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Journal of Biological Education

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Concept mapping in biology

a
Ian M. Kinchin
a
School of Educational Studies , University of Surrey , Guildford, UK
Published online: 13 Dec 2010.

To cite this article: Ian M. Kinchin (2000) Concept mapping in biology, Journal of Biological Education, 34:2, 61-68, DOI:
10.1080/00219266.2000.9655687

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 C a s e Study
Concept mapping in biology
Ian M. Kinchin
School of Educational Studies, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK

Concept mapping is an activity with numerous uses in the biology classroom. Its value in planning, teaching,
revision, and assessment, and the attitudes of students and teachers towards its use, are discussed.
Comments made are illustrated with excerpts from interviews with teachers and students who were involved
in classroom concept mapping exercises. The use of expert maps for scoring is described, and some of the
pitfalls are considered. Finally, the value of concept mapping as an aid to reflective practice is discussed.
Key words: Graphic organisers, Meaningful learning, Personalised meaning.
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Introduction not only to subject expertise, but also to an appreciation of

The National Curriculum (UK) documentation that summaris­ the students' perspectives on the world.
es the material to be presented to students in England and Wales
gives the impression that biology consists of a series of separate Visual construction tools
chunks of information (Education and Training Board of the There are various visual construction devices or 'graphic organ­
Institute of Biology, 1998). This strips the subject of some of its isers' available for use in the classroom. Such tools help students
richness by masking the context of the material, and leads to a to visualise how major ideas are related to their own prior
loss of meaning if links to associated concepts are not made knowledge, subordinate ideas, and associated ideas from other
explicit. The burden then rests on teachers to highlight such topic areas
links in the development of a departmental scheme of work, so With specific reference to science education, the range of
students can appreciate biology as an interconnected body of graphic organisers has been reviewed by Hamer et al. (1998).
knowledge. In attempting to promote the development of a Each of these devices has its own strengths and weaknesses, but
cohesive view of knowledge, Shambaugh (1995) described the it is concept mapping, as developed by Novak (1998), about
classroom use of a range of visual tools which aid the construc­ which the research literature has been so consistently positive.
tion of understanding. He states: This technique is explicitly grounded in David Ausubel's assim­
ilation theory of learning, of which the central idea is that of
'This approach adopts the belief that true knowledge and meaningful learning (described in Novak, 1981a). In this the stu­
understanding can be developed in the learner, and by the dent is required to make a conscious effort to identify the key
learner, through the transformation of fragmented, compart­ concepts in new knowledge and relate them to concepts in
mentalised bits of knowledge into knowledge of personalised his/her existing knowledge structure.
meanings.' Concept mapping is a highly flexible tool that can be adapt­
ed for use by almost any group of learners. The standard pre­
The development and sharing of personalised meaning is a sentation (described in this article) can be modified to include:
goal of the approach to teaching and learning embodied within colour-coding of different concept types; grouping of concept
Human Constructivism (sensu Mintzes et al., 1998). It is with­ types, or using variously shaped concept boxes, to guide stu­
in this framework that this work is presented. As a referent for dents with special needs to an appropriate answer (e.g.
teaching, Human Constructivism can be outlined in three key Adamczyk et al., 1994); creating three-dimensional map struc­
assertions: tures as mobiles or cones to facilitate discussions or the creation
• Human beings are meaning makers. From a very early age, of concept mapping games (e.g. Kinchin, 1999).
the human brain endeavours to construct order from appar­ An example of a traditional concept map format is given in
ent chaos. The desire to form meaningful patterns is con­ Figure 1. The concepts are written in boxes and linked by
sidered by some authors to be an innate characteristic of labelled arrows. The most inclusive concepts appear towards the
children in which emotion, personal relevance, and context top of the map, with more subordinate concepts towards the
are seen as contributing factors. bottom. Where possible, these are anchored with specific exam­
• The [a] goal of education is the construction of shared ples. Whilst each concept can only appear in one place on the
meanings. This allows a community of learners (students map, it may be linked to any number of others. The map in
and teachers) to exchange ideas within a common frame­ Figure 1 has been drawn in a way that emphasises the hierar­
work of understanding. chical nature of the ideas described.
• Shared meanings may be facilitated by the active interven­ One of the questions that students and teachers often ask is
tion of well-prepared teachers. Such preparedness refers 'how many concept boxes should be included?'. There is no

