UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

COURSE TITLE

CMS 108D Communicative Skills 2 formatted

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019
CMS 108D Communicative Skills 2

Rev. (Prof.) P.A. Gborsong

Mr. G. A.K. Gogovi
Prof. Victor K. Yankah
Mr. K. Essel
 First printed in 2017 by Brenya Distributions Ltd. Accra
Second printing in 2019 by Paramount Paper Works, Accra
Third printing in 2021 by UCC Press, Cape Coast
Fourth printing 2022 by UCC Press, Cape Coast
Fifth printing in 2023 by UCC Press, Cape Coast

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDE UCC),

2017, 2019, 2021, 2022, 2023

First Publication, 2017

All right reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the prior
permission of the copyright holder.

Cover page illustrated by William Jacobs

 ABOUT THIS BOOK

This Course Book “CMS 108D Communicative Skills 2” has been exclusively
written by experts in the discipline to up-date your general knowledge of the English
Language in order to equip you with the basic tool you will require for your
professional work as a teacher and administrator.

This three-credit course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been structured to reflect
the weekly three-hour lecture for this course in the University. Thus, each session is
equivalent to a one-hour lecture on campus. As a distance learner, however, you are
expected to spend a minimum of three hours and a maximum of five hours on each
session.

To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly designed to
show you how this book can be used. In this study guide, your weekly schedules are
clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes, assignments and examinations.

Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings. They are
meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and activities you are
expected to perform.

Blank sheets have been also inserted for your comments on topics that you may find
difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your course tutor during your
face-to-face meetings.

We wish you a happy and successful study.

Rev. (Prof.) P.A. Gborsong

Mr. G. A.K. Gogovi
Prof. Victor K. Yankah
Mr. K. Essel

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies i

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Driven by the desire to always deliver quality, cost-effective tertiary education to

clients, it is necessary to appreciate all colleagues and staff of the College of Distance
Education (CoDEUCC) who have contributed in attaining this objective. The revision
of this module has been made possible through the support and commitment of several
people whose contribution in diverse ways is making CoDEUCC attain its mission in
the history of distance education in Ghana.

First, I acknowledge the hard work of the authors of the reviewed modules. The
purpose of the review was to bring to bear new knowledge and trends in the subject
content. I therefore appreciate the work of the reviewers of this module for making the
content of this module indispensable in attaining success for all clients. Thus, much
thanks go to the following Rev. (Dr.) P. A. Gborsong, Mr. G. A.K. Gogovi, Prof. V.
K. Yankah and Mr. K. Essel for their painstaking effort.

I also acknowledge the support of the Co-ordinator and Staff of the Reprographic,
Productions and Dispatch Unit, CoDE, who worked hard to bring this material into
print. The support of the Advisory Committee, particularly Heads of Department and
Chief Examiners has also been invaluable.

I thank the Vice Chancellor, Prof. Johnson Nyarko Boampong, all UCC Management
and the various printing houses without whose support this module would not have been
produced.

Special thanks go to Mrs. Christina Hesse for typesetting into the house style of CoDE.

Prof. Anokye Mohammed Adam

(Provost)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page
About this Book ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i
Acknowledgement ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ii
Table of Contents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... iii
Symbols and their Meanings ... ... ... ... ... ...

UNIT 1: COMMUNICATION

Session 1: The Communication Process

1.1 Personal Communication
1.2 Verbal Skills for Everyday Life
1.3 Skills for Preventing Misunderstanding

Session 2: Personal Business Communication

2.1 Satisfying Needs as a Consumer

Session 3: Communication at the Workplace

3.1 Interactions in the Work Environment
3.2 Responsibilities for Written Communications

Session 4: Using Communication Technology

4.1 The New Technology
4.2 Word and Information Processing
4.3 A Revolution in Technology

Session 5: Principles of Communication Psychology I

5.1 What Do we know about Human Behaviour?
5.2 Human Needs and Behaviour

Session 6: Principles of Communication Psychology II

6.1 Our Language Affects Our Behaviour
6.2 Non-Verbal Communication

UNIT 2: DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (I) –

THE PARAGRAPH

Session 1: The Paragraph and the Controlling Idea

1.1 Characteristics of a Paragraph
1.2 The Controlling Idea
1.3 The Usefulness of the Controlling Idea

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Session 2: The Topic Sentence

2.1 The Topic Sentence
Session 3: Developing the Controlling Idea
3.1 Major Support Sentences
3.2 Minor Support Sentences
Session 4: The Good Paragraph
4.1 Unity
4.2 Completeness
4.3 Coherence
Session 5: Writing a Good Paragraph
5.1 Logical Arrangement of Material
5.2 Transition Words or Expressions
5.3 N. B.
5.4 Order
5.5 Acceptable Language
Session 6: Paragraph Development and Organisation
6.1 Different Ways to Developing a Paragraph
6.2 The Deductive Method
6.3 The Inductive Method
6.4 Comparison, Contrast
6.5 Definition
6.6 Classification
6.7 Cause and Effect
6.8 Factual Details
6.9 Examples
6.10 Anecdote
6.11 A Combination of Methods
6.12 Paragraph Organisation
6.13 The Introduction
6.14 The Main Body/Sentences of Development
6.15 Summary Sentence

