Svante Arrhenius

Svante August Arrhenius (/əˈriːniəs, əˈreɪniəs/ ə-

REE-nee-əs, -⁠RAY-,[3][4] Swedish: [ˈsvânːtɛ aˈrěːnɪɵs]; 19 Svante Arrhenius
ForMemRS
February 1859 – 2 October 1927) was a Swedish
scientist. Originally a physicist, but often referred to as
a chemist, Arrhenius was one of the founders of the
science of physical chemistry. In 1903, he received the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry, becoming the first Swedish
Nobel laureate. In 1905, he became the director of the
Nobel Institute, where he remained until his death.[5]

Arrhenius was the first to use the principles of physical

chemistry to estimate the extent to which increases in
the atmospheric carbon dioxide are responsible for the
Earth's increasing surface temperature. His work
played an important role in the emergence of modern
climate science.[6] In the 1960s, Charles David Keeling
reliably measured the level of carbon dioxide present Arrhenius in 1909
in the air showing it was increasing and that, according Born Svante August Arrhenius
to the greenhouse hypothesis, it was sufficient to cause 19 February 1859
significant global warming.[7] Vik Castle, Uppsala County,
Sweden
The Arrhenius equation, Arrhenius acid, Arrhenius
Died 2 October 1927 (aged 68)
base, lunar crater Arrhenius, Martian crater
Stockholm, Sweden
Arrhenius,[8] the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet, and the
Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University were so Alma mater Uppsala University
named to commemorate his contributions to science. Known for Calculation of the
greenhouse effect
Arrhenius equation
Biography Acid-base reaction
Awards Davy Medal (1902)
Early years Nobel Prize in Chemistry
(1903)
Arrhenius was born on 19 February 1859 at Vik (which
can also be spelled as Wik or Wijk), near Uppsala, International membership of
Kingdom of Sweden, the son of Svante Gustav and NAS (1908)

Carolina Thunberg Arrhenius, who were Lutheran.[9] ForMemRS (1910)

His father had been a land surveyor for Uppsala Willard Gibbs Award (1911)
University, moving up to a supervisory position. At the Faraday Lectureship Prize
age of three, Arrhenius taught himself to read without (1914)
the encouragement of his parents and, by watching his Franklin Medal (1920)
father's addition of numbers in his account books,
became an arithmetical prodigy. In later life, Arrhenius Scientific career
was profoundly passionate about mathematical Fields Physics
concepts, data analysis and discovering their Chemistry
relationships and laws.
Institutions Stockholm University
At age eight, he entered the local cathedral school, Doctoral Per Teodor Cleve[1]
starting in the fifth grade, distinguishing himself in advisors Erik Edlund[2]
physics and mathematics, and graduating as the Doctoral Oskar Benjamin Klein
youngest and most able student in 1876. students

Ionic disassociation
At the University of Uppsala, he was dissatisfied with the chief instructor of physics and the only faculty
member who could have supervised him in chemistry, Per Teodor Cleve, so he left to study at the
Physical Institute of the Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm under the physicist Erik Edlund in
1881.[10]

His work focused on the conductivities of electrolytes. In 1884, based on this work, he submitted a 150-
page dissertation on electrolytic conductivity to Uppsala for the doctorate. It did not impress the
professors, who included Cleve, and he received a fourth-class degree, but upon his defense it was
reclassified as third-class. Later, extensions of this very work would earn him the 1903 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry.[11]

Arrhenius put forth 56 theses in his 1884 dissertation, most of which would still be accepted today
unchanged or with minor modifications. The most important idea in the dissertation was his explanation
of the fact that solid crystalline salts disassociate into paired charged particles when dissolved, for which
he would win the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Arrhenius's explanation was that in forming a solution,
the salt disassociates into charged particles that Michael Faraday had given the name ions many years
earlier. Faraday's belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis, that is, an
external direct current source of electricity was necessary to form ions. Arrhenius proposed that, even in
the absence of an electric current, aqueous solutions of salts contained ions. He thus proposed that
chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions.[12][13][14]