Journal of Biological Education (2000) 34(2) 61

 Q Concept mapping Kinchin

Formative learning
ANIMALS
Previous studies have suggested
that the use of concept mapping
A - ^ ^ * in classes can help students to
M
INVERTEBRATE VERTEBRATE 0 gain a more unified understand­
-7- R ing of a topic, organise their
mostiv are

z:
E
knowledge for more effective
COLD WARM S problem solving, and understand
ARTHROPODS P
BLOODED BLOODED E
how they learn (i.e. become
—r=^— insulated with
C
I
more metacognitively aware). It
F
has been suggested that the pro­
~jT ^ I motion of meaningful learning
TERRESTRIAL MARINE FUR j FEATHERS C
resulting from concept mapping
eg- eg- eg- eg- can act to reduce subject-based
beetles crabs shet robins
flies cats penguins
anxiety and overcome differen­
lobsters
tial gender-related performance
Figure 1 A concept map giving one perspective on 'animals'. with respect to learning and
achievement in science. Concept
right answer to this, but mappers should be discouraged from mapping can also be used as a cognitive approach to compen­
sate when a learner exhibits a one-sided learning strategy (Huai,
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using so many that it becomes unmanageable or unclear, as

maps are only really useful if they portray a clear representation 1997). For 'holists', who have a 'global approach', concept map­
of the author's thoughts. I have found that maps with more than ping can help the learner to focus on critical details, whereas,
about 20 concept boxes become rather unwieldy, and might be 'serialists' can be stimulated to take a wider perspective.
better if they were 'pruned' or drawn as two separate maps. Students who gain most from concept mapping may be those
identified by Silverman (1989) as 'visual-spatial learners', who
In general, the research literature demonstrates reluctance to
excel when provided with visual representations. Such students
highlight any problems associated with concept mapping.
reject rote memorisation and have a need to see how the parts
Hodson (1998) notes that some students may wish to conceal
relate to the whole before they can make sense of the isolated
some aspects of their understanding and so their maps would
ideas typically presented in lessons. This suggests that for teach­
not provide 'total insight' to the student's perspective. In addi­
ers to optimise the benefits of concept mapping for their stu­
tion, it is clear from observations of changes in students' maps
dents, they first need to be familiar with their students' current
(even over a short period of time), that such structures are in a
learning strategies.
continual state of flux in an active learner. Therefore, a map that
is to be used as the basis for further instruction has a 'limited In describing the value of concept mapping, Schmid and
shelf life', after which it is simply an historical record. The Telaro (1990) have commented that:
active use of concept maps could be applied to any of four
stages of the teaching/learning process: Planning and prepara­ 'Biology is so difficult to learn because it consists of a myriad
tion; Formative learning; Revision/summarising; Assessment. of unfamiliar concepts involving complex relations. The
schools' favored approach to teaching unfamiliar material is
Planning and preparation rote learning. Rote learning predictably fails in the face of
It has been shown that the planning of instructional sequences multilevel, complex interactions involved in biology. Concept
can be helped by the process of concept mapping to provide a mapping ... stresses meaningful learning, and appears to be
coherent structure to teaching materials and making essential ideally suited to address biological content.'
links explicit (e.g. Martin, 1994). This may be particularly help­
ful in cases where 'non-specialists' (i.e. chemists or physicists) Class contact time is the critical learning time when concept
are teaching biology, as they may appreciate the support offered mapping is most likely to influence exchanges about the work
by a biologist colleague's map. Martin gave the following advan­ and, therefore, have greatest impact on the learning process, as
tages to be gained by this approach to lesson preparation: this is the time when students can talk to each other and to their
• Increased meaning of the material for the teacher. teacher about the materials to be learned. Within the class, con­
• Ownership of the material by the teachers. cept mapping can have various functions:
• Increased concept integration.
• Decreased likelihood of omitting key material. Revealing/activating prior knowledge
• Increased capacity to meet student needs through recognis­ Within science education, it is widely perceived that prior
ing students perceptions of the material. knowledge is a key factor that influences learning, as sum­
• Increased likelihood that teachers will see multiple ways of marised by Clifton and Slowiaczek (1981): 'Our ability to
constructing meaning. understand and remember new information critically depends
Following from this, Martin viewed concept mapping to be a upon what we already know and how our knowledge is organ­
viable agent for curriculum change. This would put teachers in ised.' Ausubel recommended the use of introductory materials
the position of being 'active innovators' rather than the 'passive that support learning by activating relevant existing knowledge;
receivers of innovation' that has been the implicit assumption of this is often termed an 'advance organiser'. This prepares the
so many recent educational reforms. way for more effective learning by making the students (and