UNIT 3: DEVELOPMING WRITING SKILLS (II) – THE ESSAY

Session 1: Identifying and Limiting the Topic
1.1 Finding a Topic
1.2 Limiting the Topic
Session 2: Writing the Outline to an Essay
2.1 What is an Outline?
Session 3: Writing the Introduction to the Essay
3.1 What is the Introduction?
3.2 Requirements of a Good Introduction
3.3 Types of Introduction
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Session 4: Ways of Developing the Essay

4.1 Choosing the Method
4.2 Methods
Session 5: Writing the Conclusion to an Essay
5.1 What is the Conclusion?
5.2 Requirements of a Good Conclusion
5.3 Pitfalls to Avoid
Session 6: Editing your Essay
6.1 Editing – What is it?
6.2 The Process of Editing

UNIT 4: LETTER WRITING

Session 1: Informal Letters 1 – Features
1.1 Types of Personal Letters
1.2 Features of Informal Letters
Session 2: Informal Letters 2 - Introduction
2.1 What is an Introduction?
2.2 Introduction in Informal Letters
2.3 Introduction of Letters to Contemporaries
2.4 Introduction of Letters to Older Relatives
2.5 Introduction of Letters to Younger Relatives
Session 3: Informal Letters – Expression
3.1 What is Expression?
3.2 Components of Expression: Subject Matter
3.3 Purpose of Discourse
3.4 The Component of Grammatical Accuracy
3.5 Expression includes Mechanical Accuracy
Session 4: Formal Letters - Features
4.1 What a Formal Letter Is
4.2 Formal Letters between Individuals tend to Deal with
Formal Matters
4.3 Formal Letters have some Distinctive Features
Session 5: Formal Letters – Introduction
5.1 No Opening Greeting in Formal Letters
5.2 Statement of Acknowledgement as an Introduction
5.3 The Type of Formal Letter Determines the Type of
Introduction
Session 6: Formal Letters 3: Language
6.1 Types of Formal Letters
6.2 The Four Content Features of Formal Letters
6.3 Language of Formal Letters

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.4 Mechanical Accuracy in Formal Letters

UNIT 5: WRITING REPORTS AND MEMORANDA

Session 1: Writing Reports: Routine Reports
1.1 What are Written Routine Reports?
1.2 Nature of Routine Reports
1.3 Content of Routine Reports
1.4 Examples of Routine Reports
Session 2: Writing Reports: Special Reports - Terms of Reference
2.1 What is a Special Report?
2.2 Definition of Terms of Reference
Session 3: Writing Reports: Special Reports – Sources of Information
3.1 Sources of Information
Session 4: Writing Reports: The Letter Format
4.1 Reports in Letter Form
Session 5: Writing Reports – Reports in Tabular Form
5.1 Forms of Presenting Reports
5.2 Other Forms of Presenting Reports
5.3 Reports in Tabular Form
Session 6: The Memorandum
6.1 What is a Memorandum?
6.2 Office Memorandum

UNIT 6: WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

Session 1: Planning Your Research Paper
1.1 Selecting and Limiting a Topic
1.2 Writing a Preliminary Thesis Statement
1.3 The Procedure for Developing a Thesis Statement
1.4 Things to Note about Thesis Statements
1.5 Making a Rough Outline
Session 2: Doing the Research
2.1 Using a Library
2.2 The Card Catalogue
2.3 The Dewey Decimal System
2.4 The Library of Congress Classification
2.5 General Reference Works
2.6 Periodical Indexes
Session 3: Making a Working Bibliography
3.1 Bibliography Cards
Session 4: Organizing Your Information
4.1 Revising Your Preliminary Thesis Statement
4.2 Making a Detailed Outline
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.3 Taking Additional Notes

Session 5: Drafting and Documenting Your Paper

5.1 Writing Your First Draft
5.2 Documentation
5.3 Footnotes
Session 6: Revising and Finishing Your Paper
6.1 Beginning the Revision
6.2 Guide to Revising
6.3 The Finished Paper

References ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies v

 SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS

INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

UNIT OBJECTIVES

SESSION OBJECTIVES

DO AN ACTIVITY

NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT

TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)

REFER TO

READ OR LOOK AT

SUMMARY

SELF- ASSESSMENT TEST

ASSIGNMENT

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Busienss Studies vii

 SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS

OVE R E OVE R E

SUMMA RY SUMMA RY

viii CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies

COMMUNICATION
UNIT 1

UNIT 1: COMMUNICATION

Unit Outline
Session 1: The Communication Process
Session 2: Personal Business Communication
Session 3: Communication at the Workplace
Session 4: Using Communication Technology
Session 5: Applying Principles of Communication Psychology I
Session 6: Principles of Communication Psychology II

Communication is a very essential part of life. Its importance is based

on the fact that it lies at the heart of whatever work people do. In fact,
no matter how people earn their living, the most important skill they will need in order
to work successfully is the ability to communicate with other people. It is in the light of
this that this unit is structured to expose to readers certain essentials of communication.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i. identify and explain the communication process.
ii. describe the form of communication required in a personal business.
iii. describe how communication works at the work place.
iv. describe the use of technology in communication.
v. identify and describe principles of communication psychology.

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies 1

 UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION

This is blank sheet for your short note on:

• Issues that are not clear: and
• Difficult topics if any

2 CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies

COMMUNICATION UNIT 1
SESSION 1

SESSION 1: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Dear students, you’re welcome to the first session of Unit 1. In this
session we shall study how communication works. Have you ever
ponded over how you reach other people with information. We shall look at this in this
session and subsequent ones.

Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to:
a) Tell what communication is.
b) State the various forms of communication.
c) Describe the process of communication.