The dissertation did not impress the professors at Uppsala, but Arrhenius sent it to a number of scientists
in Europe who were developing the new science of physical chemistry, such as Rudolf Clausius, Wilhelm
Ostwald, and Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff. They were far more impressed, and Ostwald even came to
Uppsala to persuade Arrhenius to join his research team in Riga. Arrhenius declined, however, as he
preferred to stay in Sweden-Norway for a while (his father was very ill and would die in 1885) and had
received an appointment at Uppsala.[12][13][14]

In an extension of his ionic theory Arrhenius proposed definitions for acids and bases, in 1884. He
believed that acids were substances that produce hydrogen ions in solution and that bases were substances
that produce hydroxide ions in solution.

Middle period
In 1885, Arrhenius next received a travel grant from the Swedish
Academy of Sciences, which enabled him to study with Ostwald
in Riga (now in Latvia), with Friedrich Kohlrausch in Würzburg,
Germany, with Ludwig Boltzmann in Graz, Austria, and with
Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff in Amsterdam.

In 1889, Arrhenius explained the fact that most reactions require

added heat energy to proceed by formulating the concept of
activation energy, an energy barrier that must be overcome before
two molecules will react. The Arrhenius equation gives the
quantitative basis of the relationship between the activation energy
and the rate at which a reaction proceeds.

In 1891, he became a lecturer at the Stockholm University College

(Stockholms Högskola, now Stockholm University), being
promoted to professor of physics (with much opposition) in 1895,
and rector in 1896.
Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik,
1903
Nobel Prizes
About 1900, Arrhenius became involved in setting up the Nobel
Institutes and the Nobel Prizes. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in
1901. For the rest of his life, he would be a member of the Nobel Committee on Physics and a de facto
member of the Nobel Committee on Chemistry. He used his positions to arrange prizes for his friends
(Jacobus van 't Hoff, Wilhelm Ostwald, Theodore Richards) and to attempt to deny them to his enemies
(Paul Ehrlich, Walther Nernst, Dmitri Mendeleev).[15] In 1901 Arrhenius was elected to the Swedish
Academy of Sciences, against strong opposition. In 1903 he became the first Swede to be awarded the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 1905, upon the founding of the Nobel Institute for Physical Research at
Stockholm, he was appointed rector of the institute, the position where he remained until retirement in
1927.

In 1911, he won the first Willard Gibbs Award.[16]

Society memberships
He was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1908.[17]

He was elected an Honorary Member of the Netherlands Chemical Society in 1909.[18]

He became a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1910.[19]

He was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1911.[20]

In 1912, he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences[21]

In 1919, he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[22]

Later years
Eventually, Arrhenius's theories became generally accepted and he
turned to other scientific topics. In 1902, he began to investigate
physiological problems in terms of chemical theory. He
determined that reactions in living organisms and in the test tube
followed the same laws.

In 1904, he delivered at the University of California a course of

lectures, the object of which was to illustrate the application of the
methods of physical chemistry to the study of the theory of toxins
and antitoxins, and which were published in 1907 under the title
Immunochemistry.[23][24] He also turned his attention to geology
(the origin of ice ages), astronomy, physical cosmology, and
astrophysics, accounting for the birth of the Solar System by
interstellar collision. He considered radiation pressure as
accounting for comets, the solar corona, the aurora borealis, and
zodiacal light.

He thought life might have been carried from planet to planet by

Arrhenius family grave in Uppsala
the transport of spores, the theory now known as
panspermia.[23][25] He thought of the idea of a universal language,
proposing a modification of the English language.

He was a board member for the Swedish Society for Racial Hygiene (founded 1909), which endorsed
mendelism at the time, and contributed to the topic of contraceptives around 1910. However, until 1938
information and sale of contraceptives was prohibited in the Kingdom of Sweden. Gordon Stein wrote
that Svante Arrhenius was an atheist.[26][27] In his last years he wrote both textbooks and popular books,
trying to emphasize the need for further work on the topics he discussed. In September 1927, he came
down with an attack of acute intestinal catarrh and died on 2 October. He was buried in Uppsala.