62 Journal of Biological Education (2000) 34(2)

 j Concept mapping Kinchin

teachers) aware of w h a t they already know in a given topic area. concept maps in this way, it was anticipated that future advance
The following extract gives a teacher's perspective on t h e p r o b ­ organisers would be presented with gaps, so that the students will
lems caused w h e n students are not prepared in this way. It is have to work out more of the connections for themselves.
taken from an interview with a biology teacher in whose classes
I had been using concept mapping with t h e students: Identifying misconceptions
T h e importance of s t u d e n t misconceptions and t h e impact they
'...they c o m e to a lesson with like a 'blank head', and w e have on further learning has been well d o c u m e n t e d in t h e
think w e are delivering a curriculum that's building on past research literature. In a large proportion of t h e studies reported,
experience, b u t t h a t isn't w h e r e they're coming from. T h e y concept m a p p i n g has been used as a tool to reveal these miscon­
come in with a, "well, w h a t are w e doing today?", and you ceptions. Many such misconceptions are so c o m m o n among stu­
might start off by saying, "well, you'll r e m e m b e r last w e e k dents of any given age group that they can be anticipated. For
...", b u t you have t o do t h a t for t h e m . T h e y d o n ' t c o m e in example, in studies that I have undertaken in a variety of sec­
thinking, "oh, last week I had some starch and amylase, and I ondary schools, t h e majority of t h e Year 1 0 ( 1 4 - 1 5 year old) stu­
noticed that t h e starch disappeared w h e n they w e r e m i x e d — dents w h o have drawn m a p s of photosynthesis, have revealed
I w o n d e r w h a t else I could find out". ... t h e y d o n ' t bring with their belief that plants absorb food from t h e soil. However, to pre­
t h e m t h e knowledge that you are expecting t h e m t o have. s u m e that all Year 10 students hold this belief would be wrong. It
N o w I think it's in there, b u t it's sort of been filed away. ... is also clear t h a t similar misconceptions contain variations in
they simply don't bring that with t h e m , n o t at t h e front of detail. As Chi et al. (1994) noted, 'even though the false beliefs
their minds so I need to find a way of getting it.' of a significant minority of students may share similar elements,
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they are not t h e same beliefs'. For example, regarding plant acqui­
T h e use of concept m a p s as advance organisers has been shown sition of food from soil, some students were including minerals as
to help learning by addressing t h e p r o b l e m highlighted above food items (based on their understanding of t h e components of a
(e.g. Willerman and Mac Harg, 1991). However, t h e r e is a dan­ balanced diet), while others were considering carbohydrates
ger that a concept m a p presented to a class to use as an advance (which they t h o u g h t were released from decaying animal remains
organiser may be viewed as 'the right answer' to simply m e m o ­ in t h e soil as part of t h e Carbon Cycle). Concept mapping is able
rise. This is not t h e point of a concept m a p — it is i n t e n d e d to to reveal t h e detail of individual misconceptions in this way so
reveal t h e personal p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e m a p ' s author. that teachers can address each one in an appropriate manner.
Memorisation would be taking learning away from a construc-
tivist standpoint and from t h e active use of concept mapping, Directing reading
towards a more passive reproduction of received information. C o n c e p t m a p p i n g has b e e n referred t o by N o v a k and
This highlights t h e difference b e t w e e n using 'concept m a p p i n g ' Symington (1982) as providing an interface b e t w e e n students'
as a learning activity and using 'concept m a p s ' t o summarise cognitive frameworks and textual information (summarised in
information — only in t h e for­
mer is t h e h u m a n construc-
tivist p h i l o s o p h y ( o u t l i n e d AIR
above) implicit.
The map in Figure 2 was contains
supplied to a Year 8 (12 - 13
year old) class as an advance
organiser. It summarises a sec­
CO,
io, p.66
tion from the students' text­
book (Johnson et al., 1994) in
T
tested for using expelled by absorbed by
not really involved
in body processes
which a number of related top­
ics are considered. This was
given to help them navigate LIMEWATER LUNGS HAEMOGLOBIN
through the section, as some of p.68 p.75
the students were failing to damaged by
recognise t h e links b e t w e e n
ideas. It was also meant to act as
a revision guide for tiieir end of
i
CIGARETTE
topic test, and so page numbers SMOKE p.68
were included. T h e map
included general ideas (such as contains
'heart') and it was intended that
students would generate more
specific concept maps during
NICOTINE
/J_\ TAR CO BLOOD
h
pumped
by
f
HEART