Now read on…

The exchange of information between and among individuals is referred to as

communication. Human beings direct and receive information in diverse ways, both
verbally and non-verbally. There are various ways of transmitting information; we often
depend on sounds to send information. Other ways of information transmission are:
speaking, writing, gestures, and facial expressions. Listening, reading, and observing
are the means we employ to receive information. The most complex issue in the
communication process is the ability of the receiver to interprets the information as the
source meant it to be understood.

The communication process is not as easy as it appears. Let’s consider this scenario.
Kofi, a sixteen year old senior high school, received a call from his sister, Akosua.

“I can’t go jogging with you this morning because I have to look for another job.” said
Akosua.

“OK,” replied Kofi, “inform me when you are going.”

So the chat ended! When Akosua ended the call, Kofi told her other siblings that
Akosua had lost her job at Akosombo Textile Limited and had to look for another one.
It was not until a few days later that the actual situations were exposed. Akosua had not
lost her job at the ATL, she was just looking for another casual job to add to the too–
few hours she was doing at ATL.

Why did this gap in communication happen? Both the sender and the receiver were
wrong. The source, that is, Akosua gave too little information; she was not clear or
candid in carrying over her message. Too many points were left to the understanding of
the receiver. Kofi , the destination, was also guilty because he reached an unjustified

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies 3

 UNIT 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
SESSION 1

decision based on the message available. Just because Akosua was looking for another
work, Kofi should not have assumed that Akosua had lost her present one.

Miscommunication can take place effortlessly in any environment–especially in the

current digital age where even the touch of a button can attract a wrong message. That
is why it is significant for individuals to study the entire communication process and
sharpen their verbal skills. To communicate effectively, people need to improve their
abilities in speaking, writing, listening, reading, and observing. It is necessary to note
that both the source and the destination have specific responsibilities in the
communication process. This unit begins the study of the communication of ideas
essential for success in individuals’ total life be it personal and business life.

1.1 Personal Communication

Communication starts at the early stages in life. The baby’s cry demands the parents’
response. Is the baby hungry or sick? Does it need to have a diaper changed? Is the cry
for attention? The fact that the baby has a need is communicated by a simple cry. As
children grow older they adopt a more multifaceted communication process. Words
substitute the cry as the ways of communication.

As our stock of vocabulary develops, our ability to communicate also develops. To a

great extent, the degree of people’s stock of vocabulary determines their abilities to
send and receive information. Besides exchanging information with relatives and
friends, the child must learn to communicate effectively and efficiently in school so as
to prepare adequately for future life.

1.2 Verbal Skills for Everyday Life

Communication skills are significant not only for activities among family members and
friends and in school but also for our everyday life. Reading, writing, speaking and
listening all play a vital role in our present-day lifestyle. Take for instance the
communication involved in gaining admission into a university for further studies.
Reading plays a prominent role. Prospective students must read the directions to fill in
application forms. They must also read the brochures issued by the respective
institutions, since knowledge of the rules, regulations, prerequisites, programme types,
colleges, faculties, departments, and halls of residence in these educational institutions
are roads essential to arming potential students with the needed information Reading
skills are also relevant for taking the written test. Complex questions, sometimes, with
thorny alternatives for answers, demand critical reading skills. Road signs on various
campuses, too, not only require interpretive skills but also may require reading skills.

4 CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies

COMMUNICATION UNIT 1
SESSION 1

Writing skills are required to fill out application forms. Appropriate information must
be clearly provided. Speaking skills are employed in asking questions, providing
answers, and following through in the application process. Listening plays an especially
important role in interviews. If a panel member asked you to provide your date of birth
and you instead gave a wrong date, you would decrease your possibility of passing the
interview.. Prudent listening and correct interpreting drive your progress in this and
many other conditions.

1.3 Skills for Preventing Misunderstanding

As can be seen, the communication process plays a vital role in gaining admission into a
university for further studies. Communication skills are important in many other aspects
of the young adult’s life. As an additional case, note the challenges that can result from
a communication breakdown in applying for a social security card.

Yaa Owusu, a first year student in one of our local universities, went to the local social
security office to apply for a card as she intended to apply for a student loan facility. As
instructed, Yaa brought with her a copy of her birth certificate. She carefully filled out
the application form, using the name indicated on her birth certificate, Yaa Obiribea
Owusu , Satisfied that she had completed all the requirements, Yaa signed her
application and went to her hall of residence.

Two week later, Yaa was called on her mobile phone with a request to come to the
office. The reason was that Yaa had signed her application “Yaa Owusu” instead of
“Yaa Obiribea Owusu”. Yet the instruction had clearly stated, “Sign name as shown on
application.” If Yaa had signed her name properly, she could have not have been sent an
invitation call. Not reading the instructions carefully had cost Yaa the money she spent
on transportation if she had signed the application correctly.

In this session, we have studied the meaning of communication. We also

looked at some forms of communication and how communication works.
We finally studied some skills in communication.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.1
1. What is communication?
2. Explain personal communication.
3. Describe two forms of communication.
4. What are communication skills?
5. Give four skills of communication.