Marriages and family

He was married twice, first to his former pupil Sofia Rudbeck (1894–1896), with whom he had one son,
Olof Arrhenius, and then to Maria Johansson (1905–1927), with whom he had two daughters and a son.

Arrhenius was the grandfather of bacteriologist Agnes Wold,[28] chemist Svante Wold,[29] and ocean
biogeochemist Gustaf Arrhenius.[30]

Greenhouse effect
In developing a theory to explain the ice ages, Arrhenius, in 1896, was the first to use basic principles of
physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide
(CO2) will increase Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect.[7][32][33] These
calculations led him to conclude that human-caused CO2 emissions, from fossil-fuel burning and other
combustion processes, are large enough to cause global warming. This conclusion has been extensively
tested, winning a place at the core of modern climate science.[34][35] Arrhenius, in this work, built upon
the prior work of other famous scientists, including Joseph
Fourier, John Tyndall, and Claude Pouillet. Arrhenius wanted to
determine whether greenhouse gases could contribute to the
explanation of the temperature variation between glacial and inter-
glacial periods.[36] Arrhenius used infrared observations of the
moon – by Frank Washington Very and Samuel Pierpont Langley
at the Allegheny Observatory in Pittsburgh – to calculate how
much of infrared (heat) radiation is captured by CO2 and water
(H2O) vapour in Earth's atmosphere. Using 'Stefan's law' (better
known as the Stefan–Boltzmann law), he formulated what he
This 1902 article attributes to
referred to as a 'rule'. In its original form, Arrhenius's rule reads as
Arrhenius a theory that coal
follows: combustion could cause a degree of
global warming eventually leading to
if the quantity of carbonic acid increases in
human extinction.[31]
geometric progression, the augmentation of the
temperature will increase nearly in arithmetic
progression.

Here, Arrhenius refers to CO2 as carbonic acid (which refers only to the aqueous form H2CO3 in modern
usage). The following formulation of Arrhenius's rule is still in use today:[37]

where is the concentration of CO2 at the beginning (time-zero) of the period being studied (if the
same concentration unit is used for both and , then it doesn't matter which concentration unit is
used); is the CO2 concentration at end of the period being studied; ln is the natural logarithm (= log
base e (loge)); and is the augmentation of the temperature, in other words the change in the rate of
heating Earth's surface (radiative forcing), which is measured in Watts per square meter.[37] Derivations
from atmospheric radiative transfer models have found that (alpha) for CO2 is 5.35 (± 10%) W/m2 for
Earth's atmosphere.[38]

Based on information from his colleague Arvid Högbom,[39]

Arrhenius was the first person to predict that emissions of carbon
dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels and other combustion
processes were large enough to cause global warming. In his
calculation Arrhenius included the feedback from changes in water
vapor as well as latitudinal effects, but he omitted clouds,
convection of heat upward in the atmosphere, and other essential
factors. His work is currently seen less as an accurate
quantification of global warming than as the first demonstration
that increases in atmospheric CO2 will cause global warming,
everything else being equal. Arrhenius at the first Solvay
conference on chemistry in 1922 in
Arrhenius's absorption values for CO2 and his conclusions met Brussels

criticism by Knut Ångström in 1900, who published the first

modern infrared absorption spectrum of CO2 with two absorption bands, and published experimental
results that seemed to show that absorption of infrared radiation by the gas in the atmosphere was already
"saturated" so that adding more could make no difference. Arrhenius replied strongly in 1901 (Annalen
der Physik), dismissing the critique altogether. He touched on the subject
briefly in a technical book titled Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik (1903).
He later wrote Världarnas utveckling (1906) (German: Das Werden der
Welten [1907], English: Worlds in the Making (https://archive.org/details/
worldsinmakinge01arrhgoog) [1908]) directed at a general audience,
where he suggested that the human emission of CO2 would be strong
enough to prevent the world from entering a new ice age, and that a
warmer earth would be needed to feed the rapidly increasing population:

"To a certain extent the temperature of the earth's

surface, as we shall presently see, is conditioned by the
properties of the atmosphere surrounding it, and
particularly by the permeability of the latter for the rays
of heat." (p. 46)
Arrhenius in 1909
"That the atmospheric envelopes limit the heat losses
from the planets had been suggested about 1800 by the
great French physicist Fourier. His ideas were further developed afterwards by
Pouillet and Tyndall. Their theory has been styled the hot-house theory, because
they thought that the atmosphere acted after the manner of the glass panes of hot-
houses." (p. 51)

"If the quantity of carbonic acid [ CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (carbonic acid) ] in the air
should sink to one-half its present percentage, the temperature would fall by about
4°; a diminution to one-quarter would reduce the temperature by 8°. On the other
hand, any doubling of the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air would raise the
temperature of the earth's surface by 4°; and if the carbon dioxide were increased
fourfold, the temperature would rise by 8°." (p. 53)

"Although the sea, by absorbing carbonic acid, acts as a regulator of huge capacity,
which takes up about five-sixths of the produced carbonic acid, we yet recognize
that the slight percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere may by the advances
of industry be changed to a noticeable degree in the course of a few centuries." (p.
54)

"Since, now, warm ages have alternated with glacial periods, even after man
appeared on the earth, we have to ask ourselves: Is it probable that we shall in the
coming geological ages be visited by a new ice period that will drive us from our
temperate countries into the hotter climates of Africa? There does not appear to be
much ground for such an apprehension. The enormous combustion of coal by our
industrial establishments suffices to increase the percentage of carbon dioxide in the
air to a perceptible degree." (p. 61)

"We often hear lamentations that the coal stored up in the earth is wasted by the
present generation without any thought of the future, and we are terrified by the
awful destruction of life and property which has followed the volcanic eruptions of
our days. We may find a kind of consolation in the consideration that here, as in
every other case, there is good mixed with the evil. By the influence of the
increasing percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, we may hope to enjoy
ages with more equable and better climates, especially as regards the colder
regions of the earth, ages when the earth will bring forth much more abundant crops
than at present, for the benefit of rapidly propagating mankind." (p. 63)
At this time, the accepted consensus explanation is that,
historically, orbital forcing has set the timing for ice ages, with
CO2 acting as an essential amplifying feedback.[40][41] However,
CO2 releases since the industrial revolution have increased CO2 to
a level not found since 10 to 15 million years ago, when the global
average surface temperature was up to 6 °C (11 °F) warmer than
now and almost all ice had melted, raising world sea-levels to
about 100 feet (30 m.) higher than today's.[42]

Arrhenius estimated based on the CO2 levels at his time, that

reducing levels by 0.62–0.55 would decrease temperatures by 4–
5 °C (Celsius) and an increase of 2.5 to 3 times of CO2 would
cause a temperature rise of 8–9 °C in the Arctic.[32][43] In his book
Worlds in the Making he described the "hot-house" theory of the
atmosphere.[44] Autochrome portrait by Auguste
Léon, 1922

Works
1884, Recherches sur la conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes, doctoral dissertation,
Stockholm, Royal publishing house, P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 155 pages.
1896a, Ueber den Einfluss des Atmosphärischen Kohlensäurengehalts auf die Temperatur
der Erdoberfläche, in the Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science,
Stockholm 1896, Volume 22, I N. 1, pages 1–101.
1896b, On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground (htt
p://www.rsc.org/images/Arrhenius1896_tcm18-173546.pdf), London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science (fifth series), April 1896. vol 41, pages 237–
275.
1901a, Ueber die Wärmeabsorption durch Kohlensäure, Annalen der Physik, Vol 4, 1901,
pages 690–705.
1901b, Über Die Wärmeabsorption Durch Kohlensäure Und Ihren Einfluss Auf Die
Temperatur Der Erdoberfläche. Abstract of the proceedings of the Royal Academy of
Science, 58, 25–58.
Arrhenius, Svante. Die Verbreitung des Lebens im Weltenraum (https://babel.hathitrust.org/c
gi/pt?id=mdp.39015080300869;view=1up;seq=503). Die Umschau, Frankfurt a. M., 7, 1903,
481–486.
Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik (https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=
6781113) (in German). Vol. 1. Leipzig: Hirzel. 1903.
Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik (https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?p
id=6779391) (in German). Vol. 2. Leipzig: Hirzel. 1903.
1906, Die vermutliche Ursache der Klimaschwankungen, Meddelanden från K.
Vetenskapsakademiens Nobelinstitut, Vol 1 No 2, pages 1–10
 1908, Das Werden der Welten (https://archive.org/details/worldsinmakingev00arrhrich)
(Worlds in the making; the evolution of the universe), Academic Publishing House, Leipzig,
208 pages.