the course of instruction to addictive p.74 p.72/73

causes poisonous
explain the details within these cancer
areas. As the students become
more familiar with the use of Figure 2 A concept map giving a summary of a section from a textbook (Johnson et al., 1994), given to a Year 8
class as an advance organiser.

Journal of Biological Education (2000) 34(2) 63

 Q Concept mapping Kinchin

showing connections between them, whilst

student-produced maps, which function as
Hierarchical text summaries, will help gauge understand­
cognitive
ing. Slotte and Lonka (1999) commented
structure
that 'students need to challenge the science
revealed by
reflects $1 text they read by struggling with it and try­

L
Concept mapping 8 a »* * »
A.
Concept mapping
ing to make sense of the subject matter.
They do this by selecting and organising rel­
evant information and making links
_ —
K
7 between concepts'. Concept mapping helps
in this process and is thought to be more
reduced to propositions
transformed by and transmitted as
effective than other reading strategies (such
as underlining), because it requires students
Linear sequences to process text at a deeper level (Amer,
(text, lectures) 1994).

Figure 3 A cycle illustrating how concept mapping acts as an interface between cognitive structures
Focusing discussion
and text (adapted from Novak and Symington, 1982). As part of the introduction I provided to a
series of Year 8 classes on concept mapping,
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Figure 3). They emphasise that: I used 'teeth' as a training vehicle. From the students' textbook,
I selected some concepts from the section on teeth and printed
'The problem of moving from linear [text] structure to a them on to an OHP acetate. These were then cut up so that
hierarchical [psychological] structure and back again is in they could be placed on the OHP screen and moved around. I
some ways the fundamental educational problem.' told the students that 'teeth' was the big idea that would go at
the top of the map, but asked them to suggest positions for the
Concept mapping can help to move reading from a passive other concepts. They also had to suggest the wording to
experience towards one that is more active and requires the stu­ describe the link between them. In this way a class discussion
dent to manipulate or transform the material to be read. Davies developed with students having to justify their decisions and
and Greene (1984) describe the way in which teachers are often gradually reach a consensus (Figure 4). Arrows were included
vague in their instructions when setting reading tasks. This is on the OHP, but linking statements were not, partly because
particularly problematic when tasks are to be completed for this would have obscured the map structure on the screen, but
homework, when teacher support is not available and when more importantly because I wanted each student to copy the
map into their notes, and personalise it by including their own
'...reading purposes are no more specific than "read these linking phrases. This gave every student an agreed 'core' to their
pages/chapter for revision or a test" or "make notes from this maps. Those students who completed this task quickly were
section". Giving a general instruction like this is analogous to then asked to build upon this core by including other ideas from
giving pupils a general instruction to do an experiment with­ their text book or from their own knowledge (such as 'tooth­
paste' or 'dentist'), and deciding how they link with other con­
out any indication of the particular purpose of the experi­
cepts. This, therefore, became a differentiated activity in which
ment or of how to go about doing it'.
everyone in the class was stretched to their ability, but was also
set an achievable goal.
In a concept mapping analysis of interpretations of text from
a GCSE biology textbook,
Kearsey (1998) concluded
TEETH
that it is not safe to assume
that the meaning or structure i ■ / .._/ \ ~^^^
of the text are shared by
teacher and student. He stat­ w
^ ^ \ ^
ed that, 'If teachers require 4 TYPES 11 ENAMEL FOOD - -► BRUSHING

1
there to be consensus on incisors 1
meaning within teaching situ­ canines
ations, they must provide stu­
dents with experiences which
pre-molars

f3ACTERI/Si
V
enable a consensus to be
reached based on the individ­
1
j
ualistic readings of text'. The
1
use of concept maps as Dotted areas indie.ate
: blank spaces in wrich to | ACID
advance organisers (described add links.
above) may be of value in
gui l g students tnrougn , figure 4 An outline core of a concept map on teeth in which the students were required to add their own linking
signposting key concepts, and statements.