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies 5

 UNIT 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
SESSION 1

This is blank sheet for your short note on:

• Issues that are not clear: and
• Difficult topics if any

6 CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies

COMMUNICATION UNIT 1
SESSION 2

SESSION 2: PERSONAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

You’re welcome to the second session of Unit 1. I hope you enjoyed

the first session of the unit. In this session, we shall study some aspects
of communication- We shall really enjoy it just as the previous session.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
1. Describe business communication as a special form of communication
2. Identify some ways of communicating in business

Now read on…

Even though you may never work as a businessman or woman, you cannot avoid
communicating with government and business in undertaking your personal business.
Periodical purchases of food, clothing, gas, and household supplies require reading,
listening and speaking skills. Reading labels and instructions carefully enables you to
make appropriate and judicious selections. Asking questions, making requests, giving
instructions and describing your needs all require accurate and specific speaking skills.
Listening too, is required to follow directions in meeting your personal buying needs.

2.1 Satisfying Needs as a Consumer

Buying a car, home, life insurance, medical insurance, or a major home appliance
demands communication skills. This applies to contractual agreements for home
improvements, installment, buying, or investment. Solving problems emanating from
faulty merchandise, insurance claims, legal matters, and medical concerns needs even
more innovative communication skills. Not only must you rely on speaking, listening,
and reading, but also you must apply your writing skills to such activities.
Let’s look at how Timothy Nyame, an accounts clerk, solved the following problem.
The electronic game he had purchased nearly two years ago was no longer working.
One of the circuit boards was broken. The company had no authorized repair stores in
the city where Timothy lived, so he had to write a business letter to seek a solution to
his problem. This meant writing to the company, explaining the nature of the problem,
requesting shipment of the appropriate replacement part and making arrangements for
payments. He needed to state the information simply, exactly, and clearly in his letter.
To plan and write his letter, Timothy used his knowledge of spelling grammar, writing
style, message organization, and business–letter format—all areas you will be studying
in this module.

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 UNIT 1 PERSONAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
SESSION 2

Communicating with Government

Writing skills are essential for solving problems that may arise with government. Esi
Afful, a nurse’s aide, was shocked when she opened a letter that stated, “If the enclosed
parking ticket is not paid within 30 days, a warrant will be issued for your arrest.” On
examining the enclosed parking ticket, Esi saw that it had been issued in a city more
than 120 kilometers from her home on a day that she had been working. After a closer
reading, she noticed that the cited vehicle had the license plate number GE 4344 - 15.
Esi’s license number was GE 3444. Evidently, someone had made an error in entering
the license number into the computer to locate the owner’s name and address—a perfect
example of miscommunication in our electronic age.

Nevertheless, Esi was still faced with the problem of having to correct the situation.
She could take a day off from work and drive 120 kilometers to the court to correct the
miscommunication, but why waste so much time and money when a well–written letter
could achieve the same results? Esi chose to write the letter. Again, the writer needed
skilful and clear expression to ensure that the reader understood the circumstances and
took the action requested.

In this session, we have studied personal business communication. We

looked at some ways of communicating to satisfy our business partners or
customers. We, also, saw how we can communicate with government.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.1

1. Describe personal business communication

2. Explain how you will communicate to satisfy a business partner.
3. Describe how you will communicate to satisfy someone in government.

8 CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies

 UNIT 1
COMMUNICATION SESSION 3

SESSION 3: COMMUNICATION AT THE WORKPLACE

Dear students, you’re welcome to session three in Unit 1. I hope you’ve
started using some skills mentioned in the previous session. In this
session, we shall study how to communicate at the workplace. This will help you to
interact favourably with your work mates.

Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to:
1. Describe how to communicate in the work environment.
2. Mention the various forms of communication that go on at the workplace.

Now read on…

No matter what occupation you select—accountant electronic technician office worker,

business executive, nurse, construction worker mail carrier, flight attendant, or
computer programmer—you will need to deal with communication in the workplace

3.1 Interactions in the Work Environment

In your work environment you will interact with coworkers, superiors, subordinates,
customers, suppliers, and machines. You will be involved in face–to–face dialogues,
telephone conversations, conferences and committee meetings. All these activities will
require you to exercise your speaking and listening expertise.
Media such as forms, letters, memoranda, reports, bulletins, news releases, meeting
minutes, newsletters, and employee handbooks require reading and writing skills. At
this point you may view yourself only as a reader of these documents but your job may
also involve your writing some of them or parts of them. You may be asked to generate
letters to customers and suppliers, memos to co-workers or subordinates, reports to
superiors, or any of the other written documents that an organization produces.

3.2 Responsibilities for Written Communications

Take for example the numerous forms of written communiqués originating at the desk
of an administrative assistant. Simple phone messages may not seem too important but
think of the communication breakdowns that could occur if the assistant forgot to ask
the name of the caller, jotted down the phone number incorrectly, misinterpreted the
message, or even neglected to place the message on the recipient’s desk.

Persons in other occupations, too, are faced with originating a variety of written
documents. Sales people draft letters to customers and suppliers, accountants prepare
reports for clients, nurses chart patients’ progress, insurance agents complete claims and
engineers write specifications. Almost all occupations require some kind of writing

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 UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION AT THE WORKPLACE
SESSION 3

skill, and virtually all occupations require oral communication skills. Because your
success as a communicator may well measure your success in a chosen field, you
should strive consistently to improve your personal communication skills.

In this session, we have studied interactions in the work environment.

This includes face-to-face interaction, telephone conversations,
conferences and committee meetings.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.3
1. Which are the most important skills that you require in communicating at the
workplace?
2. State the media required for workplace communication.
3. Mention the media of communication that accountants require.

