securities and Exchange Board creation of free trade areas; elimination
of India (SEBI). of government control on allocation of
 ISSUES 281
INDIA'S APPROACH TO MAJOR WORLD

resources in the domestic economy; Globalisation has greatly facilitated

progressive removal of restrictions on the movement of capital and lessened
external trade and payments; the dependence of the country on
expansion of foreign investment, loans bilateral and multilateral agencies
and aid and rapid technological such as the IMF and World Bank. It
progress. Liberalisation also advocates has also been an important
budget, reduction in mechanism to upgrade their
a balanced
taxation, social security technology and get an access to the
progressive
and welfare and a diminished role for global markets.
the State in economic management. It It is also argued by the supporters
does not favour, subsidies and State of globalisation that it has helped in
expansion of liberal democracy by
protection and resource allocations
through administrative means. It strengthening accountability and
suggests that inefficiency, corruption transparency of power. It has created
and mismanagement are built into global electronic communication
regimes with excessive State control. systems. They allow a diversity of
alternative voices and opinions to be
heard and accessed . These, in turn,
DIFFERENCE OF OPINIONS
have also led to the rise of new
view that social movements such as of
There is a general
globalisation is a reality which cannot women, peasants, ethnic commu-
be wished away. Yet there are nities, displaced people etc. thereby
differences of opinion, both at the mobilising more people. In the
international level and in India, with cultural field, globalisation has
regard to impact of globalisation and facilitated a phenomenal growth in the
its usefulness. Primarily there are two global circulation of cultural goods.
opinions, optimistic and pessimistic. These include printed matter, music,
The former point out the benefits of visual arts, cinema and photography,
globalisation. According to them, the radio and television:
economic policies before liberalisation Critics of globalisation see it as a
of domination by advanced
were not yielding positive results. The process
gap between the rich and the poor were capitalist countries especially United
constantly on the rise; due to lack of States of America. According to
competition, the big business houses them, it has further increased
were selling average products at existing inequalities. There is evidence
to suggest that the processes and
high prices. But liberlisation and and
globalisation has increased the scale policies of liberalisation
globalisation have contributed to a
and allocative efficiency of markets for
goods and capital. It has released significant redistribution of income
huge unutilised resources and has led and wealth from the poor to the rich
to a great economic recovery. both nationally and internationally.
282 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

There is growing disparity within the market-oriented courses. The

developed nations, between the undermining of Social Sciences and
developed nations and the developing Humanities is already having a
nations, and within the developing detrimental effect on society.
nations themselves. In the wake of From the above, it becomes clear
globalisation there is substantial that globalisation is a process through
increase in unemployment. which the world is becoming closer and
There has been a cut in welfare distanceless. As a result of this, national
measures, reduction in subsidies of economies are diminishing and they are
goods of mass consumption and decline becoming part of the international
in real wages. There is an increase in economic system. It has put limitations
the power of foreign investors and on State’s sovereignty. India has
creditors. While a great deal of attention become a part of this process and is
is paid to formulate rules for the trying to adapt itself to this new reality.
expansion of global markets and Major challenge before it is to reap its
capital flows, little attention is paid to benefits and avoid its adverse effects.
objectives like labour standard, poverty There are a number of serious issues
reduction and human rights. It has which developed countries are
greatly circumscribed the power of imposing on developing countries
nation-state under pressure from through international financial and
multinational companies. trade organisations like World Trade
Neo-liberal ideology has emerged Organisation (WTO). India is of the
as the reigning ideology under opinion that developing countries need
globalisation with its stress on market to oppose these attempts. However, so
freedom, private property and far the necessary cooperation among
accumulation. There also is a process the developing countries, required for
of cultural imposition and domination. this purpose, is lacking. Some of the
Through Cable TV and Internet, the developing countries are also working
Multinational Corporations are under pressure from the United States
successfully promoting consumerism especially in regard to their extended
and western values. The craze of Coke/ debt liabilities. India has taken a
Pepsi or famous western brands of number of initiatives at the international
clothing, cosmetics, etc., are all creation fora, to protect the interests of
of electronic media. The English developing countries with regard to
language has emerged to a pre- trade negotiations, subsidies and rights
dominant position threatening the. and responsibilities of different
development of vernacular languages. countries. At the same time, it has
Critics also point out the serious impact accepted and implemented Structural
of globalisation on education. Now Adjustment programmes, opened up
there is rapid commercialization of its economy and allowed foreign
education and over-emphasis on companies to operate. Both scholars
 ISSUES 283
INDIA’'S APPROACH TO MAJOR WORLD

and political parties are deeply divided has now been replaced by discussion
on the desirability and consequences on the measures which can help the
country derive more advantages from
of globalisation. Since globalisation
globalisation and minimise its
now is a reality, the discussion on the
desirability or otherwise of globalisation disadvantages.