Journal of Biological Education (2000) 34(2)

 f J Concept mapping Kinchin

T h e benefit of focusing on a m a p during a discussion is that recognises t h e i m p o r t a n c e of 'invalid' or inaccurate links and
it reduces strain on t h e working m e m o r y of t h e participants. As their influence on a student's overall framework as they will
agreement on various statements within a developing m a p contribute t o t h e direction and effectiveness of future learning.
changes, students can still 'see' w h e r e their ideas fit in with t h e These m a p s could t h e n b e used to group students w i t h o u t ref­
group consensus. To support discussions among smaller groups, erence to perceived ability or to achievement in earlier modules.
the use of sticky 'Post-It N o t e s 0 ' has a n u m b e r of benefits. T h e y In c o m m o n with t h e S O L O t a x o n o m y developed by Biggs and
allow individuals to think o u t part of a m a p on their own, and Collis (1982), this qualitative assessment is based on t h e struc­
then integrate their ideas with those p r o d u c e d by their col­ ture of an observed learning o u t c o m e on a particular day, in a
leagues w i t h o u t having to re-write everything. Sticky notelets particular topic area, and does n o t assume an overall 'ability' or
also allow for repeated repositioning of concepts on a m a p , per­ 'developmental stage'. C o n c e p t m a p p i n g can, therefore, help to
mitting reflection on t h e differing perspectives presented by avoid unnecessary labelling of students. W h e r e a s t h e S O L O tax­
various group members. o n o m y has been shown to provide a m e c h a n i s m for setting and
evaluating curriculum objectives, it is n o t yet clear if interpreta­
Differentiation for collaborative learning tions of concept m a p structures could b e used for similar pur­
Most studies on collaborative learning agree that group c o m p o ­ poses.
sition is one of the key factors affecting successful group d y n a m ­ T h e r e are a n u m b e r of m a p characteristics t h a t can b e used
ics (e.g. Wood and O'Malley, 1996]. T h e literature describes a as indicators of t h e level of expertise exhibited by t h e map's
trade-off between creating groups w h e r e individuals bring dif­ author (summarised in Table 1). Recognition of these will assist
ferent perspectives to t h e task, b u t w i t h o u t creating a counter­ in t h e formative evaluation of students' maps.
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productive situation, w h e r e learners within a group are labelled

as 'more-able' and 'less-able'. T h e formation of heterogeneous Revision/summarising
groups, based primarily u p o n quantitative differences used t o C o n c e p t m a p s are seen as excellent summary/revision tools in
c o m p u t e 'base scores' from previous test results, has b e e n which large a m o u n t s of information can b e condensed. T h e r e
described by Stahl (1996). However, t h e regularity and reliabil­ are few published revision aids that have taken a c o n c e p t - m a p ­
ity of such test scores, and their relevance to a particular topic ping approach, with exceptions being t h e study guide written
for collaborative enquiry, must be in some doubt. This also con­ by Taylor (1993), which uses c o m p l e t e d maps as summaries,
flicts with t h e view of'real learning' on which Reinsmith (1993) and t h e book of exercises p r o d u c e d by Burggraf (1998) in which
makes t h e claim (often repeated by teachers) t h a t tests are p o o r m a p p i n g blanks are provided for students to complete. As revi­
indicators of understanding. Therefore, to found group structure sion is largely c o n d u c t e d as a solitary and unsupervised activity,
on an average of a series of poor indicators seems t o m a k e little research into t h e use of concept maps in this context is n o t
sense. This m e t h o d also fails to reflect t h e diversity of materials described in t h e literature. It w o u l d b e difficult to ensure any
(and skills required to master t h e m ) u n d e r t h e umbrella of biol­ standardisation in t h e use of t h e concept maps by students for
ogy. For example, a student w h o does well in a series of tests on experimental comparison.
theoretical genetics may or may n o t subsequently perform at
O n e possible use is to provide evidence of revision in t h e
t h e same level in a m o d u l e on practical ecology, d u e t o issues of
form of a m a p of t h e work to b e learned. T h e creation of such
ability or motivation. Test scores would, therefore, b e p o o r pre­
a m a p forces students t o revise actively and to m a n i p u l a t e t h e
dictors of future performance in collaborative groups. In addi­
information to b e learned. Students I have talked to have told
tion, it should b e noted that it is n o t only ability t h a t determines
m e t h a t their main revision strategy is to read through their
effectiveness of a group m e m b e r — t h e possession of good com­
notes and h o p e to absorb information. This leaves no evidence
munication skills and a willingness t o participate are equally
of t h e effort that has been made. W i t h students producing a
important.
revision concept m a p to b e h a n d e d in, t h e teacher is getting
To overcome these problems, it has been suggested t h a t t h e m u c h m o r e information about each of his/her student's perfor­
gross structure of students' pre-instructional concept maps for a m a n c e than w o u l d b e gained from a test mark alone. Mistakes
topic could be used in order to gain insight into students' vary­ in t h e test might be picked u p as misconceptions or gaps in t h e
ing perspectives on a problem (Kinchin et al., 2 0 0 0 ) . Such an concept m a p . Discrepancies b e t w e e n test scores and concept
assessment can b e carried o u t quickly by t h e teacher. It also m a p quality might also highlight t h e relationship b e t w e e n effort
and achievement.
Table 1 A comparison of key characteristics observed in expert and novice concept maps.