10 CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies

 UNIT 1
COMMUNICATION SESSION 4

SESSION 4: USING COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

You’re welcome to session four of Unit 1. This will be a very

interesting session because we shall study how we use new
communication technology. You use a lot of new technology. How do you use them?
We shall study this.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
1. State some forms of new communication technology.
2. Describe the development of communication.

Now read on…

Modern technology makes it possible to send oral and written messages around the
world in a matter of seconds. Computers and electronic transmission systems have
enabled business and government to speed up and improve the communication process.
As a result, communicators today use communication technology to develop and
transmit their oral and written messages.

Data, voice, and graphic networks supply the technology for rapid communication and
decision making. These networks are composed of computer-based systems that “talk”
to each other so that voices, images, and written data can be transmitted electronically
and instantaneously.
Within the last three decades, this emerging new technology has caused a revolution in
human communications. Think about the pace of human progress during past centuries
and compare it with the developments that have taken place during the last twenty
years—even the last ten years.

4.1 The New Technology

Human beings have communicated form the beginning of time. Communication
probably began with grunts, gestures, and expressions. The origins of speaking and
writing are unknown, but signs and symbols were added very early in the timeline of
human development.

Even in the early times people kept records. The Egyptians developed a picture
language called hieroglyphics, at the same time the Sumerians were writing on clay
tablets with a system that used wedge-shaped signs. The Semites were the first to devise
an alphabet, around 1500 B.C., and the Assyrians and Babylonians established libraries
around 600 B.C.

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 UNIT 1 USING COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
SESSION 4

In early societies writing was taught only to scribes and priests. It was such a laborious
and time-consuming process that only a privileged few were allowed to learn to write.
Even after the development of the pen and quill, writing was such a chore that few
people ever saw a book, let alone owned one. Just imagine how long it would take to
copy by hand the pages of this textbook!

Not until the invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century was knowledge
opened to everyone. Printing provided a more rapid and easy way to communicate.
Although type was set by hand, multiple copies could be run once the type had been set.
Then in the middle of the nineteenth century a machine appeared that would speed up
the printing process. Little did Christopher Scholes realize that his invention—the
typewriter—would be the forerunner of the sophisticated computers used in publishing
and modern offices today.

Civilization has progressed from tediously chiseling signs and symbols into rock to
communicating messages instantaneously by machine. Human beings, however, must
still generate the messages processed by these machines. People are responsible for the
content, organization, wording, and format of the information processed. Therefore,
users of modern technology must still be skilled in the communication process. Your
study of the principles and concepts in this textbook will prepare you to make effective
use of the communication technology found in modern business settings today.
Advanced technologies have emerged during the last three decades in word processing,
information processing, telecommunications, and networks. Each is defined and briefly
described for you in the following sections.

4.2 Word and Information Processing

People have been processing words since the Semites developed the first known
alphabet, but the concept of word processing as we know it today was introduced by the
IBM Corporation in the early 1960s. Modern-day word processing now involves the use
of a standardized set of procedures (known as software) combined with computerized
equipment to produce written documents. Popular software programs used for word
processing include WordPerfect, Microsoft Word, WordStar, MultiMate, DisplayWrite
and Appleworks to name just a few.

4.2.1 What Word Processing Can Do

To obtain a better understanding of word processing, let us first generally look at how it
works. Computers have a typewriter keyboard. As data is entered into the computer
through the keyboard and a word processing program, each keystroke is recorded for
storage on a magnetic disk. If you wish to make a change on the disk, you may do so by
“recording over” the present material. Similarly if you make a keyboarding error, all
you need do is backspace to erase the error and then retype the correct stroke in its spot.

12 CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies

 UNIT 1
COMMUNICATION SESSION 4

With word processing you can also easily add and delete complete sentences and
paragraphs. Once you have made any corrections and revisions in a letter,
memorandum, report or other document, you are ready to prepare the finished copy.
Printers read the disk and print out your final copy error–free at speeds ranging from
hundreds of words a minute to over a thousand words a minute.

In many situations the same originally typed document must be sent to a number of
different people or the same paragraph must be repeated in different documents. By
using word processing to record these materials, you may print as many original copies
as needed without rekeying the contents.

Reports provide information that is often the basis for important decisions. The person
who writes a report may rewrite it several times before the report is ready for
distribution. Before word processing, the report had to be retyped with each rewrite,
thereby requiring the tedious process of keyboarding and proofreading the entire
document with each revision. By using word processing to prepare a report, you
keyboard and proofread only the changes, the remainder of the report remains unaltered,
waiting to be printed with the changes or additions to form a revised final copy.

4.2.2 Word Processing at Work

Who uses word processing? For what purposes is it used? Frequent users include law
firms, where many documents that require precise wording are produced. In addition,
many legal documents contain large sections of wording that do not need to be changed
for each new client. These standardized paragraphs are recorded on disks and recalled
for the preparation of contracts, wills, trusts, agreements, dissolutions, testimonies, and
many other legal documents.

Banks and other financial institutions use word processing to communicate with their
current and prospective customers. Standardized form letters are entered into and stored
by the word processing equipment. When a single letter needs to be sent to a list of
customers, the standardized form can be retrieved and merged with the list of names to
produce an originally typed letter for each name on the list.

Hospitals and other health care facilities use word processing to prepare patients’ files
and to compile reports of diagnoses and examinations. Standardized examination
reports are stored for each specially, so doctors can immediately cite any abnormal
conditions that may exist. Word processing is also used for preparing government and
insurance reports, professional papers presented by staff members, public service
bulletins, applications for special projects, and a variety of other documents.