See also

Astronomy portal

Stars portal

Outer space portal

Solar System
portal
Schools portal

Science portal

Arrhenius law
Arrhenius plot
History of climate change science
Néel relaxation theory, also called Néel–Arrhenius theory
Viscosity models for mixtures
James Croll
Eunice Newton Foote
George Perkins Marsh
Milutin Milanković
Greta Thunberg – climate activist and distant relative of Arrhenius[45]

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Boulder, CO, James H Butler and Stephen A Montzka
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s://scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurve/2014/06/20/how-do-co2-levels-relate-to-ice-age
s-and-sea-level/). The Keeling Curve. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
41. Ganopolski, A.; Calov, R. (2011). "The role of orbital forcing, carbon dioxide and regolith in
100 kyr glacial cycles" (https://www.clim-past.net/7/1415/2011/cp-7-1415-2011.pdf) (PDF).
Climate of the Past. 7 (4): 1415–1425. Bibcode:2011CliPa...7.1415G (https://ui.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/abs/2011CliPa...7.1415G). doi:10.5194/cp-7-1415-2011 (https://doi.org/10.5194%2
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43. Graham, Steve (18 January 2000). "Svante Arrhenius : Arrhenius' Carbon Dioxide
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Sources
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh,
ed. (1911). "Arrhenius, Svante August". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press. p. 648.

Further reading
Snelders, H. A. M. (1970). "Arrhenius, Svante August". Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 296–301. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9.
Crawford, Elisabeth T. (1996). Arrhenius: from ionic theory to the greenhouse effect. Canton,
MA: Science History Publications. ISBN 978-0-88135-166-8.
Coffey, Patrick (2008). Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made
Modern Chemistry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532134-0.

External links
Works by Svante Arrhenius (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/49834) at Project
Gutenberg
Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927) (http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=5971) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20071111233610/http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=5971) 11
November 2007 at the Wayback Machine
Obs 50 (1927) 363 (http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0050//0000363.000.html) –
Obituary (one paragraph)
PASP 39 (1927) 385 (http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/PASP./0039//0000385.000.html) –
Obituary (one paragraph)
"On the influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground",
Arrhenius, 1896, online and analyzed on BibNum (https://www.bibnum.education.fr/sciences
delaterre/climatologie/de-l-influence-de-l-acide-carbonique-de-l-air-sur-la-temperature-terr)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220816173245/https://www.bibnum.education.fr/sci
 encesdelaterre/climatologie/de-l-influence-de-l-acide-carbonique-de-l-air-sur-la-temperature-
terr) 16 August 2022 at the Wayback Machine [click 'à télécharger' for English analysis]
Newspaper clippings about Svante Arrhenius (http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/0006
59) in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
"Enter the Anthropocene: Climate Science in the Early 20th Century (https://www.aip.org/initi
alconditions/episode-2-enter-anthropocene-climate-science-early-20th-century)," podcast
about Arrhenius, Guy Callendar, and Charles David Keeling, Initial Conditions, Episode 2
Svante Arrhenius (https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/162) on Nobelprize.org including the
Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1903 Development of the Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation
A Tribute to the Memory of Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927) – a scientist ahead of his time (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20100902054559/http://www.iva.se/upload/Verksamhet/H%C3%B
6gtidssammankomst/Minnesskrift%202008.pdf), published in 2008 by the Royal Swedish
Academy of Engineering Sciences

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