Characteristic Expert Novice Assessment

A n u m b e r of authors have
Connectedness Highly integrated structure with Disjointed structure dominated by
numerous cross-links. linear arrangements in isolated clusters. suggested t h e use of concept
Link Quality Appropriate linking phrases which Links are often inappropriate. Usually m a p s for s u m m a t i v e assess­
add to the meaning of concepts, using single words that add little to the meaning m e n t and several p r o b l e m s
the specialist language of the domain. and using non-specialist terminology.
Link Variety A diversity of linking phrases illustrating The same linking words are used for and issues have been high­
a range of thought processes. a number of links, suggestive of narrow lighted a n d r e v i e w e d else­
range of thought processes. w h e r e . S o m e a u t h o r s have
Dynamism Changes over time, reflecting active Stable over time suggesting a lack of
interaction with alternative knowledge active engagement in knowledge suggested evaluating student
structures. restructuring. m a p s by reference to a
Concepts Concentration on major overarching Concentration on specific concepts. teacher-produced or 'expert'
concepts to create an overview. indicating a limited perspective.
map. However, whilst this is

Journal of Biological Education (2000) 34(2) 65

 Q Concept mapping Kinchin

If the teacher is only looking

(a) PLANTS
for propositions from his/her
/ ~~I \ 1. Plants absorb water own map, then the map is
absorb absorb trap

WATER
/ _i_ \ co2 SUNLIGHT
2. Plants absorb C0 2

3. Plants trap sunlight

awarded 30 per cent (for
propositions 1 - 3 ) . If, howev­
er, credit is given for other
4. Water is transported to leaves sensible ideas within the map,
\ found in source of then the score jumps to 110
transported

to f
i. AIR f ENERGY ]
5. C 0 2 is found in the air

6. Sunlight is a source of energy

per cent (for propositions 1 -
11). On the positive side, it
I 7. Air diffuses into leaves can be seen that students can
drives score more than 100 per cent
diffuses into
8. Energy drives photosynthesis
it % occ
LEAVES ■4
1
-{PHOTOSYNTHESIS 9. Photosynthesis occurs in leaves
(by having more propositions
than the expert map) and this
— _ 1 10. Photosynthesis produces food would have a strong motivat­
produces ing effect. On the negative
_i FOOD
side, it can be imagined that a
student could score 100 per
cent or more with a map that
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contained none of the propo­

1. Plants absorb water sitions in the teacher's map.
(b) 2. Plants absorb C02
This may give a false impres­
PLANTS ] sion of achievement. The
3. Water is transported to leaves
/—rA 30% scorer also has to decide
whether or not to deduct
use absorb use
4. Water absorbed by osmosis marks for factually incorrect
[ WATER ] [ CO; [PHOTOSYNTHESIS]
5. Water transported in xylem propositions (propositions 12
absorbed by and 13, reducing the score
6. Xylem goes from roots
here to 90 per cent). This
OSMOSIS
* /
1[ STOMATA1
A [ ENERGY ]
7. Xylem goes to leaves
could reduce a student's score
transported in l f I t ) 8. C0 2 passes through stomata to zero if enough incorrect
EM j / 9. Stomata are holes on leaves propositions were included,