Insurance companies use word processing to communicate with their large number of
clients. Specialized types of communication are sent to those clients who carry certain

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kinds of insurance. Personalized letters prepared on word processors are also used to
solicit additional business.

All types of businesses use word processing equipment to prepare proposals. Volumes
of paperwork describing specifications, costs, procedures, and schedules need to be
prepared before a contract can be awarded. Thousands of hours of editing and revision
may be required to prepare a proposal for submission. Word processing eases the
keyboarding and proofreading burden and fosters accuracy.

Within the last few years, declining prices of computer hardware and software have
made computers more affordable to both organizations and individuals. Because word
processing simplifies and streamlines the document preparation process, its use has
spread rapidly to small businesses, self–employed individuals, home, office users, and
students. Yesterday’s electric typewriter has become virtually obsolete as computers
and word processing software dominate in small business and households throughout
the country.

4.2.3 Information Processing

While word processing refers to the process of creating, editing, formatting, storing,
retrieving, revising, and printing text materials electrically, information processing is
the manipulation of data by electronic means to collect, organize, record, and store
information for decision–making purposes. Information processing retains the text–
editing and revision function but also has the capability to use the data in a wider range
of applications.

4.2.4 Information Processing at Work

The hospital that uses word processing to prepare and maintain patients’ records can use
information processing technology in many ways. For example, it can compile a list of
patients by any one of many different categories—by specific disease or disorder, by
admitting doctor, by admission date, or by age. Expanded applications (uses) and
capabilities can be achieved by interfacing (connecting) word processing programs with
other types of computer programs.

Picture the checkout stand of a modern supermarket. Notice how the clerk skims each
product over a certain section of the countertop. Listen for the high–pitched beep as the
name of the item and its price are recorded on the cash register tape. As a customer you
may like this procedure because it provides you with an itemized tape listing the
specific product purchased and its price. To the grocery store, however, the new system
provides valuable inventory information that was not readily available before
information processing technology. For example, the store buyers know how many
frozen turkeys they should purchase for Friday. They know how many cases of a certain
brand of canned peas are needed to restock the shelves. They may even be able to

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determine what products sell too slowly and should therefore be discontinued.
Information processing technology is thus an important tool to help business cut costs
and increase profit.

4.3 A Revolution in Technology

Since the early 1980s the flood of microcomputers entering business and industry has
revolutionized business’s ability to use information processing for management
decision making. No longer must a company invest in expensive mainframe computer
time or acquire costly minicomputers to take advantage of this tool. Reasonably priced
microcomputers coupled with spreadsheet, data base, and graphics programs provide
information processing capabilities to large and small companies alike—even home
offices.

Business writers charged with preparing reports for management decision making may
organize, enter, and store information in computerized data files. From this data base
they may easily transfer information into a spreadsheet for either preparing analyses or
making projections. Spreadsheet data can then be converted into graphic form for ease
of understanding and interpretation through any one of a number of graphics software
programs.

Integrated software programs allow the modern business communicator to combine

word processing technology with information processing technology so that charts and
tables derived from data bases and spreadsheets may be entered directly into reports
prepared through word processing programs. The popularity of microcomputers and
these kinds of programs is growing rapidly because of their relatively inexpensive cost
in comparison with minicomputers and mainframes. Now even the small company or
business can afford to use computer technology to increase its profit.

In this session, we have studied a lot of things about the use of new
communication technology. First, we studied what word processing can
do. Secondly, we studied how word processing works. Finally, we studied information
processing and how it works.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.4
1. Describe the role of modern technology.
2. Describe the growth of communication briefly.
3. What is word processing?
4. Describe briefly, word processing.

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This is blank sheet for your short note on:

• Issues that are not clear: and
• Difficult topics if any

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COMMUNICATION UNIT 1
SESSION 5

SESSION 5: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

PSYCHOLOGY I
You are welcome to the fifth session of unit 1. I hope you’ve enjoyed
all the previous sessions. You are really making progress. Good! In
this session, we shall study some principles of communication psychology. These
principles will help you in your interactions.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to :
1. State and explain some human behavior.
2. Describe Maslow’s theory on human needs
3. State the principles of communication psychology.
4. Describe the principles of communication psychology.

Now read on…

Communication is involved in every part of our lives from the time we wake up until
the time we go back to sleep. Talking with family, friends, other students or employees,
teachers, or supervisors, listening to the radio or watching TV, buying or selling
products or services, speaking, writing, listening, or “sizing up” a situation—when we
do any of these things, we are involved in communication. Since communication has
such a major effect on our lives and since everyone is a communicator, we need to
understand what happens when people communicate. If you look at people who are
successful communicators, you find that they apply effectively the principles of human
behavior

5.1 What do we know about Human Behaviour?

Many problems from communication mishaps are caused by a lack of understanding of
human behavior. If we compare what we know about computer technology, space
travel, and medicine, we can easily see that we are far ahead in these last areas. The
inner workings of a giant mainframe computer are more easily explained than the inner
workings of the human brain and mind!

Continued research in psychology, sociology, and anthropology contributes to our

understanding of human behavior and helps us to apply its principles to communication
psychology. Studies provide us with theories that are useful in understanding human
behavior. However, we must remember that theories are useful only to understand how
and why most people behave as they do—there are always exceptions. Throughout
history, for instance, we find examples of people who have overcome almost
insurmountable obstacles in reaching their goals. So while you are studying behavior

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theory in an attempt to improve your communication skills, remember that we are

talking about the general behavior of most people and that there are exceptions.