EXERCISES

by Disarmament? What efforts have been made by

1. What do you understand
the United Nations towards Disarmament.
ment.
2. Describe the role played by India in achieving the objective of global disarma
Comprehensive
3. Why has India not signed Non-Proferation Treaty (NPT) and
Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
entation of Human
4. Describe various measures adopted in India for implem
Rights.
5- How has India responded to the process of globalisation.
sation.
6. Describe the two different opinions about effects of globali
7. Write short notes on the followi ng:
(i) Arms race and its effects
(ii) National Human Rights Commission
(iii) Meaning of Globalisation
|
Glossary

Activist: A person mobilising people for political action.

Alternative Vote: In this first method voters are asked to rank the candidates in
preferential order. In this first stage of counting, only the first preferences are taken
into consideration. If no candidate receives majority, the candidate with the least
first preferences is eliminated, and the ballots of this candidate as first preference
are redistributed according to second preferences and so on.

Apartheid: Refers to the South African system of racial segregation of the white,
black and brown (i.e. Indian) population and the domination of the
white minority
over the black majority. A basic aspect of apartheid was the exclusio
n of the majority
on the basis of their colour from participation in government.

Aristocracy: A government or a state ruled by a privileged

class; a government
composed of and ruled by the few, supposedly to be superior.

Authoritarianism: It is opposed to democracy. It is a form of governm

ent in which
the authority is vested in the hands of a dictator, a military junta
or an absolute
monarch. The ruler is not accountable to the people nor he
is bound by any
constitution.

Bourgeoisie: Also known as the capitalist class that owns the means
of production,
employs wage labour, and has profit as its source of income.

Capitalism: It refers to an economic system where there is a combina

tion of private
property, a relatively free and competitive market, and a general
assumption that
_ the bulk of the workforce will be engaged in employment by private
(non-governmental)
employers engaged in producing whatever goods they can sell
at a profit.

Civil Liberties: These are freedoms or rights which are thought to

be especially
valuable in themselves and vital to the functioning of a liberal
and democratic
society. Emphasis vary, but most lists of basic civil liberties will
include freedom of
speech, freedom of religion and thought, freedom of movement, freedom of
association, the right to a fair trial and freedom of the person.
GLOSSARY 285

Coalition: These are grouping of rival political units in the face of a common
opponent. Coalition usually occur in modern parliaments when no single political
party can muster a mojority of votes. Two or more parties, who have enough elected
members between them to form a majority, may then be able to agree on a common
programme that does not require too many drastic compromises with their individual
policies, and can proceed to form a government.

Cultural Pluralism: Multiplicity of cultural identies coexisting within a society.

Egalitarian Society: A society based on the principles of liberty, equality and justice
in which all have a certain minimum equality in social, political and economic
spheres.

Feudalism: The economic, political and social system in which land was held by
vassals in exchange for military and other services to overlords.

G-15: A group of 15 developing countires for consultation and cooperation was an

initiative taken at the Non-Aligned Summit at Belgrade in September 1989. The
task of the group include (i) to identify new specific and concrete ideas or schemes
to foster South-South Cooperation, commit their governments to them and mobilise
wider support; and (ii) to hold a review of the world economic situation and the
state of international relations affecting developing countries with a view to
developing common perceptions on them and suggest common strategies including
initiatives to be proposed in North-South fora.