2 \
holes on
1 10. Plants use photosynthesis even though some excellent

J-
LK
FOOD ideas may also be represented.
11. Food is made in leaves 110%
from ;
ROOTS V
to
LEAVES
If pre-instructional maps were
scored in this way, all three
12. Photosynthesis produces energy scores may be of interest and
13. Energy is used as food 90% could be used to compare a
student's 'before' and 'after'
Figure 5 (a) An 'expert' map of photosynthesis (also shown reduced to a list of 10 propositions). This is not intend- understanding of a topic and
ed to be a comprehensive map for a topic, but only show the points a teacher wishes to cover in a particular lesson indicate the degree of conver­
sequence, and how they interrelate, (b) A hypothetical student's map which has been marked according to the occur-
rence of propositions from the 'expert' map in 5(a), showing three possible scores depending upon what the teacher wish- gence (or divergence!)
es to acknowledge (as described in the text). Note the number of propositions in the list is greater than the number in between the students' views
the map — 'water transported to leaves' has been interpreted from two other propositions forming a chain. The mark- and the teacher's view. It can
er needs to decide whether to engage in such interpretation or to simply accept the stated propositions at face value.
be seen that even a straight
appealing for its apparent simplicity, there are some problems forward comparison such as that presented in Figure 5 presents
associated with this approach which can be illustrated by refer­ the teacher with some dilemmas (or opportunities!) which may
ence to the hypothetical example given in Figure 5. The map in deter him/her from quantitative scoring of concept maps
Figure 5(a) is a possible 'expert' map showing a basic framework altogether.
that a teacher might hope for his/her Year 9 ( 1 3 - 1 4 year old)
students to have at the end of a lesson sequence on photosyn­ Attitudes towards concept mapping
thesis. This could be viewed as a 'base-line' upon which student It has been found that when first introduced to concept map­
could later develop their knowledge and add more concepts. ping, the attitudes of teachers and students are generally posi­
This map is also shown reduced to a list of the ten propositions tive. Though some negativity should be anticipated if students
embedded within it. Student maps could then be marked are suddenly given more responsibility for their own learning
according to how many of these propositions are incorporated during concept mapping exercises than they are used to.
in them — so that a student with five of these propositions Teachers have commented that their students prefer to be
would score 50 per cent; six would score 60 per cent and so on. 'spoon fed', rather than having to work out problems for them­
However, if one marks the map in Figure 5(b) in this way, the selves, and that many students were concerned with producing
teacher has to decide what to acknowledge and what to ignore. the 'right answer', rather than displaying what they do or do not

66 Journal of Biological Education (2000) 34(2)

 f J Concept mapping Kinchin

know, either in a concept map or by any other means. ping] produce qualitatively better learning, because of the
The constructivist stance values and builds upon students' internal connections between idea units and current knowl­
prior knowledge, but must also recognise students' existing edge. 'Generative processing' refers to the degree to which
study strategies as these also form part of a student's knowledge the learner is able to actively build these connections'.
framework. A lack of recognition of a student's existing strategy
may cause problems if meaningful learning is not part of his/her The problem is that traditional testing does not often expose
agenda. Novak (1981b) pointed out that 'some students who such connections, and so the value of such learning may not be
are whizzes at rote memorization object to concept maps, for registered or recorded. In responding to this, Hyerle (1996) has
rote learning has little value in concept mapping'. called for a shift in the focus of future teaching, learning, and
Other students may be learning meaningfully already and assessing away from remembering 'isolated things' towards a
may be employing strategies similar to concept mapping, possi­ recognition of 'how students interactively construct the pattern
bly subconsciously. One teacher I interviewed commented that that connects'.
it was not helpful 'trying to overlay something on a process that Like all teaching tools, concept mapping is not a panacea; it
they were doing already'. This point has been recognised recent­ will not suit all learners or all learning situations. However, the
ly by Slotte and Lonka (1999) who stated that 'it is possible that biology teachers with whom I have worked over the past 2 years
the instructions given by researchers limit or interfere with stu­ have embraced concept mapping with enthusiasm and dis­
dents' customary approach to learning'. Views of the teachers played a natural curiosity in the technique. It has also encour­
involved in my own work reflect the comments in the literature, aged them to question their teaching and to reflect upon their
that it is preferable to introduce concept mapping earlier in a students' learning. This in itself may provide long term benefits
Downloaded by [Lakehead University] at 16:35 18 March 2015