5.2 Human Needs and Behaviour

As a communicator, you must recognize that all human beings have certain needs at
certain times. These needs determine our behavior and the goals we set for ourselves. A
successful communicator has the ability to understand the needs of those who will
receive his or her message. A successful communicator speaks and writes with the
receiver’s needs in mind at all times.

According to Abraham Maslow, a famous psychologist, most people will respond

positively to messages that will meet their particular needs at particular times. Maslow
theorizes that human needs are based on a system of priorities, similar to the rungs of a
ladder. Once a person’s foot is securely balanced on the first rung—that is, once that
person’s first–rung needs are met—he or she may be willing and ready to ascend to the
second rung. And once that person’s second–rung needs are met, he or she may be
willing and ready to ascend to the third rung, and so on. The point is that until the
primary needs (those associated with the first rung) have been reasonably well satisfied,
most of us will reject messages that focus on fulfilling higher–level needs.

Maslow uses five “rungs” or classifications, to describe the hierarchy of human needs.
These rungs are illustrated on page 17. Keep them in mind as you attempt to send
messages to potential receivers.

Rung 1—Basic Physical Needs: What basic things do we need before we can turn
our attention to other things? We need food, shelter, and clothing—physical needs.
Until these needs are reasonably well met, we think of little else.
Rung 2—Safety and Security Needs: Next we think about keeping ourselves free
from physical harm or mental abuse. Most of us try to avoid situations that could cause
us physical harm or people that threaten our peace of mind.
The first two rungs represent lower–level needs. Once we have met these needs, we can
turn our attention to our upper–level needs.
Rung 3—The Need to Belong: Most of us want to feel that we are part of a group.
During our teen years, we place great importance on being “one of the gang.” Our
families also provide us with a sense of belonging. When we finally go to work full
time, we will want to have friends and enjoy being with our coworkers.
Rung 4—The Need to Be “Somebody”: Once we have met the needs of Rung 3,
feeling comfortable in the society in which we live, most of us want to feel that we are
good at doing something. If we are good at swimming or bowling or some of our school
subjects, we feel very pleased with the recognition we receive. We feel that we are
“somebody.” We have met the needs of our ego.

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Rung 5—The Need to Help Others and to Be Creative: If we are reasonably able to
meet all the previous needs, we seem to lose our anxieties and fears. Two things happen
(1) We are more willing to help people who are still struggling on the lower rungs of the
ladder, those still striving to meet their physical, safety, and security needs, and (2) we
become more creative, and creative people improve the quality of life for us all.

Rung 5—The Need to Help Others and to Be Creative

Rung 4—The Need to Be “Somebody”

Rung 3—The Need to Belong

Rung 2—Safety and Security Needs

Rung 1—Basic Physical Needs

According to Maslow, human needs are based on a system of priorities, similar

to the rungs of a ladder.

In this session, we have studied human behavior and human needs. We

studied Maslow’s theory of human needs and used it as a basis for
understanding certain human behaviour. This study will help you as you interact with
people.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.5
1. Describe Maslow’s theory on human needs.
2. Explain the 4 rungs of Maslow’s theory.
3. Describe the principle on the need to help others and to be creative.

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SESSION 5 PSYCHOLOGY I

This is blank sheet for your short note on:

• Issues that are not clear: and
• Difficult topics if any

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 UNIT 1
COMMUNICATION SESSION 6

SESSION 6: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

PSYCHOLOGY II
You are welcome to the last session of unit 1. I hope you’ve enjoyed
all the previous sessions. In this session, we shall continue with what
we studied in session 5 concerning how human needs determine human reaction.

Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to :
1. Describe how human needs determine human reactions.
2. Describe how some particular needs determine some particular reactions in
human beings.

Now read on…

To be a successful communicator, you must try to determine the needs of the people to
whom you are writing or speaking. You can do this by noticing which goals seem to
motivate them. But remember that goals may change rapidly. For example, when you
arrive at school in the morning, you have had a good breakfast, so you are not hungry
(Rung 1). You feel safe and comfortable in your surroundings (Rung 2), and you have
enjoyed visiting with friends before class (Rung 3). You have just finished a class that
you enjoy and do well in so you have satisfied the need to be “somebody” (Rung 4).
However, 11:30 a.m. comes and you get hungry. The lunch hour doesn’t begin till 12
noon. You shift in your chair and keep looking at your watch. You find concentrating
very difficult because you have a physical need, the need for food (Rung 1). Until that
need is satisfied, the only really meaningful messages you will receive concern food.

An example of sending a positive message directed toward our needs is our

government’s appeal to us to use car pools. Although the main reason for car pools
would be to conserve energy and to control traffic congestion, we are also told that
riding to work with a group is more fun (Rung 3). Our reaction is favorable because the
message also appeals to our personal needs.

Thus we can learn to identify these levels of needs and relate them to all our
communications. Whether we are looking for a job, buying or selling products or
services, ordering supplies or asking for information, we must always put ourselves in
the place of our receiver, decide what our receiver’s needs are and then phrase our
message to meet those needs. In this way we go a long way toward getting the reaction
we want.

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6.1 Our Language Affects Our Behaviour

The words we use can make us behave in different ways. To communicate successfully,
we must remember that words are only symbols, meaning is added by people. Two
people may interpret the same word differently. At the same time, words also have
different kinds of meanings. The denotative meaning, the one that appears in the
dictionary, is one kind, the feelings and impressions the words invokes, the connotative
meaning, is another. The total meaning you get from a word is a combination of its
denotation and connotation.