Imperialism: Systems of political control of one country over another. A bigger

sm or
power establishes its rule over another country through the route of coloniali
through conquest.

of limited
Liberal Democracy: A form of democratic rule that balances the principle
reflected
government against the ideal of popular consent. Its ‘liberal’ features are
on governm ent that are designed to
in a network of internal and external checks
n against the state. Its ‘democrat ic’
guarantee liberty and afford citizens, protectio
d on
character is based on a system of regular and competitive elections, conducte
the basis of universal suffrage and political equality.
s across
Multinationals: Companies having subsidiary operations in several countrie
the globe.
process by which people
Nation Building: It is a term to cover the comprehensive
to the construction of
constitute and stabilise themselves as a nation. It refers
toa nation as sovereign
institutions, structures, processes which give shape and form
entity.

cases control, by
Neo-Colonialism: The continued and indirect influence, or in few
trade, interference
the ex-colonial powers over their former colonies through unequal
286 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

in governance, multinational corporations etc. It is also used interchangeably with

imperialism to suggest that even after the end of formal colonialism, the European
countries still have many informal channels of control over the non-European
world.

North-South Dialogue: By ‘North’ is meant the advanced industrialised countries

of North America, Western Europe and Japan — all of which are in the Northern
hemisphere, but it also includes Australia and New Zealand from south of the
equator. By ‘South’ is meant the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin
America, most of them having become recently independent, and almost all marked
by low per capita income, poverty, social backwardness and disease. By ‘North’ in
brief is meant the ‘rich nations’ and by South ‘the poor nations’. Therefor, by North-
South dialogue is meant the talks and negotiations between the advanced
industialised countries and the half-industrial to pre-industial developing countries
of the world, for a more equitable, just and balanced world economy.

Nuclear Disarmament: The talks for nuclear disarmament have taken place in the
Disarmament Commission (DC) of the UN General Assembly, among the nuclear
powers, especially the USA and the former Soviet Union over the years, From 1969
to 1979 the famous Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were held between the
two. Followed by Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) initiated in 1982.
Gorbachev and Reagan held five summits between 1986 and 1988, discussing nuclear
disarmament. In 1988, the US and the former Soviet Union signed the Intermediate
Nuclear Force (INF) disarmament agreement which was the first major breakthrough
in nuclear disarmament.

Panchsheel: In 1954, the Prime Ministers of India and China, Jawaharlal Nehru
and Chou-en-lai enunciated five principles of peaceful coexistence while signing
the Treaty on Tibet. These five Principles, known as Panchsheel, have become
important formula of International relations. These are:
(i) Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty;
(ii) Mutual non-aggression;
(iii) Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs;
(iv) Equality and mutual benefit and;
(v) Peaceful coexistence.

Plural Society: A society containing members of many ethnic, language, religious

and cultural groups. A society marked by diversities, a compound of diverse elements.
It is a heterogenous society.

Polarisation: Alignment of forces (here political) along distinct ideological lines.

Poverty Line: A way of defining the minimum level of existence in a society below
which it would be impossible to satisfy the bare minimum needs to survive.
 ; 287
GLOSSARY

Pragmatism: Doctrine that evaluates any assertion solely by its practical

consequences and its bearing on human interests.

Racism: Racism is any political or social belief that justifies treating people differently
according to their racial origins. (See Apartheid)

and
Rigging: It describes any fradulent, illicit or underhand interference with votes
the result or to make sure of electoral
voting processes. The intention being to falsify
victory in advance.

Secession: It means the attempt by some region in a political systems to become

of the rest of the state and rule itself as an autonomous state.
independent

d from each
Secularism: A form or a system where religion and politics are separate
other; one where religion has no role in politics.

dialogue, South-South
South-South Cooperation: As opposed to North-South
ed to build solidari ty and fraterni ty between more
Cooperation has been propos
Commission was constituted
than 100 developing countries of the world. A South
tions of countries of the
to work out plans of cooperation. Many regional associa
(ASEAN), South Asian
South, like Association of South East Asian Nations (OAU),
ation of African Unity
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Organis
have taken up the task of
League of Arab States, Gulf Cooperation Council etc.,
promoting mutual cooperation for common welfare.

al regimes as developed in
Totalitarianism: It is defined in the context of politic
in USSR and Eastern Europe
Germany and Italy during the Second World War and
in the totalist ideology, a single
during the communist rule. Totalitarianism believes the
and a government monopoly over
party state, a secret police, overall control
of the society. There is no difference
economic, cultural and information structure
between the state and the society.
are organised collectives of working people, usually
| Trade Unions: These Unions
in industrial and commercial rather than agricultural
but not invariably
organisations.
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