student's academic career rather than later, so they can more to their classroom environment by encouraging in them devel­
easily integrate it into their developing study strategy (eg. opment of the characteristics of learner empowerment, as dis­
Santhanam et al, 1998). Students who tend to embrace the use cussed by Cannella and Reiff (1994); these are inquisitiveness,
of concept mapping are those whose study habits are not enthusiasm, reflection, and autonomy. An aspect of concept
already well-defined. mapping in which there has so far been little research is the
A comment from a Year 10 student who had been engaged in effect of its classroom use on in-service teachers' beliefs and
concept mapping exercises for a number of weeks while study­ practices. Teachers have participated in considerable change
ing photosynthesis (but not in a subsequent topic) suggests that over the past decade, but the personal detail of teachers' expe­
students find it difficult to look beyond the task in hand and riences of transition is known largely from anecdotal evidence.
need time to reflect upon their learning: Lasley et al. (1998) have commented upon this:

'I must admit, I came in here thinking "I dunno, concept 'We know that people can and do change when innovations
mapping — a bit dodgy?". But just looking back and thinking are introduced, but we have much yet to learn about the 'his­
how bad my test results have been since then ... at first every­ tory' that develops as teachers begin to practice new ideas
one was just like "oh, extra work; new things to learn; extra and reflect on their own growth.'
tests", but in the long run it probably has helped us, we just
didn't know it because we weren't too keen on doing it.' It is possible that a constructivist application of concept
mapping as a classroom tool may act as a catalyst to promote
After the interview was concluded, the student went on to say such personal reflection and also, through teachers' maps, pro­
that discussing her maps had been very beneficial and had vide a means of accessing 'developing histories'. Such an
helped her to clarify a number of points that she had not previ­ approach respects the constructivist philosophy and recognises
ously understood. One-to-one interviews of this sort are not that effective teachers are also active learners [sensu Shymansky,
really a viable classroom strategy, but the brief conversations 1992). The use of concept mapping to widen the perspective of
between teacher and pupil, that are a typical feature of class­ teacher reflection has been explored by Leino (1996), who
rooms, may be targeted by reference to concept maps and so found that it also has the effect of revitalising creativity among
make more effective use of the contact time that is available. participants when considering curriculum development. While
investigating methods to promote critical reflection among sci­
Conclusion ence teachers, Nichols et al. (1997) found that mapping activi­
For concept mapping to provide maximum benefit to the learn­ ties provide
er, it would seem sensible that the mapping activities should be
integrated with a variety of other classroom activities. It is not '...teachers opportunities to critically reflect on their refer­
sufficient to simply 'tack on' a concept mapping exercise to a ents for science teaching, justify their visions of practicing
'traditionally objectivist' lesson sequence and hope that the stu­ science teaching, and construct alternative ideas about sci­
dents will somehow gain some benefit from it. A combination ence teaching and learning — possibly leading to a changed
of learning cycles and concept mapping is recommended by set of referents upon which they will base their teaching
Odom and Kelly (1998), as this provides both the concrete practices.'
experiences and cognitive structure that are required for mean­
ingful learning to occur. Lahtinen et al. (1997) make the I have felt this to be the case in my own school-based
assumption that research, though it has not always been verbalised in this way.
There is a need for further research to evaluate the power of
'more generative study strategies [including concept map- concept mapping, but it certainly has the potential to help

Journal of Biological Education (2000) 34(2) 67

 f j Concept mapping Kinchin

120-130.
teachers actively learn about t h e quality of their students'
Leino, J. (1996) Widening perspectives through reflection in teacher
understanding and, on this basis alone, is w o r t h y of further education. In Teacher training and values education. Selected papers
investigation. from the 18th annual conference of The Association for Teacher
Education in Europe (ATEE), held at the Departamento de Educacao
Acknowledgement da Faculdade de Ciencias, Universidade de Lisboa., Eds: Valente,
M.O., Barrios, A., Gaspar, A., and Teodoro, V.D.
Many thanks to t h e n u m e r o u s students and teachers w h o have
Martin, D.J. (1994) Concept mapping as an aid to lesson planning: a
taken part in a variety of classroom-based concept m a p p i n g longitudinal study. Journal of Elementary Science Education, 6, 11 - 30.
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68 Journal of Biological Education (2000) 34(2)