Consider these words: slender, slim, thin, skinny and scrawny. These words mean
essentially the same denotatively. If one of these words were being used to describe you
however, would you react the same to scrawny as you would to slender?
If a supervisor wished to describe an employee who did not give up easily, that
supervisor could use terms such as persistent, tenacious, persevering, obstinate,
stubborn, or unyielding. All these words have essentially the same denotation—
following through regardless of the obstacles. These words, however, are not
interchangeable because they differ substantially in connotation.

A noted semanticist coined the terms purr words and snarl words to refer to words that
affect people’s emotions either positively or adversely. Purr words are ones such as
beautiful, kindness, freedom, successful, persevering, and slender. People usually
respond warmly to words such as these because of their positive or favorable
connotation. Snarl words such as cheap, negligent, fraud, delinquent, obstinate, and
scrawny stimulate distasteful images. Effective business communicators generally rely
on purr words and avoid snarl words to convey their messages. They are also aware that
the same words can convey different meanings to different people.

6.2 Non-Verbal Communication

When we speak or write, we send our receivers two types of messages, those expressed
in words and those not expressed in words. For example, if your teacher says to you,
“Don’t be late for class tomorrow,” you could surmise that the message asks you to be
on time. The sentence does not state in words but may, through teacher’s stern facial
expression, imply such additional messages as “You are frequently late” or “I am upset
that you may not be on time.” These messages not expressed in words are called
nonverbal communication.
Non-verbal communication—facial expression, gestures, posture, body movements,
attire, grooming—contribute greatly to the meaning of a message. Keep in mind that
cultural and environmental differences often determine how these nonverbal messages
will be interpreted. On the one hand, people from most cultures seem to turn up the
corners of their mouths to show amusement. On the other hand, people from some
cultures require less “personal space” than people from other cultures.

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Learning to use nonverbal communication can help us make the meanings of our oral
messages clear. The following information on personal space, gestures and posture, and
facial expressions can help us become better communicators.

Personal Space: All of us, as human beings, maintain our own environment. This
means that we all need a certain amount of “space” in which to operate. The amount of
space that we require depends on our particular culture, our circumstances, and the
specific actions expected of us at the time.

The next time you sit with your friends at a table in the cafeteria, notice how each of
you generally seems to use the amount of space in which to eat. You have all
unconsciously occupied approximately the same amount of space at the table.

In the United States people usually stand about two feet apart when they talk to each
other. If someone moves too close to us and invades our personal space, we begin to
exhibit uncomfortable and unnatural kinds of behaviour. We may give signals of
tension (uneasy movements) to get the intruder to move, or we may start to back up in
an attempt to maintain the distance needed between the person speaking and ourselves.

Space violations occur not only in conversations. Picture yourself stepping in a crowded
elevator on your way up to the twenty–third floor. As the elevator rises, everyone peers
up at the floor indicator. Why? Because each person’s personal space has been invaded,
he or she feels uncomfortable and is unable to carry on a conversation. The abnormal or
uncomfortable behavior exhibited at this point is looking up at the floor indicator.

Notice, however, how comfortable we feel when we step into an elevator with only one
or two other persons in it. We might even exchange a casual “Hello,” “Good morning,”
or some other kind of greeting. If the ride is lengthy, the discussion might even continue
with some additional small talk, provided that a comfortable spatial distance can be
maintained for everyone in the elevator.

An understanding of personal space can certainly help you communicate more

successfully. If you back away from people because they have invaded your personal
space, they may perceive this behavior as a sign that you don’t like them. On the other
hand, if you invade others’ personal space, how much information can be assimilated
when they are backing up, feeling uneasiness, or displaying discomfort? Ask yourself,
“How much information has been lost during this stage of discomfort and uneasiness?”
Obviously, a communicator who relies on oral communication must be conscious of
proper spatial relationships under varying circumstances.

Gestures and Posture People can communicate many moods through gestures and
posture. Keeping your head down and hunching your shoulders may be your way of

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telling people to leave you alone. Crossing your arms may indicate that you do not
accept what someone is saying. Sliding down in your chair may convey that you are
bored. Shrugging your shoulders may mean that you no longer have any interest in a
situation. If you do not wish to convey these kinds of negative ideas, you need to
monitor your body language in communicating with others.

As a receiver of messages in the communication process, you should keep in mind that
nonverbal communication does not always tell the whole story. Interpret gestures,
posture, and body movements in conjunction with what is being said and the whole
context of the situation.

Facial Expressions: Looking away from a person can convey as much meaning as
looking at a person. Looking away may tell people that we would not invade their
privacy. Or it may mean that we are not comfortable with what they are saying. Or it
may mean that we are trying to hide something. We know that facial expressions can
convey a whole range of meanings—joy, hate, love, sorrow—but as with gestures and
posture, we need to consider the entire situation and evaluate both the verbal and
nonverbal signals in interpreting messages.

In this session, we’ve studied how our needs determine our reactions. In
other words, human beings behave in a certain way as a result of certain
needs in their lives. Therefore, to communicate successfully, we need to be conversant
with how the needs cause him to behave.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.6
1. How does our language affect our behavior as human beings?
2. What is “non-verbal communication”?
3. State five forms of non-verbal communication that we use.

24 CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business Studies